"Kim has spoken of 'progressive and synchronic steps' and that could lead to some sort of nuclear dismantling process," he added.
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"Computer imaging tends to flatten our magnificent, multi-sensory, simultaneous and synchronic capacities of imagination by turning the design process into a passive visual manipulation, a retinal journal," Mr. Pallasmaa argued.
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I remember an interview from those Duane Street days in which Scully was searching for a synthesis, a kind of synchronic moment — in other words, the point in the middle between the paintings of Robert Ryman and conceptualists who painted like Sol LeWitt.
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The theoretical part of Camoin's method embraces the intellectual intuition of synchronicity, a concept first developed by Swiss analytical psychologist Carl Gustav Jung, who maintained that events are synchronic 'meaningful coincidences' if they occur with no causal relationship, yet seem to be meaningfully related.
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If we-, the sentiment I feel here in Davos is a sentiment of a synchronic, good moment for growth, but this moment should continue, and to continue it, we have to, obviously, work on what is not functioning, but maintain the fundamentals of our system, which is based on openness and free trade, and tackle the issue of social injustice, which is absolutely key.
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Initially, all of modern linguistics was historical in orientation. Even the study of modern dialects involved looking at their origins. Ferdinand de Saussure's distinction between synchronic and diachronic linguistics is fundamental to the present day organization of the discipline. Primacy is accorded to synchronic linguistics, and diachronic linguistics is defined as the study of successive synchronic stages.
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Current usage of the term "weak suppletion" in synchronic morphology is not fixed.
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Digraphia can be either "synchronic" (or "concurrent") or "diachronic" ("historical" or "sequential"),DeFrancis (1984), p. 60 uses concurrent and sequential. extending Ferdinand de Saussure's classic division between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. Dale first differentiated "diachronic (or historical) digraphia" ("more than one writing system used for a given language in successive periods of time") and "synchronic digraphia" ("more than one writing system used contemporaneously for the same language").
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They are compatible with straight-cut gears, synchronic and hypocycloid gearboxes such as overdrives.
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Saussure's clear demarcation, however, has had both defenders and critics. In linguistics, a synchronic analysis is one that views linguistic phenomena only at a given time, usually the present, but a synchronic analysis of a historical language form is also possible. It may be distinguished from diachronic, which regards a phenomenon in terms of developments through time. Diachronic analysis is the main concern of historical linguistics; however, most other branches of linguistics are concerned with some form of synchronic analysis.
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This article is about the phonology of the Latvian language. It deals with synchronic phonology as well as phonetics.
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Steinhauer, Hein. Synchronic Metathesis and Apocope in Three Austronesian Languages of the Timor Area. Thesis. Leiden University, 1996. Retrieved 2017-3-7.
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It may sometimes be useful to distinguish between diachronic and synchronic museums. According to University of Florida's Professor Eric Kilgerman, "While a museum in which a particular narrative unfolds within its halls is diachronic, those museums that limit their space to a single experience are called synchronic."Kilgerman, Eric. Sites of the Uncanny: Paul Celan, Specularity and the Visual Arts, p.
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One of the aims of the panchronic approach in phonology is to link up findings about synchronic variation and findings about long-term historical change.
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Synchronic analysis studies linguistic phenomena at one moment of a language's history, usually the present. In modern languages, syncope occurs in inflection, poetry, and informal speech.
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The prosodically-long in 'father' results by the application of Szemerényi's law, a synchronic phonological rule that operated within PIE, but prosodically-long in 'foot' was analogically levelled.
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Stanford: Stanford University. likewise aim to explain synchronic states in terms of the processes that lead up to them, and to arrive at general laws of sound change.
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Synchrony and diachrony are two different and complementary viewpoints in linguistic analysis. A synchronic approach (from Greek συν- "together" and χρόνος "time") considers a language at a moment in time without taking its history into account. Synchronic linguistics aims at describing a language at a specific point of time, usually the present. By contrast, a diachronic approach (from δια- "through" and χρόνος "time") considers the development and evolution of a language through history.
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In a broad diachronic and synchronic study about sound changes involving ejectives, Fallon argues that the proposed shift from ejective stops to voiced stops—which according to the ejective model of Proto-Indo-European consonantism must have occurred in most branches of IE—is not in conflict with empirical data in other language families.Paul D. Fallon,The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives (2003), New York, NY, & London: Routledge, Chapter 6: Ejective Voicing.
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Professor Roberts is a generative linguist and enthusiastic adopter of Chomsky's Minimalist Program. He has published widely in the synchronic and diachronic syntax of Romance and Germanic languages and Welsh.
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The study of language change offers a valuable insight into the state of linguistic representation, and because all synchronic forms are the result of historically-evolving diachronic changes, the ability to explain linguistic constructions necessitates a focus on diachronic processes.Bybee, Joan L. "Diachronic Linguistics." The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, June 2010. In practice, a purely-synchronic linguistics is not possible for any period before the invention of the gramophone, as written records always lag behind speech in reflecting linguistic developments.
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Written records are difficult to date accurately before the development of the modern title page. Often, dating must rely on contextual historical evidence such as inscriptions, or modern technology, such as carbon dating, can be used to ascertain dates of varying accuracy. Also, the work of sociolinguists on linguistic variation has shown synchronic states are not uniform: the speech habits of older and younger speakers differ in ways that point to language change. Synchronic variation is linguistic change in progress.
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The term "weak suppletion" is sometimes used in contemporary synchronic morphology in regard to sets of stems (or affixes) whose alternations cannot be accounted for by current phonological rules. For example, stems in the word pair oblige/obligate are related by meaning but the stem-final alternation is not related by any synchronic phonological process. This makes the pair appear to be suppletive, except that they are related etymologically. In historical linguistics "suppletion" is sometimes limited to reference to etymologically unrelated stems.
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Only trained observers can avoid eticism, or description without regard to the meaning in the culture: "... etics are in part observers' emics incorrectly applied to a foreign system...." He makes a further distinction between synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic ("same time") with reference to anthropological data is contemporaneous and cross- cultural. Diachronic ("through time") data shows the development of lines through time. Cultural materialism, being a "processually holistic and globally comparative scientific research strategy" must depend for accuracy on all four types of data.
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The EAPCOUNT texts cover a time-frame of about 14 years. The EAPCOUNT can be taken as a synchronic corpus, even though Meyer (2002:46) maintains that “a time-frame of 5 to 10 years seems reasonable” for a corpus to fit into the category of synchronic corpora. This is because almost all original texts and translations are issued by the same bodies and are governed by strict norms and standards of writing and translation, which may arguably mean that language change happens at a slower pace. In addition, 22.6% of the texts were produced in 2009, 16% in 2007, and 13.4% in 2005, and 93.87% of the texts were produced over a period of 9 years, namely from 2001 to 2009, or within the reasonable time-frame set by Meyer for a synchronic corpus.
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An integrated approach to phonological theory that combines synchronic and diachronic accounts to sound patterns was initiated with Evolutionary Phonology in recent years.Blevins, Juliette. 2004. Evolutionary phonology: The emergence of sound patterns. Cambridge University Press.
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The univerbating process is epitomized in Talmy Givón's aphorism that "today's morphology is yesterday's syntax".Givón, Talmy. 1971. Historical syntax and synchronic morphology: an archaeologist's field trip. Chicago Linguistic Society 7 (1):394–415, p.413.
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Tod ḱeḱluwōs owis aǵrom > ebhuget.Lehmann W. P., Zgusta L., Schleicher’s tale after a century. // > Studies in diachronic, synchronic, and typological linguistics: Festschrift > for Oswald Szemerényi on the occasion of his 65th birthday. / Ed. by Bela > Brogyanyi; [contrib.
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Steve is a ladies man and Dennis is married with two children. In their work as paramedics on the late shift they begin to encounter a series of people dead or in a strange state. After some exploration they discover it relates to a new designer drug, Synchronic. Steve discovers he only has six weeks to live and decides to buy up all the Synchronic in town to protect others - only to discover he has a time travel pill that may help to find his partner's missing daughter.
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Synchronic apheresis is more likely to occur in informal speech than in careful speech: 'scuse me vs. excuse me, How 'bout that? and How about that? It typically supplies the input enabling acceptance of apheresized forms historically, such as especially > specially.
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In Grammaticalization (2003) Hopper and Traugott state that the cline of grammaticalization has both diachronic and synchronic implications. Diachronically (i.e. looking at changes over time), clines represent a natural path along which forms or words change over time. However, synchronically (i.e.
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Synchronic linguistics, in contrast, aims to widen scientists' understanding of language through a study of a given contemporary or historical language stage as a system in its own right. Although Saussure paid much focus to diachronic linguistics, later structuralists who equated structuralism with the synchronic analysis were sometimes criticised of ahistoricism. According to structural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, language and meaning – in opposition to "knowledge, which develops slowly and progressively" – must have appeared in an instant. Structuralism, as first introduced to sociology by Émile Durkheim, is nonetheless a type of humanistic evolutionary theory which explains diversification as necessitated by growing complexity.
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Consonant gradation is the term used for a systematic set of alternations which are widespread in Finnish grammar. These alternations are a form of synchronic lenition. They occur also in other Finnic and Uralic languages; see consonant gradation for a more general overview.
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In phonology, syncope (; from ) is the loss of one or more sounds from the interior of a word, especially the loss of an unstressed vowel. It is found both in synchronic analysis of languages and diachronics. Its opposite, whereby sounds are added, is epenthesis.
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From a synchronic perspective, subjectivity can be expressed in language in many ways. First of all, the subject is implied in discourse through any speech act. Subjectivity can also be expressed in many grammatical categories, such as person, valence, tense, aspect, mood, evidentials, and deictic expressions more generally.
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Many different approaches of analyzing the morphology of the fairy tale have appeared in scholarly works. Differences in analyses can arise between synchronic and diachronic approaches. Other differences can come from the relationship between story elements. After elements are identified, a structuralist can propose relationships between those elements.
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In line with its dynamic features, Shmotkin's work explicated multiple modules and configurations of happiness. For example, different synchronic combinations between dimensions of subjective well-being (e.g., life satisfaction, positive affect) produced differential types of well-being among individuals. Notably, some of these types were internally inconsistent (e.g.
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Kikuyu has two level tones (high and low), a low- high rising tone, and downstep.Kevin C. Ford, 1975. "The tones of nouns in Kikuyu," Studies in African Linguistics 6, 49–64; G.N. Clements & Kevin C. Ford, 1979, "Kikuyu Tone Shift and its Synchronic Consequences", Linguistic Inquiry 10.2, 179–210.
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It is an emergentist theory of language acquisition and processing, serving as an alternative to strict innatist and empiricist theories. According to the Competition Model, patterns in language arise from Darwinian competition and selection on a variety of time/process scales including phylogenetic, ontogenetic, social diffusion, and synchronic scales.
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Helong speakers are found in four villages on the South-Western coast of West Timor, as well as on Semau Island, a small island just off the coast of West Timor.Steinhauer, Hein. Synchronic Metathesis and Apocope in Three Austronesian Languages of the Timor Area. Thesis. Leiden University, 1996.
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Wick R. Miller (1932–1994) was an American linguist most well known for his work on Keresan languages and Uto-Aztecan, especially Shoshoni and Guarijio. He worked both on synchronic description and historical linguistics. His extensive unpublished field notes on Shoshoni are now being used for a language revitalization program.
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After describing Mwotlap,François (2003); François (2019). the language with most speakers in that area, he has published articles comparing the languages of the area more generally – both from a synchronic and historical perspectives. He has described the sociolinguistic profile of this area as one of “egalitarian multilingualism”.François (2012).
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Some philosophers hold that emergent properties causally interact with more fundamental levels, an idea known as downward causation. Others maintain that higher-order properties simply supervene over lower levels without direct causal interaction. All the cases so far discussed have been synchronic, i.e. the emergent property exists simultaneously with its basis.
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Evolutionary Phonology is an approach to phonology and historical linguistics, based on the idea that recurrent synchronic sound patterns, if not inherited from the mother tongue, are the result of recurrent sound changes, while rare patterns are the product of rare changes or a combination of independent changes.Blevins 2004:xi.
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It can be said that structuralists focussed on the synchronic aspects of culture, while poststructuralists, as a reaction toward the highly dualistic and deterministic characteristics, focussed on the diachronic aspects of culture in an attempt to invoke a grey area.This section of the article references the Roy Harris translation of the book.
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A Center-Periphery scheme was introduced by Canger in 1978, and supported by comparative historical data in 1980. Lastra de Suarez's (1986) dialect atlas that divided dialects into center and peripheral areas based on strictly synchronic evidence. The subsequent 1988 article by Canger adduced further historical evidence for this division.(Dakin 2003:261).
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Synchronic and diachronic approaches can reach quite different conclusions. For example, a Germanic strong verb like English sing – sang – sung is irregular when it is viewed synchronically: the native speaker's brain processes them as learned forms, but the derived forms of regular verbs are processed quite differently, by the application of productive rules (for example, adding -ed to the basic form of a verb as in walk – walked). That is an insight of psycholinguistics, which is relevant also for language didactics, both of which are synchronic disciplines. However, a diachronic analysis shows that the strong verb is the remnant of a fully regular system of internal vowel changes, in this case the Indo-European ablaut; historical linguistics seldom uses the category "irregular verb".
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Although nasalization as a feature also occurs in most Scottish Gaelic dialects, it is not shown in the orthography on the whole as it is synchronic (i.e., the result of certain types of nasals affecting a following sound), rather than the diachronic Irish type sonorization (i.e., following historic nasals). For example "house" → "the house".
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Among the first scholars to state this clearly is Ian P. Wright. This is a synchronic valuation, not a diachronic one."...the value of a commodity is determined not by the quantity of labour actually objectified in it, but by the quantity of living labour necessary to produce it." - Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, Penguin 1976, p. 676-677.
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Synchronic is a 2019 American science fiction horror film directed and produced by Justin Benson and Aaron Moorhead and written by Benson. It stars Jamie Dornan and Anthony Mackie. It had its world premiere at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival. It is scheduled to be released on October 23, 2020, by Well GO USA Entertainment.
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Joyce Thambole Mogatse Mathangwane (1996), Phonetics and Phonology of Ikalanga: A Diachronic and Synchronic Study, vol. 1, p. 79 The labiodental approximant is the typical realization of in the Indian and South African varieties of English. As the voiceless is also realized as an approximant (), it is also an example of a language contrasting voiceless and voiced labiodental approximants.
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That sound may also be transcribed as an advanced labiodental approximant , in which case the diacritic is again frequently omitted, since no contrast is likely.Peter Ladefoged (1968) A Phonetic Study of West African Languages: An Auditory-instrumental Survey, p. 26.Joyce Thambole Mogatse Mathangwane (1996), Phonetics and Phonology of Ikalanga: A Diachronic and Synchronic Study, vol. 1, p.
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Philology, with its focus on historical development (diachronic analysis), is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis. The contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and Chomskyan linguistics alongside its emphasis on syntax, although research in the field of historical linguistics is often characterized by reliance on philological materials and findings.
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Asín, Abenházam de Córdoba (1927-1932) at II: 16.Relevant here is a near contemporary Zoroastrian work, the Shikand-gumanic Vichar, a synchronic approach to differing religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) with an evident polemical purpose. Yet Asín more than once refers to Ibn Hazm as the first historian of religions.Asín, Abenházam (1927-1932) at II: 33-79.
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Fallon, 2002. The synchronic and diachronic phonology of ejectives These weakly ejective articulations are sometimes called intermediates in older American linguistic literature and are notated with different phonetic symbols: = strongly ejective, = weakly ejective. Strong and weak ejectives have not been found to be contrastive in any natural language. In strict, technical terms, ejectives are glottalic egressive consonants.
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An annual calendar is a representation of the year that expires with the year represented, or that must be altered annually to remain current. The term takes different but related meanings across two contexts. One is for static (synchronic) calendars, such as wall calendars or calendar systems. The other is for dynamic (diachronic) calendars, such as digital calendars or timepieces.
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Rotten Tomatoes gave this film a rating of 84% based on 49 reviews, with an average rating of 6.95/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Synchronic sets off on an intriguingly idiosyncratic journey that should satisfy fans of Aaron Moorhead and Justin Benson's earlier work." Metacritic reports a score of 59/100, based on 8 critic reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
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Therefore the distinction should not be preserved beyond its usefulness. :#A synchronic system is not a mere agglomerate of contemporaneous phenomena catalogued. 'Systems' mean hierarchical organisation. :#The distinction between langue and parole, taken from linguistics, deserves to be developed for literature in order to reveal the principles underlying the relationship between the individual utterance and a prevailing complex of norms.
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But quite naturally too, within a given family of languages (say the Indo-European, the Sino-Tibetan, the Austro-Asiatic, or the Niger-Congo (etc.) family), the items marking the same operation may also happen to display striking resemblances, e.g. Eng. TO and Germ. ZU; Fr. DE and It. DI etc. Synchronic contrastive study, whether of different languages or of one language (e.g.
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APiCS gathers comparable synchronic data on the grammatical and lexical structures of a large number of pidgin and creole languages. The data is presented in the form of maps and profile pages for each language. The profile pages for the languages also includes sociohistorical information about each language. The published physical volumes contains more information of this kind than the online version.
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In Ancient Greek, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., "I am of interest" vs. "I am going to". The distinction has been lost in the standard and most other varieties, with the exception of Cypriot (where it might carry over from Ancient Greek or arise from a number of synchronic and diachronic assimilatory processes, or even spontaneously), some varieties of the southeastern Aegean, and Italy.
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Robert Polzin is a biblical scholar. He is Professor Emeritus at Carleton University, and has degrees from the University of San Diego and Harvard University. Polzin is best known for a series of volumes in which he attempted a "synchronic, literary reading of the Deuteronomic History." These were Moses and the Deuteronomist (1980), Samuel and the Deuteronomist (1989), and David and the Deuteronomist (1993).
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Many scholars adopted this kind of research following Greenberg's example and it remains important in synchronic linguistics. Like Noam Chomsky, Greenberg sought to discover the universal structures on which human language is based. Unlike Chomsky, Greenberg's method was functionalist, rather than formalist. An argument to reconcile the Greenbergian and Chomskyan methods can be found in Linguistic Universals (2006), edited by Ricardo Mairal and Juana Gil.
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He is also the music arranger, producer and mixing engineer for the 900-voices virtual choir video rendition of Home, which was then used in a national synchronic sing-a-long as a tribute to migrant and healthcare workers in Singapore during the COVID-19 pandemic. A veteran producer, George has been engaged to mentor emerging Singapore pop musicians in both their professional and artistic development.
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In addition, some signs feature synchronic digraphia, the use of multiple writing systems for a single language. Bilingual signs are widely used in regions whose native languages do not use the Latin alphabet; such signs generally include transliteration of toponyms and optional translation of complementary texts (often into English). Beyond bilingualism, there is a general tendency toward the substitution of internationally standardized symbols and pictograms for text.
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Skinner consequently proposes a form of linguistic contextualization that involves situating a text in relation to other texts and discourses. In this perspective, the text is a response to other thinkers, texts or cultural discourses. Skinner believes that ideas, arguments and texts should be placed in their original context. Therefore, Skinner argues that intellectual historians should focus on the synchronic context of the text.
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Szemerényi's law (or Szemerényi's lengthening) is both a sound change and a synchronic phonological rule that operated during an early stage of the Proto- Indo-European language (PIE). Though its effects are evident in many reconstructed as well as attested forms, it did not operate in late PIE, having become morphologized (with exceptions reconstructible via the comparative method). It is named for Hungarian linguist Oswald Szemerényi.
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In practice, the panchronic program requires the compilation of as many attested cases of sound changes as possible, with detailed information on the state of the linguistic system where it took place. The study of sound changes in progress is another important source of information about the mechanisms of sound change; particular attention is paid to unstable states, and to the phonetic analysis of synchronic variation.
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Dialectology (from Greek , dialektos, "talk, dialect"; and , -logia) is the scientific study of linguistic dialect, a sub-field of sociolinguistics. It studies variations in language based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated features. Dialectology treats such topics as divergence of two local dialects from a common ancestor and synchronic variation. Dialectologists are ultimately concerned with grammatical, lexical and phonological features that correspond to regional areas.
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Changes in aesthetic styles and expressions have been, and still are, both synchronic and diachronic, as different aesthetic styles are produced and promoted simultaneously. A number of values which cannot be classified as aesthetic design values have influenced the development of the aesthetic reality, as well as contributed to the pluralistic aesthetic reality which characterises contemporary architecture and industrial design. Aesthetic Design Values, contains seven values.
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Many scholars and linguists debate whether Kashubian should be recognized as a Polish dialect or separate language. From the diachronic view it is a distinct Lechitic West Slavic language, but from the synchronic point of view it is a Polish dialect. Kashubian is closely related to Slovincian, while both of them are dialects of Pomeranian. Many linguists, in Poland and elsewhere, consider it a divergent dialect of Polish.
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The Fourth Industrial Revolution fosters what has been called a "smart factory". Within modular structured smart factories, cyber-physical systems monitor physical processes, create a virtual copy of the physical world and make decentralized decisions. Over the internet of things, cyber- physical systems communicate and cooperate with each other and with humans in synchronic time both internally and across organizational services offered and used by participants of the value chain.
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In India, road signs are often multilingual, in Hindi, English and other regional languages. In addition, signs in Hindustani often feature synchronic digraphia, with an Urdu literary standard written in Arabic script and a High Hindi standard written in Devanagari. In Sri Lanka, official road signs are in Sinhala, Tamil, and English. In Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States, road signs are often bilingual, in English and Arabic.
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When the concept of theoretical linguistics is taken as referring to core or internal linguistics, it means the study of the parts of the language system. This traditionally means phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Pragmatics and discourse can also be included; delimitation varies between institutions. Furthermore, Saussure's definition of general linguistics consists of the dichotomy of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, thus including historical linguistics as a core issue.
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Synchronic digraphia is the coexistence of two or more writing systems for the same language. A modern example is the Serbian language, which is written in either the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet or Gaj's Latin alphabet. Although most speakers can read and write both scripts, Roman Catholic Croatians and Muslim Bosniaks generally use Latin, while Orthodox Serbians commonly use both. However, older indigenous scripts were used much earlier, most notably Bosnian Cyrillic.
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Symbols grow into cultures that increasingly refine themselves through sameness and difference, and symbols are the basis of any concrete, temporal consciousness, including historical consciousness. Auxier holds that symbolic reasoning is expressive, emotive, diachronic, and largely unreflective (capable even of falling below the threshold of conscious thought). Semiotic reasoning, by contrast, is largely reflective, cognitive, representational, and synchronic. Auxier's theories of actuality, potentiality, and possibility derive from these distinctions.
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No systematic synchronic description of Romansh vocabulary has been carried out so far.Liver 2010 Existing studies usually approach the subject from a historical perspective, taking particular interest in pre-Roman substratum, archaic words preserved only in Romansh, or in loan words from German. A project to compile together all known historic and modern Romansh vocabulary is the Dicziunari Rumantsch Grischun, first published in 1904, with the 13th edition currently in preparation.
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Languages of the Indo-European family (and many others) typically have two or three of the following voices: active, middle, and passive. "Mediopassive" may be used to describe a category that covers both the middle (or "medium") and the passive voice. In synchronic grammars, the mediopassive voice is often simply termed either "middle" (typical for grammars of e.g. Ancient and Modern Greek) or "passive" (typical for grammars of e.g.
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Nihalani et al. Indian and British English: A Handbook of Usage and Pronunciation (2004) delineates how Indian English differs from British English for a large number of specific lexical items. The Macmillan publishing company also produced a range of synchronic general dictionaries for the Indian market, such as the Macmillan Comprehensive Dictionary (2006). The most recent and comprehensive dictionary is Carls A Dictionary of Indian English, with a Supplement on Word-formation Patterns (2017).
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The synchronic descriptions of pitch in modern Slovene differ, with some sources using the standard Slavic/Serbo-Croatian terms "rising" and "falling", while others describe these as "low" and "high" respectively. The traditional terms will be used here. In the dialectal history of Proto-Slavic, the acute accent was shortened in Slovene, as it was in all neighbouring Serbo-Croatian dialects. It fell together with the short neoacute and was treated identically from there on.
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Pragmatics was a reaction to structuralist linguistics as outlined by Ferdinand de Saussure. In many cases, it expanded upon his idea that language has an analyzable structure, composed of parts that can be defined in relation to others. Pragmatics first engaged only in synchronic study, as opposed to examining the historical development of language. However, it rejected the notion that all meaning comes from signs existing purely in the abstract space of langue.
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From a synchronic perspective, Kalmyk is the most prominent variety of Oirat. It is very close to the Oirat dialects found in Mongolia and the People’s Republic of China, both phonologically and morphologically. The differences in dialects, however, concern the vocabulary, as the Kalmyk language has been influenced by and has adopted words from the Russian language and various Turkic languages. Two important features that characterise Kalmyk are agglutination and vowel harmony.
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Christina Elizabeth Kramer is Professor of Slavic and Balkan languages and linguistics at the University of Toronto and Chair of the university's Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures which is part of the Faculty of Arts and Science. She is a specialist on Balkan languages and semantics, specifically on South Slavic languages. Her research focus on synchronic linguistics, sociolinguistics, verbal categories, language and politics. Kramer authored Macedonian: A Course for Beginning and Intermediate Students.
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Prior to its April 2009 update, the PVI formula compared district-level results for the past two presidential elections to nationwide results for only the most recent election. Since then, local elections are compared to synchronic national elections. The Cook PVI is displayed as a letter, a plus sign, and a number. The letter (either a D for Democratic or an R for Republican) reflects the major party toward which the district (or state) leans.
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O testemunho das línguas indígenas brasileiras Yathé e Bakairi.’ Leitura, Revista do programa de pós-graduação em letras e linguística LCV-CHLA-UFAL: 13-29. (The Feature [voice] Privative or Binary? The Testimony of the Indigenous Brazilian Languages Yathé and Bakairi) 2003\. ‘On the Weight Issue in Portuguese. A Typological Investigation’. Letras de Hoje, 134 : 107-133. 2006\. ‘Sound Change and Analogy: The Synchronic Reflexes of the Second Compensatory Lengthening in Ancient Greek Dialects’.
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"to cry" → . If a language has no obstruents other than voiceless stops, other sounds are encountered, as in Finnish, where the lenited grade is represented by chronemes, approximants, taps or even trills. For example, Finnish used to have a complete set of spirantization reflexes for , though these have been lost in favour of similar-sounding phonemes. In Pohjanmaa Finnish, was changed into , thus the dialect has a synchronic lenition of an alveolar stop into an alveolar trill .
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After World War II few studies on onomasiological theory have been carried out (e.g. by Cecil H. Brown, Stanley R. Witkowski, Brent Berlin). But onomasiology has recently seen new light with the works of Dirk Geeraerts, Andreas Blank, Peter Koch and the periodical Onomasiology Online, which is published at the Katholische Universität Eichstätt-Ingolstadt by Joachim Grzega, Alfred Bammesberger and Marion Schöner. A recent representative of synchronic onomasiology (with a focus on word-formation processes) is Pavol Stekauer.
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Not all synchronic alternation is amenable to internal reconstruction. Even if a secondary split (see phonological change) often results in alternations that signal a historical split, the conditions involved are usually immune to recovery by internal reconstruction. For example, the alternation of voiced and voiceless fricatives in Germanic languages, as described in Verner's law, cannot be explained only by examining the Germanic forms themselves. Despite that general characteristic of secondary split, internal reconstruction can occasionally work.
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Adamczewski posits that each grammatical marker has a core meaning which is stable (‘unvarying’) at a given moment in the history of the language concerned, i.e. in synchronic perspective. Although itself stable, this core meaning can embrace different interpretations of the marker in context, and sometimes widely varying or even contradictory ones. The core meaning of a marker can therefore be determined only through careful analysis and comparison of all the different uses of the marker in context.
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Auxier defends a version of process-relational metaphysics called “analogical realism.” Built from his theory of analogy first articulated in his 1992 dissertation, he argues that the language of metaphysics should be divided into operational language and functional language.Randall Auxier, Signs and Symbols: An Analogical Theory of Metaphysical Language, PhD diss., Emory University, 1992. The former is “semiotic” and the latter “symbolic.” Semiotic metaphysical language is synchronic and derives from a prior act of spatialization in the symbolic domain.
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There was a shift of focus from historical and comparative linguistics to synchronic analysis in early 20th century. Structural analysis was improved by Leonard Bloomfield, Louis Hjelmslev; and Zellig Harris who also developed methods of discourse analysis. Functional analysis was developed by the Prague linguistic circle and André Martinet. As sound recording devices became commonplace in the 1960s, dialectal recordings were made and archived, and the audio-lingual method provided a technological solution to foreign language learning.
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Alongside his work with literature, he began exploring linguistic theory and questioning the Neogrammarian emphasis on diachronic, or historical, linguistics that defined the study of language at his time. In 1911 he presented one of his more famous lectures to the Royal Learned Society, "On the potentiality of the language phenomenon", which anticipates Ferdinand de Saussure's critical distinction between langue and parole (1916) and emphasizes the importance of the synchronic (in his words, "static") study of language.
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Extensive recent studies on Proto-Albanian phonology have been published by Huld (1984), Beekes (1995), Shaban Demiraj (1996), Bardhyl Demiraj (1997), Orel (2000), Hock (2005), Matzinger (2006), Vermeer (2008), Schumacher (2013), and De Vaan (2018). At present, this page follows Orel's paradigm for periods of Proto-Albanian, and presents the relationship between the synchronic phonologies of both "EPA" and "LPA" with diachronic relationships to each other and to ancestral Indo-European forms as well as descendant Albanian forms.
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After failing to convince the desire of his heart, Anna Maria van Schurman, to abandon the pietism of Jean de Labadie, Elleboogius retreated to Scotland where he served as Professor extraordinarius in theology at the University of Aberdeen.. In his writings, Elleboogius showed an expert knowledge of rabbinic Hebrew as he argued against the theories of Thomas Gataker and Louis Cappel, who denied the Hebrew vowel points were an original part of the Hebrew language. He also held to the doctrine of synchronic contingency associated with Scotism and Reformed Orthodoxy. He left behind various academic disputations and a commentary on the Song of Songs, Huwelijks-Verbond en Borgtocht (1678).. Recent scholarship now disputes whether Elleboogius remained committed to synchronic contingency over the course of his entire life.. In a doctoral dissertation Scotus Enervatus: Non habenti aufertur quod videbatur habere (1693), his younger brother, Frederik Willem Pieter Elleboogius, included a dedication to C.H. Elleboogius, in which F.W.P. Elleboogius, "like his brother, points out that the idea in Scotus of contingency is not so different from that of Thomas [Aquinas]"..
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Dialectology is the scientific study of linguistic dialect, the varieties of a language that are characteristic of particular groups, based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated features. This is in contrast to variations based on social factors, which are studied in sociolinguistics, or variations based on time, which are studied in historical linguistics. Dialectology treats such topics as divergence of two local dialects from a common ancestor and synchronic variation. Dialectologists are concerned with grammatical features that correspond to regional areas.
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Mongolian proper, Oirat, Buryat). Due to the merger of and with and , vowel harmony was lost.Tsumagari 2003: 131 basically in agreement with Sengge 2004a; in contrast, Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 37 give a pretty standard Mongolian vowel harmony system with the pharyngeal vowels , , contrasting with the non-pharyngeal vowels , , , while is neutral. According to Tsumagari (2003), vowel harmony is still a productive synchronic phonotactic aspect of Dagur in which initial syllable long vowels are divided into "masculine" (back), "feminine" (front), and neutral groups.
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Ski ballet involved a choreographed routine of flips, rolls, leg crossings, jumps, and spins performed on a smooth slope. After the mid-1970s, the routine was performed to music for 90 seconds. For a short period of time (in the 1980s), there were also pair ballet competitions, a variation of ballet where two people performed tricks that not only included spins, jumps, and leg crossing, but also lifts and synchronic movements. A panel of judges scored the performance similarly to figure skating.
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The classification of Dutch Low Saxon is not unanimous. From a diachronic point of view, the Dutch Low Saxon dialects are merely the West Low German dialects native to areas in the Netherlands, as opposed to areas beyond the national border with Germany. Some Dutch Low Saxon dialects like Tweants show features of Westphalian, a West Low German dialect spoken in adjacent Northern Germany. From a strictly synchronic point of view, however, some linguists classify Dutch Low Saxon as a variety of Dutch.
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These were arranged in a biological hierarchy under several phyla, or most general groups, branching ultimately to the various species. The basis for this biological classification was the observed shared physical features of the species. Darwin, however, reviving another ancient metaphor, the tree of life, hypothesized that the groups of the Linnaean classification (today's taxa), descended in a tree structure over time from simplest to most complex. The Linnaean hierarchical tree was synchronic; Darwin envisioned a diachronic process of common descent.
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The connections between Arabic literature and Islamic mysticism were in the centre of some of Snir’s investigations and publications. In 2005 he summarized his findings in a book which deals with the synchronic status of traditional literature in the literary system and the diachronic relationship between Arabic literature and Islam in modern times. Also, within the generic cross-section, it deals with the mystical theme in Arabic poetry, its literary and extra-literary concretization in the writings of one author, and its materialization in one text.
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They also contributed to the Handbook of the Linguistic Geography of New England. In 1943 Bloch took up a position at Yale, where he eventually became professor of linguistics. Bloch is considered one of the leading linguists of the post-Bloomfieldian school, active in the 1940s and 1950s, who concentrated on the description of synchronic language systems and on the development of a methodology for collecting and analyzing language data. Bloch's work contributed to three main areas of linguistic research: phonology, syntax and the analysis of Japanese.
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Epenthesis often breaks up a consonant cluster or vowel sequence that is not permitted by the phonotactics of a language. Regular or semi-regular epenthesis commonly occurs in languages with affixes. For example, a reduced vowel or (here abbreviated as ) is inserted before the English plural suffix and the past tense suffix when the root ends in a similar consonant: glass → glasses or ; bat → batted . However, this is a synchronic analysis as the vowel was originally present in the suffix but has been lost in most words.
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Treasury of Precious Qualities: Book One, p. 391. Shambhala > Publications. The four applications of mindfulness are also discussed by Nyingma scholars like as Rong-zom-pa (eleventh century), Longchenpa (1308–1364), and Ju Mipham (1846–1912).Dorji Wangchuk, “The Diachronic and Synchronic Relationship between Philosophical Theory and Spiritual Praxis in Buddhism: With Special Reference to the Case of the Four Applications of Mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna: dran pa nye bar gzhag pa) in Vajrayāna.” In Buddhist Meditative Praxis: Traditional Teachings and Modern Applications, edited by K.L. Dhammajoti.
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Gurmukhi writing system on a sample logo The Punjabi language is written in multiple scripts (a phenomenon known as synchronic digraphia). Each of the major scripts currently in use is typically associated with a particular religious group, although the association is not absolute or exclusive. In India, Punjabi Sikhs use Gurmukhi, a script of the Brahmic family, which has official status in the state of Punjab. In Pakistan, Punjabi Muslims use Shahmukhi, a variant of the Perso-Arabic script and closely related to the Urdu alphabet.
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During the 19th century linguistics came to be regarded as belonging to either psychology or biology, and such views remain the foundation of today's mainstream Anglo- American linguistics. They were however contested in the early 20th century by Ferdinand de Saussure who established linguistics as an autonomous discipline within social sciences. Following Saussure's concept, general linguistics consists of the study of language as a semiotic system which includes the subfields of phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. The linguist's approach to these can be diachronic or synchronic.
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Historical linguistics is the study of language change over time particularly with regards to a specific language or group of languages. Historical linguistics was among the first sub-disciplines to emerge in linguistics, and was the most widely practised form of linguistics in the late 19th century. There was a shift of focus in the early twentieth century to the synchronic approach (the systemic study of the current stage in languages), but historical research remained a field of linguistic inquiry. Subfields include language change and grammaticalisation studies.
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Buridan's judgment is all the more possible because of at least four reasons: (1) Aristotle's De Interpretatione IX, 19a23-25 can be interpreted like the Scotistic contingency theory; (2) Scotus himself does not refute Aristotle's De Interpretatione IX in Lectura I 39 §§49–53; (3) Scotus, rather, tries to formulate his contingency theory with the help of other works of Aristotle in Lectura I 39 §§51, 54; (4) Scotus introduces the diachronic feature of God's volition to his contingency theory as well as the synchronic feature.
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During the Early Bronze Age the "epicampaniform style", a late expression of the Bell- Beaker culture, became spread both in Sardinia and Corsica. From this cultural period the Nuragic civilization would arise, paralleling similar architectural developments in southern Corsica, in such a way that the Gallura Nuragic facies shows a synchronic evolution with the Nuragic torrean civilization.Giovanni Ugas, L'alba dei Nuraghi, p. 196. Fabula Ed, Cagliari, 2005 However, while common architectonic traditions of Central-Western Mediterranean evidence the close relationships between islands, it is exactly the sculpture tradition that begins to diversify.
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The 13 Moon calendar simply counts leap years as a "0.0 Hunab Ku" day – which is also no day of the week or month. Nor is it one of the 260 galactic signatures. This allows the mathematical system of the calendar, which Argüelles calls the "synchronic order", to remain intact. In short, this creates an even cycle which repeats perfectly every 52 years. For example, if today is Magnetic Moon Dali 1, Red Magnetic Dragon – 52 years from now it will be again, Magnetic Moon Dali 1, Red Magnetic Dragon.
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Greenberg's reputation rests partly on his contributions to synchronic linguistics and the quest to identify linguistic universals. During the late 1950s, Greenberg began to examine languages covering a wide geographic and genetic distribution. He located a number of interesting potential universals as well as many strong cross-linguistic tendencies. In particular, Greenberg conceptualized the idea of "implicational universal", which has the form, "if a language has structure X, then it must also have structure Y." For example, X might be "mid front rounded vowels" and Y "high front rounded vowels" (for terminology see phonetics).
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The BNC is a monolingual corpus, as it records samples of language use in British English only, although occasionally words and phrases from other languages may also be present. It is a synchronic corpus, as only language use from the late 20th century is represented; the BNC is not meant to be a historical record of the development of British English over the ages. From the beginning, those involved in the gathering of written data sought to make the BNC a balanced corpus, and hence looked for data in various mediums.
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An irregular paradigm is one in which the derived forms of a word cannot be deduced by simple rules from the base form. For example, someone who knows only a little English can deduce that the plural of girl is girls but cannot deduce that the plural of man is men. Language learners are often most aware of irregular verbs, but any part of speech with inflections can be irregular. For most synchronic purposes—first-language acquisition studies, psycholinguistics, language-teaching theory—it suffices to note that these forms are irregular.
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These cannot be conceptualized as separate entities but rather as a mapping from significant differences in sound to potential (correct) differential denotation. The Saussurean sign exists only at the level of the synchronic system, in which signs are defined by their relative and hierarchical privileges of co- occurrence. It is thus a common misreading of Saussure to take signifiers to be anything one could speak, and signifieds as things in the world. In fact, the relationship of language to parole (or speech-in-context) is and always has been a theoretical problem for linguistics (cf.
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Word Structure is an international academic journal covering linguistic morphology and all related disciplines. It is published twice-yearly, in April and October, by Edinburgh University Press and was founded in 2008 under the editorship of Laurie Bauer (Victoria University of Wellington), Heinz Giegerich (University of Edinburgh), and Gregory T. Stump (University of Kentucky). The journal is both synchronic and diachronic and empirical and theoretical. It aims to understand the nature of words, particularly their morphology, syntax and phonology, as well as the social and psychological aspects of language, amongst others goals.
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Like most central and eastern Tani languages, Galo is largely synthetic and agglutinating. Two primary lexical tones are present – High and Low – which may reflect two Proto-Tani syllable tones; in modern Galo, the surface TBU (Tone-Bearing Unit) is the usually polysyllabic phonological word. A robust finite/non-finite asymmetry underlies Galo grammar, and clause chaining and nominalization are both rampant. No synchronic verb-serialization appears to exist, although what seems to have been proto-verb-serialization has developed into a very large and productive system of derivational suffixes to bound verbal roots.
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These documents range in date from the 8th to the 15th century AD. Old Nubian is currently considered ancestral to modern Nobiin, even though it shows signs of extensive contact with Dongolawi. Another, as yet undeciphered Nubian language has been preserved in a few inscriptions found in Soba, the capital of Alodia. Since their publication by Adolf Ermann in 1881, they are referred as 'Alwan inscriptions' or 'Alwan Nubian.' Synchronic research on the Nubian languages began in the last decades of the nineteenth century, first focusing on the Nile Nubian languages Nobiin and Kenzi- Dongolawi.
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Dale (1980), p. 6. Dale concluded that, > Two primary factors have been identified as operating on a society in the > choice of script for representing its language. These are the prevailing > cultural influence (often a religion) and the prevailing political influence > of the period in which the choice is made. Synchronic digraphia results when > more than one such influence is operating and none can dominate all groups > of speakers of the language in question [ … ] Diachronic digraphia results > when different influences prevail over a given speech community at different > times.Dale (1980), p. 12.
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A. and Murphy, L.D. (2008) A History of Anthropological Theory, Toronto: Broadview Press The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth was founded in 1946. In Britain, anthropology had a great intellectual impact, it "contributed to the erosion of Christianity, the growth of cultural relativism, an awareness of the survival of the primitive in modern life, and the replacement of diachronic modes of analysis with synchronic, all of which are central to modern culture."Heyck, Thomas William (1997) at The American Historical Review, Vol. 102, No. 5 (December, 1997), pp.
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The synchronic problem is grounded in the question of what features or traits characterize a given person at one time. Identity is an issue for both continental philosophy and analytic philosophy. A key question in continental philosophy is in what sense we can maintain the modern conception of identity, while realizing many of our prior assumptions about the world are incorrect. Proposed solutions to the problem of personal identity include continuity of the physical body, continuity of an immaterial mind or soul, continuity of consciousness or memory,Stefaroi, P. (2015).
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Turrettini defines freedom with the notion of rational spontaneity (Institutio, 10.2.10–11). Turrettini's doctrine of freedom appears to be similar to that of Scotus in that both of them endorse Aristotelian logic: the distinction between the necessity of the consequent (necessitas consequentis) and the necessity of the consequence (necessitas consequentiae); the distinction between in sensu composito and in sensu diviso. It is not Scotus's notion of synchronic contingency but Aristotle's modal logic which is incorporated into Turrettini's doctrine of freedom. Moreover, the Scotistic ideas about necessity and indifference differ greatly from those of Turrettini.
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The International Workshop on Balto-Slavic Accentology (abbreviated IWoBA) is an annual international conference on comparative and historical Balto-Slavic accentology, including the prehistory and history of the separate Baltic and Slavic languages, as well as synchronic and dialectal issues that have to do with accentology. The first conference was held in Zagreb 1–3 July 2005 with contributions by some of the world's foremost Balto-Slavists, Baltologists and Slavists, organized by the Croatian linguists Ranko Matasović and Mate Kapović. It proved to be an immense success and was thus followed by annually held IWoBA conferences.
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For most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves trade-offs between the two extremes. Pure transcriptions are generally not possible, as the source language usually contains sounds and distinctions not found in the target language, but which must be shown for the romanized form to be comprehensible. Furthermore, due to diachronic and synchronic variance no written language represents any spoken language with perfect accuracy and the vocal interpretation of a script may vary by a great degree among languages. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written foreign language, written native language, spoken (read) native language.
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Historical linguistics is typically a diachronic study. The concepts were theorized by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, professor of general linguistics in Geneva from 1896 to 1911, and appeared in writing in his posthumous Course in General Linguistics published in 1916. In contrast with most of his predecessors, who focused on historical evolution of languages, Saussure emphasized the primacy of synchronic analysis of languages to understand their inner functioning, though never forgetting the importance of complementary diachrony. This dualistic opposition has been carried over into philosophy and sociology, for instance by Roland Barthes and Jean-Paul Sartre.
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Quenya is a fictional language devised by J. R. R. Tolkien, and used in his fictional universe, often called Middle-earth. Here are presented a resume of the grammatical rules of late Quenya as established from Tolkien's writings c. 1951–1973. It is almost impossible to extrapolate the morphological rules of the Quenya tongue from published data because Quenya is a fictional irregular language that is heavily influenced by natural languages, like Finnish and Latin – not an international auxiliary language with a regular morphology. Tolkien wrote several synchronic grammars of Quenya but only one has been published in full: The Early Qenya Grammar.
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Accessed 31 January 2019. To accomplish this, it specializes in the display and interpretation of artifacts related to agriculture, often of a specific time period or in a specific region. They may also display memorabilia related to farmers or businesspeople who impacted society via agriculture (for example, size of the land cultivated as compared to other farmers) or agricultural advances (for example, technology implementation). An agricultural museum is said to be diachronic if it presents the entire narrative associated with subject of agriculture within its walls, or to be synchronic if it limits its displays to a single experience.
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Possibly for this reason Pouwer did not embrace a purely structuralist position à la Lévi-Strauss. Pouwer was a foremost advocate of a configurational approach for cross-cultural comparison with an emphasis on the importance of 'relative position' of elements within an arrangement rather than on elements themselves. Pouwer's configurational approach has a synchronic aspect (comparison between cultures) and a diachronic aspect which (following Lévi-Strauss) he called 'structural history'. The configurational approach to cross-cultural comparison may also be viewed against other attempts such as those of structural functionalism, which dealt with institutions and functions.
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The study of the relationship between words present in the language at one time is synchronic etymology, part of descriptive linguistics, and the study of word origins and evolution is diachronic etymology, part of historical linguistics. English orthography prioritizes morphology, etymology, and phonetics in descending order. Thus the spelling of a word is dependent principally upon its structure, its relationship to other words, and its language and origin. It is usually necessary to know the meaning of a word to spell it correctly, and its meaning will be indicated by the similarity to words of the same meaning and family.
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Barry Truax (born 1947) is a Canadian composer who specializes in real-time implementations of granular synthesis, often of sampled sounds, and soundscapes. He developed the first ever implementation of real-time granular synthesis, in 1986, the first to use a sample as the source of a granular composition in 1987's Wings of Nike, and was the first composer to explore the range between synchronic and asynchronic granular synthesis in 1986's Riverrun. The real-time technique suites or emphasizes auditory streams, which, along with soundscapes, inform his aesthetic. Truax teaches both electroacoustic music and acoustic communication at Simon Fraser University.
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In the early nineties, the Summer Institute of Linguistics initiated a study to assess which Gbe communities could benefit from existing literacy efforts and whether additional development programs in some of the remaining communities would be needed. Linguistic research carried out in the course of this study was to shed more light on the relations between the various varieties of Gbe. Some of the results of this study were presented in Kluge (2000, 2005, 2006). Based on a synchronic analysis of lexical and grammatical features elicited among 49 Gbe varieties, Kluge divided the Gbe languages into three major groupings: western, central, and eastern .
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When Islamic power took place, modified Arabic writing system (called Pegon) was introduced, alongside with the massive introduction of Latin alphabet by western colonialists. This results in the use of three writing systems to write modern Javanese, either based on a particular context (religious, cultural or normal), or sometimes also written simultaneously. This phenomenon also occurred in some other cultures in Indonesia. An element of synchronic digraphia is present in many languages not using the Latin script, in particular in text messages and when typing on a computer which does not have the facility to represent the usual script for that language.
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Sociolinguistics is the study of how language is shaped by social factors. This sub-discipline focuses on the synchronic approach of linguistics, and looks at how a language in general, or a set of languages, display variation and varieties at a given point in time. The study of language variation and the different varieties of language through dialects, registers, and idiolects can be tackled through a study of style, as well as through analysis of discourse. Sociolinguists research both style and discourse in language, as well as the theoretical factors that are at play between language and society.
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Archaeologists study artifacts in the context of these three dimensions, and all archaeological inferences are affixed to any of these measurements. The relation of form and time represents a diachronic approach while the relation of form and space represents a synchronic approach; the alliance of all three constitutes a comprehensive archaeological unit and the foundation of context.O'Brien, Michael J. and R. Lee Lyman. (2000). Although Spaulding's discussion focused largely on form and its conceivable statistical measurements, his understanding of the reality of all three dimensions can be considered a moment of clarity in the theory of archaeology.
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He was thus able to present a notion of the creation of grammatical forms as a legitimate study for linguistics. Later studies in the field have further developed and altered Meillet's ideas and have introduced many other examples of grammaticalization. During the second half of the twentieth century, the study of grammatical change over time became somewhat unfashionable, in contrast to structuralist ideas of language change in which grammaticalization did not play a role. The field of linguistics at the time was strongly concerned with synchronic studies of language change, which marginalized historical approaches such as grammaticalization.
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This theory seeks to explain the existence of social problems such as unemployment and crime in specific Chicago districts, making extensive use of synchronic mapping to reveal the spatial distribution of social problems and to permit comparison between areas. They argued that "neighborhood conditions, be they of wealth or poverty, had a much greater determinant effect on criminal behavior than ethnicity, race, or religion" (Gaines and Miller). In the post-war period, the cartographic approach was criticized as simplistic in that it neglected the social and cultural dimensions of urban life, the political and economic impact of industrialization on urban geography, and the issues of class, race, gender, and ethnicity.
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Openness to loans has been called a "characteristic feature" of the Albanian language. The Albanian original lexical items directly inherited from Proto-Indo-European are far fewer in comparison to the loanwords, though loans are considered to be "perfectly integrated" and not distinguishable from native vocabulary on a synchronic level. Although Albanian is characterized by the absorption of many loans, even, in the case of Latin, reaching deep into the core vocabulary, certain semantic fields nevertheless remained more resistant. Terms pertaining to social organization are often preserved, though not those pertaining to political organization, while those pertaining to trade are all loaned or innovated.
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In turn the prime minister will resign if the government loses the confidence of the parliament (or a part of it). Confidence can be lost if the government loses a vote of no confidence or, depending on the country,A synchronic comparative perspective were before the founding fathers of Italian Constitution, when they were faced with the question of bicameralism and related issues of confidence and the legislative procedure, loses a particularly important vote in parliament, such as vote on the budget. When a government loses confidence, it stays in office until a new government is formed; something which normally but not necessarily required the holding of a general election.
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The object of study was not delineated by the researcher's viewpoint or interest, but the method by which he approached them could be. White believed that phenomena could be explored from three different points of view: the historical, the formal-functional, and the evolutionist (or formal- temporal). The historical view was essentially Boasian, dedicated to examining the particular diachronic cultural processes, "lovingly trying to penetrate into its secrets until every feature is plain and clear." The formal- functional is essentially the synchronic approach advocated by Alfred Radcliffe-Brown and Bronisław Malinowski, attempting to discern the formal structure of a society and the functional interrelations of its components.
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The Germanic language family is one of the language groups that resulted from the breakup of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). It in turn divided into North, West and East Germanic groups, and ultimately produced a large group of mediaeval and modern languages, most importantly: Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish (North); English, Frisian, Dutch and German (West); and Gothic (East, extinct). The Germanic verb system lends itself to both descriptive (synchronic) and historical (diachronic) comparative analysis. This overview article is intended to lead into a series of specialist articles discussing historical aspects of these verbs, showing how they developed out of PIE, and how they came to have their present diversity.
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Prior to the work of Saussure in the early twentieth century, linguistics focused mainly on etymology, an historical analysis (also called a diachronic analysis) tracing the history of the meanings of individual words. Saussure was critical of the comparative philologists of the 19th century, who—basing their investigations only on Indo-European languages—whose conclusions, he said, had "no basis in reality." At that time "language was to be a "fourth natural kingdom." Saussure approached language by examining the present functioning of language (a synchronic analysis)—a relational approach in which he looked at the "system of relations between words as the source of meanings.
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Deferral also comes into play, as the words that occur following "house" or "white" in any expression will revise the meaning of that word, sometimes dramatically so. This is true not only with syntagmatic succession in relation with paradigmatic simultaneity, but also, in a broader sense, between diachronic succession in History related with synchronic simultaneity inside a "system of distinct signs". Thus, complete meaning is always "differential" and postponed in language; there is never a moment when meaning is complete and total. A simple example would consist of looking up a given word in a dictionary, then proceeding to look up the words found in that word's definition, etc.
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Before the 20th century, linguists analysed language on a diachronic plane, which was historical in focus. This meant that they would compare linguistic features and try to analyse language from the point of view of how it had changed between then and later. However, with Saussurean linguistics in the 20th century, the focus shifted to a more synchronic approach, where the study was more geared towards analysis and comparison between different language variations, which existed at the same given point of time. At another level, the syntagmatic plane of linguistic analysis entails the comparison between the way words are sequenced, within the syntax of a sentence.
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The learner should be able to elaborate a research plan, organised around bibliography, documents and other sources (oral, written, material), as appropriate to address the questions posed and to revise (broaden, perfect) it in relation to his or her findings. Ability to identify and utilise appropriate sources of information for a research project The European Union is sometimes compared to an onion (as a sphere) with concentric layers. This is because it has a horizontal synchronic geographical segmentation and a diachronic vertical periodization. Learners need to acquire competences that allow them to distinguish, compare and analyse different periods and spaces of European and European Union history.
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MacWhinney has developed a model of first and second language acquisition as well as language processing called the competition model. This model views language acquisition as an emergentist phenomenon that results from competition between lexical items, phonological forms, and syntactic patterns, accounting for language processing on the synchronic, ontogenetic, and phylogenetic time scales. Empirical studies based on the competition model have shown that learning of language forms is based on the accurate recording of many exposures to words and patterns in different contexts. The predictions of the competition model have been supported by research in the realms of psycholinguistics, cognitive neuroscience, and cognitive development.
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Synchronic Entertainment website The Punch Line performed live at a handful of local venues and released one single. The recording sessions for that single, coupled with the break-up of Mod Fun, served as the impetus for Collins' entry into the field of recording engineering. Collins attended the Institute of Audio Research in New York City where he earned a diploma in multi-track recording technology and eventually became an instructor under president Al Grundy. At age 20 he was, at the time, the youngest instructor to have ever taught a full course load at the Institute and was an active member of both the AES and SMPTE.
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In some interpretations of the Marxian transformation problem, total "(production) prices" for output must equal total "values" by definition, and total profits must by definition equal total surplus value. However, Marx himself explicitly denied in chapter 49 of the third volume of Das Kapital that such an exact mathematical identity actually applies. As soon as synchronic and diachronic variability in labour productivity is admitted, then the two famous identities cannot be true even in theory.Karl Marx, Capital, Volume III, Penguin 1981, pp. 971-972. Subsequently, Frederick Engels emphasized in this regard that an idealization of reality is not the same thing as reality itself, in a letter to Conrad Schmidt dated March 12, 1895.
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The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo-European to language in general by Wilhelm von Humboldt. Early in the 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units, defined through the oppositions between them. By introducing a distinction between diachronic and synchronic analyses of language, he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics. Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still fundamental in many contemporary linguistic theories, such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm, and the Langue-parole distinction, distinguishing language as an abstract system (langue), from language as a concrete manifestation of this system (parole).
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New York: J.J. Augustin which the Kwakiutl define as "fighting with property" rather than with weapons. She says that this change can have profound implications not only for an understanding of the Kwakiutl people but also "for knowledge of human potentialities for change away from destructiveness, at a point in the history of the world when such a change is necessary". Her work on the Kwakiutl was not only important for understanding that culture but also because "first, it was one of the pioneering efforts of what later came to be known as historical anthropology. Second, while the majority of anthropologists of the time were doing synchronic studies of societies, Codere's work focused on culture change".
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This is in accordance to a model proposed by John Ohala which involves synchronic unintended variation, hypocorrection, and hypercorrection. For example, in a language that contains no contrasting nasality for vowels, the utterance [kɑ̃n] can be reconstructed, that is, 'corrected' by the listener as the phoneme sequence [kɑn] that was intended by the speaker because they have the knowledge that every vowel is nasalized before a nasal consonant. Hypocorrection occurs if the speaker fails to restore a phoneme, perhaps because the [n] was not pronounced very clearly, and analyses the utterance as [kɑ̃]. However, further studies suggest that there could be another possible reason for the occurrence of hypocorrection: 'variation' in the compensation.
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"Not only is the tree model inadequate to express the relationships between diatopically related varieties, but it may seriously distort the diachronic and synchronic study of language. Some would argue that this model works well within Indo-European linguistics, where the varieties under consideration (all written and therefore partially or fully standardized) are usually well separated in space and time and where the intervening varieties have all vanished without trace, removing any possibility of viewing the Indo-European family as a continuum. However, where the object of study is a series of now-existing varieties or a range of closely related varieties from the past, the tree model is open to a number of grave objections." (Penny 2000: 22).
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Toward the turn of the twentieth century, a number of anthropologists became dissatisfied with this categorization of cultural elements; historical reconstructions also came to seem increasingly speculative to them. Under the influence of several younger scholars, a new approach came to predominate among British anthropologists, concerned with analyzing how societies held together in the present (synchronic analysis, rather than diachronic or historical analysis), and emphasizing long-term (one to several years) immersion fieldwork. Cambridge University financed a multidisciplinary expedition to the Torres Strait Islands in 1898, organized by Alfred Cort Haddon and including a physician-anthropologist, William Rivers, as well as a linguist, a botanist, and other specialists. The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description.
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21 But structural difference will not be considered without him already destabilizing from the start its static, synchronic, taxonomic, ahistoric motifs, remembering that all structure already refers to the generative movement in the play of differences:Cf. Jacques Derrida, "Interview with Julia Kristeva" in "Positions" (The University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 28–30 The other main component of is deferring, which takes into account the fact that meaning is not only synchrony with all the other terms inside a structure, but also diachrony, with everything that was and will be said, in History, difference as structure and deferring as genesis:Cf. Jacques Derrida, "Interview with Julia Kristeva" in "Positions" (The University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp.
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In Marx's finished theory of value, the "value" of a commodity turns out to be the social valuation of its average, current replacement cost in labour time (a synchronic economic reproduction cost)"...the value of a commodity is determined not by the quantity of labour actually objectified in it, but by the quantity of living labour necessary to produce it." — Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, Penguin 1976, p. 676-677. "...the value of commodities is determined not by the labour-time originally taken by their production, but rather by the labour-time that their reproduction takes, and this steadily decreases as the social productivity of labour develops." — Marx, Capital, Volume III, Penguin 1981, p. 522.
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This section of the work is a discussion of the ways in which modern society is leading to a loss of a sense of existence, thus a destruction of what Stiegler calls "primordial narcissism", resulting in the proliferation of all kinds of individual and collective pathological behaviours. He outlines his theory of individuation (drawn in part from the work of Gilbert Simondon), and the compositional relation of synchronic and diachronic processes, in order to argue that a consumer society founded on television advertising produces hyper-synchronising and hyper-diachronising processes which threaten human desire and therefore human existence. Examples discussed of the consequences of these processes include the September 11, 2001 attacks, the success of the French National Front, and the Nanterre massacre perpetrated by Richard Durn.
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He also serves on the faculty of Religion at Claremont Graduate University (1994-present). In 2019, Sweeney relocated to Salem, Oregon, due to the transfer of Claremont School of Theology to Willamette University. A specialist in Prophetic Literature and Biblical Historical Narrative, Sweeney is especially well known for developing the field of Jewish Biblical Theology and for critical studies on the synchronic, final literary form of the prophetic and narrative books of the Hebrew Bible and the diachronic history of their composition. He has served as President of the National Association of Professors of Hebrew (2017-2019); President of the Society of Biblical Literature South Eastern Region (1993-94); and President of the Society of Biblical Literature Pacific Coast Region (2001-2002).
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At the end of his essay defining the ideograph, McGee says that > “A complete description of an ideology . . . will consist of (1) the > isolation of a society’s ideographs, (2) the exposure and analysis of the > diachronic structure of every ideography, and (3) characterization of > synchronic relationships among all the ideographs in a particular context.” Such an exhaustive study of any ideology has yet to materialize, but many scholars have made use of the ideograph as a tool of understanding both specific rhetorical situations as well as a broader scope of ideological history. As a teacher, McGee himself made use of the ideograph as a tool for structuring the study of the rise of liberalism in British public address, focusing on ideographs such as , , , .
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Max Gluckman, together with many of his colleagues at the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute and students at Manchester University, collectively known as the Manchester School, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities. In Britain, anthropology had a great intellectual impact, it "contributed to the erosion of Christianity, the growth of cultural relativism, an awareness of the survival of the primitive in modern life, and the replacement of diachronic modes of analysis with synchronic, all of which are central to modern culture."Heyck, Thomas William (1997) at The American Historical Review, Vol. 102, No. 5 (December, 1997), pp.
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For the structuralists, this was a false problem, and the "depth" of experience could in fact only be an effect of structures which are not themselves experiential. In that context, in 1959, Derrida asked the question: Must not structure have a genesis, and must not the origin, the point of genesis, be already structured, in order to be the genesis of something?Jacques Derrida, "'Genesis' and 'Structure' and Phenomenology," in Writing and Difference (London: Routledge, 1978), paper originally delivered in 1959 at Cerisy-la-Salle, and originally published in Gandillac, Goldmann & Piaget (eds.), Genèse et structure (The Hague: Morton, 1964), p. 167: In other words, every structural or "synchronic" phenomenon has a history, and the structure cannot be understood without understanding its genesis.
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Additionally, some place names draw on Sanskrit or Pali roots, which are then adapted to Sinhala and Tamil phonology in different ways. These intricacies must be taken into account when evaluating claims that a certain area was predominantly inhabited by one group or the other at a certain point in time. Taking a synchronic point of view, Sinhala place names are more common in the Sinhala speaking areas in the South, whereas Tamil place names are more common in the Tamil speaking areas in the North and East. On a diachronic point of view, things are more complicated, and both Sinhala settlements in the North and Tamil settlements in the South have been claimed to have been more common in the past.
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Before the 20th century, the term philology, first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the study of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus. Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted and the term philology is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history, and literary tradition", especially in the United States (where philology has never been very popularly considered as the "science of language"). Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641, the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847. It is now the usual term in English for the scientific study of language, though linguistic science is sometimes used.
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The third and final period of Mathesius's work, which lasted until his death, was devoted to functionalist theories of grammar. He was a leading proponent of this school of thought, although he credits the followers of the Polish linguist Jan Baudouin de Courtenay and the Danish linguist Otto Jespersen with having sowed the seeds of the movement. Mathesius built up functionalism as an alternative to the approach of the Neogrammarians, which he criticized as failing to view language as a whole system, overly emphasizing written language at the expense of spoken, and neglecting the role of the speaker/writer in the production of language. Functionalism remedied these problems, and it also preferred synchronic study over diachronic and favored an analytic approach over a genealogical one.
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Several scholars have documented a contrast between oral and nasal vowels in Niger–Congo.le Saout (1973) for an early overview, Stewart (1976) for a diachronic, Volta–Congo wide analysis, Capo (1981) for a synchronic analysis of nasality in Gbe (see Gbe languages: nasality), and Bole-Richard (1984, 1985) as cited in Williamson (1989) for similar reports on several Mande, Gur, Kru, Kwa, and Ubangi languages. In his reconstruction of proto-Volta–Congo, Steward (1976) postulates that nasal consonants have originated under the influence of nasal vowels; this hypothesis is supported by the fact that there are several Niger–Congo languages that have been analysed as lacking nasal consonants altogether. Languages like this have nasal vowels accompanied with complementary distribution between oral and nasal consonants before oral and nasal vowels.
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In some cases a short vowel in a word may be metrically Weak in a particular variant of a word (and hence deleted) or it may be metrically strong and hence retained. However, in certain words a short vowel may be in a position where it would always be Weak and therefore always deleted. For such words, it cannot be deduced from synchronic Ottawa language material which of the short vowels /i, a, o/ was present in the historical pre-Syncope form of the word. Here, the quality of the vowel can only be determined by examining the form of the word in other dialects of Ojbwe that have not been affected by Syncope, or by referring to earlier sources for Ottawa, such as Baraga's late nineteenth-century dictionary.
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Bronislaw Malinowski, Anthropologist at the London School of Economics Toward the turn of the 20th century, a number of anthropologists became dissatisfied with this categorization of cultural elements; historical reconstructions also came to seem increasingly speculative to them. Under the influence of several younger scholars, a new approach came to predominate among British anthropologists, concerned with analyzing how societies held together in the present (synchronic analysis, rather than diachronic or historical analysis), and emphasizing long-term (one to several years) immersion fieldwork. Cambridge University financed a multidisciplinary expedition to the Torres Strait Islands in 1898, organized by Alfred Cort Haddon and including a physician- anthropologist, William Rivers, as well as a linguist, a botanist, and other specialists. The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description.
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It was decided, at this time, that painting took precedence because sight was higher-ranking to people than hearing was. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing opens his Laocoön: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry (1766) by observing that "the first who compared painting with poetry [Simonides of Ceos] was a man of fine feeling,"Simonides, who wrote "poema pictura locguens, pictura poema silens" (poetry is a speaking picture, painting a silent [mute] poetry) was quoted by Plutarch, De gloria Atheniensium 3.346f. though, Lessing makes it clear, not a critic or philosopher. Lessing argues that painting is a synchronic, visual phenomenon, one of space that is immediately in its entirety understood and appreciated, while poetry (again, in its widest sense) is a diachronic art of the ear, one that depends on time to unfold itself for the reader's appreciation.
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Each element within each system is eventually contrasted with all other elements in different types of relations so that not two elements have the exact same value: :"Within the same language, all words used to express related ideas limit each other reciprocally; synonyms like French redouter 'dread', craindre 'fear,' and avoir peur 'be afraid' have value only through their opposition: if redouter did not exist, all its content would go to its competitors." Saussure defined his own theory in terms of binary oppositions: sign—signified, meaning—value, language—speech, synchronic—diachronic, internal linguistics—external linguistics, and so on. The related term markedness denotes the assessment of value between binary oppositions. These were studied extensively by post-war structuralists such as Claude Lévi- Strauss to explain the organisation of social conceptualisation, and later by the post-structuralists to criticise it.
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José Ignacio Hualde is a linguist from Madrid, «Idatzitakoa nola ahoskatu eta mintzoaren soinua» , Euskararen Berripapera, number 26, July 1994, page 3. specialised in Basque linguistics and in Spanish synchronic and diachronic phonology, Web page on Dr Jose Ignacio Hualde in the area of the Department of Spanish, Italian and Portuguese in the website of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. professor of Linguistics Web page on Dr Jose Ignacio Hualde in the area of the Department of Linguistics in the website of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in the Department of Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and in the Department of Linguistics, at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.The page of professor José Ignacio Hualde in the website of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign He is also the current Vice President of the Association for Laboratory Phonology.
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The alarm clock is for many people a reminder of the intrusion of socio- economic time discipline into their sleep cycle. In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. The concept of "time discipline" as a field of special attention in sociology and anthropology was pioneered by E. P. Thompson in Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism, published in 1967. Coming from a Marxist viewpoint, Thompson argued that observance of clock-time is a consequence of the European industrial revolution, and that neither industrial capitalism nor the creation of the modern state would have been possible without the imposition of synchronic forms of time and work discipline.
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Elizabeth Bates was a pioneer and leading scholar in studying how the brain processes language. Bates made significant contributions in the fields of child language acquisition, cross-linguistic language processing, aphasia, and investigating the cognitive, neural, and social linguistic factors subserving these processes. With Brian MacWhinney, Bates developed a model of language processing called the competition model, which views language acquisition as an emergentist phenomenon that results from competition between lexical items, phonological forms, and syntactic patterns, accounting for language processing on the synchronic, ontogenetic, and phylogenetic time scales. She was a main proponent of the functionalist view of grammar, in that communication is the main force that drives language's natural forms. This view provides support for Bates’ widely known perspective: the brain does not use specialized linguistic centers, but instead employs general cognitive abilities in order to solve a communicative conundrum.
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However, Romanian has preserved certain features of Latin grammar that have been lost elsewhere. This could be explained by a host of arguments such as: relative isolation in the Balkans, possible pre-existence of identical grammatical structures in its substratum (as opposed to the substrata over which the other Romance languages developed), and existence of similar elements in the neighboring languages. One Latin element that has survived in Romanian while having disappeared from other Romance languages, which makes Romanian the only category I language with case inflections is the morphological case differentiation in nouns, albeit reduced to only three forms (nominative/accusative, genitive/dative, and vocative) from the original six or seven. Another might be the retention of the neuter gender in nouns, although in synchronic terms, Romanian neuter nouns can also be analysed as "ambigeneric", i.e.
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The Allmusic review by Thom Jurek awarded the album 4½ stars stating "Ultimately, Quake is a newer and finer example than anything before of Friedlander's unified vision of not only jazz but also the engagement of the dynamic and harmonic within an ensemble to create something that is compelling, beautiful, and unusual even in the outsider downtown tradition".Jurek, T. Allmusic Review accessed January 7, 2014 Writing for All About Jazz, Elliot Simon commented "Quake is further indication that Topaz, led by Friedlander's cello and world view, continues to break ground with its particular brand of synchronic global stew".Simon, E. All About Jazz Review, June 25, 2003. Andrew Lindemann Malone stated in JazzTimes that "Erik Friedlander, however, has shown throughout his career that the personality of a cello is determined more than anything else by the personality of its cellist, and his new album as a leader, Quake, proves that even when surrounded by strong, imaginative personalities, his cello is anything but reticent".
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While traditional linguistic studies had developed comparative methods (comparative linguistics), chiefly to demonstrate family relations between cognate languages, or to illustrate the historical developments of one or more languages, modern contrastive linguistics intends to show in what ways the two respective languages differ, in order to help in the solution of practical problems. (Sometimes the terms diachronic linguistics and synchronic linguistics are used to refer to these two perspectives.) Contrastive linguistics, since its inception by Robert Lado in the 1950s, has often been linked to aspects of applied linguistics, e.g., to avoid interference errors in foreign-language learning, as advocated by Di Pietro (1971)Di Pietro, R.J. (1971) Language Structures in Contrast, Newbury House. (see also contrastive analysis), to assist interlingual transfer in the process of translating texts from one language into another, as demonstrated by Vinay & Darbelnet (1958)Vinay, J.P. & Darbelnet, J. (1958) Stylistique Comparée du Français et de l'Anglais, Didier-Harrap. and more recently by Hatim (1997)Hatim, B. (1997) Communication across Cultures.
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This intertextual view of literature, as shown by Roland Barthes, supports the concept that the meaning of a text does not reside in the text, but is produced by the reader in relation not only to the text in question, but also the complex network of texts invoked in the reading process. While the theoretical concept of intertextuality is associated with post-modernism, the device itself is not new. New Testament passages quote from the Old Testament and Old Testament books such as Deuteronomy or the prophets refer to the events described in Exodus (for discussions on using 'intertextuality' to describe the use of the Old Testament in the New Testament, see Porter 1997; Oropeza 2013; Oropeza & Moyise, 2016). Whereas a redaction critic would use such intertextuality to argue for a particular order and process of the authorship of the books in question, literary criticism takes a synchronic view that deals with the texts in their final form, as an interconnected body of literature.
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Time discipline, as it pertains to sociology and anthropology, is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. Thompson authored Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism, published in 1967, which posits that reliance on clock-time is a result of the European Industrial Revolution and that neither industrial capitalism nor the creation of the modern state would have been possible without the imposition of synchronic forms of time and work discipline. An accurate and precise record of time was not kept prior to the industrial revolution. The new clock-time imposed by government and capitalist interests replaced earlier, collective perceptions of time—such as natural rhythms of time like sunrise, sunset, and seasonal changes—that Thompson believed flowed from the collective wisdom of human societies.
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On the other hand, verbs such as drink, hit and have are irregular since some of their parts are not made according to the typical pattern: drank and drunk (not "drinked"); hit (as past tense and past participle, not "hitted") and has and had (not "haves" and "haved"). The classification of verbs as regular or irregular is to some extent a subjective matter. If some conjugational paradigm in a language is followed by a limited number of verbs, or it requires the specification of more than one principal part (as with the German strong verbs), views may differ as to whether the verbs in question should be considered irregular. Most inflectional irregularities arise as a result of series of fairly uniform historical changes so forms that appear to be irregular from a synchronic (contemporary) point of view may be seen as following more regular patterns when the verbs are analyzed from a diachronic (historical linguistic) viewpoint.
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Nesfield's English Grammar: Past and Present was originally written for the market in colonial India. It was later expanded to appeal to students in Britain as well, from young men preparing for various professional examinations to students in "Ladies' Colleges". Other books on the English language by Nesfield include A Junior Course In English Composition, A Senior Course In English Composition, but it was his A Manual Of English Grammar and Composition that proved really successful both in Britain and her colonies — so much so that it formed the basis for many other grammar and composition primers including but not limited to Warriner's English Grammar and Composition, and High School English Grammar and Composition, fondly called Wren & Martin by P. C. Wren and H. Martin. Bibliographer Manfred Görlach is critical, saying of the frequently reprinted English Grammar: Past and Present that "it is not quite easy to see how its wordiness, lack of clear structure, mixture of synchronic description and diachronic explanation and often unclear definitions gave the book the immense impact it had".
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In March 1850, the meeting was organized and attended by the self-taught Serbian linguist and folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, his close follower Đuro Daničić; the most eminent Slavist of the period, Slovene philologist Franz Miklosich, and Croatian scholars and writers Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski, Dimitrije Demeter, Ivan Mažuranić, Vinko Pacel, and Stjepan Pejaković. General guidelines for the conceived development of the common literary language for Croats and Serbs were agreed on; these were in accordance with Karadžić's basic linguistic and orthographic premises, and they partly corresponded with the fundamental Croatian Neo-Shtokavian pre-Illyrian literary language which the concept of Illyrian suppressed at the expense of South-Slavic commonality. The Ljudevit Gaj's Latin script and Karadžić's Cyrillic script were aligned to one-to-one congruence and both declared equal in a state of synchronic digraphia. The signatories agreed on five points: # They decided not to merge existing dialects, instead creating a new one, and that they should, following German and Italian models, pick one of the peoples' dialects and choose this as the literary basis according to which all text would be written.
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In The Discovery of the Law of Time (1989-1996) , José and Lloydine Argüelles devise and promote a notion that they call the "Law of Time", in part framed by their interpretation of how Maya calendrical mathematics functioned. In this notional framework, J. & L. Argüelles claim to have identified a "fundamental law" involving two timing frequencies: one they call "mechanised time" with a "12:60 frequency", and the other "natural [time] codified by the Maya [that is] understood to be the frequency 13:20".Terminology and statements in quotation marks taken from 2002 interview with Argüelles, as transcribed in Moynihan (2002) To the Argüelles, "the irregular 12-month [Gregorian] calendar and artificial, mechanised 60-minute hour" is a construct that artificially regulates human affairs, and is out-of-step with the natural "synchronic order". José and Lloydine Argüelles propose the universal abandonment of the Gregorian calendar and its replacement with a thirteen moon, 28 day calendar, in order to "get the human race back on course" by the adoption of this calendar of perfect harmony so the human race could straighten its mind out again.
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Starting with his Grondbeginselen van de psychologische taalwetenschap, based on which he wrote his dissertation Principes de linguistique psychologique, van Ginneken worked on developing a psychological foundation for linguistics and language. Three substantial parts of his convictions are presented in the following: Firstly, van Ginneken opposed the prevalence of the neogrammarians’ methods in linguistics and was a proponent for a psychological approach to linguistics in a more synchronic way, thereby allowing, he thought, to gain an extended view of the diachronic development of language as well. Secondly, language, it seemed to him, had its foundations in sub- or unconscious regions of sentiment and emotion. This notion, which he explained in his Principes, had its opposition in the field of language psychology from those who saw language as prevailingly cognitive, notably Edward Sapir. Thirdly, in the latter half of his life, van Ginneken developed the idea, that besides psychological factors, sound changes were influenced by genetic and anthropological ones, a view which didn’t find much agreement in the linguistic community at the time and much less after the Second World War, when much of language biology began to be seen as an absurdity of pre-War sciences.
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" The date of his death is uncertain; a reference in his chronicle makes clear that he was still alive in 810, and he is sometimes described as dying in 811, but there is no evidence for this, and textual evidence in the Chronicle of Theophanes suggests that he was still alive in 813.Mango and Scott, The Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor His chronicle, as its title implies, is more of a chronological table with notes than a history. Following on from the Syriac chroniclers of his homeland, who were writing in his lifetime under Arab rule in much the same fashion, as well as the Alexandrians Annianus and Panodorus (monks who wrote near the beginning of the 5th century), George used the chronological synchronic structures of Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius of Caesarea, arranging his events strictly in order of time, and naming them in the year which they happened. Consequently, the narrative is regarded as secondary to the need to reference the relation of each event to other events, and as such is continually interrupted by long tables of dates, so markedly that Krumbacher described it as being "rather a great historical list [Geschichtstabelle] with added explanations, than a universal history.
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His work had a major impact on 20th-century linguistic theory, and it served as a foundation for several schools of phonology. He was an early champion of synchronic linguistics, the study of contemporary spoken languages, which he developed contemporaneously with the structuralist linguistic theory of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. Among the most notable of his achievements is the distinction between statics and dynamics of languages and between a language (an abstract group of elements) and speech (its implementation by individuals) – compare Saussure's concepts of langue and parole. Together with his students, Mikołaj Kruszewski and Lev Shcherba, Baudouin de Courtenay also shaped the modern usage of the term phoneme (Baudouin de Courtenay 1876–77 and Baudouin de Courtenay 1894),Baudouin de Courtenay (1876–7), A detailed programme of lectures for the academic year 1876-77, p. 115.Baudouin de Courtenay (1894), "Próba teorii alternacji fonetycznych", Część I – Ogólna RWF, 20, pp. 219–364; translated in German in Jan. 1895 as Versuch einer Theorie phonetischer Alternationen [An Attempt at a Theory of Phonetic Alternations]; excerpts in English in A Baudouin de Courtenay Anthology: The Beginnings of Structural Linguistics, ed. and trans. Edward Stankiewicz (Bloomington/London: Indiana UP, 1972). which had been coined in 1873 by the French linguist A. Dufriche-DesgenettesAnon. (1873).
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