498 Sentences With "saltpeter" | Random Sentence Generator

In the past, nitrates, in the form of saltpeter, were traditionally used.

The Union didn't have to resort to these drastic measures since it could obtain saltpeter through trade.

To recap: gunpowder needs saltpeter, which is a form of fixed nitrogen, and concentrated fixed nitrogen comes from poop.

After soil from bat caves, LeConte then suggested looking for saltpeter in cellars, stables, livestock pens, and manure heaps.

The queen encouraged similar deals with Morocco, selling weapons and buying saltpeter, the essential ingredient in gunpowder, and sugar, heralding a lasting craving and turning Elizabeth's own teeth an infamous black.

We were able to use saltpeter that we stole from a high school chemistry class, mixed it with sugar, put it in a wax cup and that itself is a smoke bomb.

His mood is downright buoyant (by which I mean he takes a break from scowling and threatening lives) at Brace's news that soldiers are running around town searching for the stolen saltpeter.

China is also thought to be where the first gunpowder was mixed, enhancing bamboo's explosive power with a blend of mainly potassium nitrate (a food preservative also known as Chinese snow or saltpeter), charcoal and sulfur.

It's NBD, he explains, because the saltpeter had already been purchased by the crown, so they'll be all too happy to prosecute the EIC for negligence rather than bother hanging Delaney, whom they still want to keep alive so that Nootka Sound won't go to the Americans.

Cellars were a prime source since cities were filthy places where animals constantly pooped and died in the street, and all the filth "oozes through and dries on the walls and floor of the cellars as a whitish crust, easily detectable as saltpeter by the taste," LeConte wrote.

What's left in a jar, after adding roughly equal volumes of flakes and a high-proof spirit like vodka, then pouring off the excess alcohol and leaving all remaining solids to air dry on a plate for about an hour, should be a powder close-to-white in appearance: saltpeter, a vital component of gunpowder that makes up about three quarters of its mass.

For example, that the recipe for saltpeter, a prime ingredient for gunpowder, was bird dung mixed with urine; that the British Army at full strength required 37 tons of food a day; that one-quarter of the Hessian troops stationed in America decided to remain after the war; that the American obsession with Canada reflected the widespread assumption that it was destined to become the 14th state in the Union; that General Howe's alleged American mistress, Betsy Loring, was a blond beauty British troops named "Sultana" for her nonchalant demeanor while drinking Howe under the table.

The Atacama Desert, at that time part of Peru, was home to significant amounts of Saltpeter (from sodium nitrate). At the time of the discovery of these deposits, the saltpeter had limited agricultural use. Then chemists successfully developed a process to turn the Saltpeter into quality saltpeter to produce gunpowder. The saltpeter, could, in turn, be converted into nitric acid, the precursor of powerful explosives, such as nitroglycerine and dynamite.

Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from several local caves. Fultz Saltpeter Cave, located in Fultz Cove, and Hubbard Saltpeter Cave, located in Hubbard Cove, were both significant operations. Woodlee Cave, located in Northcutts Cove, was also mined for saltpeter. Saltpeter was mined during both the War of 1812 and the Civil War, so these caves may have been mined during either, or both, time periods.

155 Saltpeter was heavily mined in Carter County and at the Great Saltpeter Cave in Rockcastle County.Kleber pp.167,387 But the most notable mining was at Mammoth Cave, whose saltpeter, considered exceptional quality, was numbered at 570,000 pounds produced during the war.Kleber p.

Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works are two former saltpeter refineries located in northern Chile. They were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005.

Montgomery County was the site of several early saltpeter mines. Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from local caves. Bellamy Cave near Stringtown still contains the remains of two dozen saltpeter leaching vats. It appears to have been a large operation.

Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), India. Bengal and Mālwa participated in saltpeter production. The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used Chhapra as a center of saltpeter refining.Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), Chāpra.

240, Appendix F (quantities from Chilean guano and saltpeter are combined). In 1900, Chile, with its deposits of saltpeter, produced two-thirds of all fertilizer on the planet.Wisniak 2002, p. 161 However, these deposits rapidly diminished, the industry was dominated by an oligopoly and the cost of saltpeter rose constantly.

Entrance to Sauta Cave In the past, the cave served a variety of uses. Cherokee natives mined the soil to make saltpeter for gunpowder. Saltpeter mining continued on occasion across the War of 1812, and the American Civil War. Sauta Cave was one of the largest saltpeter mines operated during the Civil War.

Toward the end of the American Civil War, the Confederate Army encouraged families to mine caves for saltpeter, which is used to make gunpowder. The situation became so critical that the Army paid young men to mine saltpeter rather than enlist, with the result that DeSoto Caverns became a saltpeter- mining center. The cave's spring-fed well was an important asset, as the mining of saltpeter involves soil leaching, which requires a lot of water. The well, a leaching trough, and a reconstructed vat used in the saltpeter-mining operations of the Civil War period are on display in the caverns.

Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. and Mughal Bengal and Mālwa also participated in saltpeter production. The Dutch, French, Portuguese and English used Chāpra as a center of saltpeter refining."Chāpra." Encyclopædia Britannica.

Similarly, the Persians called saltpeter "Chinese salt" or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" ( ). It is sometimes suggested that it was invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world. Hasan al-Rammah also describes the purifying of saltpeter using the chemical processes of solution and crystallization. This was the first clear method for the purification of saltpeter.

Qullpani (Aymara qullpa saltpeter, -ni a suffix, "the one with saltpeter", also spelled Kollpani) is a mountain in the Andes of Bolivia. It is located in the Potosí Department, Nor Chichas Province, Cotagaita Municipality.

Kemmer's descendants own much of the land in Grassy Cove today.Bullard and Krechniak, 126-129. During both the War of 1812 and the Civil War, Grassy Cove's caves were an invaluable source of saltpeter, which was used in the manufacture of gunpowder. William Kelly mined saltpeter in Grassy cove Saltpeter Cave in 1812, according to a manuscript written by Richard Green Waterhouse.

Putnam County was the site of several saltpeter mines. Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from several local caves. Calfkiller Saltpeter Cave, located in the Calfkiller Valley, was a major mining operation, as was Johnson Cave, also located in the Calfkiller Valley. Both caves still contain significant remnants of the mining activity.

A major consumer of Chilean saltpeter, Germany saltpeter imports totaled 350,000 tonnes in 1900. Twelve years later, it imported 900,000 tonnes. The Unitred States was in much better position due to the Guano Islands Act.Hager 2008, p.

Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from several local caves. Hubbards Cave, near Camp Woodlee, was a major operation. Henshaw Cave on Cardwell Mountain (now part of Cumberland Caverns) and Solomon Saltpeter Cave on Ben Lomond Mountain were relatively small mining operations. Most saltpeter mining occurred during the War of 1812 and in the Civil War.

Gruenwald p.93 During the War of 1812, sixty to seventy men were employed to mine the cave of its saltpeter, deemed necessary as British blockades prevented saltpeter shipments from overseas. Many of the workers at the cave were slaves.Walker p.

When Doctor Samuel Brown, a Transylvania University professor of anatomy, chemistry, and surgery, gave in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1806 the first scientific description of Kentucky's saltpeter production, he drew mainly from the experiences of the Great Saltpetre Cave.Kleber p.794 As with most saltpeter caves, the land above the cave is a hardwood forest-covered plateau. Typically the saltpeter would be sent to Lexington, Kentucky to be made into gunpowder.

Qullpani (Aymara qullpa saltpeter, -ni a suffix, "the one with saltpeter", also spelled Kollpani) is a mountain in the Bolivian Andes which reaches a height of approximately . It is located in the La Paz Department, Loayza Province, Luribay Municipality, northeast of Luribay.

Reportedly wagons could not get down the steep grade at Spencer's Mountain without locking brakes on all wheels and dragging a tree behind to slow the descent. The mountain top was described as "quite denuded of trees." Cumberland County Courthouse, photographed in 1910 Cumberland County was the site of an important saltpeter mine. Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from Grassy Cove Saltpeter Cave.

A second battle in the area, commonly called the Battle of Dover, took place in February 1863. Tobaccoport Saltpeter Cave was intensely mined for saltpeter, possibly during the War of 1812 but more likely not until the Civil War. Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from the cave. The Union took control of Tennessee and this area in February 1862, early in the Civil War.

Shah Jahan also countered the British and other Europeans in his province of Gujarāt, which supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century."India." Encyclopædia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. Bengal and Mālwa participated in saltpeter production.

White County was the site of a very large saltpeter mining operation during the Civil War. The Cave Hill Saltpeter Pits (No. 1 and No. 2), located on Cave Hill near the mouth of England Cove, were intensively mined. Relics remain from that operation.

It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce.

Qullpani (Aymara qullpa saltpeter, -ni a suffix to indicate ownership, "the one with saltpeter", also spelled Kollpani) is a mountain in the Cordillera Real in the Andes of Bolivia. It is located in the La Paz Department, Los Andes Province, Pucarani Municipality. Qullpani lies south of a lake named Juri Quta.

Other caves in DeKalb County that were mined for saltpeter include Avant Cave, located near Dowelltown, Indian Grave Point Cave, located in the Dry Creek Valley, and Temperance Saltpeter Cave, located near Temperance Hall.Thomas C. Barr, Jr., "Caves of Tennessee", Bulletin 64 of the Tennessee Division of Geology, 1961, 568 pages.

Qullpa Hirka (Quechua qullpa salty, saltpeter, Ancash Quechua hirka mountain, "salty (or saltpeter) mountain", also spelled Colpa Irca) is a mountain in the Cordillera Negra in the Andes of Peru which reaches a height of approximately . It lies in the Ancash Region, Recuay Province, in the northern part of the Cotaparaco District.

He is the founder of Collegium Mediceum/Borchs Kollegium in central Copenhagen. He extracted oxygen out of saltpeter in 1678.

Pedro de Valdivia Airport (), is an airport serving María Elena, a saltpeter mining facility in the Antofagasta Region of Chile.

Nitratine or nitratite, also known as cubic niter (UK: nitre), soda niter or Chile saltpeter (UK: Chile saltpetre), is a mineral, the naturally occurring form of sodium nitrate, NaNO3. Chemically it is the sodium analogue of saltpeter. Nitratine crystallizes in the trigonal system, but rarely occurs as well formed crystals. It is isostructural with calcite.

In response to the lack of miners, Nguyen government reduced the taxes to stimulate the producing. In 1816, the court waived taxes for three mines: Nam Hoac iron mine in Thai Nguyen, Sư Khong saltpeter mine in Son Tay, and the Mai Sao saltpeter mine in Lang Son. In 1821, Emperor Minh Menh, the successor of Gia Long, again ordered taxes to be waived for eight mines in Bac Thanh. In 1823, the court continued to waive taxes for mines producing gold, zinc, copper, and saltpeter due to the lack of mine owners and laborers.

The guns were hence known throughout Japan as tanegashima, named after the island. The introduction of Portuguese matchlocks to Japan greatly increased the demand for saltpeter, a vital ingredient of gunpowder — a demand that Wang Zhi was on hand to meet. Since Japan did not produce its own saltpeter, Wang Zhi brought Chinese and Siamese saltpeter into Japan amongst other goods, while transporting Japanese sulfur (another ingredient of gunpowder) to Siam. In the process, he became immensely wealthy and gained a reputation among the Japanese and the foreign countries.

Kanti holds a distinct history for it was a spot for indigo production. Kanti was once a site for saltpeter production.

387 A stream ran through the cave, and was wide enough so that oxcarts could be used to bring the saltpeter above ground. However, torchlights had to be used to light the cave so that workers could mine the saltpeter from the ground.Walker p.36 At the cave, calcium nitrate, also called niter, is leached from dry soil.

The document compiles thirty-four recipes of elixirs that potentially could cause harm. Of these, three recipes mention saltpeter as an ingredient. A warning is given regarding a particularly dangerous combination of materials: The ingredients would have produced a weak form of gunpowder—a mixture of sulphur, saltpeter, and carbon—with honey acting as the source of carbon.

With time, however, the mining of South American saltpeter became a profitable business (in 1859, England alone consumed 47,000 metric tons). Chile fought the War of the Pacific (1879–1884) against the allies Peru and Bolivia and took over their richest deposits of saltpeter. In 1919, Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff determined its crystal structure using X-ray crystallography.

Inmigración británica en Valparaíso. The British colonial influence is important to understanding the boom and bust of the port of Valparaíso. The English colony was also important in the northern zone of the country during the saltpeter boom, in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua. The King of Saltpeter, John Thomas North, was the principal backer of nitrate mining.

Piper Cave, located near Monoville, contains the poorly preserved remnants of dozens of saltpeter leaching vats. Most saltpeter mining in Middle Tennessee took place during the War of 1812 and the Civil War, though the exact dates of this operation are unclear.Thomas C. Barr, Jr., "Caves of Tennessee", Bulletin 64 of the Tennessee Division of Geology, 1961, 568 pages.

Qullpani (Aymara qullpa saltpeter, -ni a suffix, "the one with saltpeter", also spelled Cullpane) is a mountain in the Andes of Peru which reaches a height of approximately . It is located in the Arequipa Region, Arequipa Province, Tarucani District, and in the Moquegua Region, General Sánchez Cerro Province, Matalaque District. Qullpani lies southwest of the Ubinas volcano.

In 1777 Lavoisier named oxygen, which had earlier been isolated by Priestley; the realization that saltpeter contained this substance was fundamental to understanding gunpowder. Without access to cheap saltpeter (controlled by the British), for hundreds of years France had relied on saltpetremen with royal warrants, the droit de fouille or "right to dig", to seize nitrous-containing soil and demolish walls of barnyards, without compensation to the owners. This caused farmers, the wealthy, or entire villages to bribe the petermen and the associated bureaucracy to leave their buildings alone and the saltpeter uncollected. Lavoisier instituted a crash program to increase saltpeter production, revised (and later eliminated) the droit de fouille, researched best refining and powder manufacturing methods, instituted management and record-keeping, and established pricing that encouraged private investment in works.

Despite this near exhaustion, Peru achieved its greatest ever export of guano in 1870 at more than . Concern of exhaustion was ameliorated by the discovery of a new Peruvian resource: sodium nitrate, also called Chile saltpeter. After 1870, the use of Peruvian guano as a fertilizer was eclipsed by Chile saltpeter in the form of caliche (a sedimentary rock) extraction from the interior of the Atacama Desert, close to the guano areas. The Guano Age ended with the War of the Pacific (1879-1884), which saw Chilean marines invade coastal Bolivia to claim its guano and saltpeter resources.

The arrival of the railroad after the Civil War boosted the county's timber sector, and several large factories were constructed in the county during the early 20th century. Wilson County was the site of an important saltpeter mine. Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from Valley Cave. Valley Cave is located near Statesville.

The Confederate Powderworks in Augusta, Georgia, was used to manufacture gunpowder from the saltpeter, charcoal and sulfur produced by the Confederate Nitre and Mining Bureau.

A common example of an inorganic nitrate salt is potassium nitrate (Indian saltpeter). Removal of one electron yields the nitrate radical, also called nitrogen trioxide .

The Qullpa Jawira (Aymara qullpa saltpeter, jawira river, "saltpeter river", also spelled Collpajahuira, Kollpa Jahuira) is a river in the La Paz Department in Bolivia. It is a right affluent of the Desaguadero River. The river originates near from various streams at a mountain named Taruj Llani south of Utani Apu in the Pacajes Province, Caquiaviri Municipality. It flows in a north-eastern direction.

Jefferson's study of the animal, the Megalonyx jeffersonii was arguably the birth of American paleontology. It is now the official West Virginia state fossil. However, other saltpeter caves are in private ownership, and allow only limited public access due to ecological risks. One such is the Greenville Saltpeter Cave, designated a national natural landmark in 1973, and very important during the War of 1812.

Lookout Mountain Cave was a major source of saltpeter during the Civil War. The mine was operated by Robert Cravens, who owned the property where the cave is located. In May 1861, Cravens contracted with the Tennessee Military and Financial Board to deliver of saltpeter. On the 24th of the same month, he reported that he had ten hoppers already set up in his cave.

Numerous saltpeter hoppers still inside the cave indicate that this was a relatively large mining operation. These saltpeter vats may date from either the War of 1812 mining era or the Civil War mining era, or perhaps both. Further research is needed to determine when this mine was active.Thomas C. Barr, Jr., "Caves of Tennessee", Bulletin 64 of the Tennessee Division of Geology, 1961, 568 pages.

Another chapter in Peruvian economic history opens with the discovery of the wealth of guano and saltpeter. Guano, also known as the excrement of seabirds and bats, is used as fertilizer. Saltpeter, a component known as Potassium nitrate, is used to preserve meat. These easily exploited products quickly increased the wealth of the State, since industrial Europe needed these resources to maintain its agricultural productivity.

Yet it was not until the 20th century that copper reached the importance of other mining exports such as saltpeter or silver. Before the first world war, saltpeter, collected in Chile from abundant deposits of caliche in the Atacama Desert, was the main source of nitrates in the world. After the World War I, because of the production of artificial nitrates, synthesized first in Germany by the combination of the Haber process and the Ostwald process, the world market for saltpeter, which was Chile’s main export, collapsed. In turn, Chile’s economy became heavily dependent on the copper industry. It was from that period that copper became known as “Chile’s salary”.

Chilean and foreign enterprises in the region eventually extended their control to the Bolivian saltpeter mines. During the 1870s, Peru capitalized on the guano exploitation and nationalized all industries in Tarapacá, but Bolivian enterprises in its territory remained in private hands. Peru controlled 58.8% of all saltpeter production, while Chile held 19% and Great Britain 13.5%. British Influence on the Salt: The Origin, Nature and Decline, Soto Cárdenas, Alejandro.

At one point, Nickajack Cave was one of the main sources of saltpeter for the Confederate States of America. However, its operation was halted in late 1862. Nickajack Cave was visited by thousands of soldiers of both side troops, who travelled up and down the Tennessee River on steamboats. Another important mine during the Civil War was Monteagle Saltpeter Cave, located in Cave Cove, about southeast of Monteagle.

COSATAN renamed La Palma into "Oficina Santiago Humberstone" in honor of its founder. The company tried to produce a competitive natural saltpeter by modernizing Humberstone, which led to its becoming the most successful saltpeter works in 1940. Both works were abandoned in 1960 after the rapid decline that caused COSATAN to disappear in 1958. In 1970, after becoming ghost towns, they were declared national monuments and opened to tourism.

"Editor's Introduction: Setting the Context", in . A Chinese alchemical text from 492 noted that saltpeter gave off a purple flame when ignited, providing for the first time a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, making it possible to evaluate and compare purification techniques. By most accounts, the earliest Arabic and Latin descriptions of the purification of saltpeter do not appear until the 13th century.

Thousands of runaway slaves were reportedly housed there.Daily Standard, Sikeston, MO, December 14, 1961, p 5, available on Newspapers.com During the 18th century, the cave was used for extracting saltpeter for the manufacture of gunpowder. In the Civil War era, the Union Army used the caves as a saltpeter plant, but the plant was discovered and destroyed by Confederate guerrillas, likely including the future infamous outlaw Jesse James.

Ain-i-Akbari, a detailed record of the Mughal emperor Akbar's administration, mentions use of saltpeter for refrigeration as well as transportation of Himalayan ice to warmer areas.

In Colombia, a volcano erupted in 1985, where the city of Armero was engulfed by lahars, which killed approximately 23000 people in total. The city of Armero was never rebuilt (its inhabitants being diverted to nearby cities, and thus becoming a ghost town), but still stands today as "holy land", as dictated by Pope John Paul II. A number of ghost towns throughout South America were once mining camps or lumber mills, such as the many saltpeter mining camps that prospered in Chile from the end of the Saltpeter War until the invention of synthetic saltpeter during World War I. Some of these towns, such as the Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works in the Atacama Desert, have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Another former mining town, Real de Catorce in Mexico, has been used as a backdrop for Hollywood movies such as The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), The Mexican (2001), and Bandidas (2006).

The Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarriles de Antofagasta (CSFA) was a Chilean company, based in Valparaiso; a 29% minority share was held by the British Anthony Gibbs and Sons. From the 1860s the company had exploited the nitrate fields in Antofagasta, with a tax exemption license of the Bolivian government. Beyond that, article IV of the Boundary Treaty between Chile and Bolivia of 1874 explicitly ruled out new or higher taxes upon Chilean companies or persons working in Antofagasta. The CSFA was the only competitor of Peruvian saltpeter in the international markets, and the urgent necessity to maintain the prices of saltpeter and guano brought the Peruvian government to intervene actively in the Bolivian saltpeter policy.

A charcoal house, saltpeter refinery, mills, and storehouses were separated along a mile of both banks of the Presumpscot River upstream of Gambo to minimize damage during infrequent explosions.

The cave is named for the discovery of the skeleton of a Giant Ground Sloth (Megalonyx jeffersoni) by saltpeter miners in 1811. Many of the wooden saltpeter mining artifacts in the cave remain in a remarkable state of preservation, due to the extreme dryness of the cave.Thomas C. Barr, Jr., Caves of Tennessee, Tennessee Division of Geology, Bulletin 64, 1961.Larry E. Matthews, Big Bone Cave, National Speleological Society, 220 pp, 2006.

Historically, nitric acid was produced by combining sulfuric acid with nitrates such as saltpeter. In modern times this is reversed: nitrates are produced from nitric acid produced via the Ostwald process.

This city generates electricity for the entire region and is therefore known as "the city of energy". When saltpeter exportation in Chile was at its highest point, Tocopilla was especially significant as an export point. Nowadays, even when the saltpeter is not so profitable, Tocopilla is still home of companies focused on its extraction. Its position along the coast allows it to have an active fishing activity, that along with the mining activity are the main resources.

Advertisement for sodium nitrate fertilizer from Chile on a wall of a village in the Algarve area of Portugal Sodium nitrate is the chemical compound with the formula . This alkali metal nitrate salt is also known as Chile saltpeter (large deposits of which were historically mined in Chile) to distinguish it from ordinary saltpeter, potassium nitrate. The mineral form is also known as nitratine, nitratite or soda niter. Sodium nitrate is a white deliquescent solid very soluble in water.

Cooper Creek Cave shows evidence of extensive mining and contains the remains of "many saltpeter hoppers". Both were probably mined during the War of 1812. Dunbar Cave is reported to have been mined for saltpeter during the Mexican War of 1848, but commercial development has destroyed any evidence of this. Little mining is likely to have happened here during the Civil War, since the Union Army captured and occupied this part of Tennessee in early 1862.

In 1822 the County Court was moved to the farm of Ashael Rawlings, the newly appointed County Clerk, in Dallas, TN. The town of Dallas died after the county seat was moved. The seat was then moved to Harrison and later moved to Chattanooga in 1835. Hamilton County was the site of an important saltpeter mine during the Civil War. Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from caves.

In 1872, the Guillermo Wendell Nitrate Extraction Company founded the saltpeter works of Santa Laura, while the region was still a part of Peru. In the same year, James Thomas Humberstone founded the "Peru Nitrate Company", establishing the works of "La Palma". Both works grew quickly, becoming busy towns characterized by English- style buildings. While La Palma became one of the largest saltpeter extractors of the whole region, Santa Laura did not do well, as production was low.

The Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarriles de Antofagasta (CSFA) was a Chilean company, based in Valparaiso; a 29% minority share was held by the British Anthony Gibbs and Sons. From the 1860s the company had exploited the nitrate fields in Antofagasta, with a tax exemption license of the Bolivian government. The CSFA was the only competitor of Peruvian saltpeter in the international markets, and the urgent necessity to maintain the prices of saltpeter and guano brought the Peruvian government to intervene actively in the Bolivian saltpeter policy. Peruvian historian Jorge Basadre asserts that the secret treaty and the Estanco were unrelated to each other, but Hugo Pereira Plascencia has contributed several items of evidences to the contrary: in 1873 the Italian author Pietro Perolari–Malmignati cited the Peruvian interest in defending its saltpeter monopoly against the Chilean production in Bolivia as the main cause of the secret treaty, and also said that the Peruvian Foreign Minister, José de la Riva-Agüero informed the Chilean Minister in Lima, Joaquín Godoy, about negotiations with Bolivia to expand the estanco in Bolivia.

Among the major tourist attractions in the Pampa del Tamarugal are the world heritage site Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works, the town of La Tirana, and the Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve.

The Cedar Creek Trail runs alongside Cedar Creek for , allowing visitors to see the bridge and other places of interest, including a Native American village, Saltpeter Cave, the Lost River, and Lace Falls.

Military - Banglapedia The Bibi Mariam Cannon and the Jahan Kosha Cannon are examples of early modern Bengali artillery. Bengal was a major exporter of gunpowder and saltpeter to Europe until the 19th century.

During the American Civil War, British India was the main source for saltpeter for the manufacture of gunpowder for the Union armies. This supply was threatened by the British government during the Trent Affair, when Union naval forces stopped a British ship, the RMS Trent, and removed two Confederate diplomats. The British government responded in part by halting all exports of saltpeter to the United States, threatening their gunpowder manufacturing resources. Shortly thereafter, the situation was resolved and the Confederate diplomats were released.

The Liber Ignium, or Book of Fires, attributed to Marcus Graecus, is a collection of incendiary recipes, including some gunpowder recipes. Partington dates the gunpowder recipes to approximately 1300. One recipe for "flying fire" (ignis volatilis) involves saltpeter, sulfur, and colophonium, which, when inserted into a reed or hollow wood, "flies away suddenly and burns up everything." Another recipe, for artificial "thunder", specifies a mixture of one pound native sulfur, two pounds linden or willow charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter.

Soon after the war started, the operation at Nickajack Cave was taken over by the Confederate government. Some time in late 1863 or very early 1864, this area was occupied by Federal troops and mining ceased. Nickajack Cave was one of the largest saltpeter caves operated by the Confederate Nitre Bureau during the Civil War and, as such, was a highly strategic site, since saltpeter was the main ingredient of gunpowder. The loss of Nickajack Cave was a serious blow to the Confederacy.

The Saltpeter Wars were three conflicts among the peasants of the County of Hauenstein, the Abbey of Saint Blaise (Sankt Blasien) and the Austrian monarchy in the years 1725–1727, 1738 and 1743–1745. At times the conflict had the character of a civil war between two peasant factions: the müllerisch, named for the early leadership of the miller (müller) Joseph Tröndle, and the salpterisch, so named because one of its early leaders, Hans Albiez, made his money in the saltpeter trade.

Lapa do Salitre, also Lapa do Convento, literally "cave of saltpeter" (BA-0166) is a limestone cave measuring 5,670 meters long, located near the municipality of Campo Formoso, in the State of Bahia, Brazil.

Two fire arrows (crossbow bolts). Southern Germany, ca. 15th Century, with preserved incendiary mixture of saltpeter, charcoal, sulphur and textile on the shaft. Lit torches (burning sticks) were likely the earliest form of incendiary device.

Sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, sodium sulfate and iodine are all obtained by the processing of caliche. The former Chilean saltpeter mining communities of Humberstone and Santa Laura were declared Unesco World Heritage sites in 2005.

Saltpeter fields (in amber color) of Iquique (Peru), Toco and Carmen (Bolivia) and Aguas Blancas (Chile). "Aguas Blancas" were at that time economically irrelevant. The border Peru-Bolivia was not officially determined, and different maps show different boundary lines. The Peruvian nitrate monopoly was a state-owned enterprise over the mining and sale of saltpeter (sodium nitrate) created by the government of Peru in 1875 and operated by the Peruvian Nitrate Company.David P. Werlich, Peru: A Shorty History (Southern Illinois University Press, 1978), p. 101.

The British colonial influence is important to understanding the boom and bust of the port of Valparaíso. The English colony was also important in the northern zone of the country during the saltpeter boom, in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua. The King of Saltpeter, John Thomas North, was the principal backer of nitrate mining. The English legacy was reflected in the streets of the historic district of the city of Iquique, with the foundation of various institutions, such as the Club Hípico (Racing Club).

The Chinese used incendiary devices based on this in siege warfare against the Mongols starting in the mid 13th century. "Pots with wicks of flax or cotton were used, containing a combination of sulfur, saltpeter (potassium nitrate), aconitine, oil, resin, ground charcoal and wax." Joseph Needham argued the Chinese were able to destroy buildings and walls using such devices. Such experimentation was not present in Western Europe, where the combination of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal were used exclusively for explosives and as a propellant in firearms.

The Guano War of 1865–1866, retrieved on 22 December 2014 The war largely settled (or set up, depending on one's point of view) the "Tacna-Arica dispute", and is sometimes known by that name as well, although the details took decades to resolve. Wanu (Hispanicized guano) is a Quechua word for fertilizer.0 Potassium nitrate (ordinary saltpeter) and sodium nitrate (Chile saltpeter) are nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as salpeter, saltpetre, salitre, caliche, or nitrate. They are used as fertilizer, but have other important uses.

Markham's storm petrel nests in burrows, natural cavities, and holes in saltpeter crusts. Nests in saltpeter cavities have been reported in Pampa de Camarones in northern Chile, and inland on Paracas Peninsula. In Peru, egg laying occurs from late June to August; in Chile, an analysis of three colonies in the Atacama Desert found a five-month reproductive cycle, from arrival at colonies to departure of fledglings, across all three colonies, though pairs could reproduce asynchronously. This could lead to an overall ten-month reproductive season.

DeKalb County was the site of several saltpeter mines, the main ingredient of gunpowder, and was obtained by leaching the earth from several local caves. Overall Cave was named for Abraham Overall who moved from Luray, Virginia, and settled near the present site of Liberty in 1805. He reportedly had many slaves and owned a large plantation on which Overall Cave is located. Two saltpeter leaching vats in the cave may date from the War of 1812, although this area was mined again during the Civil War.

It was a favorite resting place for cormorants. They left a lot of "business cards"on the light granite. The second island looks like a rounded and green hill. It is overgrown with saltpeter and teresken.

In Ancient India, saltpeter manufacturers formed the Nuniya caste. Saltpeter finds mention in Kautilya's Arthashastra (compiled 300BC - 300CE), which mentions using its poisonous smoke as a weapon of war, although its use for propulsion did not appear until medieval times. A purification process for potassium nitrate was outlined in 1270 by the chemist and engineer Hasan al-Rammah of Syria in his book al- Furusiyya wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya (The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices). In this book, al-Rammah describes first the purification of barud (crude saltpeter mineral) by boiling it with minimal water and using only the hot solution, then the use of potassium carbonate (in the form of wood ashes) to remove calcium and magnesium by precipitation of their carbonates from this solution, leaving a solution of purified potassium nitrate, which could then be dried.

Following the Peruvian state's failure to raise new loan capital from Europe to finance its nationalization program, the government proceeded to acquire Bolivian licenses to exploit newly discovered nitrate fields, and encouraged the Bolivian government to withdraw from the Boundary Treaty of 1874 between Chile and Bolivia. This treaty had fixed for 25 years the tax rate on the Chilean saltpeter company, in return for Chile's relinquishing of its sovereignty claims over the disputed region of Antofagasta. In 1878 the Bolivian Government imposed a 0.35 Pounds Sterling per tonne (10 cents Bolivian Bolivianos per 100 kg) tax over the CSFA's export of saltpeter, contrary to Article IV of the Boundary Treaty. Although it is uncertain whether Peru exerted direct pressure on Bolivia to impose this tax, its consequence was the confiscation and auctioning off of the CSFA, the major competitor to Peruvian saltpeter.

While saltpeter was called "Chinese Snow" by Arabs, it was called "Chinese salt" ( namak-i čīnī) by the Iranians,Original from the University of Michigan Original from the University of Michigan or "salt from the Chinese marshes" ( ).

In the War of the Pacific (1879–84), Chile defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru. Chile gained control of saltpeter-rich areas, previously controlled by Peru and Bolivia, and Bolivia became a land-locked nation.

Revue générale de l'architecture et des travaux publics, V11, 1853, Planche 16 Jean-Joseph-Auguste Bottée de Toulmon (6 February 1764 in Laon – 18 October 1815 in Tourny) was a French general manager of powders and saltpeter.

The region was sparsely populated by indigenous Changos and Atacameños until massive Chilean immigration in conjunction with a saltpeter boom in the later 19th century. The region was Bolivian until the War of the Pacific in 1879.

Chase is located at (39.3634413, -76.3710704). Chase is located on the waterfront of the Gunpowder River, Middle River, Dundee Creek, Saltpeter Creek, and Chesapeake Bay. Nearby places include Middle River, Bowleys Quarters, Essex, and Aberdeen Proving Grounds.

In subsequent years the further exportation of Chilean saltpeter (mainly to European countries) significantly helped in the development of the city, attracting foreigners and rapidly expanding housing projects. In December 1907, the city was marred by the Santa María de Iquique Massacre when the Chilean Army, under the command of Gen. Roberto Silva Renard, opened fire on thousands of saltpeter miners, and their wives and children, who assembled inside the Santa María School. The workers had marched into town to protest their working conditions and wages. Somewhere between 500 and 2,000 people were killed.

Fire arrows and fire lances in an Arabic manuscript. The Muslim world acquired knowledge of gunpowder some time after 1240, but before 1280, by which time Hasan al-Rammah had written, in Arabic, recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries. Gunpowder arrived in the Middle East, possibly through India, from China. This is implied by al-Rammah's usage of "terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources" and his reference to saltpeter as "Chinese snow" , fireworks as "Chinese flowers" and rockets as "Chinese arrows".

Black powder made with less- expensive and more plentiful sodium nitrate (in appropriate proportions) works just as well, and previous equations apply, with sodium instead of potassium. However, it is more hygroscopic than powders made from potassium nitrate—popularly known as saltpeter. Because corned black powder grains made with saltpeter are less affected by moisture in the air, they can be stored unsealed without degradation by humidity. Muzzleloaders have been known to fire after hanging on a wall for decades in a loaded state, provided they remained dry.

The role of British colonial influence is important to understanding the boom and bust of the port of Valparaíso. The English immigration and influence was also important in the northern regions of the country during the saltpeter boom, in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua. The King of Saltpeter, John Thomas North, was the principal backer of nitrate mining. The British legacy is reflected in the street names of the historic district of the city of Iquique, and the foundation of various institutions, such as the Club Hípico (Racing Club).

In the U.S., bat guano was harvested from caves as early as the 1780s to manufacture gunpowder. During the American Civil War (1861-1865), the Union's blockade of the southern Confederate States of America meant that the Confederacy resorted to mining guano from caves to produce saltpeter. One Confederate guano kiln in New Braunfels, Texas had a daily output of of saltpeter, produced from of guano from two area caves. From the 1930s, Bat Cave mine in Arizona was used for guano extraction, though it cost more to develop than it was worth.

Chilean lieutenant Solo de Zaldívaricus and two soldiers burying three Bolivian soldiers after the Battle of Tacna. The elevation behind them is also a burial ground of victims. The conflict is also known as the "Saltpeter War", the "Ten Cents War" (in reference to the controversial ten-centavo tax imposed by the Bolivian government), and the "Second Pacific War". It should not to be confused with the pre-Columbian Saltpeter War, in what is now Mexico, nor the "Guano War" as the Chincha Islands War is sometimes named.

Manson Saltpeter Cave in Big Indian Creek Valley was a smaller operation with four leaching vats. These caves may also have been mined during the War of 1812, as saltpeter mining was widespread in Kentucky and Tennessee during that era.Thomas C. Barr, Jr., "Caves of Tennessee", Bulletin 64 of the Tennessee Division of Geology, 1961. In the runup to the American Civil War, when Tennessee Governor Harris asked the State Legislature for a vote of secession, the two representatives from Fentress County (Reese T. Hildreth and R. H. Bledsoe) voted for Secession.

Although its destructive force was widely recognized by the 11th century, gunpowder continued to be known as a "fire-drug" (huo yao) because of its original intended pharmaceutical properties. However soon after the chemical formula for gunpowder was recorded in the Wujing Zongyao of 1044,Ebrey, 138. evidence of state interference in gunpowder affairs began appearing. Realizing the military applications of gunpowder, the Song court banned private transactions involving sulphur and saltpeter in 1067 despite the widespread use of saltpeter as a flavor enhancer, and moved to monopolize gunpowder production.

Crude saltpeter was dissolved in hot water in kettles holding as much as . Impurities were skimmed from the surface or settled to the bottom so a hot, saturated solution could be decanted for crystallization. Moist saltpeter crystals were mixed with appropriate amounts of sulfur and charcoal by heavy rotating wheels to form a cake which was then cut unto smaller pieces in bronze- or zinc-toothed kernelling mills. The kernels were sieved into desired sizes and dried prior to being tumbled with graphite which reduced tendency for the finished grains to stick together during storage.

Turmeric was exported to Muscat, Kutch, Surat and Bombay, along with Cassia Cinnamon, Sugar, Iron, Saltpeter, Ginger, Coir and Timber. The Light House Hill tower in Light House Hill, Hampankatta, served as a watchtower for the British Navy.

The mixture is salted and saltpeter, sugar and nutmeg are added before the meat is forced into pig intestines. The sausages are air-dried at 12 to 15 degrees C and then smoked at 18 to 20 degrees C.

She is commemorated by the Estadio Santa Laura ("Saint Laura Stadium") in Santiago, Chile and the Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works in northern Chile. Thomas Love Peacock wrote a ballad about Saint Laura in his work Gryll Grange.

General count de Ruty finished his military career as general inspector for artillery during the Second Restoration, subsequently serving as general director for gunpowders and saltpeter (1817), state counsellor (1818) and Peer of France from 1819.Tulard, p. 681.

Map of Mammoth Cave (1897) In partnership with Valentine Simon, various other individuals would own the land through the War of 1812, when Mammoth Cave's saltpeter reserves became significant due to the Jefferson Embargo Act of 1807 which prohibited all foreign trade. The blockade starved the American military of saltpeter and therefore gunpowder. As a result, the domestic price of saltpeter rose and production based on nitrates extracted from caves such as Mammoth Cave became more lucrative. In July 1812, the cave was purchased from Simon and other owners by Charles Wilkins and an investor from Philadelphia named Hyman Gratz. Soon the cave was being mined for calcium nitrate on an industrial scale, utilizing a labor force of 70 slaves to build and operate the soil leaching apparatus, as well as to haul the raw soil from deep in the cave to the central processing site.

The Marusia massacre () (March, 1925) was the response of the Chilean government under president Arturo Alessandri to a strike by the workers of a saltpeter mine leading to over 500 dead, over ninety percent being strikers or their family members.

The man who claimed to be Virginia's last surviving Confederate veteran, John B. Salling, claimed to worked as a peter monkey and saltpeter miner as a private in Company D, 25th Virginia Infantry, in Scott County, Virginia, during the Civil War.

While patrolling off Charleston, South Carolina, 27 January 1863, Hope captured schooner Emma Tuttle with a cargo of saltpeter for the Confederates. In June, the ship returned north for repairs at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and in July resumed blockade station off Charleston.

Chile Since Independence. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–14. Chilean and foreign enterprises in the region eventually extended their control to the Peruvian saltpeter works. In the Peruvian region of Tarapacá, Peruvians were a minority, behind both Chileans and Bolivians.

Long took the lead in preparing the explosives, telling his followers that his experience as a fortuneteller, mystic and natural healer made him an expert. The bombs were made from cannon shot, carbon, sulphur and saltpeter, which were then wrapped together.

Following the discovery, a large number of naturalists sent by academies from all Europe came to visit Pulo di Molfetta, since the saltpeter was a fundamental ingredient in the production of gunpowder and that these deposits were of considerable strategic interest.

Dutch East India Company factory in Hugli- Chuchura, Bengal. Painting by Hendrik van Schuylenburgh, 1665 The Dutch factory in Cossimbazar. The Dutch saltpeter factory in Chhapra. A view of Chinsura from the early 19th century, with the church above the waterfront.

The competition between guano and saltpeter sharpened and the state finances worsened, despite the fresh money from the saltpeter export tax. On 28 May 1875 a Nationalization Law was issued; this stipulated that all the nitrate industry in Peru was to be expropriated and their owners compensated according to a property appraisal. For this purpose a loan of £7 million had to be raised in Europe. The new state "Compañía Salitrera del Perú" (from 1878 "Compañía Nacional del Salitre" under Banco de la Providencia) would supervise production, set output quotas and a ban on further investment was issued.

Qullpa Jawira (Aymara qullpa saltpeter, jawira river, "saltpeter river", hispanicized spelling Kollpa Jahuira) is a Bolivian river east of Poopó Lake in the Oruro Department, Challapata Province, Challapata Municipality, and in the Santiago de Huari Municipality (which is identical to the Sebastián Pagador Province).Santiago de Huari Municipality: population data and maplib.utexas.edu Map showing Qullpa Jawira It originates near Ch'iyar Jaqhi northeast of Jatun Wila Qullu and flows in a north-eastern direction. South of Wila Qullu it meets the T'ula Pallqa River whose source, the Jach'a Juqhu River, is considered the origin of the Pillku Mayu.

It consists of a mixture of sulfur (S), charcoal (C), and potassium nitrate (saltpeter, KNO3). The sulfur and charcoal act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Because of its incendiary properties and the amount of heat and gas volume that it generates, gunpowder has been widely used as a propellant in firearms, artillery, rocketry, and pyrotechnics, including use as a blasting agent for explosives in quarrying, mining, and road building. Gunpowder was invented in 9th-century China as one of the Four Great Inventions, and spread throughout most parts of Eurasia by the end of the 13th century.

The powder mill is located in the communes of Vonges and Pontailler-sur-Saône, east of Dijon in the department of the Côte d'Or. The site is bounded by the Bèze and Saône rivers. Etienne Berthelot de Planeuf, Commissary General of Powders and Saltpeter, leased the site beside the Bèze river on 20 February 1691 to build two powder mills, a powder grinder, a winter dryer, a powder magazine and a small refinery. The five year leases were renewed until July 1753, when the site was purchased outright by Charles-Emmanuel Pioche, Inspector-General of Powder and Saltpeter.

Tacna, occupied by Chile from 1880 to 1929. Mural in San Pablo de Tiquina, Bolivia, declaring "What once was ours will be ours again" and "Hold on, rotos (Chileans): here come the Colorados of Bolivia" In 1879, Bolivian dictator General Hilarión Daza increased the taxes on the exportation of saltpeter in violation of the 1866 treaty. When Chilean-owned saltpeter companies refused to pay, Daza expropriated the companies and sold them in a public auction. Daza then put an end to all commerce with Chile and exiled all Chilean residents in Bolivia (the Bolivian port of Antofagasta had more Chileans than Bolivians).

Pumping water by hand in 1942 from the sole water supply in this section of Wilder, Tennessee in Fentress County Fentress County was formed in 1823 from portions of Morgan, Overton and White counties. The resulting county was named for James Fentress (1763–1843), who served as speaker of the state house, chairman of Montgomery County Court, and commissioner to select seats for Haywood, Carroll, Gibson and Weakley counties in West Tennessee. Fentress County was the site of several saltpeter mines. Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from local caves.

Niter was used to refer specifically to nitrated salts known as various types of saltpeter (only nitrated salts were good for making gunpowder) by the time niter and its derivative nitric acid were first used to name the element nitrogen, in 1790.

Several other caves in the county were the site of smaller operations. Most saltpeter mining in Middle Tennessee occurred during the War of 1812 and the Civil War.Thomas C. Barr, Jr., "Caves of Tennessee", Bulletin 64 of the Tennessee Division of Geology, 1961.

The Great Saltpetre Cave is a notable limestone cave located in Rockcastle County in southeastern Kentucky. During the War of 1812, it served as an important source of saltpeter, a vital component of gunpowder. Robert Baker discovered the cave in the late eighteenth century.Kleber p.

He guaranteed Kamehameha unlimited gunpowder from China and gave him the formula for gunpowder: sulfur, saltpeter/potassium nitrate, and charcoal, all abundant in the islands. Two westerners who lived on Hawaii island, Isaac Davis and John Young, married Native Hawaiian women and assisted Kamehameha.

It was discovered in the 19th century that salt mixed with nitrates (saltpeter) would color meats red, rather than grey, and consumers at that time then strongly preferred the red- colored meat. The food hence preserved stays healthy and fresh for days avoiding bacterial decay.

Humberstone and Santa Laura are located 48km east of the city of Iquique in the Atacama Desert in the Tarapacá Region in northern Chile. Other saltpeter works or "nitrate towns" include Chacabuco, Maria Elena, Pedro de Valdivia, Puelma and Aguas Santas among many others.

Uralchem Group is a Russian manufacturer of a wide range of chemical products, including mineral fertilizers and ammoniac saltpeter. According to the company, it is the largest producer of ammonium nitrate as well as the second largest producer of ammonia and nitrogen fertilizers in Russia.

Saltpeter Cave, in Carter Caves State Resort Park near Olive Hill, Kentucky. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001. It has also been known as Swingle's Cave and as Swindell's Cave. It is a limestone cave with of measured length.

A legal battle ensued, and in 1792 the US Government awarded the land to Robert Nelsen, and the Dunbar family was removed from the land, although the cave retained Dunbar's name. During the Mexican–American War, the cave was used to mine saltpeter for gunpowder.

The main entrance was discovered by Aaron Higgenbotham in 1810 while he was surveying the nearby Chickamauga Trail on Cardwell Mountain in what is now Warren County. According to legend, Higgenbotham was the first man to enter the cave and it was named Higgenbotham Cave in his honor. Another smaller cave, also located on Cardwell Mountain, was also discovered about this time and was named Henshaw Cave. Although not nearly as big as Higgenbotham Cave, Henshaw Cave proved to be a source of saltpeter (the main ingredient of gunpowder) and was operated as a saltpeter mine during perhaps both the War of 1812 and the Civil War.

The next reference to gunpowder occurred in the year 300 during the Jin dynasty (265–420). A Taoist philosopher by the name of Ge Hong wrote down the ingredients of gunpowder in his surviving works, collectively known as the Baopuzi ("The Master Who Embraces Simplicity"). The "Inner Chapters" on Taoism contains records of his experiments with heated saltpeter, pine resin, and charcoal among other carbon materials, resulting in explosion, which most historians acknowledge as an early form of gunpowder. In 492, Taoist alchemists noted that saltpeter, one of the most important ingredients in gunpowder, burns with a purple flame, allowing for practical efforts at purifying the substance.

The process was designed to yield saltpeter, an ingredient of gunpowder, which the Confederate army needed during the Civil War. The South was so desperate for saltpeter for gunpowder that one Alabama official reportedly placed a newspaper ad asking that the contents of chamber pots be saved for collection. In the winter of 1863, scores of enslaved people were set to work extracting it from a huge cave in Barstow County, Ga., where they labored by torchlight in grim conditions, hauling out and processing the so-called “peter dirt,”. In South Carolina, in April 1864, the Confederate government hired 31 enslaved people to work at the Ashley Ferry Nitre Works.

The first formula was a combination of six parts sulfur to six parts saltpeter to one part birthwort herb. The Taoist text warned against an assortment of dangerous formulas, one of which corresponds with gunpowder: "Some have heated together sulfur, realgar (arsenic disulphide), and saltpeter with honey; smoke [and flames] result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house burned down." Alchemists called this discovery fire medicine ("huoyao" 火藥), and the term has continued to refer to gunpowder in China into the present day, a reminder of its heritage as a side result in the search for longevity increasing drugs.

Pascual Baburizza (also known as Pasquale baburizza or Pasko Baburica Šoletić) (Calamotta, Austro-Hungarian Empire, now Koločep, Croatia, 1875– Los Andes, Chile, 1941) was a Croatian businessman established in Chile during the late 19th and 20th century. He moved to Chile in 1892 with his brother Vittorio (Vicko), establishing in Iquique city, where were dedicated to saltpeter mining operations. Later, he began to expand their properties coming control of the supply chain of buying and selling of nitrate in the region until 1928 due to saltpeter crisis. Then, he invested in agricultural societies, being the most prominent San Vicente Agricultural Company in Los Andes,and Agricultural Society Rupanco Ñuble.

Sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter was sifted and granulated. The raw ingredients required processing to obtain the necessary purity. A water-powered stamping mill helped bland the powder into rounded particles, which were then dried in a dry house. Charles Willson Peale recorded details of the mill.

Longganisa de Guinobatan is a Filipino pork sausage originating from the town of Guinobatan in Albay, Philippines. It is a type of de recado longganisa. Each link is typically only in length. It is made from lean pork, pork fat, salt, sugar, garlic, saltpeter, and black pepper.

As exports from this region increased, tensions between Peru and its neighbors increased as well.Hager 2008, pp. 38–43 In 1879, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru went to war over possession of Atacama Desert, the so-called "Saltpeter War". Bolivian forces were quickly defeated by the Chileans.

By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad. Gujarāt supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century,"India." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite.

Potassium nitrate was once thought to induce impotence, and is still rumored to be in institutional food (such as military fare) as an anaphrodisiac; however, there is no scientific evidence for such properties. in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film), Randall is asked by the nurses to take his medications, but not knowing what they were, he mentioned he didn't want anyone to 'slip me saltpeter'. He then proceeds to imitate the motions of masturbation in reference to its supposed effects as an anaphrodisiac In 1776 (musical), John Adams asks his wife Abigail to make saltpeter for the Continental Army. She, eventually, is able to do so in exchange for pins for sewing.

A turning point in rocket technology emerged with a short manuscript entitled Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes (abbreviated as The Book of Fires). The manuscript is composed of recipes for creating incendiary weapons from the mid-eighth to the end of the thirteenth centuries—two of which are rockets. The first recipe calls for one part of colophonium and sulfur added to six parts of saltpeter (potassium nitrate) dissolved in laurel oil, then inserted into hollow wood and lit to "fly away suddenly to whatever place you wish and burn up everything". The second recipe combines one pound of sulfur, two pounds of charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter—all finely powdered on a marble slab.

Thus many Chilean wheat and wine businessmen, encouraged by the Chilean government decided to diversify and invest abroad in neighboring Bolivia and Peru. Since the early 1850s the Chilean wheat and wine barons thoroughly invested and developed the massive nitrate and the saltpeter fields located in the Peruvian Tarapaca and Bolivian Antofagasta departments. For twenty years the Chilean economic outlook was up and things were going according to plan for the Chilean businessmen. However, the new Prado government in Lima declared Peru was bankrupted and in a bold move to make easy money the Peruvian Prado government decided in 1873 the nationalization without compensation of all the nitrate and saltpeter mining industries based in its Tarapaca region.

Scheele's study of the gas not yet named oxygen was prompted by a complaint by Torbern Olof Bergman, a professor at Uppsala University who would eventually become Scheele's friend. Bergman informed Scheele that the saltpeter he had purchased from Scheele's employer, after long heating, produced red vapors (now known to be nitrogen dioxide) when it came into contact with acetic acid. Scheele's quick explanation was that the saltpeter had absorbed phlogiston with the heat (had been reduced to nitrite, in modern terms) and gave off a new phlogisticated gas as an active principle when combined with an acid (even a weak acid). Bergman next suggested that Scheele analyze the properties of manganese (IV) oxide.

Ibáñez also created the Chilean Air Force, LAN Airlines and the COSACH (Compañía de Salitres de Chile, saltpeter company). On an international level, Ibáñez signed the Treaty of Lima with Peru in June 1929, in which Chile agreed to return Tacna Province --which had been seized during the War of the Pacific-- to Peru in exchange for financial compensation. His popularity lasted until after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the effects of which began to be felt in Chile at the end of 1930, leading to an abrupt fall in the prices of saltpeter and copper, upon which the Chilean economy was strongly dependent. At that point all loans were halted and recalled.

Child labor in the coal mines of West Virginia, 1908 Family of a coal miner, circa 1935 Welch, McDowell County, 1946 After Reconstruction, the new 35th state benefited from the development of its mineral resources more than any other single economic activity. Saltpeter caves had been employed throughout Appalachia for munitions; the border between West Virginia and Virginia includes the "Saltpeter Trail", a string of limestone caverns containing rich deposits of calcium nitrate which were rendered and sold to the government. The trail stretched from Pendleton County to the western terminus of the route in the town of Union, Monroe County. Nearly half of these caves are on the West Virginia side, including Organ Cave and Haynes Cave.

Nevertheless, said presence came to an end with the saltpeter crisis during the 1930s. An important contingent of English immigrants also settled in the present-day region of Magallanes. In the same way, they established English families in other areas of the country, such as Santiago, Coquimbo, the Araucanía, and Chiloé.

Its forces possessed large guns and cannons. It was also a major exporter of gunpowder and saltpeter to Europe.Saltpetre - Banglapedia Bengal had a cosmopolitan military, including Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists and mercenaries from Africa, Central and West Asia. The Bengal Sultanate was a powerful kingdom between the 14th and 15th centuries.

Later it started production of saltpeter, linseed oil and paper. Hendrik Jansen Fasmer (1766-1836) founded the paper mill during 1797. In 1858, Hendrik Fasmer (1835–1930) built a new papermill in Alvøen and from the late 1800s the production was concentrated on finer grades in different blends of cloths and cellulose.

It is made from ground lean pork, ground pork fat, salt, saltpeter, sugar, anise liqueur (anisado), paprika, black pepper, garlic, and chilis to taste in a hog casing. It can also be made without the casing. They are usually fried or grilled and eaten with white rice, puso, or garlic rice for breakfast.

The brig had been carrying a cargo of saltpeter, iron, hemp, and potash.Lloyd's List №2592. She was one of 14 vessels that shared in the salvage money from the recapture of Packet on 27 September 1795. (The actual captors were and .) On 1 August 1796 Experiment, Lieutenant G. Hayes, came into Plymouth.

Salts # Saline seasonings—Salt, spiced salt, saltpeter. # Acid seasonings—Plain vinegar (sodium acetate), or same aromatized with tarragon; verjuice, lemon and orange juices. # Hot seasonings—Peppercorns, ground or coarsely chopped pepper, or mignonette pepper; paprika, curry, cayenne, and mixed pepper spices. # Spice seasonings— made by using essential oils like paprika, clove oil, etc.

The park offers swimming, picnic areas and a lengthy paved road used by runners and walkers. The lake is bordered by a honey comb of Coke Ovens that remain from when coal was mined in the area. Stereo card c. 1900 showing an overlook at Beersheba Springs The county has several saltpeter mines.

In February 1878, Bolivia imposed a new tax upon saltpeter and one year later began the War of the Pacific. The Treaty of 1874 is of capital importance in the understanding of the causes of the War, because it established the legal position that existed between both countries when that war broke out.

While it was almost certainly not their intention to create a weapon of war, Taoist alchemists continued to play a major role in gunpowder development due to their experiments with sulfur and saltpeter involved in searching for eternal life and ways to transmute one material into another. Historian Peter Lorge notes that despite the early association of gunpowder with Taoism, this may be a quirk of historiography and a result of the better preservation of texts associated with Taoism, rather than being a subject limited to only Taoists. The Taoist quest for the elixir of life attracted many powerful patrons, one of whom was Emperor Wu of Han. One of the resulting alchemical experiments involved heating 10% sulfur and 75% saltpeter to transform them.

Granadian cannon from the book Al-izz wal rifa'a. The Muslims acquired knowledge of gunpowder some time between 1240 and 1280, by which point the Syrian Hasan al-Rammah had written, in Arabic, recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries. It is implied by al- Rammah's usage of "terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources" and his references to saltpeter as "Chinese snow" ( '), fireworks as "Chinese flowers" and rockets as "Chinese arrows" that knowledge of gunpowder arrived from China. However, because al-Rammah attributes his material to "his father and forefathers", al-Hassan argues that gunpowder became prevalent in Syria and Egypt by "the end of the twelfth century or the beginning of the thirteenth".

In the Atacama Desert, lies the saltpeter (Nitrate) mine Pampa illusion, that after years of economic boom, faces an uncertain future due to global crisis. The owner of this office is Mr. William Clark (Héctor Noguera), a despot, bedridden, English-born businessman who refuses to accept the end of his economic prosperity. The daily life and routine in the saltpeter mine is interrupted by the arrival of his daughter Inés (Claudia di Girolamo), a doctor, banished from the family along with her mother when she was a newborn. She will come to discover the reasons for the exile and humiliation suffered by her mother thirty years before, risking her life when her father orders apprehension of any unknown women who enters the office.

In the vicinity of this side passage are "tally marks" on the wall, which were typically left by saltpeter miners. The dirt on this side of the cave has been excavated and removed and pick marks are still visible in the dirt. Saltpeter mining occurred in this region from the late 18th century through the Civil War, so this mining activity must have occurred sometime between 1818, when settlers arrived in Cades Cove and 1865, the end of the Civil War. Since this is a relatively small cave and the amount of dirt in the cave was not extensive, this would have been a small mining operation.Larry Matthews, Caves of Knoxville and the Great Smoky Mountains (Knoxville, Tennessee: National Speleological Society, 2008), pp. 157-180.

It is a fishing port, with fishmeal and canned fish factories. Through its port the copper from Chuquicamata and saltpeter from El Toco are exported. Tocopilla has metallurgic, chemical and nitrate treatment industries, along with the power plant. Due to these activities, Tocopilla is a dormitory city, since many people work outside the city.

Potassium nitrate is one of several nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as saltpeter or saltpetre. Major uses of potassium nitrate are in fertilizers, tree stump removal, rocket propellants and fireworks. It is one of the major constituents of gunpowder (black powder). In processed meats, potassium nitrate reacts with hemoglobin and generates a pink color.

Darwin also visited the saltpeter works. The city has been devastated by several earthquakes, including the 1868 Arica earthquake, the 1877 Iquique earthquake, and the 2005 Tarapacá earthquake. The 2014 Iquique earthquake occurred with a moment magnitude of 8.2 on April 1, 2014. Naval Battle of Iquique during the War of the Pacific (1879–1884).

The 1728 Cyclopaedia by Ephraim Chambers says it was made either of glass of antimony or of antimony prepared with saltpeter. The liquid obtained from the resultant wine or liquor left in it for 24 hours was not dissoluble by the stomach. The infused liquid containing antimony would give a cathartic or emetic effect.Chambers, p.

One of the goals was to obtain gunpowder, outlawed for import by the British. Over 2 million pounds of gunpowder and saltpeter were brought in by the privateers and merchantmen. They also captured British soldiers and over 10,000 seamen from the British Royal Navy, for the Continental Navy the total was 16,000 captured British.

One of Monroe County's geological features is Haynes Cave, a former saltpeter mine.[Steelhammer, Rick (2008), "W.Va.'s 'Official' Sloth Fossil on Display near Cheat Lake", Charleston Gazette, Thursday, September 19, 2008. Workers in the mine found strange bones in the cave at the end of the 18th Century, and mailed them to Thomas Jefferson.

The Croatian immigrants dedicated themselves to business. In Punta Arenas, they dedicated themselves to the estates, or the extraction of gold, primarily found in Cañón Baquedano. In the north of Chile, they dedicated themselves to mining saltpeter. Various institutions created by the Croatian colony have persisted, including clubs, schools, stadiums, gymnasiums, and charity institutions.

Tannehill moved to Nashville in 1808, where he managed a warehouse owned by his uncle. During the War of 1812, they sold saltpeter critical for the war efforts. Later, he opened a grocery store in Nashville and Pulaski, Tennessee. Tannehill served as alderman of Nashville in 1813 and Director of the Nashville Bank in 1814.

A shed would be built around and over the heap to protect it from wind and rain. "The heap is watered every week with the richest kinds of liquid manure, such as urine, dung-water, water of privies, cess-pools, drains, &c.;" As the heap ripens, the saltpeter is brought to the surface.Leconte, Joseph. 1862.

In the end, Chile succeeded in controlling the Tarapacá Department. The main goal of the Chilean strategy was accomplished and the land in dispute was in Chilean hands. Also, the saltpeter trade changed hands and from now on it went to Chile's treasury, meaning an economic boon. On the Allies perspective, this campaign was disastrous.

In the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia Kandava became centre of Hauptmannshaft Candau. Kandava received village rights in 1625. During the reign of duke Jacob Kettler, several manufactures was established around Kandava. In the village there was a flax weaving mill and a gun powder mill where gunpowder was manufactured from local brimstone and saltpeter.

Rising 40 ft. in height and spreading 50 ft. The indigenous Architecture is woven in entirely local materials, reflecting the true essence of Indo-Islamic architecture with a rich blend of modern elements. The main structure is created from “Brick Gutka” made of special “Multani Mitti” to avoid saltpeter commonly found in Lahore Bricks.

During his administration a gunpowder factory was established in the capital, and a saltpeter factory in Tunja. He reorganized the treasury, reinforced the fortifications of Cartagena, and promoted public works, such as the road from Bogotá to Caracas. He promoted higher education and established a postal monopoly. He also increased the tax on aguardiente.

Qullpa (Aymara and Quechua for saltpeter, Hispanicized spelling Collpa) is a mountain in the Wansu mountain range in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is situated in the Arequipa Region, La Unión Province, Puyca District, and in the Cusco Region, Chumbivilcas Province, Santo Tomás District. It lies northwest of the mountains Qullpa K'uchu and Minasniyuq.

1; Weightman, p. 105. Saltpeter and water were mixed together in India to cool drinks, taking advantage of local supplies of the chemical.Weightman, p. 104. In Europe, various chemical means for cooling drinks were created by the 19th century; these typically used sulphuric acid to chill the liquid, but were not capable of producing actual ice.

"gold liquid/fluid") "golden liquor" in a huachi (lit. "flower pond"), "a vinegar solvent" (fortified with saltpeter; Ware 1966:347). This is simpler to produce than traditional jiuding "nine tripods" elixirs (attributed to the Yellow Emperor), but more expensive – eight doses cost 400,000 cash. > It is true that the nine medicines are the best of Hsien medicines.

Merced Street. The Palacio Bruna is a palace located on the southern edge of the Parque Forestal in Santiago, Chile. The three story building has an Italian Renaissance character. It is entirely surrounded by a frieze decorated with garlands and putti, and was constructed between 1916 and 1921 to serve as the residence for the saltpeter magnate Augusto Bruna.

In this position, he produced crucial ordnance supplies, including gunpowder and metals, for the Confederate Army, even as the Union blockade of Southern ports became increasingly effective. Among other things, he found limestone caves containing saltpeter in the southern Appalachian Mountains.McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States.

He also sent arms and munitions to Jamaica, Cuba and Florida. He increased trade with the Philippines, Siam and Cochinchina, sending mercury, saltpeter and other mineral products. He ordered the resumption of the minting of gold coins (suspended by Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza). He collected the royal rents with care, and sent back to Spain large quantities of silver.

Finally, the control of Antofagasta meant an extra cash-flow from the saltpeter exports. This made possible to purchase weapons, clothes, food and other war materials the expanding army would require, easing the burden of war expenditures.La Guerra del Pacífico en imágenes, relatos, testimonios, p. 173 But, the lack of results generated popular discontent in Peru and Bolivia.

British descendants in Chile are estimated to number between 350,000 and 420,000 to 700,000; with 120,000 irish- chileans.Inmigración británica en Chile. The English, Welsh, Scottish, and Irish population rose to more than 32,000 during the port of Valparaíso's boom period at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century during the saltpeter bonanza.Inmigración británica en Valparaíso.

No details are known of the demise of Courtois' father after his release. Courtois is recorded as a Parisian businessman in 1806 as a salpêtrier. In 1808 Courtois married the daughter of a Parisian hairdresser. Records show he continued to operate the family saltpeter factory until 1821, with the possible exception of years 1815, 1816, and 1817.

Rinderbraten, is a dish of German origin whose name means "beef roast".Wurst You Were Here, by Ruth Chier Brown, page 41. Copyright 1958, Richard Rosen Associates. ASIN: B0007F02J2 It is made from a large round of beef, stuffed with pork fat that has been rolled in a combination of saltpeter, salt, red pepper, brown sugar, allspice, and cloves.

Bolivia and Peru, bound by a secret treaty of defensive alliance since 1873 (one year before the border treaty with Chile), were defeated by Chile in the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884, losing the Bolivian coast and Peruvian department Tarapacá. Though the coast was a valuable source of saltpeter, it was not the cause.

A general manager of powders and saltpeter during the National Convention, a professor at the École polytechnique (1812-1816), Bottée de Toulmon established the powder mill of Maromme, near Rouen. He is the inventor of a hydrostatic test tube used to determine the explosive force of powders.Dezobry et Bachelet, Dictionnaire de biographie, t. 1, Ch.Delagrave, 1876, p.

Nowadays, Ayding Lake has a salt mill, which uses the region's alum salt crystals and saltpeter raw materials to manufacture chemical products. Scenic tours also run near the lake. On 24 July 2015, a new China-wide high temperature record was set at a meteorological station near Aydingkol, with a temperature of 50.3 °C (122.5 °F).

She was the daughter of Gottfrid Hoffberg who was in charge of production of saltpeter for munitions in Skänninge. In total Erik Acharuis had four children, Lars Gustaf Acharius, Jean Torkel Acharius, Catharina Theodora Ohrling (née Acharuis) and Charlotta Wilhelmina Acharuis.“Erik Acharius.” Ilse Luise Ledermann-Citroen - Biographical Summaries of Notable People - MyHeritage, MyHeritage, www.myheritage.com/names/erik_acharius.

He reads the latest missive to his loving wife Abigail, who appears in his imagination. He asks if she and the other women are making saltpeter for the war effort, but she says they have a more urgent problem: no straight pins. They bicker about it, Adams gives in, and they pledge their love to each other ("Till Then").

Hernán Rivera Letelier (2015) Hernán Rivera Letelier (born 11 July 1950 in Talca, Chile) is a Chilean novelist. Until the age of 11 he lived in the Algorta (Chile) saltpeter mining town. When it was closed down, he and his family moved to Antofagasta, where his mother died. His siblings went to live with his aunts.

57 Nicoll, Shakespeare Survey. The Last Plays Cambridge University Press 2002, p.90 Sugar, ostrich feathers and saltpeter from Morocco were typically exchanged for English fabrics and firearms, in spite of the protests of Spain and Portugal. Elizabeth I had numerous exchanges with Sultan Abd al- Malik to facilitate trade and obtain advantages for English traders.

The word "Okara" for this district was actually originated from word "Okan" (a lush green tree with needle like leaves). The Okan Tree gave birth to word Okanwali (Land of Okan)which ultimately finalized into Okara.Dawn Newspaper During British rule the area was part of Montgomery District and contained a large saltpeter refinery.Punjab - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v.

Fischer passed his university entrance exam in 1895. He later attended the Norwegian Military Academy. He graduated in 1903 with a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the Royal College of Technology in Germany. He was employed by the Swedish company ASEA and was involved in the installation of Tyssedal Hydroelectric Power Station and the Notodden Saltpeter Factory.

Qullpapata (Quechua qullpa salty, saltpeter, pata elevated place; above, at the top; edge; bank (of a river), shore, Hispanicized spelling Cullpapata) is a mountain in the Andes of Peru. It is situated in the Huancavelica Region, Huancavelica Province, Acobambilla District. Qullpapata lies west of Warmiqucha, one of the largest lakes of Peru, and south of Milluqucha.

Callangate or Ccallangate is a mountain massif in the Vilcanota mountain range of the Andes in Peru. Its highest point is Collpa Ananta (possibly from Aymara and Quechua qullpa saltpeter), also known as Chimboya, with an elevation of . Another peak in the massif is called Ccallangate. It lies in the Cusco Region, Quispicanchi Province, Ocongate District.escale.minedu.gob.

Mesrovb Jacob Seth, Armenians in India, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day, page 575, Asian Educational Services, 1983, Besides these, they also did businesses of saltpeter, salt, and betel nut. The Armenian community in Armanitola was small but rich. Some wealthy Armenians used to reside in European-style bungalows. was one such bungalow that was quite popular.

Nickajack Cave was mined for saltpeter by James Ore beginning in 1800. At this time, the cave was on land owned by the Cherokee and this operation was conducted with their permission. This mining continued through the War of 1812. The cave was again mined for saltpeter during the American Civil War, this time by the Confederate Nitre and Mining Bureau. Page 85 of the February 6, 1864 issue of Harper's Weekly shows a drawing of the cave entrance and some of the saltpeter mining and refining equipment located outside the cave.This drawing is reproduced as Figure 5.2 on page 87 in "Caves of Chattanooga", written by Larry E. Matthews and published April 2007 by the National Speleological Society.NOTE: Page 285 of the January 23, 1864 issue of Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper shows a drawing of the area inside the mouth of the cave, including the leaching vats and a tower that would have supported a water tankThis drawing is reproduced as Figure 5.4 on page 89 in "Caves of Chattanooga", written by Larry E. Matthews and published April 2007 by the National Speleological Society. Robert Cravens, a Chattanooga businessman, operated Nickajack Cave and his own cave, Lookout Mountain Cave at the beginning of the Civil War.

Ahmad Y Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources , History of Science and Technology in Islam. This was used for the manufacture of gunpowder and explosive devices. The terminology used by al-Rammah indicated a Chinese origin for the gunpowder weapons about which he wrote. At least as far back as 1845, Chilean saltpeter deposits were exploited in Chile and California.

On 31 December 1897 Glenorchy captain Baron passed Lizard Point, Cornwall. On 4 January 1898 the sailing ship Glenorchy captain Baron arrived in Maassluis, a harbor before Rotterdam. She carried 3,226,685 kg of sulfur ore and or saltpeter. A warning was then published in the newspaper that no credit should be given to the crew of the English four mast ship Glenorchy.

The mills were used in the purification, crushing, and mixing of charcoal, sulfur, and saltpeter. Other mills in the complex were used for glazing and corning, making metal powder kegs, and in cotton and woolen manufacturing. Stables, offices, a machine shop, and a steam powerhouse from the late 19th century also were located in the complex, as was a narrow gauge railway.

Alaminos longganisa, also known as longganisa Pangasian, is a Filipino pork sausage originating from Alaminos City, Pangasinan. It is a type of de recado longganisa. It is made with ground lean pork, ground pork fat, brown sugar, coarse salt, saltpeter, black pepper, vinegar, and garlic in hog casings. It is typically bright yellow or orange due to the use of achuete seeds.

Gustavo Adolfo Wulff Mowle, German saltpeter and coal trader, as well as maritime transporter, migrated to Chile in 1881. In 1904, he bought from Dr. Teodoro Von Schoeders in front of Cerro Castillo (Castle Hill), in Viña del Mar. He built the new house in 1906. By 1917, Wulff hired architect Alberto Cruz Montt to make the house into a castle.

Swain, p. 107 By 1811 the Napoleonic Wars had made the government-controlled saltpeter business taper off since there was by then a shortage of wood ashes with which potassium nitrate was made. As an alternative, the needed potassium nitrate was derived from seaweed that was abundant on the Normandy and Brittany shores. The seaweed also had another, yet undiscovered, important chemical.

Monroe County is a rich, agriculturally blessed county with fine apple orchards, wineries, trout water, historic springs, farmland, and saltpetre (saltpeter)caves. Since settler times it has been called "the land of sinks" for its many sinkholes. One community is called Sinks Grove because of this terrain. It contains the Second Creek Watershed, which is maintained by Friends of THE Second Creek Watershed.

Okara is a relatively new agricultural city; during the period of British rule there was a forest of Okaan where the city has been re-built, and from this the name of the city was derived. During British rule, the area was part of Montgomery District and contained a large saltpeter refinery.Punjab - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 20, p. 312.

Manitou Cave is a cave in Alabama, near the town of Fort Payne, in the side of Lookout Mountain. The cave was reputedly named for "the great spirit" by the Cherokee in the 18thcentury. During the Civil War, the cave was a source of saltpeter for the Confederate Army. The mineral was mined by laborers to provide the essential ingredient for black powder.

237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017 From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.John F. Richards (1995), The Mughal Empire, page 202, Cambridge University Press ;Shipbuilding industry Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry.

He married a 17-year-old girl when he was 24. Later he left for Pedro de Valdivia, another saltpeter mining town. He completed his seventh and eighth years of study at night school, and at the Inacap educational institute he earned his license as a secondary education instructor. Today he lives in Antofagasta with his wife and four children.

Militarily, Nobunaga changed the way war was fought in Japan. His matchlock armed foot soldiers displaced mounted soldiers armed with bow and sword. He built iron plated warships and imported saltpeter and lead for manufacturing gunpowder and bullets respectively, while also manufacturing artillery. His ashigaru foot soldiers were trained and disciplined for mass movements, which replaced hand-to-hand fighting tactics.

Bronze lantaka with Arabic script, 1700s. Bedil is a term from Nusantara area of Maritime Southeast Asia which refers to various type of firearms and gunpowder weapon, from small matchlock pistol to large siege guns. The term bedil comes from wedil (or wediyal) and wediluppu (or wediyuppu) in Tamil language. In its original form, these words refer to gunpowder blast and saltpeter, respectively.

Prior to the American Civil War, the claimants were subjects of the Queen of Great Britain but had been residents in the United States prior and during the war.Carlisle v. United States, 83 U.S. at 149. In December 1861, the claimants began to manufacture saltpeter, an ingredient of gunpowder, in Santa Cave, a cave 7 miles (11.25 km) southwest of Scottsboro, Alabama.

In the late 18th-century, saltpeter miners in Haynes Cave found large animal bones in the deposits. These were sent by a local historian and frontier soldier Colonel John Stuart to Thomas Jefferson. The bones were named Megalonyx jeffersonii, or great- claw, and became known as Jefferson's three-toed sloth. It was declared the official state fossil of West Virginia in 2008.

In 1524 he was granted a monopoly on the production of saltpeter across all of Siena. However, this was short lived—in 1526, the people of Siena revolted and threw the Petrucci family out again. The family made an attempt (aided by Biringuccio) to regain Siena by force, but it failed. In 1530, Siena entered a more peaceful phase, and Biringuccio returned.

Thurlow Weed, who had moved from Paris to London to ensure that General Scott's letter was circulated, also sent a letter advising Seward that "such prompt and gigantic preparations were never known."Ferris, p. 80. The disruption of trade threatened the Union war effort as well as British prosperity. British India was the only source of the saltpeter used in Union gunpowder.

Collpa Janca (possibly from Quechua qullpa salty, saltpeter, hanka snowcapped ridge or peak; ice, "salty ridge") is a mountain in the northern part of the Cordillera Blanca in the Andes of Peru which reaches a height of approximately . It is located in the Ancash Region, Corongo Province, Cusca District, and in the Huaylas Province, Yuracmarca District. Collpa Janca lies northeast of Champará.

Persians called saltpeter "Chinese salt" or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" ( ). Historian Ahmad Y. al-Hassan argues – contra the general notion – that the Chinese technology passed through Arabic alchemy and chemistry before the 13th century. Gunpowder arrived in India by the mid-14th century, but could have been introduced by the Mongols perhaps as early as the mid-13th century.

Lookout Mountain Caverns (Lookout Mountain Cave) is the second longest known cave in Hamilton County, Tennessee. Its mapped length of 2.481 miles (3.993 kilometers) places it at 361st on the United States Long Caves List. Lookout Mountain Cave was owned by Robert Cravens during the Civil War. He contracted with the Tennessee Military and Financial Board to deliver saltpeter to the Confederate government.

The first and, for a long time, most popular theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chief ingredient was saltpeter, making it an early form of gunpowder. This argument was based on the "thunder and smoke" description, as well as on the distance the flame could be projected from the siphōn, which suggested an explosive discharge. From the times of Isaac Vossius, several scholars adhered to this position, most notably the so-called "French school" during the 19th century, which included chemist Marcellin Berthelot. This view has been rejected since, as saltpeter does not appear to have been used in warfare in Europe or the Middle East before the 13th century, and is absent from the accounts of the Muslim writers – the foremost chemists of the early medieval world – before the same period.

When the era of the parliamentary republic began in 1891, the struggle between liberals (pipiolos) and conservatives (pelucones) had already evolved due to the emergence of a multi-party system. In the 1880s, the Liberals split into two factions: the moderates, who did not want to impose secularism too quickly and were willing to compromise with the Conservatives, and the radical Liberals, who joined the Radical Party founded in 1862 or the new Democratic Party with more progressive, if not socialist, ideas. European and particularly British companies having appropriated a large part of the country's economy (saltpeter, bank, railway, trade), President José Balmaceda (1886-1891), leader of moderate liberals, decided to react by directing his policy in two directions: the nationalisation of saltpeter mines and the intervention of the State in economic matters. Already facing the conservative aristocracy, he alienated the bankers.

The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining. Molten salt is used to transport heat in solar power tower systems because it is liquid at atmospheric pressure, provides a low-cost medium to store thermal energy, its operating temperatures are compatible with today's steam turbines, and it is non-flammable and nontoxic. Molten salt is also used in the chemical and metals industries to transport heat. The first commercial molten salt mixture was a common form of saltpeter, 60% sodium nitrate and 40% potassium nitrate. Saltpeter melts at 220 °C (430 °F) and is kept liquid at 290 °C (550 °F) in an insulated storage tank.

They were sentenced to hard labor in the crushing of saltpeter, a mineral for the manufacture of gunpowder. Questioned by the sultan, they did not hesitate to profess their Christian faith and were therefore scourged. At a subsequent public interrogation, de Prado ignored the presence of Sultan and directed his attention and statements to some apostates present. Al Walid struck him, knocking him to the ground.

He was able to finally reunite all the fragmented states of the south and put an end to the problem of military coups that had plagued China for the last century. The Song established its capital at Kaifeng on the Yellow river. It was during the reign of this dynasty that the Chinese started to produce gunpowder using saltpeter, sulfur and carbon.Herbst p. 8.

After the war, Chile possessed all guano and saltpeter fields of the Pacific Coast of South America, but never built a state monopoly. Nonetheless, its control gave the country a virtual monopoly of nitrates, and the income acquired from its taxation allowed the country to fund its development. During the 20th century, Chile would further exploit the Atacama's mineral wealth by nationalizing the copper industry.

The remaining two doors were closets, which were used as safes.Christen interview Bryan was at once a gunsmith, having a large shop and employing twenty five men at one time; manufacturer of saltpeter and gunpowder; operator of a gristmill, a blacksmith shop, Baptist church, a female seminary, a distillery and a paper mill.Tapp, p. 5 He was able to manage all of these successfully.

Examples of this include borax, calomel, milk of magnesia, muriatic acid, oil of vitriol, saltpeter, and slaked lime. Soluble ionic compounds like salt can easily be dissolved to provide electrolyte solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and ionic strength. The concentration of solutes affects many colligative properties, including increasing the osmotic pressure, and causing freezing-point depression and boiling-point elevation.

607–628 (22 pages). Saltpeter harvesting was recorded by Dutch and German travelers as being common in even the smallest villages and was collected from the decomposition process of large dung hills specifically piled for the purpose. The Dutch punishment for possession of non-permitted gunpowder appears to have been amputation. Ownership and manufacture of gunpowder was later prohibited by the colonial Dutch occupiers.

On contact with water it releases phosphine, which ignites spontaneously. However, extensive experiments with calcium phosphide also failed to reproduce the described intensity of Greek fire. Consequently, although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were not the primary ingredient. Most modern scholars agree that Greek fire was based on either crude or refined petroleum, comparable to modern napalm.

The organ case at Saint-Merry dates back to 1647, and was built by Germain Pilon. François-Henri and Claude-François Clicquot rebuilt the organ in 1778 and 1782. Claude-François undertook further work in 1791 after the death of his father. During the French Revolution (1789–1799) the church was used as a saltpeter factory, and from 1795 to 1801 was called the "Temple of Commerce".

In 1831, Enloe entered into a partnership with William Holland Thomas (1805–1893) to form the Oconaluftee Turnpike Company. The company widened the Indian Gap Trail from Oconaluftee to the crest of the Smokies, allowing wagon access to saltpeter mines on Mount Le Conte. The road's first tollkeeper, Robert Collins, would later guide Arnold Guyot on surveying expeditions across the crest of the Smokies.

Roberto Silva Renard (February 27, 1855 - July 7, 1920) was a Chilean military and political figure who served in the War of the Pacific and the 1891 Chilean Civil War. He is mostly remembered as the military chief that carried out the Santa María of Iquique School massacre in 1907, where more than 2,000 striking saltpeter miners, along with their wives and children, were killed.

Chhapra is a city and headquarters of the Saran district in the Indian state of Bihar. It is situated near the junction of the Ghaghara River and the Ganges River. Chhapra grew in importance as a river-based market in the 18th century when the Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English established saltpeter refineries in the area. It was recognized as a municipality in 1864.

The Neo Latin word for sodium, natrium, is derived from this same class of desert minerals called natron (French) from Spanish natrón through Greek νίτρον (nitron), derived from Ancient Egyptian netjeri, referring to the sodium carbonate salts occurring in the deserts of Egypt, not the nitrated sodium salts typically occurring in the deserts of Chile (classically known as "Chilean saltpeter" and variants of this term).

Geographic Names Information System Feature Detail Report, Geographic Names Information System, 1980-05-19. Accessed 2008-02-18. The community is named for nearby Big Bone Cave, one of the most famous and historic caves in Tennessee. Big Bone Cave was named for the discovery of a giant ground sloth skeleton in 1811 during the mining of cave dirt to be processed for saltpeter.

Vanilla and cinnamon are important ingredients in many of the sweet breads. Other important flavorings include almonds, coconut, sesame, peanuts, walnuts, chocolate, tequila, rum, orange peel, strawberry preserves, quince jelly, apricot preserves, apple and pineapple. In some breads, which need to puff greatly, finely ground tequesquite (saltpeter or potassium/sodium nitrate) is used. The use of this ingredient has been documented since the 1700s.

Jews might rent farms only if they could cultivate the same without the aid of Christians. Jews were allowed to peddle and to engage in various industrial occupations, and to be admitted into the guilds. They were also permitted to engrave seals, and to sell gunpowder and saltpeter; but their exclusion from the mining-towns remained in force. Christian masters were allowed to have Jewish apprentices.

Richard Green Waterhouse settled in this area in 1800. In his "Diary, Journal, and Memoirs" he states that he went with William Kelly into Grassy cove and explored his (Kelly's) saltpeter cave on October 7, 1812.Larry Matthews, "Caves of Grassy Cove," National Speleological Society, August 2014, pp. 29-30. . According to Barr (1961), Dicky Mathews began the manufacture of gunpowder at the cave in 1859.

During the Civil War, the cave was heavily mined for saltpeter to produce gunpowder. The west passage in particular is littered with evidence of this historic human use. Researchers are still working to record all of the signatures found on the walls of this passage. Unfortunately, many of the historic signatures have been covered by the spray paint of modern graffiti caused by vandals.

It is named for the discovery of the bones of a giant ground sloth in 1811. The cave was operated as a saltpeter mine, notably during the War of 1812 and the American Civil War. A variety of natural remains and human artifacts have been well preserved in the dry atmosphere of the cave. The cave is the 10th longest mapped cave in Tennessee.

A Taoist philosopher by the name of Ge Hong wrote down the ingredients of gunpowder in his surviving works, collectively known as the Baopuzi ("The Master Who Embraces Simplicity"). The "Inner Chapters" on Taoism contains records of his experiments with heated saltpeter, pine resin, and charcoal among other carbon materials, resulting in explosion, which most historians acknowledge as an early form of gunpowder. In 492, Taoist alchemists noted that saltpeter, one of the most important ingredients in gunpowder, burns with a purple flame, allowing for practical efforts at purifying the substance. The first confirmed reference to what can be considered gunpowder in China occurred during the Tang dynasty, first in a formula contained in the Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue (太上聖祖金丹秘訣) in 808, and then about 50 years later in a Taoist text known as the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe (真元妙道要略).

At the outset of the war, about 30,000 Chilean workers had to leave Peru within 8 days. Later the Chilean Navy blockaded and shelled the port. The lack of workers and the blockade disrupted the operations of the saltpeter industry. La Ilustración Española y Americana published on 15 June 1879 an image (of April 1879) of Chileans waiting at the port of Iquique for ships to return home.

The port city of Iquique is the region's capital. Much of the region was once the Tarapacá Province of Peru, which was annexed by Chile under the 1883 Treaty of Ancón at the close of the War of the Pacific. The region was important economically as a site of intense saltpeter mining, before synthetic nitrate manufacturing became possible. A number of abandoned mining towns can still be found in the region.

Julio Bertrand, a Chilean architect, was designated as responsible for its design and construction. He died before seeing the palace completed and his friend Pedro Prado took over and completed the building. Industrial-scale production of synthetic sodium nitrate and the resulting collapse of the saltpeter price led to the bankruptcy of Bruna's business. In 1921, as a consequence of this event, the palace had to be offered for sale.

This powder mixture is packed firmly into a long and narrow case. The introduction of saltpeter into pyrotechnic mixtures connected the shift from hurled Greek fire into self- propelled rocketry. . Articles and books on the subject of rocketry appeared increasingly from the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries. In the sixteenth century, German military engineer Conrad Haas (1509–1576) wrote a manuscript which introduced the construction to multi-staged rockets.

Especially in the latter, the retreat from Camarones was a shame. This was determinant for the deposition of the President of Peru, Mariano Ignacio Prado, and his Bolivian counterpart, Hilarión Daza. Both were deposed and replaced by Nicolás de Piérola and General Narciso Campero, respectively. Also, the loss of the Tarapacá Department stopped the earnings of the saltpeter trade, making the war financial weight heavier for the Allies.

Nevertheless, British influence came to an end with the saltpeter crisis during the 1930s. Today the descendants of British and Irish immigrants are found dispersed throughout the country. Well-known descendants of these colonists include Patricio Aylwin, Gustavo Leight, Alberto Blest Gana, Joaquín Edwards, Carlos Condell de la Haza, Juan Williams, Patricio Lynch Solo de Zaldívar, Jorge O'Ryan, Benjamín Vicuña MacKenna, Bernardo Leighton, Enrique Mac Iver, and Bernardo O'Higgins.

Public speculation led to the arrest of Crocker and Warren, the occupants of the warehouse. The Daily-Tribune reported that the explosions could not have occurred without the presence of gunpowder in addition to the saltpeter, and thus they were suspected of possessing gunpowder, which would have led to a murder charge. However, later inquiry released Crocker and Warren of all charges as no evidence of gunpowder was discovered.New York (N.Y.).

Illapu was formed in 1971 in the northern Chilean city of Antofagasta. Their name comes from the Quechua word meaning "Lightning Bolt". That same year they performed in the Festival del Salitre ("Saltpeter Festival") in María Elena (a mining precinct) and won the festival's prize after performing Quilapayún's "La Muralla". They were sharply criticized by the organiser of the musical event, Patricio Manns, for interpreting someone else's composition.

Having become interested in naval architecture while studying mathematics in school, the experiences of observing ships at sea furthered that interest. It would appear, however, that his designing of ships was more of a hobby, compared to his main trade as a successful merchant. Additionally, he was appointed inspector of saltpeter in Watertown, Massachusetts, around the time the American Revolution started.H. I. Chapelle: The History Of American Sailing Ships.

Pinyaev and his friend were discouraged, but didn't want to leave the storehouse empty-handed. The two paratroopers cut a hole in one of the bags and put some sugar in a plastic bag. They made tea with the sugar, but the taste of the tea was terrible. They became frightened because the substance might turn out to be saltpeter, and brought the plastic bag to a platoon commander.

Management then concentrated on the production of saltpeter, a raw material for explosives. Due to the importance of the chemical the workforce increased to 504 employees in December 1914. In 1916 an explosives research laboratory was created, and a short time afterwards the first explosive agent was developed. Despite the lack of workers the company also expanded into the new market for animal food by treating straw with sodium hydroxide.

The first shipment of saltpeter to Europe arrived in England from Peru in 1820 or 1825, right after that country's independence from Spain, but did not find any buyers and was dumped at sea in order to avoid customs toll.S. H. Baekeland "Några sidor af den kemiska industrien" (1914) Svensk Kemisk Tidskrift, p. 140.Friedrich Georg Wieck, Uppfinningarnas bok (1873, Swedish translation of Buch der Erfindungen), vol. 4, p. 473.

A combination of incentives, confiscations and planned economy allowed the country to provision the army: gunpowder, pieces of artillery, mules and horses, food, military clothing, etc. Mining increased, with increased extraction of lead, copper, saltpeter, sulfur and borax, which had several uses and improved local finances. Hundreds of women wove clothing used by the soldiers. Father José Luis Beltrán headed a military factory of 700 men, which produced rifles and horseshoes.

This led the Prussian War Minister Erich von Falkenhayn to decree the establishment of the Kriegsrohstoffabteilung (KRA) on August 13, 1914. The KRA reopened factories which ahd shut down because they were not economically viable. They also promoted the substitution of more readily available materials for scarce materials. One example was the use of the Haber-Bosch process of ammonia production, when the Allied Powers' blockaded the importation of Chilean saltpeter.

Artifacts from the saltpeter mining works have been found scattered throughout this passage, including a remarkable ladder that was burned and nearly destroyed by vandals in 1997. Prehistoric human use is also evident in Hubbard's Cave. Most notable are the pieces of cane torches found throughout the west passage. Incredibly preserved because of the dry conditions, these fragments have been carbon dated to be around 2,000 years old.

On 28 December 1820 Bulmer, Barclay, master, sailed from Madras for London. A few days later, while still in the Bay of Bengal, she encountered a hurricane that so damaged her that on 6 January 1821 she had to put into Sadras Roads. There her cargo of sugar and saltpeter was pumped out, and it was expected that the rest of her cargo would be landed.Lloyd's List №5592.

William Webb, An Archaeological Survey of the Norris Basin in Eastern Tennessee (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology Bulletin 118, 1938), 2. At Saltpeter Cave, located approximately above the mouth of the Powell River, Webb uncovered 13 Native American burials as well as numerous tools and pottery fragments dating to various prehistoric periods.Webb, 25-30. Webb may have been the first to differentiate between the Hiwassee Island culture (c.

It has served as a saltpeter, or niter, mine, by the early 1800s. It has been believed, by local tradition, that niter mined from the cave was used to make gunpowder for the War of 1812, including supplying for the 1815 Battle of New Orleans. With . The cave entrance is gated by a "limestone block and iron bar structure, resembling a jail cell", which was built in the mid-1900s.

Among his most important works were "Los hombres oscuros" (The dark men), "La sangre y la esperanza" (Blood and hope), "La luz viene del mar" (Light comes from the sea), and "Una moneda al río y otros cuentos" (A coin to the river and other tales), published in 1939, 1943, 1951 and 1954. Other key writers of the generation were: Gonzalo Drago, with works like "Cobre" (Copper), a book of stories about the struggles and hard life of the miners, published in 1941; "Surcos" (Grooves), a collection of stories about peasants published in 1948; and "El Purgatorio" (Purgatory), a novel that describes the author's experiences as a conscript during military service, published in 1951. Andrés Sabella and Volodia Teitelboim, with their works "Norte Grande" (Big North) and "Hijo del salitre" (Son of saltpeter), both describing the lives of saltpeter miners in the north of Chile. Francisco Coloane and Nicasio Tangol, who wrote about life in the extreme south of Chile.

Niter, or nitre (chiefly British), is the mineral form of potassium nitrate, KNO3, also known as saltpeter or saltpetre. Historically, the term niter was not well differentiated from natron, both of which have been very vaguely defined but generally refer to compounds of sodium or potassium joined with carbonate or nitrate ions. Related minerals are soda niter (sodium nitrate), ammonia niter or gwihabaite (ammonium nitrate), nitrostrontianite (strontium nitrate), nitrocalcite (calcium nitrate), nitromagnesite (magnesium nitrate), nitrobarite (barium nitrate) and two copper nitrates, gerhardtite and buttgenbachite; in fact all of the natural elements in the first three columns of the periodic table and numerous other cations form nitrates which are uncommonly found for the reasons given, but have been described. Niter was used to refer specifically to nitrated salts known as various types of saltpeter (only nitrated salts were good for making gunpowder) by the time niter and its derivative nitric acid were first used to name the element nitrogen, in 1790.

Potassium nitrate, because of its early and global use and production, has many names. Hebrew and Egyptian words for it had the consonants n-t-r, indicating likely cognation in the Greek nitron, which was Latinised to nitrum or nitrium. Thence Old French had niter and Middle English nitre. By the 15th century, Europeans referred to it as saltpeter and later as nitrate of potash, as the chemistry of the compound was more fully understood.

Frank tended the farm, but McWhorter also leased him to work for neighbors as a laborer. From being hired out, Frank learned business skills and earned more money than his master required him to hand over. After McWhorter moved to Tennessee, he continued to have Frank manage his farm in Kentucky. Frank used his savings to create a saltpeter production operation, for which there was considerable demand during the War of 1812.

The land containing this historic entrance was first surveyed and registered in 1798 under the name of Valentine Simons. Simons began exploiting Mammoth Cave for its saltpeter reserves. According to family records passed down through the Houchin, and later Henderson families, John Houchin was bear hunting and the bear turned and began to chase him. He found the cave entrance when he ran into the cave for protection from the charging bear.

Marshy Point Nature Center is a nature center in Middle River, Maryland operated by the Baltimore County Department of Recreation and Parks and the nonprofit Marshy Point Nature Center Council. The center, built along the Dundee and Saltpeter Creeks, opened in 2000. The nature center is open from 9am to 5pm and publishes a quarterly calendar of public programs. Marshy Point Park contains 8 miles of trails, a boat dock, and a canoe launch.

By the end of the century firearms were also used by the Trần dynasty. Saltpeter harvesting was recorded by Dutch and German travelers as being common in even the smallest villages and was collected from the decomposition process of large dung hills specifically piled for the purpose. The Dutch punishment for possession of non-permitted gunpowder appears to have been amputation. Ownership and manufacture of gunpowder was later prohibited by the colonial Dutch occupiers.

Schliemann next cornered the market in indigo dye and then went into the indigo business itself, turning a good profit. Ekaterina and Heinrich had a son, Sergey (1855–1941), and two daughters, Natalya (1859–1869) and Nadezhda (1861–1935). Schliemann made yet another quick fortune as a military contractor in the Crimean War, 1854–1856. He cornered the market in saltpeter, sulfur, and lead, constituents of ammunition, which he resold to the Russian government.

He originally proposed the name muride for the new element, but the French Academy changed the element's name to bromine. Iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois, who was using seaweed ash as part of a process for saltpeter manufacture. Courtois typically boiled the seaweed ash with water to generate potassium chloride. However, in 1811, Courtois added sulfuric acid to his process and found that his process produced purple fumes that condensed into black crystals.

From there Buendía would march to encounter Daza at Tana, passing through Santa Catalina. At 3 pm on November 19, the allied vanguard saw the Chilean army occupying San Francisco Hill. On the Chilean side, right after Pisagua, Lt. Colonel José Francisco Vergara proposed an immediate reconnaissance for water supplies. With a cavalry detachment, Vergara rode on November 5 following the railroad to Dolores saltpeter office, finding the installations and water machines in good condition.

Martiniano Urriola with another 2,500 soldiers followed as reinforcements. Both columns joined at Dolores on November 10 and seized the water well and the nearby saltpeter office. Col. Emilio Sotomayor, brother of War Minister Sotomayor, arrived to Dolores and assumed command of the troops. He also sent scouts to Jazpampa, Tana and Tiviliche looking for Daza. A cavalry scout spotted the allied advance over Dolores at 6 pm on November 18, near Agua Santa.

St. Macarius was born in Lower Egypt. A late tradition places his birthplace in the village of Shabsheer (Shanshour), in Al Minufiyah Governorate, Egypt around 300 A.D. At some point before his pursuit of asceticism, Macarius made his living smuggling saltpeter in the vicinity of Nitria, a vocation which taught him how to survive in and travel across the wastes in that area.Harmless, William. Desert Christians: An Introduction to the Literature of Early Monasticism, p.

Claws of M. jeffersonii Near the end of the 18th century, workers operating saltpeter vats in a cave then considered part of Greenbrier County, Virginia discovered fossil limb bones. In 1796, man named John Stuart sent these remains to Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson recognized them as being from a genus unknown to science and named the creature Megalonyx. The cave from which these fossils were taken later came to be identified with Organ Cave.

On September 15, 1775 the General Assembly was persuaded to build and equip an American fleet as soon as possible. This forerunner of the American Navy was placed under the command of Admiral Esek Hopkins, brother of Governor Stephen Hopkins. The exposed town of Newport was depopulated, with enemy ships sailing freely in the surrounding waters. An act was also passed to encourage the manufacture of saltpeter and gunpowder, required of muskets and artillery pieces.

Lines of saltpeter were placed at the base of the walls to prevent sappers. The day before the battle Yuan personally walked along the walls inspecting their defenses and publicly declared his defiance against the Later Jin by conducting a blood pact with his remaining soldiers - a public notice of defiance was written in his blood. Yuan then sent orders to Shanhai Pass to execute any deserters they found, thus greatly boosting the city's morale.

The Confederate Nitre and Mining Bureau was a civilian government bureau to provide the Confederate States of America with needed materials such as copper, iron, lead, saltpeter, sulfur, zinc, and other metals. The Bureau oversaw civilian contracts and offered advice, instruction and guidance in the production of these materials. The NitreNitre is spelled as "Niter" in Wiktionary. and Mining Bureau was also known as the "CSNMB", the "Bureau of Nitre" or the "Nitre Bureau".

Many daimyōs converted to Christianity to gain more favorable access to saltpeter, used to make gunpowder. Between 1553 and 1620, 86 daimyōs were officially baptized, and many more were sympathetic to the Christians. The Jesuits provided various kinds of support including military support to Kirishitan daimyōs when they were threatened by non-Kirishitan daimyōs. Most notable was their support of Omura Sumitada and Arima Harunobu, who fought against the anti-Catholic Ryuzoji clan.

Bengal was an affluent region in the Mughal era. According to economic historian Indrajit Ray, it was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding. It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce. With the defeat of the Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the East India Company gained the right to collect taxes from the principality of Bengal.

Before the war, he did some real estate speculation and earned a small fortune manufacturing gunpowder from a lode of saltpeter mined in a cave, near the headwaters of the Current River in Missouri. When Missouri was admitted to the Union, William Henry Ashley was elected its first Lieutenant Governor, serving, from 1820–1824, under Governor Alexander McNair. Ashley ran for governor of Missouri, in the August 1824 election, but was defeated.

Grapeshot was the starting point for the creation of shrapnel. ; Carcass : An incendiary/antipersonnel projectile designed to burn fiercely and produce poisonous fumes. It was constructed of an iron frame bound with sack cloth and filled with various ingredients such as pitch, antimony, sulfur, saltpeter, tallow and venetian turpentine. It was ignited by the cannon's propellant charge, bursting on impact with the target and releasing noxious fumes while setting fire to its surroundings.

According to El Mercurio of Antofagasta, between the years 1920 and 1935 there were about 4,000 Greeks in the city and other 3,000 in saltpeter offices. In 1926 the first women's association for excellence, filóptoxos (friends of the poor) which was chaired by Xrisí Almallotis. Since then to date there have been about four or five generations of descendants of Greeks. Some have moved south and are grouped mainly in Santiago and Valparaíso.

At its roots, the history of chemical explosives lies in the history of gunpowder. During the Tang Dynasty in the 9th century, Taoist Chinese alchemists were eagerly trying to find the elixir of immortality. In the process, they stumbled upon the explosive invention of gunpowder made from coal, saltpeter, and sulfur in 1044. Gunpowder was the first form of chemical explosives and by 1161, the Chinese were using explosives for the first time in warfare.

Old doctors used to say that from these piles they took bones for the anatomy classes. In general, the cave, known as the "Saltpeter cave", appears at least half of its real size being buried under the deposits and geologists dubbed it "the weirdest part of Belgrade". It branches into the direction of the Faculty of Law, but this corridor is completely buried and was never explored. All caves are cold and wet.

He had also been responsible for the developing of the Saltpeter Cave into the now heavily commercialized Meramec Caverns. Riley, a retired teacher, had worked at both Meramec Caverns and Onondaga Cave. This began a time of prosperity for the caverns, with Riley and Dill making appearances on television game shows. Celebrities were invited to visit the caverns, stories were written about the caverns, and an advertising campaign began in all forms of media.

The next day he was received in La Moneda by Salvador Allende. There Castro and Allende talked extensively, and out of protocol, for hours. The days that followed Castro travelled first to the Norte Grande where he visited Antofagasta , Iquique, the Saltpeter Works of Santa Elena (the cradle of the Chilean labour movement) and the newly nationalized copper mine of Chuquicamata. Castro then went south to Concepción and the coal mining town of Lota.

J. W. Clise had in 1917 sailed from Willapa Harbor (Washington state in the United States) to Sydney (New South Wales in Australia), to Newcastle, New South Wales, to Antofagasta (Chile), Honolulu and to Greys Harbor south of Puget Sound (Washington state, on the West coast of United States). She used 17 days from Honolulu to Greys Harbor and the owners considered this somewhat of a record. She had sailed with lumber, coal and saltpeter.

It was not until 1810 when large nitrate ("salitre" or saltpeter) deposits were discovered in the Corregimiento de Tarapacá that Pisagua became an important port due to its major role in the export of this product. Tsunami forced the transfer of Pisagua to the place where it lies today, in 1836. This site is a small plain located between the peninsulas of Punta Pichalo and Punta Pisagua, about 3 km South of Pisagua Viejo.

Shipherd had prepared to enter Middlebury College in Middlebury, Vermont. Unfortunately, while spending a few days at home in February 1822, before leaving for college, he mistakenly swallowed saltpeter, thinking it was epsom salt. For the remainder of his life, he suffered from damaged eyesight and an irritation to the lining of his stomach. He attempted to resume his studies, but his eyesight prevented reading for more than a few minutes continuously without intense pain.

The mixture contained, besides the gunpowder ingredients of sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter, ground porcelain and iron filings. The flame that shot from the lance reached a distance of three meters. The heated tinder that ignited the weapon was stored in a small iron box toted by the Jurchen soldiers in battle. Once the gunpowder was consumed, the fire lance could be wielded like a normal spear, or replenished by a new tube filled with gunpowder.

Retrieved 2015-06-06. Like Schumacher, Höger thought brick and clinker brick showed an "earthiness" that was familiar to the German people, particularly because these materials were typical for Northern Germany. His best-known work is the Chilehaus in Hamburg, constructed between 1922-24 for saltpeter importer Henry B. (Chile) Sloman. The office block features a curving facade reminiscent of a ship's hull, coming together at a sharp angle on the corners of Pumpen and Niedernstrasse.

Also the long delay (12 months) between proposing and implementing the expropriation encouraged abnormally high output and consequently a low price of saltpeter, beside the Great Depression of British Agriculture. Anthony Gibbs and Sons's "Compañía de Salitres de Tarapacá" got a "good, even inflated price" for its nitrate properties and Crozier remarks that they were ready to work for the government only for the profit derived from the iodine production, a fact that was unknown to the Peruvian government.

Salitral Creek, is a tributary stream of the Rio Puerco, in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. Its mouth is located at its confluence with the Rio Puerco, below the populated place of Arroyo Del Agua, New Mexico at an elevation of 6,785 feet / 2,068 meters. Its source is at at an elevation of 8,800 feet, in the San Pedro Mountains. Salitral means in Spanish, "place where saltpeter [salitre] is found." saltral, definition from Diccionario Enciclopédico Vox 1.

Al-Baytar died in 1248. The earlier Arab historians called saltpeter "Chinese snow" and " Chinese salt."Original from the University of MichiganOriginal from Harvard University The Arabs used the name "Chinese arrows" to refer to rockets.Original from the University of MichiganOriginal from the University of Michigan Original from the University of Michigan Original from the University of California Original from the University of Michigan Original from the University of California The Arabs called fireworks "Chinese flowers".

Confederate General Robert E. Lee and his troops held a church service in the main entrance room of the cave during the war. Remains of the Civil War mining are in an excellent state of preservation and are seen on the commercial tour. The early saltpeter miners discovered the bones of a large, unknown animal. The owner of the cave sent some of the bones (a forearm and a hand with giant claws) to Thomas Jefferson.

Calcium nitrate, also called Norgessalpeter (Norwegian saltpeter), is an inorganic compound with the formula Ca(NO3)2. This colourless salt absorbs moisture from the air and is commonly found as a tetrahydrate. It is mainly used as a component in fertilizers but has other applications. Nitrocalcite is the name for a mineral which is a hydrated calcium nitrate that forms as an efflorescence where manure contacts concrete or limestone in a dry environment as in stables or caverns.

Korean soldiers shot arrows and guns at the launch, which retreated back to the ship. The Koreans sent a rescue party and managed to free Yi, but his deputies (Yoo Soon-won and Park Chi-young) were killed. General Sherman eventually turned back and sailed downstream until she ran aground into Yang-Gak, an island across from Pyongyang. The fighting continued for four days, after which the Koreans resorted to fire boats, filled with wood, sulphur and saltpeter.

However, the conspirators lacked both well-formed plans and an overall leader. Some of the conspirators were republicans, others were monarchists. Some favored the abolition of slavery, while others judged abolition as impractical at that time. The conspirators did put forth a few economic and social ideas: the promotion of cotton production, the exploitation of iron and saltpeter reserves, a proposal to give incentives to mothers to have many children, and the creation of a citizens' militia.

Schultz, p. 95 Potassium nitrate () or saltpeter is obtained from natural sources such as guano and evaporites or manufactured via the Haber process; it is the oxidant in gunpowder (black powder) and an important agricultural fertilizer. Potassium cyanide (KCN) is used industrially to dissolve copper and precious metals, in particular silver and gold, by forming complexes. Its applications include gold mining, electroplating, and electroforming of these metals; it is also used in organic synthesis to make nitriles.

Worth 12% of the world's GDP, it alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports outside the European continent. The eastern part of Bengal was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding, and it was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce in the world. Its capital Jahangir Nagar, today's modern Dhaka, had a population exceeding a million people. Dutch East India Company factory in Hugli-Chuchura, Mughal Bengal.

Maria Elena is named after Mary Ellen Comdon, the wife of the first saltpeter refinery works (oficina salitre) manager, Elias Cappelens. Originally, the name of the works was "Coya Norte". Situated on land purchased from the Treasury in 1924, the plant was opened in 1926 using a sodium nitrate extraction system patented by the Guggenheim Brothers which had replaced the Shanks system. It was laid out on the basis of the flag of the United Kingdom.

The EIC lost 6,500 sacks of saltpeter, and 600 bales [of cotton]. In addition Captain Tweedale and the officers lost their private trade. The EIC put the value of its cargo on Fitzwilliam at £46,250.Reports from the Select Committee of the House of Commons appointed to enquire into the present state of the affairs of the East India Company, together with the minutes of evidence, an appendix of documents, and a general index, (1830), Vol.

Working conditions at the turn of the century were very precarious and led to the formation of many workers' organizations as Chile began exploiting its natural resources. Its economy was almost 50% dependent on saltpeter. The resulting economic development generated a new social structure in the country, a product of the worker migration and the growing use of female and child labor. A series of labor disputes erupted with workers demanding better wages and more limited working hours.

Saltpeter Cave There are several cave tours offered. Guided tours of Cascade Cave and X-Cave are available year round. Bat Cave and Saltpetre Cave are only open in the summer, and close during the winter hibernation season due to the threat of white nose syndrome, a disease which threatens several endangered species of bats. Cascade Cave is the name for three different caves in the same area and is together the largest cave in the park.

Great Saltpeter Cave Preserve is the only NSS affiliated conservancy that has the type of name that is usually given to a property instead of an organization. Several other unaffiliated cave conservancies have a variety of names. Generally, cave and karst are interchangeable when naming organizations and not even the most dogmatic stickler for detail would maintain that a cave conservancy would be prevented from managing a karst feature because their name included the word "cave" and not "karst".

Meat preservation as a survival technique dates back to ancient times. European seafarers preserved meat for their long journeys by curing meat in salt or brine. European settlers (Dutch, German, French) who arrived in southern Africa in the early 17th century used vinegar in the curing process, as well as saltpetre (potassium nitrate). The potassium nitrate in saltpeter kills Clostridium botulinum, the deadly bacterium that causes botulism, while the acidity of the vinegar inhibits its growth.

The cavern was discovered by John Knox and his hunting dog in 1862.Fantastic Caverns Roadside AmericaHistory, Look for "History" at the middle of the page. Knox did not want the cave to be exploited by the Union or Confederate governments as a possible source of saltpeter, so he kept the cave's existence quiet until 1867. Knox put an advertisement in the Springfield paper for someone to explore the cave, and it was first explored on February 14, 1867.

The greater dispute concentrated in the central prairie and in the coast, where they began to discover rich silver deposits, saltpeter, and guano. The ambiguity that led to the frontier conflicts was the possession of the central plain and the Atacama coast. The environment was made tense when Chilean troops, under the command of colonel Emilio Sotomayor Baeza, invaded the port of Antofagasta on the morning of February 14, 1879. Later, Bolivia declared war on Chile on March 1.

Cane Creek, another tributary of the Caney Fork, drains the Fall Creek Falls area. Fall Creek Falls Hills near Spencer Big Bone Cave is located in the northwest corner of Van Buren County. It is one of the best- known and most historic caverns in Tennessee. It was mined by prehistoric Indians for gypsum and salts and was the site of the largest saltpeter mine in Tennessee during the War of 1812 and again during the American Civil War.

Iron and Steel in Ancient Times By Vagn Fabritius Buchwald -- Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab 2005 Page 65 Early examples of flux used different combinations and various amounts of iron fillings, borax, sal ammoniac, balsam of copaiba, cyanide of potash, and soda phosphate. The 1920 edition of Scientific American book of facts and formulae indicates a frequently offered trade secret as using copperas, saltpeter, common salt, black oxide of manganese, prussiate of potash, and "nice welding sand" (silicate).

After the war with Chile, the post-war period opened with a period of the collapse of the productive forces. The currency was depreciated, and the foreign credit was canceled. The militarism born from defeat took power, but soon the old capitalist class that emerged in the days of guano and saltpeter resumed its place in the guidelines of national politics. To achieve economic resurgence, it was necessary to resort to the assistance of European investors.

Stationing himself in Galata, across the Golden Horn from Istanbul, Gritti became involved in banking and trade, particularly with Venice. Though trading in a variety of goods, such as saltpeter, salt milk, clothes, saffron, tin, and wine, grain and gems were some of Gritti’s most prominent ventures. The former was imported to Venice, while the latter found a patron in the sultan. Gritti was thus involved in the creation and presentation of Suleiman the Magnificent’s golden Venetian helmet-crown.

The first confirmed reference to what can be considered gunpowder in China occurred more than three hundred years later during the Tang dynasty, first in a formula contained in the Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue (太上聖祖金丹秘訣) in 808, and then about 50 years later in a Taoist text known as the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe (真元妙道要略). The first formula was a combination of six parts sulfur to six parts saltpeter to one part birthwort herb. The Taoist text warned against an assortment of dangerous formulas, one of which corresponds with gunpowder: "Some have heated together sulfur, realgar (arsenic disulfide), and saltpeter with honey; smoke [and flames] result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house burned down." Alchemists called this discovery fire medicine ("huoyao" 火藥), and the term has continued to refer to gunpowder in China into the present day, a reminder of its heritage as a side result in the search for longevity increasing drugs.

Herculean was a three-deck ship, and copper-fastened. At the time of her launch she was the largest merchant ship ever built on the Tyne. On 7 March 1800, the Court of Directors of the EIC met at India house and hired five vessels for one voyage each to bring back from Bengal "sugar, cotton, saltpeter, etc." Her builder (owner), was Lyatt & Co. EIC voyage #1 (1800–1801): Captain John Robinson Franklin acquired a letter of marque on 6 May 1800.

Pihuamo is a municipality located in the southeast region of the state of Jalisco. At one time this region belonged to another town in Jalisco known as Tzapotlán. The occupants of this town have had various origins: toltecas, zapotecas and purépechas. The purépechas arrived to that region in 1480, and they dominated the town of Tzapotlán for some years, but before the Spanish conquest they were defeated by the indigenous of Zapotlán, Zacoalco Sayula and Colima in the called Saltpeter War.

The first place to start gunpowder manufacture was Tultepec, which during the colonial period was separate from Mexico City and had an abundance of saltpeter, from which the chemicals could be extracted. The popularity of fireworks begin in the 19th century, after Mexico’s independence. Fireworks production, sale and handling is covered by the federal Armas, Municiones, Explosivas y Pirotecnia law, with the aim of reducing the risk associated with the product. This law was enacted in 1963, more geared towards the military.

In 2010, Chok founded saltpeter, an independent theatre company. She produced and starred in their opera production Tonseisha - The Man Who Abandoned the World (2014 - Studio, Central Saint Martins), which is adapted from the play by Erik Patterson. In the work, which features opera, dance and theatre, Chok played Yukiko, a Japanese woman haunted by the losses of her father and Beat writer Richard Brautigan. In 2011, she founded the Brautigan Book Club, which stimulates creative explorations based on Brautigan's work.

Organ Cave is an unincorporated community in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, United States. Organ Cave is located along U.S. Route 219 and West Virginia Route 63 at the Organ Cave, southeast of Ronceverte. As might seem obvious from the name of the town, the principal attraction here is Organ Cave, the ninth longest mapped cave in the United States. Organ Cave was mined for saltpeter, the principal ingredient of gunpowder, during the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, and the Civil War.

DeSoto Caverns are caves near Childersburg, Alabama, that were used for mining saltpeter during the Civil War. In 1912, Mathis and a consortium of friends bought the caverns with the idea of mining the cave system's abundant onyx. They quickly discovered that they could not compete with much cheaper Mexican onyx, and Mathis bought out all the shares in order to keep the caves and their land in her family. Her son Allen would later turn the caverns into a tourist attraction.

To collect resources, a citizen (or a band of citizens) is selected, and are directed to a resource. The citizens thus begin harvesting it. The special resources are available in only some epochs. These special resources are tin—available until epoch 6, iron—first available in epoch 4 and is no longer used after epoch 9, saltpeter—first available in epoch 7 and is used until epoch 12, oil—first available in epoch 10, and uranium—first available epoch 13.

The new system incorporated other innovations that were widely shared in Europe. One was the quick-match tube which generated a better ignition of the gunpowder charge. Other general improvements were the adoption of gunpowder charges in pre- packaged flannel bags, a more effective gunpowder mixture, and the use of a vent-pricker - special tool to make a hole in the gunpowder bags. Around 1791, French chemist Nicholas Leblanc invented a process to manufacture saltpeter, a necessary ingredient of gunpowder.

The beginning of curing was done through dehydration. Salting was used by early cultures to help desiccate foods. Many different salts were used from different places such as rock salt, sea salt, spiced salt, etc.. People began to experiment and found in the 1800s that some salts gave meat an appealing red color instead of the grey that they were used to. During their experimenting in the 1920s they realized this mixture of salts were nitrates (saltpeter) that prevented Clostridium botulinum growth.

Once the first tower reached final concentration, the nitric acid was moved to a granite storage container, and liquid from the next water tower replaced it. That movement process continued to the last water tower which was replenished with fresh water. About 20% of the produced oxides of nitrogen remained unreacted so the final towers contained an alkaline solution of lime to convert the remaining to calcium nitrate (also known as Norwegian saltpeter) except approximately 2% which were released into the air.

Dom António's claim to the Portuguese throne against Philip of Spain. Relations intensified with the acclamation of Philip II of Spain as King of Portugal in 1580, and the advent of the Anglo–Spanish War in 1585.Abun-Nasr, p.218 In 1581, Elizabeth authorized the exportation of naval-grade timber to Morocco in exchange for saltpeter, a necessary ingredient in gunpowder. The establishment of the Barbary Company in 1585 further gave England a monopoly on Morocco trade for 12 years.

The English legacy was reflected in the streets of the historic district of the city of Iquique, with the foundation of various institutions, such as the Club Hípico (Racing Club). Nevertheless, said presence came to an end with the saltpeter crisis during the 1930s. An important contingent of English immigrants also settled in the present-day region of Magallanes. In the same way, they established English families in other areas of the country, such as Santiago, Coquimbo, the Araucanía, and Chiloé.

Between 1778 and 1779 Anders Chydenius once again participated in the Diet, at which the position of hired hands was brought up. He championed the rights of the servant class. At the suggestion of King Gustavus III, he introduced a bill whereby foreigners were also granted limited rights to practice their own religion. He participated in the Diet again in 1793 and was active as a writer covering the development of agriculture, the burning of saltpeter, smallpox, and the settlement of Lapland.

Raoul and Mary have sex again, and he tries to persuade her to run away with him. He tries to run Paul over with a car, who responds by hiring Doris the Dominatrix to use her costuming and role-playing experience help get rid of him. She poses as an immigration agent threatening Raoul – a Mexican immigrant – with deportation, and a public health worker who gives him pills that are secretly saltpeter, to render him sexually impotent. These schemes do not work.

Herbal anaphrodisiacs have been employed by various religious sects and orders throughout history. An example was in the United States about use of saltpeter in army coffee. Barrister Sir Edward Marshall Hall theorised that murderer Hawley Harvey Crippen was using hyoscine on his wife as an anaphrodisiac but accidentally gave her an overdose and then panicked when she died. Various forms of anaphrodisiacs have been tried to cure hypersexuality in both humansRebal Jr, Ronald F., Robert A. Faguet, and Sherwyn M. Woods.

There were some commodities, like rubber, cotton, and nitrates (Saltpeter), which Germany could not easily substitute from within, and which she could not obtain from her neutral trading partners because the Allies classified them as contraband. The loss of nitrate imports, vital for the production of both explosives and fertilizers, proved disastrous for German agriculture. German chemical firms turned to producing synthetic nitrates, but output was only high enough to sustain the explosives industry. Without fertilizer, agricultural productivity declined dramatically.

Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from these caves.Thomas C. Barr, Jr., "Caves of Tennessee", Bulletin 64 of the Tennessee Division of Geology, 1961, 568 pages. The Civil War deeply affected White County, although no major battles were fought in the area. As it was on the border between the largely pro-Union East Tennessee and pro-Confederate Middle Tennessee, the county was the scene of bloodshed from partisans (called "bushwhackers") of both sides.

Hasan al-Rammah () (died 1295) was an Arab chemist and engineer during the Mamluk Sultanate who studied gunpowders and explosives, and sketched prototype instruments of warfare, including the first torpedo. Al-Rammah called his early torpedo "an egg which moves itself and burns." It was made of two sheet- pans of metal fastened together and filled with naptha, metal filings, and saltpeter. It was intended to move across the surface of the water, propelled by a large rocket and kept on course by a small rudder.

The East India Company had stationed several men in the town, under the charge of Henry Revington to facilitate the trade of saltpeter, pepper, calicoes and cotton. When Rustam-i-Zamani heard about the approach of the Maratha army, he procured funds from one of the Company's brokers and escaped with the money in a junk (ship). Revington sent an English ship Diamond to stop him. When confronted by the English, Rustam offered the company the ownership of two of his junks in lieu of payment.

In 1738, he was one of the driving forces behind the foundation Kurantbanken and for a while served as its managing director. Together with Johann Fr. Wewer he was the founder of the Fabritius & Wewer trading house. Like the other major merchants of his time, Michael Fabritius had close ties to the state, providing it with loans and participating in the equipping of ships in connection with expeditions to overseas destinations. He also provided the state with goods such as saltpeter for the manufacture of gunpowder.

One of the most famous and architecturally pioneering buildings, the Chilehaus, was designed by the architect Fritz Höger and built between 1922 and 1924. It owes its name to its owner, the shipowner Henry B. Sloman, who owed his fortune to trade with Chile-saltpeter. The building is considered the main work of the architect and one of the most important buildings of clinker brick expressionism. The Miramar-House, the first completed building of the Kontorhaus District, was built in 1921/22 for the trading company Miramar.

Following the above discovery, naturalists sent by academies from all Europe came in large number to visit Pulo di Molfetta, since the saltpeter was a fundamental ingredient in the production of gunpowder and these deposits were of considerable strategic interest.elogio-storico, pagg. 8-10 Soon, the government started to extract saltpetre from Pulo di Molfetta and today the doline still contains the remains of the ancient plant used to extract saltpetre, making it a site of industrial archaeology. Pulo di Molfetta is currently not open to tourists.

Joseph LeConte, a professor of chemistry and geology at South Carolina University, wrote a pamphlet for the Nitre Bureau on the process for the manufacture of saltpeter in 1862. Nitre beds were constructed of a clay floor, well rammed, that was impervious to water, but with a drain to remove the fluids. Then black earth was added to a raised bed over this floor, made of dark manure. Twigs, leaves and other elements were added to create air passages and porosity through the dirt.

It was said that he mixed charcoal, sulfur and saltpeter, compressed the mixture in an enclosure (a bamboo tube) and the mixture exploded when it was burned. Because of Li Tian's invention, Liuyang became synonymous with fireworks and is commonly known as “the hometown for firecrackers and fireworks. “Liuyang Fireworks” branded products are widely recognized in China. Although many towns throughout the world have a close association with fireworks there is none with a greater claim to their title 'City of Fireworks' than Liuyang.

Because of its ammonium content, lant was most commonly used for floor cleaning and laundry. According to early housekeeping guides, bedpans would be collected by one of the younger male servants and put away to ferment to a mild caustic before use. In larger cottage industries, lant was used in wool-processing and as a source of saltpeter for gunpowder. In times of urgent need and in districts where these were the chief industries, the whole town was expected to contribute to its supply.

The Stettin was captured by the Union side wheel steamer on 24 May 1862 northeast of Charleston Bar while attempting to break through the Federal blockade of Charleston, South Carolina. The blockade runner had been attempting to slip into Charleston with saltpeter, lead, quinine, and assorted cargo from the Bahamas. Condemned by the New York Prize Court, the steamer was purchased by the United States Navy on 4 September, and placed in commission as USS Stettin in November. Acting Master Edward F. Devens was in command.

Smith County was established in 1799 from a portion of Sumner County, and was named for Daniel Smith, a U.S. Senator and former Secretary of the Southwest Territory. The location of the county seat was hotly contested between Bledsoesborough (near modern Dixon Springs) and William Walton's ferry and tavern at the confluence of the Caney Fork and the Cumberland River. In 1804, voters chose Walton's site, and a town, named Carthage, was platted the following year. Smith County was the site of a large saltpeter mine.

The Niter and Mining Corps was a military unit within the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. Their original task was to keep the Confederacy supplied with minerals and metals needed for the war effort, but as the conflict dragged on, they were at times assigned to field and combat duty. Niter (saltpeter), a key ingredient in gunpowder and other explosives, was mined in caves in various places in the South. Early in the war, several officers began informally overseeing the mining operations.

She sailed from Liverpool on her maiden voyage with 367 passengers and 45 crew, arriving at Melbourne on 17 October 1864 after 80 days at sea, during which 4 passengers died. On 17 November 1864 Sam Cearns departed Hobsons Bay, Melbourne for Madras. After taking on a cargo of jute, linseed, cotton, and saltpeter, the Sam Cearns arrived at Liverpool from Calcutta on 13 August 1865. This maiden voyage could have been her last as she caught fire in the entrance lock, but it was successfully extinguished.

Saltpeter fields (in amber color) of Iquique (Peru), Toco and Carmen (Bolivia) and Aguas Blancas (Chile). "Aguas Blancas" were at that time economically irrelevant. The border Peru-Bolivia was not officially determined, and different maps show different boundary lines. Because of the increasing tensions with Argentina and Peru, the Government of Chile ordered 1871 the purchase of two armored vessels, the Cochrane and the Blanco Encalada, which would shift the naval balance in the South Pacific in favor of Chile, but at the end of 1874.

On February 6, 1873, Peru and Bolivia signed the secret treaty of alliance between Peru and Bolivia; the parliamentary proceedings have disappeared since then. In Peru, which had large overseas debts, the economic situation deteriorated and the government imposed in 1873 a state control over production and sales of saltpeter. But there were also nitrate deposits in Bolivia and Chile. While the latter were not economically material, the exports from Bolivia by the Chilean Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarriles de Antofagasta (CSFA) made Peruvian price controls impossible.

An arrow strapped with gunpowder ready to be shot from a bow. From the Huolongjing At this point the formula contained too little saltpeter (about 50%) to be explosive, but the mixture was highly flammable, and contemporary weapons reflected this in their deployment as mainly shock and incendiary weapons. One of the first, if not the first of these weapons was the fire arrow. The first possible reference to the use of fire arrows was by the Yang Wu in 904 during the siege of Yuzhang.

In einer geheimnisvollen Welt 2012 Jeremias also helped to set industry standards on dying, most notably of sheep wool. After writing his books in Sindelfingen between the years 1776 and 1778, he ran a military orphanage in Ludwigsburg, where the boys spun cotton and the girls knitted and spun cotton and flax. In 1785, Jeremias opened his own cotton mill. By the end of his life he had become the sole supplier of clothing to the military and also opened a saltpeter and gunpowder factory.

According to Mahmoud, Sinan does not know that Mathurin has been brought to Alamut. Locked in his quarters, Kerbouchard finds the rope has been removed from his pack. Unable to escape, he speaks out his window to a guard, hoping that Sinan's spies will report his presence, and that Sinan will want to meet with an alchemist and physician such as himself. The next morning, after mixing the saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur from his saddlebags, repacking the resulting powder, and mixing several preparations from the herbs, he is confronted by Mahmoud and provokes him.

Saltpeter harvesting was recorded by Dutch and German travelers as being common in even the smallest villages and was collected from the decomposition process of large dung hills specifically piled for the purpose. The Dutch punishment for possession of non-permitted gunpowder appears to have been amputation. Ownership and manufacture of gunpowder was later prohibited by the colonial Dutch occupiers. According to colonel McKenzie quoted in Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles', The History of Java (1817), the purest sulfur was supplied from a crater from a mountain near the straits of Bali.

Matchlock became a common term for the arquebus after it was added to the firearm. Prior to the appearance of the matchlock, handguns were fired from the chest, tucked under one arm, while the other arm maneuvered a hot pricker to the touch hole to ignite the gunpowder. The matchlock changed this by adding a firing mechanism consisting of two parts, the match, and the lock. The lock mechanism held within a clamp a two to three feet long length of smoldering rope soaked in saltpeter, which was the match.

A half-interest in the cave changed hands for ten thousand dollars (a huge sum at the time). After the war when prices fell, the workings were abandoned and it became a minor tourist attraction centering on a Native American mummy discovered nearby. When Wilkins died his estate's executors sold his interest in the cave to Gratz. In the spring of 1838, the cave was sold by the Gratz brothers to Franklin Gorin, who intended to operate Mammoth Cave purely as a tourist attraction, the bottom long having since fallen out of the saltpeter market.

Although saltpeter from new Prussian-style putrefaction works had not been produced yet (the process taking about 18 months), in only a year France had gunpowder to export. A chief beneficiary of this surplus was the American Revolution. By careful testing and adjusting the proportions and grinding time, powder from mills such as at Essonne outside Paris became the best in the world by 1788, and inexpensive. In the Spanish Empire, the crown held a monopoly on gunpowder and the terms were set out during eighteenth-century Bourbon Reforms.

The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used Chhapra as a center of saltpeter refining. Ever since the founding of the Sultanate of Mysore by Hyder Ali, French military officers were employed to train the Mysore Army. Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan were the first to introduce modern cannons and muskets, their army was also the first in India to have official uniforms. During the Second Anglo-Mysore War Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan unleashed the Mysorean rockets at their British opponents effectively defeating them on various occasions.

Part 2 is headed "The Second Part of the Queen-Like Closet; Having an Addition of what hath already been treated of, and directing a very true & excellent way for all manner of Cookery, both Fish, Flesh, & Pastry." It contains 288 recipes, and is ascribed to Hannah Wolley, alias Chaloner, and published by "R. L." in 1670. Recipe 3 is the first for a main dish, "To make Coller'd Beef", the flank of beef being marinaded with saltpeter, spices and herbs, and then braised in a pot with claret and butter.

They attempted, in particular, to convert lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of lead and lead-copper alloys with sulfur. The production of chemical substances that do not normally occur in nature has long been tried, such as the synthesis of sulfuric and nitric acids attributed to the controversial alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān. The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as copper sulfate, alum and saltpeter. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid and sodium chloride.

Clock Tower of Iquique. The Clock Tower is a National Historic Landmark located in Plaza Arturo Prat in Iquique, Chile. It was built in 1878 (when Iquique was in Peruvian territory), with the mechanism imported from England. According to Patricio Advis, the Clock Tower, together with the buildings surrounding it in the plaza (the Municipal Theater of Iquique, the building of the Workers Welfare Society of Tarapacá, the Casino Español and the Club Croata) is one of the most representative urban expressions of the "Saltpeter Period", a time which saw much foreign investment.

According to El Mercurio of Antofagasta, between the years 1920 and 1935 there were about 4,000 Greeks in the city and other 3,000 in offices saltpeter. The majority of Greek immigrants arrived in Chile at the beginning of the 20th century for his spirit adventurer. However, the chronicles of the time show that most attracted by the reputation he had acquired the north by the operation of nitrate. The country was plunging into an economic boom that lasted a very large period in which the Chileans did not pay taxes.

However, in addition to regular cannon shots, the defenders also launched poisonous bombs which prevented the Jin forces from advancing, and their siege carts were shot to pieces. Some managed to reach the walls, but the lines of saltpeter that the Ming had previously set up were ignited, creating a protective barrier of fire around the city. Following up Yuan sent forth a squad of "expendables" who finished off the rest of the siege carts. Meanwhile, the Jin were attacking another corner of the city but were repulsed by burning oil and incendiary attacks.

It contains the earliest known written chemical formulas for gunpowder, made from saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal along with many added ingredients. In addition to formulas for gunpowder, the compendium also contains details on various other gunpowder weapons such as fire arrows, incendiary bombs and projectiles, and grenades and smoke bombs. It also describes an early form of the compass (using thermoremanence), and has the oldest illustration of a Chinese Greek fire flamethrower with a double-action dual-piston cylinder-pump capable of shooting a continuous blast of flame.

The Superclásico de las Américas, an annual friendly encounter between the national teams of Argentina and Brazil, was held for the first time in 2011. Rivalry between Brazil and Uruguay also burgeoned following the World Cup final of 1950, when millions of Brazilian football fans were traumatized by a 1–2 defeat. In South America, Peru and Chile are also considered traditional rivals; the confrontation between the two nations is known as the Clásico del Pacífico, or Pacific Classic. This rivalry traces back to the 1890s, when the Saltpeter War was fought.

In 1913, a factory in Germany began the first large-scale synthesis of ammonia using German chemist Fritz Haber's catalytic process. The scaling of this energy-intensive process meant that farmers could cease practices such as crop rotation with nitrogen-fixing legumes or the application of naturally derived fertilizers such as guano. The international trade of guano and nitrates such as Chile saltpeter declined as artificially synthesized fertilizers became more widely used. With the rising popularity of organic food in the twenty-first century, the demand for guano has started to rise again.

Explosion of a warehouse on Broad Street during the Great New York City Fire of 1845, July 19, 1845In the fire's first two hours, it reached a large multi-story warehouse occupied by Crocker & Warren on Broad Street, where a large quantity of combustible saltpeter was stored."The Great Fire – Additional Particulars,"New York Daily Tribune, July 22, 1845, page 2. When Engine Co. 22 arrived, it was ordered to pump water on the warehouse. The company's firefighters entered the warehouse and dragged a hose up a staircase to direct water onto the fourth floor.

In 1801 he made one of his most memorable discoveries, the giant water lily, Victoria amazonica, with a six-foot wide lily pad. In addition, Haenke maintained his own botanic garden, owned a silver mine and served as the local physician in his adopted home town, Cochabamba. He is also credited with establishing the manufacture of saltpeter in Chile and helping to start the glass industry there. Although he had always hoped to return to Europe, Haenke died unexpectedly in 1816 when he was accidentally poisoned by his maid.

Because of its ready solubility in water, niter is most often found in arid environments and often in conjunction with other soluble minerals like halides, iodates, borates, gypsum, and rarer carbonates and sulphates. A major source of sodium nitrate mineral ("Chile saltpeter" or nitratine) is the Atacama Desert in Chile. Potassium and other nitrates are of great importance for use in fertilizers and, historically, gunpowder. Much of the world's demand is now met by synthetically produced nitrates, though the natural mineral is still mined and is still of significant commercial value.

In 19th century British service, they were made of concentric paper with a thickness about 1/15th of the total diameter and filled with powder, saltpeter, pitch, coal and tallow. They were used to 'suffocate or expel the enemy in casemates, mines or between decks; for concealing operations; and as signals. During the First World War, shrapnel shells and explosive shells inflicted terrible casualties on infantry, accounting for nearly 70% of all war casualties and leading to the adoption of steel helmets on both sides. Shells filled with poison gas were used from 1917 onwards.

Initially, gunpowder mixtures were utilised through traditional engines and throwing mechanisms; containers and grenades were thrown by mangonels and trebuchets, and explosive rockets and arrows were developed, along with gunpowder flamethrowers.Nicolle (1996), pp. 294–5 Like firearms, cannon are a descendant of the fire-lance,Needham (1986): 263–275 a gunpowder-filled tube used as a flamethrower; shrapnel-like material was sometimes placed in the barrel so that it would fly out together with the flames.Crosby 2002: 99 In due course, the proportion of saltpeter in the propellant was increased to increase its explosive power.

The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates. Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni, the first one being the largest source of lithium today and the second the world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí.

In addition, during the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Chile occupied vast territories rich in natural resources south west of Bolivia, including the Bolivian coast. Chile took control of today's Chuquicamata area, the adjoining rich salitre (saltpeter) fields, and the port of Antofagasta among other Bolivian territories. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries. Through diplomatic channels in 1909, it lost the basin of the Madre de Dios River and the territory of the Purus in the Amazon, yielding 250,000 km2 to Peru.

On 9 November 1922, Skomvær was laid up near Kristiansand, never to see service again. By the time she was decommissioned, the ship had transported many types of goods all across the world, including grain from Australia, coal from England, lumber from Sweden, saltpeter from Chile, cognac from Marseille, and break bulk cargo from Spain. She had also made a total of 31 trips on the turbulent seas around Cape Horn. In February 1924, the ship was sold to Stavanger Ophugningskompani, a wrecking yard in Stavanger, who dismantled her for scrap.

The first recorded account of Alum Cave goes back to 1837 when three farmers, Ephraim Mingus, Robert Collins, and George W. Hayes from the Oconaluftee Indian Village in the Great Smoky Mountains applied at the Sevier County (Tennessee) Land Office for a grant of a tract of land that would include Alum Cave and its salt deposits. Tennessee sold the tract of land to the three men on December 6, 1838. The Epsom Salts Manufacturing Company was formed to mine the deposit. The materials mined were alum, magnesium sulfate, saltpeter, magnesia, and copperas.

Warren County was created in 1807 from a portion of White County, and named for Joseph Warren (1741-1775), a soldier in the American Revolution. The revised Tennessee State Constitution of 1834 stated that no new county could be within of the county seat of the county from which it was formed. The boundaries of five counties formed from Warren-- Grundy, Van Buren, Cannon, Coffee and DeKalb-- were exactly 12 miles from Warren's county seat, McMinnville, giving the county its distinctive round shape. Warren County was the site of several saltpeter mines.

The trebuchet at Warwick Castle build by Middelaldercentret The centre was the first in the world to reconstruct an actual working trebuchet in 1989. Since then the centre has been hired to help build the trebuchet at Warwick Castle, Warwickshire, England which is the largest functioning trebuchet in the world. Together with Moesgård Museum the museum has reconstructed the world's oldest cannon cast in bronze. The centre participated in the third Galathea expedition (2006-2007) and researched both sulfur and saltpeter in black powder production in Puducherry, India and transportation to Europe.

He was thus given the full control over the entire business of the company with the native merchants. He was the one to fix the prices of all commodities made available to the French in Pondicherry. Thanappa Mudaliar invited weavers from neighboring places and made them settle down in areas with a view to procuring sufficient volumes of textiles for export. He got constructed storehouses for the commodities so textiles, saltpeter, camphor, ivory, precious stones, and spices from other regions were brought to Pondicherry for export to France.

During the war, the saltpeter was sold to the Confederate States military. In 1864, the Union Army in a campaign through Alabama, seized 65 bales of cotton that were valued at $43,232 and stored on the claimant's plantation. On December 25, 1868, after the Confederate government surrenderred, US President Andrew Johnson issued Proclamation 179, which unconditionally and without reservation pardoned and provided amnesty to all those who had supported the Confederate government. After the pardon, the claimants attempted to recover from the US government the proceeds of the 65 bales of cotton.

Gilbert Grafton Newhall of Salem, Massachusetts, purchased the property in early 1855 to manufacture powder for Crimean War belligerents, and organized Oriental Powder Company to repair the damage and construct new facilities. A charcoal house, saltpeter refinery, wheel mills, press mills, kernelling mills, glazing mills, and storehouses were dispersed along both banks of the river and canal for a mile upstream of Gambo to minimize damage during infrequent explosions. Charcoal was manufactured from dried, debarked alder packed into cast iron retorts. Charcoal was made from willow, poplar or maple when alder was unavailable.

Saltpeter mining in the cave reached a peak under a man by the name of Dr. Benjamin Adams during the War of 1812. Modern tours feature Dr. Adams' vats and hoppers, and point out where magnesium sulfate (the chemical name of Epsom salt) is visible as a glittery substance lining the cave walls. The cave was also used to store supplies for the army of William Henry Harrison. Wyandotte Cave was named by Governor David Wallace after the river which was then known as the Wyandotte, but which is currently known as the Blue River.

Historian Peter Lorge notes that despite the early association of gunpowder with Taoism, this may be a quirk of historiography and a result of the better preservation of texts associated with Taoism, rather than being a subject limited to only Taoists. The Taoist quest for the elixir of life attracted many powerful patrons, one of whom was Emperor Wu of Han. One of the resulting alchemical experiments involved heating 10% sulfur and 75% saltpeter to transform them. The next reference to gunpowder occurred in the year 300 during the Jin dynasty (265–420).

The German word Stoff (plural Stoffe), like the English word stuff, derives from Old French estoffe, however the meanings are somewhat different. Stoff has a fairly broad range of meanings, including "chemical substance" or "matter", "fuel" and "cloth", depending on the context. The German names of the common elements hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are Wasserstoff, Sauerstoff and Stickstoff ("hydrogen" being a scientific Greek neologism for "constituent of water", "oxygen" for "constituent of acids", "nitrogen" for "constituent of nitre", i.e. saltpeter). Stoff was used in chemical code names in both world wars.

Due to the Grace Contract (1888) the railways were given to European bondholders as a pledge and guarantee of new investments in Peru. The operationalization of the railways in the central region activated large-scale mining in that region. Slowly, the Peruvian economy was recovering, with bases more solid than those of guano and saltpeter, but without losing its character as a colonial economy. In that line, the government of Nicolás de Piérola (1895-1899) was at the service of the interests of the plutocracy, according to Mariátegui's perception.

The captain of the Cobenzell, John Joseph Bauer, transferred to the Belgiojoso, and sailed on to China.The London Chronicle, The Morning Post, 8 October, The Public Advertiser and The Daily Universal Register, 10 October, The Freeman's Journal, 15 October 1785. It was reported from Trieste on 22 February 1786 that "The Comte Cobenzel East Indiaman arrived in this port the 18th inst. with a rich cargo" of saltpeter, tea, cassia, camphire, coffee, pepper and other merchandise, having left Canton 23 January 1785.The Universal Daily Register, 20 March 1786.

The bank began providing financial assistance for the exploitation of nitrates in the Litoral region, particularly guano, used for fertilizer and to make saltpeter for the manufacture gunpowder. The Bolivian Littoral was subsequently annexed by Chile after the War of the Pacific. During the war, the bank loaned Bs. 600,000 to the Government of Bolivia in an effort to maximize the mobilization of the Bolivian Army in the war. Following the loss of the Bolivian Litoral, the bank moved its headquarters to the city of Sucre, where it held its first board of directors meeting.

The two parts are divided by the thermoelectric power plant and a large saltpeter processing and shipping plant, with the coastal highway connecting the two portions. The northern portion of Tocopilla is home of the municipal buildings, the central square and many stores and shops. The steep gradient of the city from beach to vertical hillside is covered in houses and apartments crammed together to save space. A large artificial beach called "Covadonga" and a small artificial beach called "Caleta Boy" are the main attractions during summer months and serve as a focus away from the heat of the Atacama.

The red pork filling's dark pink color comes from marinating the pork with a very small amount of saltpeter prior to slow roasting. The bun is occasionally baked, but more frequently is steamed when it is made. Manapua has come to mean any meat-filled or bean-paste-filled bun made with the same dough as described above, including locally-created versions with hot dogs, curry chicken, kalua pig, and even ube (purple yam), which is a popular vegetarian version of the manapua. In Hawaii, freshly prepared or prepackaged frozen manapua may be found in dedicated bakeries, restaurants, and chain convenience stores.

In November 1879, during the Tarapacá Campaign, the Chilean Army seized the Peruvian salitreras and most of the guano deposits, whose export ports were already under blockade by the Chilean Navy. On 12 September 1879, five months after beginning of the war, the Chilean government had imposed a tax of 4 Chilean pesos per metric ton upon Antofagasta's export of saltpeter to finance the war effort, despite protest by the Chilean CSFA. After the occupation of Tarapaca, the Chilean government had to decide what to do with the nitrate industry. They had two alternatives: to follow Peru's way, i.e.

On the eve of the war, Guillermo Billinghurst, then a member of the Peruvian senate and later president of Peru, advocated the restitution of the salitreras to the former owners, but the outbreak of war made a discussion impossible. In 1890 the Peruvian government approved a settlement, known as the Grace Contract, which resulted in the holders of Peruvian sovereign debt taking control of the country's railroads. The government did not issue new sovereign debt until 1906. While the origins of the War of the Pacific are closely related to saltpeter, Peruvian historiography has been reluctant to review the issue.

In the Valparaíso they constructed their largest and most important colony, bringing with them neighborhoods of English character, schools, social, sports clubs, business organizations and periodicals. This influence is apparent in unique areas of Chilean society today, such as the bank and the national marina, as well as in certain social activities popular in the country, such as football, horse racing, and drinking tea. The English eventually numbered more than 32,000 during the port of Valparaíso's boom period during the saltpeter bonanza at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Inmigración británica en Valparaíso.

The first trustees were Alfred Kimble, Jacob L. Kimble, J.H. Lantz, Abraham Kile, and Isaac Ault. This historic building was purchased by the Episcopal Church in 1930 and renamed St. George's Church; it was rededicated in 1966. The nearby cavern known as "Big Cave", on Cave Mountain, was a source of saltpeter for the production of gunpowder from the earliest settlements through the War of 1812. This cave (not to be confused with the commercially developed Smoke Hole Caverns, just outside the Canyon, or with Smoke Hole Cave in the Canyon itself) is now better known as Cave Mountain Cave.

Sketch of Mutty Lall Seal's residential house at Colootola Seal started his business career by selling bottles and corks to Mr. Hudson, one of the most extensive importers of beer in those days. Mr. Hudson traded in cowhides and was the founder and promoter of the first indigo market, which was established under the name of M/s. Moore, Hickey & Co. English merchants hired Seal for his sound judgement on indigo, silk, sugar, rice, saltpeter, and other goods. He was appointed as "Banian" to around twenty first class agency houses out of around fifty or sixty such houses in Calcutta.

However, these weapons were not produced locally and had to be secured from elsewhere. Choe Mu-seon, a minor military official, managed to learn the methods of potassium nitrate purification from a visiting Chinese saltpeter merchant. After petitioning the court for several years, the Firearms Directorate was established in 1377 to oversee firearms production and development. A fleet of ships was trained in cannon use in 1378 and in 1380 saw its first use defeating a Wokou pirate near the mouth of the Geum River.Turnbull, Stephen, "Fighting Ships of the Far East, Volume 2: Japan and Korea", January 25, 2003, p. 20.

Between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote his al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al- harbiyya (The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices), which included 107 gunpowder recipes, 22 of which are for rockets. According to Ahmad Y Hassan, al-Rammah's recipes were more explosive than rockets used in China at the time. The terminology used by al-Rammah indicates a Chinese origin for the gunpowder weapons he wrote about, such as rockets and fire lances. Ibn al-Baitar, an Arab from Spain who had immigrated to Egypt, described saltpeter as "snow of China" ( ).

The nitrate oficina (saltpeter mine) of Marusia was located in the foothills of the Andes in the región de Tarapacá, about 4½ miles northwest of the town of Huara. Its monthly production was 865 tons of salt. On March 1925, the mine workers went on strike to demand higher pay, a shorter workday, and better working conditions. While the negotiations were taking place between the company executives and the worker's representatives, the British engineer who ran the mine, a man much hated because of his habit of whipping his workers, was found dead near the mine.

Translated into Vietnamese from Classical Chinese by Nguyễn Trọng Hân and Trương Văn Chinh. 15 vols. Huế: NXB Thuận Hoá. Original version preserved at the Toyo Bunko, Tokyo, Showa 23, call number: 196696. 4:205–244 By the beginning of the 19th century, 108 of the 134 mines in Vietnam were located in the northern highland provinces of Thai Nguyen, Tuyen Quang, Cao Bang, Lang Son, Tong Hoa, and Son Tay. They produced gold (31), silver (13), copper (7), iron (25), zinc (5), lead (4), tin (1), pig iron (4), saltpeter (15), sulfur (2), and cinnabar (1).

On 30 December 1557, Henry II wrote a letter to Suleiman, asking him for money, saltpeter, and 150 galleys to be stationed in the West. Through the services of his ambassador Jean Cavenac de la Vigne, Henry II obtained the dispatch of an Ottoman fleet to Italy in 1558, with little effect however apart from the sack of Sorrento. The Ottomans also contributed by the Ottoman invasion of the Balearic islands in 1558. The conflict would finally come to an end with the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) and the accidental death of Henry II that same year.

In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Indian textiles and silks. In the 17th and 18th centuries, India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia. Amiya Kumar Bagchi estimates 10.3% of Bihar's populace were involved in hand spinning thread, 2.3% weaving, and 9% in other manufacturing trades, in 1809–13, to satisfy this demand.

Mariano E. de Rivero y Ustariz, prominent Peruvian scientist Mariano Eduardo de Rivero y Ustariz (October 22, 1798 – November 6, 1857) was a prominent Peruvian scientist, geologist, mineralogist, chemist, archaeologist, politician and diplomat. His publications about his discovery of (an iron- oxalate), demonstrating the existence of organic-minerals; about deposits of copper and sodium nitrate (saltpeter) near Tarapacá in the Atacama Desert; about bird-guano and coal in Peru and their possibilities of industrialization as well were forward-looking and made him a pioneer of mining education in South America and the most notable Peruvian scientist of the 19th century.

The Chilehaus building was designed by the architect Fritz Höger and built between 1922 and 1924. It was commissioned by the shipping magnate Henry B. Sloman, who made his fortune trading saltpeter from Chile, hence the name Chile House. The cost of construction is difficult to determine, as the Chile House was built during the period of hyperinflation that struck Germany during the early 1920s, but is estimated to have been more than 10 million reichsmark. Currently it is property of the German real-estate company Union Investment Real Estate AG. The Hamburg site of the Instituto Cervantes is one of the renters.

The Great New York City Fire of 1845 broke out on July 19, 1845, in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The fire started in a whale oil and candle manufacturing establishment and quickly spread to other wooden structures. It reached a warehouse on Broad Street where combustible saltpeter was stored and caused a massive explosion that spread the fire even farther. The fire destroyed 345 buildings in the southern part of what is now the Financial District, resulting in property damage estimated at the time between $5 million and $10 million (equivalent to between $ and $ in ).

Lenormand was born in Montpellier on May 25, 1757 as the son of a clockmaker. Between 1775 and 1780, he studied physics and chemistry under Lavoisier and Berthollet in Paris, where he also got involved with the administration of saltpeter. In this position he learned of the use of scientific and mathematical knowledge in the production of gunpowder. After returning to his natal town, he worked in his father's clock shop while immersing himself in the intellectual community and starting his experiments with parachuting, inspired by the performance of a Thai equilibrist who used a parasol for balance.

On Nov. 13, 1862, the Confederate government advertised in the Charleston Daily Courier for 20 or 30 “able bodied Negro men” to work in the new nitre beds at Ashley Ferry, S.C. The nitre beds were large rectangles of rotted manure and straw, moistened weekly with urine, “dung water,” and liquid from privies, cesspools and drains, and turned over regularly. The process was designed to yield saltpeter, an ingredient of gunpowder, which the Confederate army needed during the Civil War. The National Archives published payroll records that account for more than 29,000 people compelled to such labor in the state of Virginia.

Santa María School massacre DjVu file The Santa María School massacre was a massacre of striking workers, mostly saltpeter works (nitrate) miners, along with wives and children, committed by the Chilean Army in Iquique, Chile on December 21, 1907. The number of victims is undetermined but is estimated by various sources at between 2,000 and 3,600."Matanza de la Escuela de Santa María de Iquique en 1907", Dirección de Bibliotecas, Archivos y Museos in Chile (DIBAM). It occurred during the peak of the nitrate mining era, which coincided with the Parliamentary Period in Chilean political history (1891–1925).

One of the first chemicals to be produced in large amounts through industrial processes was sulfuric acid. In 1736, the pharmacist Joshua Ward developed a process for its production that involved heating saltpeter, allowing the sulfur to oxidize and combine with water. It was the first practical production of sulphuric acid on a large scale. John Roebuck and Samuel Garbett were the first to establish a large-scale factory in Prestonpans, Scotland, in 1749, which used leaden condensing chambers for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. Charles Tennant's St. Rollox Chemical Works in 1831, then the biggest chemical enterprise in the world.

Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto- industrialization, similar to 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution. In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks.

Through Nettine's influence, he was commissioned to build Brussels's "place royale", church of Saint-Jacques-de-Coudenberg, and French embassy. In 1770 he was named inspector of the buildings for the king's gunpowder and saltpeter, during which appointment he built his best-known work, the château du Marais (1772–1779), for Jean Le Maître de La Martinière, treasurer-general of the artillery. For Louis Georges Érasme de Contades, maréchal de Contades, he rebuilt the château de Montgeoffroy, in Anjou. Underrated by his fellow architects, only one other backed his presenting himself to the Royal Academy of Architecture.

World Economic Survey. 1931. There were already 130,000 unemployed and the situation had caused the closing of the saltpeter mines in the Atacama, in turn causing a massive migration of workers to the urban centers. As part of its attempts to deal with the Great Depression, the government of Vice President Manuel Trucco, who had taken over from President Juan Esteban Montero on 20 August 1931, launched cuts to public spending. At the end of that month the Finance Minister, Pedro Blanquier, notified all public employees, including the members of the armed forces, of a reduction of 30% in their salaries.

Lester, his partner, and their mill foreman drowned on Sebago Lake on 22 June 1827.Dole, Samuel Thomas Windham in the Past (1916) Following an explosion killing seven employees on 19 July 1828,The Newsletter of Presumpscot Regional Land Trust Winter 2009-2010 the Gambo Falls mill was enlarged by Oliver Whipple concurrently with construction of locks for the Cumberland and Oxford Canal. Whipple had been manufacturing gunpowder in Lowell, Massachusetts since 1818. The new canal provided reliable transportation from Portland harbor for sulfur from Sicily and saltpeter from India and from Sebago Lake for charcoal and lumber from forests to the north.

Two members of the cell were first arrested after a grenade attack against a Jewish grocery store in Sarcelles in September 2012 that injured one person. Police later found bomb-making equipment in a storage unit rented by Jeremie Bailly, the alleged leader of the group. Another of the suspects, Muslim convert Jeremie Louis-Sidney, was killed in a police shootout on 6 October 2012 while resisting arrest. Three days after the shootout, police found "bags of potassium nitrate, sulfur, saltpeter, headlight bulbs and a pressure cooker" belonging to Louis-Sidney in an underground car park in Torcy, a suburb east of Paris.

The internal shell's aperture was then plugged up, and it was immersed in a mixture of 4 parts of melted pitch, 20 of rosin, 1 of oil of turpentine, and as much ground gunpowder as was needed to reduce it to the consistency of a paste. After immersion, the shell was to be covered with tow, and immersed again, until it was the proper size for the mortar. Carcass shells as used by the Royal Navy from the 18th to the 19th centuries were filled with a mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, rosin, sulfide of antimony, tallow and turpentine.

Soto with his daughter Isabel. The Argentine military and Carabiniers of Chile pursued Soto for five days, but he managed to hide in Puerto Natales and was able to escape to Punta Arenas on a schooner, protected by allies in the Federación Obrera de Magallanes, a local trade union. Fearing capture, he escaped on a boat and made his was to Valparaíso with the ultimate destination of Iquique in the north of Chile where he worked in a saltpeter refinery. The difficult working conditions took a toll on his health, leading him to return to Valparaíso.

The riches that came from the exploitation of these products were squandered by the Peruvian State, but they allowed the appearance of commercial and banking capital. It began to constitute a capitalist class, but whose origin was in the old Peruvian aristocracy. Another consequence was the consolidation of the economic power of the coast since until then, the mining had configured the Peruvian economy a mountain character. In short, guano and saltpeter allowed the slow transformation of the Peruvian economy from a feudal system to a capitalist system, although the dependence on foreign capital continued to be accentuated.

In the 17th century during sieges, armies attempted to start fires by launching incendiary shells filled with sulfur, tallow, rosin, turpentine, saltpeter, and/or antimony. Even when fires were not started, the resulting smoke and fumes provided a considerable distraction. Although their primary function was never abandoned, a variety of fills for shells were developed to maximize the effects of the smoke. In 1672, during his siege of the city of Groningen, Christoph Bernhard von Galen, the Bishop of Münster, employed several different explosive and incendiary devices, some of which had a fill that included Deadly Nightshade, intended to produce toxic fumes.

Bengal shipped saltpeter to Europe, sold opium in Indonesia, exported raw silk to Japan and the Netherlands, and produced cotton and silk textiles for export to Europe, Indonesia and Japan. Real wages and living standards in 18th-century Bengal were comparable to Britain, which in turn had the highest living standards in Europe. During the Mughal era, the most important centre of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia. Bengali agriculturalists rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal as a major silk-producing region of the world.

Two years after that, in 1819, Frank bought his own freedom at the same price. He then called himself Free Frank, which served notice that he was legally free, and that it was known to townspeople that he was free. (It was not uncommon for free black citizens to be kidnapped and enslaved.) In 1829 Free Frank traded his saltpeter plant in exchange for the freedom of his son Frank, who had fled to Canada and was a fugitive. (This allowed his son to return to the United States as a free man.) By this time he and Lucy also had three surviving freeborn children: Squire, Commodore and Lucy Ann.

She was successfully used in the saltpeter trade with Chile, setting speed records in the process. Due to her appearance, uniqueness, and excellent sailing characteristics seamen called her the "Queen of the Queens of the Seas". In 1903 (2 February - 1 May) she sailed an unequalled record voyage from Lizard Point to Iquique in 57 days. She made twelve "round trips" (Hamburg-Chile and back home) and one journey round the world via New York and Yokohama, Japan in charter to the Standard Oil Co. When she entered New York harbour, almost all New Yorkers were "on their legs" to see and welcome that unique tall sailing ship. Capt.

The elixir's fourteen reagents, given in exalted code names such as "White-Silk Flying Dragon" for quartz, are: cinnabar, realgar, milky quartz, azurite, amethyst, graphite, saltpeter, sulfur, asbestos, mica, iron pyrite, lead carbonate, Turkestan salt (desert lake precipitates containing gypsum, anhydrite, and halite), and orpiment (Bokenkamp 1997: 334). Based upon these ingredients, Schafer says the end product was probably bluish flint glass with a high lead content (1978: 37). The alchemist can either leave the crucible closed and proceed to the next stage or break it open and consume the langan elixir that is said to yield marvelous results. > The efflorescence should have thirty-seven hues.

The original dry-compounded powder used in 15th-century Europe was known as "Serpentine", either a reference to Satan or to a common artillery piece that used it. The ingredients were ground together with a mortar and pestle, perhaps for 24 hours, resulting in a fine flour. Vibration during transportation could cause the components to separate again, requiring remixing in the field. Also if the quality of the saltpeter was low (for instance if it was contaminated with highly hygroscopic calcium nitrate), or if the powder was simply old (due to the mildly hygroscopic nature of potassium nitrate), in humid weather it would need to be re-dried.

Burst barrel of a muzzle loader pistol replica, which was loaded with nitrocellulose powder instead of black powder and could not withstand the higher pressures of the modern propellant The development of smokeless powders, such as cordite, in the late 19th century created the need for a spark-sensitive priming charge, such as gunpowder. However, the sulfur content of traditional gunpowders caused corrosion problems with Cordite Mk I and this led to the introduction of a range of sulfur-free gunpowders, of varying grain sizes. They typically contain 70.5 parts of saltpeter and 29.5 parts of charcoal. Like black powder, they were produced in different grain sizes.

Devarda's alloy (CAS # 8049-11-4), is an alloy of aluminium (44% – 46%), copper (49% – 51%) and zinc (4% – 6%). Devarda's alloy is used as reducing agent in analytical chemistry for the determination of nitrates after their reduction to ammonia under alkaline conditions. It is named for Italian chemist Arturo Devarda (1859–1944), who synthesised it at the end of the 19th century to develop a new method to analyze nitrate in Chile saltpeter. It was often used in the quantitative or qualitative analysis of nitrates in agriculture and soil science before the development of ion chromatography, the predominant analysis method largely adopted worldwide today.

Gap Cave is located just underneath Pinnacle Overlook in the Cumberland Gap National Historical Park, Lee County, Virginia. Currently, the cave has a surveyed length of 18.5 miles and is the 42nd longest cave in the United States and 154th in the world.Bob Gulden, NSS GEO2 COMMITTEE ON LONG AND DEEP CAVES, October 19, 2015 There are six known entrances: the Gap Cave Entrance (also known as the King Solomons Cave Entrance), an artificial entrance, known as the Cudjo's Cave Entrance, the Stream Entrance, the Soldiers Cave Entrance, the Big Saltpeter Cave Entrance, and the Wellhole. All lead into the same cave, Gap Cave.

In the Atacama Desert in northern Chile, vast deposits of a mixture, also referred to as caliche, are composed of gypsum, sodium chloride and other salts, and sand, associated to salitre ("Chile saltpeter"). Salitre, in turn, is a composite of sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and potassium nitrate (KNO3). Salitre was an important source of export revenue for Chile until World War I, when Europe began to produce both nitrates industrially in large quantities. These deposits are the largest known natural source of nitrates in the world, containing up to 25% sodium nitrate and 3% potassium nitrate, as well as iodate minerals, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, and sodium borate (borax).

The most important railroad town is the Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia (FCAB) founded in 1888, during the economic boom of the saltpeter industry. Unlike other contemporary mining railways, FCAB survived the market crash of natural nitrate and today provides a variety of transportation services, highlighting the transport of mining products and consumables such as copper cathodes and sulfuric acid, through a network of , which is connected with the Ferrocarril Andino de Bolivia, Ferronor (in Chile), and Ferrocarril Belgrano in Argentina (Salta–Antofagasta railway). Since 1930, the company was acquired by Antofagasta PLC, which is part of the commercial group Quiñenco. The gauge of the FCAB is .

The first chemical factories were built between 1770 and 1779, based on the work of Lavoisier, an innovative chemist who was head of the laboratory of the Paris Arsenal and was also the head of the royal administration for making gunpowder. He modernized the production of saltpeter, the main ingredient of black powder, in large factories around Paris. The French chemist Berthollet discovered chlorine in 1785, creating a new industry for the manufacture of potassium chloride. New discoveries about acids, used extensively in fabric dyeing and metallurgy, led to the creation of new industries in Paris; the first French plant to manufacture sulfuric acid was opened in 1779.

The export product was sodium nitrate, a salt mined in the northern part of Chile which is often called Chilean saltpeter. With substantial popular opinion running against US entry into the war, the Bryan resignation and peace campaign (joined prominently with Henry Ford's efforts) became a banner for local versus national interests. However, Bryan was no more pro-German than the infamously nativistic Wilson; his motivation, instead, was to expose and publicize what he considered to be an unconscionable public policy. The National Defense Act of 1916 directed the president to select a site for the artificial production of nitrates within the United States.

Fortunately for Chaptal, his value to the nation as an industrial chemist was deemed sufficient to excuse his politics. France at the time was desperately in need of gunpowder to supply the armies of the Revolution. In the Spring of 1794, by order of Lazare Carnot, the Minister of War, Chaptal was charged with the management of the major gunpowder factory at Grenelle in Paris. Chaptal recounts in his memoirs how, with the help of his fellow scientists—Berthollet, Fourcroy, Guyton and others—he was able to introduce new and more rapid methods for refining saltpeter (at Saint-Germain-des-Prés) and produce increasing amounts of gunpowder at Grenelle.

Saucisson stuffing is generally made of two-thirds to three-quarters lean meat and the rest fat (largely pork back-fat called '). The mixture is ground to different fineness depending on the type of saucisson and mixed with salt, sugar, spices, nitrites and/or saltpeter, and with fermenting bacteria. For instance antilisterial strains of Lactobacillus sakei are used in Europe for the production of saucisson and can be used for the conservation of fresh meat. Some versions of saucisson also contain pepper seeds, garlic, bits of dried fruits or nuts (such as pistachios, figs, or olives), cheeses such as Roquefort, Laguiole, or alcohols such as wines or Génépi liquor.

At his request, Tousard arranged a tour of an American powder plant. He quickly deduced that the saltpeter being used was of good enough quality, however, the American refining process was poor and inefficient compared with the techniques he had learned in France. He began to think that he could use his experience from France to manufacture gunpowder of a higher quality in the United States and reform the current industry standard for refinery. With his father's blessing, he began to assemble capital for the construction of the first powder mills, and returned to France in the beginning of 1801 to procure the necessary financing and equipment.

The War of the Pacific (), also known as the Saltpeter War () and by multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought over Chilean claims on coastal Bolivian territory in the Atacama Desert, the war ended with a Chilean victory, which gained for the country a significant amount of resource-rich territory from Peru and Bolivia. The Chilean Army took Bolivia's nitrate-rich coastal region, and Peru was defeated by the Chilean Navy.William F. Sater, "War of the Pacific" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 5, pp. 438-441. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1996.

Although there were plans to move it to the Presidio branch of the San Francisco Public Library, these never materialized. However, after an agreement was made between Brautigan's daughter, Ianthe Brautigan, and the Clark County Historical Museum (in Vancouver, Washington), the Brautigan Library was moved to the museum in 2010. This American Life podcast #664, December 28, 2018 Kumquat Meringue was a literary journal published in Rockford, Illinois dedicated to the memory and work of Brautigan. Saltpeter, a London-based production company, launched an international creative society, the Brautigan Book Club (BBC), which uses Brautigan and his work as a creative jumping off point.

Merchants of the Dutch East India Company first established themselves in Dutch Coromandel, notably Pulicat, as they were looking for textiles to exchange with the spices they traded in the East Indies.[1] Dutch Suratte and Dutch Bengal succeeded in 1616 and 1627 respectively.[2][3] After the Dutch conquered Ceylon from the Portuguese in 1656, they took the Portuguese forts on the Malabar coast five years later as well, to secure Ceylon from Portuguese invasion.[4][5] Apart from textiles, the items traded in Dutch India include precious stones, indigo, and silk across India, saltpeter and opium in Dutch Bengal, and pepper in Dutch Malabar.

Markham's storm petrel nests in natural cavities in saltpeter, and pairs produce one egg per season. After hatching, fledglings make their way to sea, and can be either attracted to or disoriented by artificial lights. The diet of Markham's storm petrel consists of fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans, with about ten percent of stomach contents traceable to scavenging according to a 2002 study. Since at least 2012, Markham's storm petrel has been listed as an endangered species in Chile, and, in 2019, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified the conservation status of Markham's storm petrel as Near Threatened due to habitat loss on its nesting grounds.

In 1794, the town was attacked and burned by militiamen commanded by Colonel James Orr of Nashville, Tennessee. The town was rebuilt and the Chickamauga Indians continued to live here until 1838, when all of the remaining Indians were removed from Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia by the Trail of Tears."Caves of Chattanooga" by Larry E. Matthews, 2007, Published by the National Speleological Society, Lock at Hales Bar Dam, 1916 During the spring of 1861, early in the American Civil War, Robert Cravens of Chattanooga began mining saltpeter, the main ingredient of gunpowder, at Nickajack Cave. The operation was soon taken over by the Confederate Niter Bureau.

In 1863, Prussian artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellent of nitrated hardwood impregnated with saltpeter or barium nitrate. Prentice received an 1866 patent for a sporting powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket, but ballistic uniformity suffered as the paper absorbed atmospheric moisture. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a colloided version of Schultze powder called Collodin, which he manufactured near Vienna for use in sporting firearms. Austrian patents were not published at the time, and the Austrian Empire considered the operation a violation of the government monopoly on explosives manufacture and closed the Volkmann factory in 1875.

CSS Tennessee in 1864 Because of its central location, production facilities, and rail connections, the advantages of Selma as a site for production of cartridges, saltpeter, powder, shot and shell, rifles, cannon and steam rams soon became apparent to the Confederacy. By 1863, most materiel was manufactured in Selma, employing at least ten thousand people. Selma, along with the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, was one of two sites producing the Brooke rifle, a rifled naval and coast defense cannon designed by John Mercer Brooke. The hulls for several Confederate ironclads, including the CSS Huntsville, CSS Phoenix, CSS Tennessee, and CSS Tuscaloosa were laid at the Confederate Navy Yard there.

André Laugier (1770-1832) André Laugier (1 August 1770, in Lisieux - 19 April 1832, in Paris) was a French chemist, pharmacist and mineralogist. He was a cousin to famed chemist Antoine François Fourcroy and the father of astronomer Paul Auguste Ernest Laugier (1812–1872). He received his education in his hometown of Lisieux, and during the French Revolution, was tasked with collecting church bells in Bretagne in order for them to be melted down for the production of cannons.Google Books Johnson's New Universal Cyclopædia : a Scientific and Popular ..., Volume 2 In 1794 he was employed as head of the gunpowder and saltpeter works at the Comite de salut public.

On June 1, 1862 he rented the cave to the Confederate Nitre and Mining Bureau, who operated the cave until 1863 when Federal forces occupied Chattanooga. At one point the saltpeter mining operation was attacked by Federal forces: "Morale suffered after forces under General Ornsby Mitchell shelled the cave on June 7, 1863." Clearly, the cave was still in Confederate hands on that date. (See Matthews, 2007) Although Lookout Mountain Caverns has not been open to tourists for quite some time, the management of Ruby Falls did allow researchers to take the elevator (the shaft excavated in 1928-1929) down to Lookout Mountain Caverns by prior arrangement.

In China, the earliest firearm was the fire lance, a black-powder–filled tube attached to the end of a spear and used as a flamethrower (not to be confused with the Byzantine flamethrower); shrapnel was sometimes placed in the barrel so that it would fly out together with the flames. The earliest known depiction of a gunpowder weapon is the illustration of a fire-lance on a mid-10th century silk banner from Dunhuang. The De'an Shoucheng Lu, an account of the siege of De'an in 1132 during the Jin–Song Wars, records that Song forces used fire-lances against the Jurchen. The proportion of saltpeter in the propellant was increased to maximize its explosive power.

As a part of an embassy to India by Timurid leader Shah Rukh (1405–1447), 'Abd al-Razzaq mentioned naphtha- throwers mounted on elephants and a variety of pyrotechnics put on display. Roger Pauly has written that "while gunpowder was primarily a Chinese innovation," the saltpeter that led to the invention of gunpowder may have arrived from India, although it is also likely that it originates indigenously in China. Firearms known as top-o-tufak also existed in the Vijayanagara Empire of India by as early as 1366 CE. In 1368–1369, the Bahmani Sultanate may have used firearms against the Vijayanagara, but these weapons could have been pyrotechnics as well.Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India p.

Originally, this was with a mortar-and-pestle or a similarly operating stamping-mill, using copper, bronze or other non-sparking materials, until supplanted by the rotating ball mill principle with non-sparking bronze or lead. Historically, a marble or limestone edge runner mill, running on a limestone bed, was used in Great Britain; however, by the mid 19th century this had changed to either an iron- shod stone wheel or a cast iron wheel running on an iron bed. The mix was dampened with alcohol or water during grinding to prevent accidental ignition. This also helps the extremely soluble saltpeter to mix into the microscopic pores of the very high surface-area charcoal.

The saltpeter refinery building was the largest, and was designed in Gothic style as a replica of the British Houses of Parliament. The Confederate Powderworks was the second largest gunpowder factory in the world at that time, 1862-1865, during the 19th century, producing 3.5 tons a day. More than 2.75 million pounds of first-quality gunpowder (a majority of the powder used by the Confederacy), was produced here before its closure on April 18, 1865.Sibley Mill and Confederate Powder Works Chimney-Augusta: National Park Service By comparison, Union gunpowder manufacture was distributed among many mills, with the larger Hazard Powder Company of Connecticut producing forty percent of the annual production of 8.4 million pounds.

The territory of Chile has been populated since at least 3000 BC. By the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors began to subdue and colonize the region of present-day Chile, and the territory was a colony between 1540 and 1818, when it gained independence from Spain. The country's economic development was successively marked by the export of first agricultural produce, then saltpeter and later copper. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighboring states. Chile was governed during most of its first 150 years of independence by different forms of restricted government, where the electorate was carefully vetted and controlled by an elite.

Bolivia created the "Departamento del Litoral", during the government of Andrés de Santa Cruz, in 1837, which was divided into two provinces: La Mar (with capital Cobija) and Atacama (with its capital in San Pedro de Atacama) and 1868, Antofagasta would be the capital of the province of Mejillones. On 18 September 1866, José Santos Ossa and Francisco Puelma achieved the award of the concession of nitrate lands, following a request taken to the Bolivian government. The exploring of the Chilean miners found rich deposits of saltpeter (nitratine) in the field of Salar del Carmen, to the east of the present Antofagasta. Agreed to form the "Sociedad Exploradora del Desierto de Atacama" (Explorer Society of Atacama Desert).

The Atacama border dispute between Bolivia and Chile on sovereignty in the coastal territories between approximately the parallels 23° and 24° South was just one of several longstanding border conflicts in South America as the area gained independence in the 19th century since uncertainty characterized the demarcation of frontiers according to uti possidetis in 1810, particularly in remote, thinly populated portions of newly independent nations. The dry climate of the Peruvian and Bolivian coasts had permitted the accumulation and preservation of vast amounts of high-quality guano deposits and sodium nitrate. In the 1840s, Europeans knew the value of guano and nitrate as fertilizer and the role of saltpeter in explosives. The Atacama Desert became economically important.

This was the first exchange of what would become a deep-rooted commercial relationship between the UK and Chile. In Valparaíso they constructed their largest and most important colony, bringing with them neighborhoods of English character, schools, social, sports clubs, business organizations and periodicals. This influence is apparent in unique areas of Chilean society today, such as the bank and the national marina, as well as in certain social activities popular in the country, such as football, horse racing, and drinking tea. The English eventually numbered more than 32,000 during the port of Valparaíso's boom period during the saltpeter bonanza at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.

In 1802, French immigrant Eleuthère Irénée du Pont founded black powder mills on the banks of Brandywine Creek after purchasing the property in 1801 for $6,700. He chose the location for the river's tumble over the Fall Line which provided power, timber and willow trees (used to produce quality charcoal required for superior black powder), the proximity to the Delaware River (on which other ingredients of the powder – sulfur and saltpeter – could be shipped); and the quarries of gneiss which would provide building materials for the mills. The E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company's black powder factory became the largest in the world. In 1921, the mills along the Brandywine closed and parcels of the property were sold.

Luxembourg's cuisine has been influenced over the years by neighboring France, Germany, and Belgium. More recently, it has had influence from its many Italian and Portuguese immigrants. Luxembourg has many delicacies including its pastries, cheese, and fresh fish (brown trout, pike, and crayfish). Other delicacies include the Ardennes ham smoked in saltpeter, game during hunting season (such as hare and wild boar), small plum tarts in September (Quetsch), smoked neck of pork with broad beans (Judd mat Gaardebounen), fried small river fish (such as bream, chub, gudgeon, roach, and rudd), liver dumplings (Quenelle) with sauerkraut and boiled potatoes, black pudding (Träipen), sausages with mashed potatoes and horseradish, and green bean soup (Bouneschlupp).

The local residents of Shuangyu looked up to Wang Zhi and willingly aided the pirates, since the smuggling trade brought considerable wealth to the island. The villagers, who previously relied on subsistence agriculture and fishing to make a living, turned to making weapons and armour for Wang Zhi and other pirates of the area: "[They] melted copper coins to make shot, used saltpeter to make gunpowder, iron to make swords and guns, and leather to make their armour." Their admiration for the pirates was such that not only did they provide the pirates with daily necessities, they also gave women and pledged their own children. Many youngsters willingly joined Wang Zhi's group.

In its original form, these words refer to gunpowder blast and saltpeter, respectively. But after being absorbed into bedil in Malay language, and in a number of other cultures in the archipelago, that Tamil vocabulary is used to refer to all types of weapons that use gunpowder. In Javanese and Balinese the term bedil and bedhil is known, in Sundanese the term is bedil, in Batak it is known as bodil, in Makasarese, badili, in Buginese, balili, in Dayak language, badil, in Tagalog, baril, in Bisayan, bádil, in Bikol languages, badil, and Malay people call it badel or bedil. The term "meriam coak" is from the Betawi language, it means "hollow cannon", referring to the breech.

Alongside this trend, nitrate exports from the Peruvian province of Tarapacá grew, and became an important competitor to guano in the international market. In January 1873 the government of Manuel Pardo imposed an estanco, a state control on production and sales of nitrate, but this proved impractical and the law was shelved in March 1873, before it was ever applied. In 1875, as the economic situation deteriorated and Peru's overseas debts increased, the government expropriated the saltpeter industry and imposed a full state monopoly on production and exports. However, there were nitrate deposits in Bolivia and Chile, and although the latter were not economically viable, exports from Bolivia by the Chilean Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarriles de Antofagasta (CSFA) made Peruvian price controls impossible.

In 1878, the Bolivian Government imposed a new tax on nitrate exports, affecting the CSFA, in contradiction of Article IV of the Boundary Treaty of 1874 between Chile and Bolivia which prohibited any new tax on Chilean businesses and investments in Antofagasta. The company refused to pay the tax, and in February 1879 the Bolivian Government cancelled their mining licenses, nationalized the CSFA and announced its auction. Peru, allied with Bolivia due to a secret treaty of alliance signed in 1873, had tried to build a saltpeter monopoly and was set to benefit greatly from the breakup of the CSFA, its main competitor. On 14 February 1879, the port of Antofagasta, and later the whole province, was seized by Chilean troops.

In Persia saltpeter was known as "Chinese salt" () namak-i chīnī) or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" ( '). Hasan al-Rammah included 107 gunpowder recipes in his text al-Furusiyyah wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya (The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices), 22 of which are for rockets. If one takes the median of 17 of these 22 compositions for rockets (75% nitrates, 9.06% sulfur, and 15.94% charcoal), it is nearly identical to the modern reported ideal gunpowder recipe of 75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulfur, and 15% charcoal. Al-Hassan claims that in the Battle of Ain Jalut of 1260, the Mamluks used against the Mongols in "the first cannon in history" gunpowder formula with near-identical ideal composition ratios for explosive gunpowder.

This claim has been disputed by historians of science including Lynn Thorndike, John Maxson Stillman and George Sarton and by Bacon's editor Robert Steele, both in terms of authenticity of the work, and with respect to the decryption method. In any case, the formula claimed to have been decrypted (7:5:5 saltpeter:charcoal:sulfur) is not useful for firearms use or even firecrackers, burning slowly and producing mostly smoke. However, if Bacon's recipe is taken as measurements by volume rather than weight, a far more potent and serviceable explosive powder is created suitable for firing hand- cannons, albeit less consistent due to the inherent inaccuracies of measurements by volume. One example of this composition resulted in 100 parts saltpeter, 27 parts charcoal, and 45 parts sulfur, by weight.

Later he became a landed property speculator and merchant, successively in partnership with Fergusson Brothers & Co., Oswald Seal & Co. and Tulloh & Co. In these three firms he was said to have lost some thirty Lakh of rupees. He was involved in exporting indigo, silk, sugar, rice, and saltpeter to Europe, and importing iron and cotton-piece goods from England.Chakrabarty, Dipesh, The Colonial context of the Bengal Renaissance: A Note On Early Railway Thinking In Bengal, in Indian Economic and Social History Review, Vol. XI, No. 1, March 1974 Seal acquired a number of cargo boats, which were then new to the market, and used old flour mills to ship tons of biscuits to Australia for the first emigrants to its newly discovered gold fields.

This tactic was extremely successful against the more traditional tactics of existing European armies. It was his initiative to train the conscripts in the art of war and to place new recruits with experienced soldiers rather than having a massive volunteer army without any real idea of how to wage battle. Once the problem of troop numbers had been solved, Carnot turned his administrative skills to the supplies that this massive army would need. Many of the munitions and supplies were in short supply: copper was lacking for guns so he ordered church bells seized in order to melt them down; saltpeter was lacking and he called chemistry to his aid; leather for boots was scarce so he demanded and secured new methods for tanning.

Control of the coast and adjacent seas was the principal objective from the beginning of hostilities, and the war first developed almost entirely on the sea. The land operations theatre was an arid desert along the coast and the adjacent saltpeter-mining areas inland. The mining region comprised the westernmost part of Bolivia, including that nation's entire seacoast, and a substantial part of southern Peru. Control of the sea and the coast would give a decisive logistic advantage in the forthcoming land battles. Hence, when Chile gained military control of the sea along the coast with the victory at Angamos (Battle of Angamos) on October 8, 1879, a landing operation became imminent as a beginning of the terrestrial campaign to secure the Tarapacá.

The Battle of San Francisco, also known as the Battle of Dolores (not to be confused with the Battle of Dolores River (1904) during the Philippine–American War), was a major battle in the Tarapacá Campaign of the War of the Pacific, fought on November 19, 1879, in the Peruvian department of Tarapacá. A Chilean army under Colonel Emilio Sotomayor had moved via Dolores rail road deep into the desert and was encamped at San Francisco Saltpeter Office, about 30 kilometers south east of the port of Pisagua. Allied forces under General Juan Buendía launched an attack on Sotomayor's army. At the beginning, Bolivian General Carlos Villegas pressed the attack over a poorly defended battery right in the Chilean centre and almost succeeded.

Melick founded the New York Chemical Manufacturing Company, the predecessor of Chemical Bank in 1823 together with John C. Morrison, Mark Spenser, Gerardus Post, James Jenkins, William A. Seely and William Stebbins.History of the Chemical Bank 1823-1913. Privately Published by The Chemical National Bank, 1913 Melick and his partners used the manufacturing company, which produced chemicals such as blue vitriol, alum, nitric acid, camphor and saltpeter, as well as medicines, paints, and dyes as a means to securing a bank charter from the New York State legislature.scripophily.net - Retrieved November 8, 2007 During the 1820s, prospective bankers found that they were more likely to be able to successfully secure a charter if the bank were part of a larger business.

Major changes took place between 1770 and 1790 in chemical manufacturing, due to the pioneering work of French chemists. The first chemical factories were built between 1770 and 1779, based on the work of Lavoisier, an innovative chemist who was head of the laboratory of the Paris Arsenal and was also the head of the royal administration for making gunpowder. He modernized the production of saltpeter, the main ingredient of black powder, in large factories around Paris. The French chemist Berthollet discovered chlorine in 1785, creating a new industry for the manufacture of potassium chloride. New discoveries about acids, used extensively in fabric dyeing and metallurgy, led to the creation of new industries in Paris; the first French plant to manufacture sulfuric acid was opened in 1779.

Explosion of a warehouse on Broad Street during the Great New York City Fire of 1845, July 19, 1845 The 1835 Great Fire of New York destroyed whatever historical buildings were left from the early times of New Amsterdam/New York. Much of the street was destroyed again in the Great New York City Fire of 1845. In the first two hours of the fire's spread, it reached a large multi-story warehouse occupied by Crocker & Warren on Broad Street, where a large quantity of combustible saltpeter was stored.Terry Golway, So Others Might Live: A History of New York's Bravest, Basic Books, 2002, pp. 80-84."The Great Fire -- Additional Particulars,"New York Daily Tribune, July 22, 1845, page 2.

Almost two millennia ago, Romans were extracting stone from the quarry located in the area for the building of Belgrade's predecessor, Singidunum and for many surviving sarcophagi from that period. It was recorded that the Romans used this stone for the construction of the city's aqueduct in 69 AD. The castrum of Singidunum had tall walls, built from the white Tašmajdan limestone. After the Slavs settled in the area, because of the white stones of the fortress they named the city Beligrad, or "white city". The quarry remained operational during Ottoman period, thus giving the name to the entire location (Turkish taş, stone and meydan, square), though it was also used for the extraction of saltpeter by Ilija Milosavljević Kolarac, which was used in the gunpowder production.

During the Civil War, Robert L. Owen Sr., who had been one of the engineers surveying for the railroad and who had risen through the ranks, succeeded McDaniel as president. The railroad became a key supply, food and troop movement route for the Confederate States Army, particularly from the capital of Richmond to the interior at Chattanooga, Tennessee. The V&T; moved also key raw materials: copper from mines near Cleveland, Tennessee, lead from mines near Bristol, salt from Saltville, Virginia and saltpeter from caves throughout the region. Union forces finally captured much of the railroad and destroyed tracks and rolling stock in late 1864, although service was periodically interrupted by a series of cavalry raids earlier in the war.

Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan. Akbar played a key role in establishing Bengal as a leading economic centre, as he began transforming many of the jungles there into farms. As soon as he conquered the region, he brought tools and men to clear jungles in order to expand cultivation and brought Sufis to open the jungles to farming.

Wyandotte Cave was used by Native Americans for nearly 4000 years before Europeans arrived in the area; carbon dating of artifacts provided evidence of human activity potentially as far back as 8000 BC. The Native Americans used torches made of hickory bark and grape vines to light the cave where they mined for aragonite, which they used for pipes and necklaces, and chert, which they used to make stone tools. The remains of their mining explorations can be seen on tours to this day. The discovery of Wyandotte Cave by European settlers is believed to have occurred around 1798. Shortly thereafter Wyandotte Cave became known as an excellent source of saltpeter, an integral component of gunpowder, and of Epsom salts, which have medical uses.

The first reference to gunpowder is probably a passage in the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe, a Taoism text tentatively dated to the mid-9th century: > Some have heated together sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke > and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even > the whole house where they were working burned down. Jiaozi (currency), 11th century paper-printed money from the Song Dynasty. The earliest surviving recipes for gunpowder can be found in the Chinese military treatise Wujing zongyao of 1044 AD, which contains three: two for use in incendiary bombs to be thrown by siege engines and one intended as fuel for poison smoke bombs. The formulas in the Wujing zongyao range from 27 to 50 percent nitrate.

At this point the formula contained too little saltpeter (about 50%) to be explosive, but the mixture was highly flammable, and contemporary weapons reflected this in their deployment as mainly shock and incendiary weapons. One of the first, if not the first of these weapons was the fire arrow. The first possible reference to the use of fire arrows was by the Southern Wu in 904 during the siege of Yuzhang. An officer under Yang Xingmi by the name of Zheng Fan (鄭璠) ordered his troops to "shoot off a machine to let fire and burn the Longsha Gate", after which he and his troops dashed over the fire into the city and captured it, and he was promoted to Prime Minister Inspectorate for his efforts and the burns his body endured.

Originally an island that was used for agriculture, in 1928 Norsk Hydro decided to locate a new artificial fertilizer factory there, Hydro Porsgrunn, and in just 16 months both this factory and a shipping port for Norwegian saltpeter (calcium nitrate) were built. In the process, the narrow sound between the island and the mainland was mostly filled up, thus transforming the island to a peninsula. The reason Hydro wanted to establish itself in the Grenland region was the proximity to limestone, one of the necessary components in the fertilizer, Calcium nitrate. Norsk Hydro had previously had to build its fertilizer plants in Notodden (in 1907) and Rjukan (in 1909) because technology at that time didn't allow for efficient transport of electricity long distances from the power plants to the place of use.

In the telenovela she played the Roma character Mama Pasca Antich, the respected sister of the king of the ethnic colony, who fights against the pain and abandonment of her only son who went to the capital for an unrequited love. In the melodrama she shared credits with Juan Falcón, Claudia di Girolamo, Héctor Noguera, and Luis Alarcón. Like her previous character, she counts this as one of her best roles in television. In 2001 she participated in Pampa Ilusión, filmed at Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works, where she played a southern prostitute named La Poroto, who together with her young colleague arrive at the fictional Pampa Ilusión office, hired to work in a clandestine brothel of a blind man who owns the place's only grocery store.

Niulakita and other islands of the Tuvaluan archipelago were claimed by the United States under the Guano Islands Act (1856), which was passed by the U.S. Congress to enable citizens of the U.S. to take possession of islands containing guano deposits. In the 1840s guano was a source of saltpeter for gunpowder as well as an agricultural fertilizer. The legislation was enacted to assist in securing supplies of guano. On 4 August 1892 Captain Davis of visited Niulakita but did not land on the island, he recorded in the ship's journal: “Several natives appeared on the beach, and hoisted up an American ensign.” On 16 September 1896 Captain Gibson of HMS Curacoa, recorded in the ship's journal that six men and six women, natives of various islands, were living on Niulakita working for Moors.

The aim of the Chilenization was to create a dominance of Chilean traditions and culture in that region, in preference to those of the Peruvian population. The British desire to reunite all saltpeter mines under one political administration was also a major factor that influenced the outcome of the war. After the failure of Chile to ratify the Billinghurst-Latorre protocol, Chile began in the provinces of Tacna and Arica a policy which has been called "Chilenization". This has consisted in the closing of school conducted by Peruvians, the extension of the military zone to Tacna, the dismissal of Peruvian prelates and interference with Peruvian religious establishments, the initiation of a Chilean press propaganda and restrictions upon Peruvian press and political agitation, and a colonization policy for Chileans.

Geographically, the region Chileans today have come to refer to as the Norte Grande (Big North) lies within the Atacama Desert, the driest region on Earth. The Norte Grande and the Norte Chico immediately to the south belong to the Chilean pampa, a vast plain located between the Pacific Ocean and the western foothills of the Andes mountains. The Norte Grande, which administratively consisted (before 1974) of the two Provinces of Tarapacá and Antofagasta, had been seized by Chile from Bolivia and Peru in the War of the Pacific (1879–1884), giving Chile an area rich in minerals, principally copper and saltpeter (sodium nitrate). Tensions provoked by the control of the mines had been one of the leading causes of the 1891 Chilean Civil War, when pro-Congress forces triumphed.

He also translated the Treatise by the 14th century Florentine painter Cennino Cennini and learned from his techniques. His most remarkable works are those for churches (at Église Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois in the 1840s, and at the Saint-Séverin in the 1850s), which were admired by Ingres and Delacroix. However, the clergy's hostility to them, the materials used, the saltpeter walls and their situation all meant that they were already deteriorated by the end of the 19th century and are now largely lost (except for Saint Martin cutting his cloak in two at St-Germain l'Auxerrois), though Mottez's cartoons for them survive. During the same years he frequented the Bertins' salon, alongside the main writers and artists of the time (a sketch of his for a portrait of Victor Hugo survives).

The purpose of the Council (at first called the National Research Foundation) was in part to foster and encourage "the increased use of scientific research in the development of American industries ... the employment of scientific methods in strengthening the national defense ... and such other applications of science as will promote the national security and welfare." At the time, the Academy's effort to support national defense readiness, the Committee on Nitric Acid Supply, was approved by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. Nitric acid was the substance basic in the making of propellants such as cordite, high explosives, dyes, fertilizers, and other products but availability was limited due to World War I. The NRC, through its committee, recommended importing Chilean saltpeter and the construction of four new ordnance plants.

The two RTGs onboard carried in total 200 g of plutonium and are assumed to have survived reentry as they were designed to do. They are thought to now lie somewhere in a northeast-southwest running oval long by wide which is centred east of Iquique, Chile.Mars 96 timeline, NASA Prior to becoming Chilean territory, Iquique was home to some of the greatest Peruvian heroes, namely Alfonso Ugarte (who was elected mayor in 1876), Ramon Zavala, a rich saltpeter entrepreneur; Guillermo Billinghurst, later President of Peru (who after being overthrown in 1914 came to Iquique – then already under Chilean rule – to live out his last years), and Ramon Castilla, three times president of Peru, who was born in San Lorenzo de Tarapacá and died in the Desert of Tiviliche, Tarapacá, who lived in Iquique during his mandate as Governor of Tarapacá in 1825.

The Naval campaign of the War of the Pacific or Saltpeter war was a naval campaign that took place from 1879 to 1884 involving Peru (as well as Bolivia), and Chile undertaken in order to support land forces in the Atacama Desert. Due to the rough terrain and few transport methods it was imperitive to have control of the ports in order to have a good supply source in the region. Bruce W. Farcau, "The Ten Cents War", p. 65: : "As the earlier discussion of the geography of the Atacama region illustrates, control of the sea lanes along the coast would be absolutely vital to the success of a land campaign there" It resulted in a successful campaign by Chile, and the success of their land campaigns leading to the loss of Boliva's access to the ocean.

One of its points was not to impose new taxes on individuals, industries and Chilean capital for 25 years. For Bolivia, the contract of 1873 between the government and CSFA was not yet in force, because, according to the Bolivian constitution, all contracts with the Bolivian government had to be approved by the congress. According to the Bolivian version of events, the contract with the saltpeter company was incomplete so the congress, to approve the contract, decided to enforce a tax of 10 cents, which did not violate the treaty of 1874, since the contract was not yet in force at that date. Bolivia suspended the tax in deference to the government of Chile, but following a note from the Chilean foreign minister, it reactivated the tax law, then cancelled and closed the "Compañía de Salitres".

The name of the place is composed from the words "Iztatl" (salt) and "pan" (place): "place where is salt", this makes reference to the importance that salt exploitation had from prehispanic times, it was fundamentally due to the saltpeter (Potassium nitrate) water wells that existed near the town. (Still mined, although in smaller scale) In relation to Tejupilco, there is no certainty of the true meaning of the word Tejupilco until today, it is known that a large volcanic rock which has a human footprint in the Huarache Hill east of San Simón, gave name to the place. Texopilco, as it was known to the arrival of the Spaniards and several decades afterwards, has had several versions of its meaning: Texo (foot print), pilli (small), place of small footprint, Te (not own), xopilli (toes).Olaguibel. Onomatología del Estado de México.

It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce. Bengal's industrial economy in the Mughal era has been described as a form of proto- industrialization.Abhay Kumar Singh (2006), Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650-1800, Volume 1, Northern Book Centre The plunder of Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain,Shombit Sengupta, Bengals plunder gifted the British Industrial Revolution, The Financial Express, 8 February 2010 with the capital amassed from Bengal used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and greatly increase British wealth, while at the same time leading to deindustrialization in Bengal. ;Textile industry A woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin, 18th century Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trades.

For more than a century, the world supply of the compound was mined almost exclusively from the Atacama desert in northern Chile until, at the turn of the 20th century, German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed a process for producing ammonia from the atmosphere on an industrial scale (see Haber process). With the onset of World War I, Germany began converting ammonia from this process into a synthetic Chilean saltpeter, which was as practical as the natural compound in production of gunpowder and other munitions. By the 1940s, this conversion process resulted in a dramatic decline in demand for sodium nitrate procured from natural sources. Chile still has the largest reserves of caliche,with active mines in such locations as Pedro de Valdivia, María Elena and Pampa Blanca, and there it used to be called white gold.

The Boundary Treaty of 1874 between Chile and Bolivia, also called the Treaty of Sucre, was signed in Sucre on August 6, 1874 by the Bolivian Minister of Foreign Affairs Mariano Baptista and the Chilean plenipotentiary minister Carlos Walker Martínez. It superseded the Boundary Treaty of 1866 between Chile and Bolivia and it kept the border between both countries at the 24° South parallel from the Pacific Ocean to the eastern border of Chile. The Treaty abolished the zone of bipartite tax collection on the export dues on minerals found between parallel 23°S and 25°S, and Bolivia promised explicitly in article 4 of the Treaty not to augment the existing taxes for twenty-five years on Chilean capital and industry. To realize its Saltpeter Monopoly, Peru tried fruitless to prevent the signing of the treaty.

Owing to the lax regulation on maritime trade in Guangdong, Wang Zhi and his associates were able to build great seaworthy junks, which they used to carry contraband goods such as saltpeter, silks, and cotton to the markets of Southeast Asia and Japan. During his time in Southeast Asia, he became acquainted with the Portuguese, who had been in the area since they captured Malacca in 1511. At this time, Wang Zhi's dealings with the foreigners were illegal since all private sea trade had been banned from the beginning of the Ming dynasty. Under the prohibition, all maritime trade were to be conducted through the officially sanctioned "tribute trade", which was a kind of trade where foreign states presented tributes to the Chinese court, acknowledged themselves as vassals of the Ming, and received gifts as a sign of imperial favour.

The company was founded on the Scantic River in 1835 by Allen Loomis in an area then known as Powder Hollow, with the construction of a small gunpowder mill. A company called Loomis, Denslow and Company, named for Loomis and his business partner, was established the following year.Hazardville Gunpowder Industry, Enfield Historical Society. accessed September 17, 2009Enfield History , Enfield Historical Society website, accessed September 17, 2009 The company manufactured powder from saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal. and Employees lived in a company town named Hazardville, which took its name from Colonel Augustus George Hazard, who bought into the company in 1837 and eventually built it to become a major producer of gunpowder. The company changed its name to Loomis, Hazard & Company in 1837, and became the Hazard Powder Company in 1843 when Hazard bought Loomis' share of the business.

Pail closets, outhouses, and cesspits were used to collect human waste. The use of human waste as fertilizer was especially important in China and Japan, where cattle manure was less available. However, most cities did not have a functioning sewer system before the Industrial era , relying instead on nearby rivers or occasional rain showers to wash away the sewage from the streets . In some places, waste water simply ran down the streets, which had stepping stones to keep pedestrians out of the muck, and eventually drained as runoff into the local watershed. John Harington’s toilet In the 16th century, Sir John Harington invented a flush toilet as a device for Queen Elizabeth I (his godmother) that released wastes into cesspools.. After the adoption of gunpowder, municipal outhouses became an important source of raw material for the making of saltpeter in European countries.

A. J. van der Aa, Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden, Haarlem, J.J. van Brederode, 2 Deel, 1854. He learned to speak Bengali, in addition to his other languages, English, Dutch, German, Portuguese and French. Later, he was appointed to the Company's Benares (Varanasi) factory, where he opened a woolens mart, developed saltpeter manufacturing, established opium works, imported cotton, and promoted the trade in diamonds from the Panna and Chudderpoor (Chhatarpur) mines in Bundelkhand.William Bolts, "A Short Chronological Narrative of Events [1801]", Cleveland Public Library, John G. White Zamboni ms Wq 091.92, B 639s; and P.J. Marshall, East Indian Fortunes, Oxford, 1976, p.221. Précis de l'Origine, de la Marche et de la Chûte de la Compagnie d'Asie et d'Afrique dans les Ports du Littoral Autrichien, Liege, 1785, pp.6-7. William Bolts, Considerations on India Affairs, London, 1772-5, Vol.

The most telling passage reads: "We have an example of these things (that act on the senses) in [the sound and fire of] that children's toy which is made in many [diverse] parts of the world; i.e., a device no bigger than one's thumb. From the violence of that salt called saltpeter [together with sulfur and willow charcoal, combined into a powder] so horrible a sound is made by the bursting of a thing so small, no more than a bit of parchment [containing it], that we find [the ear assaulted by a noise] exceeding the roar of strong thunder, and a flash brighter than the most brilliant lightning." In the early 20th century, British artillery officer Henry William Lovett Hime proposed that another work tentatively attributed to Bacon, Epistola de Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae, et de Nullitate Magiae contained an encrypted formula for gunpowder.

The company was established in Valparaíso, Chile, and its shareholders included a number of leading Chilean politicians. In 1871, a new Bolivian government canceled all contracts signed by Melgarejo, but on 22 November 1872, a Bolivian decree allowed the government to renegotiate the contracts. On 27 November 1873, the company obtained from the Bolivian executive a license to exploit saltpeter without duty for 15 years, but whether the decree needed the authorization of the Bolivian Congress was disputed.The Bolivian law of 22 November said (): Se autoriza al Ejecutivo para transar sobre indemnización y otros reclamos pendientes en la actualidad, y para acordar con las partes interesadas la forma más conveniente en que habrán de llenarse sus obligaciones respectivas; defiriéndose estos asuntos, sólo en los casos de no avenimiento, a la decisión de la Corte Suprema, con cargo a dar cuenta a la próxima legislatura.

Gunpowder was discovered in China sometime during the first millennium AD. The very earliest possible reference to gunpowder appeared in 142 AD during the Eastern Han dynasty when the alchemist Wei Boyang wrote about a substance with the properties of gunpowder. He described a mixture of three powders that would "fly and dance" violently in his Cantong qi, otherwise known as the Book of the Kinship of Three, a Taoist text on the subject of alchemy. Although it is impossible to know if he was actually referring to gunpowder, no other explosive known to scientists is composed of three powders. While it was almost certainly not their intention to create a weapon of war, Taoist alchemists continued to play a major role in gunpowder development due to their experiments with sulfur and saltpeter involved in searching for eternal life and ways to transmute one material into another.

In the closing days of the Civil War, when a soldier seeking to enter his cellar and carry away his provisions, although bearing the weight of 80 years upon his shoulders, with his strong right arm he quickly felled the soldier to the floor. So impressed was the commanding officer that he ordered his soldiers to ride away. American Civil War Early during the American Civil War, Confederate cannons were mounted at the Powder Spring Gap on Clinch Mountain facing the Clinch Valley in order to prevent Union forces crossing from the northwest side of the ridge to the Federal Road and the Richland Valley to the southeast. As the war progressed, Confederate soldiers engaged in guerrilla warfare tactics from numerous vantage points along Clinch Mountain, including the rocks and caves around Joppa Mountain's summit at Buzzard Rock where they extracted saltpeter, one of the ingredients of gunpowder, from the droppings of buzzards.

During this time, European manufacturers also began regularly purifying saltpeter, using wood ashes containing potassium carbonate to precipitate calcium from their dung liquor, and using ox blood, alum, and slices of turnip to clarify the solution. During the Renaissance, two European schools of pyrotechnic thought emerged, one in Italy and the other at Nuremberg, Germany. The German printer and publisher Christiaan Egenolff adapted an earlier work on pyrotechnics from manuscript to print form, publishing his Büchsenmeysterei in 1529 and reprinting it in 1531. Now extremely rare, the book discusses the manufacturing of gunpowder, the operation of artillery and the rules of conduct for the gunsmith. In Italy, Vannoccio Biringuccio, born in 1480, was a member of the guild Fraternita di Santa Barbara but broke with the tradition of secrecy by setting down everything he knew in a book titled De la pirotechnia, written in vernacular. It was published posthumously in 1540, with 9 editions over 138 years, and also reprinted by MIT Press in 1966.

The cultural heritage of Chile consists, first, of their intangible heritage, composed of various cultural events, such as visual arts, crafts, dances, holidays, cuisine, games, music and traditions, and, secondly, by its tangible, consists of those buildings, objects and sites of archaeological, architectural, traditional, artistic, ethnographic, folkloric, historical, religious or technological scattered through Chilean territory, among them, those goods are declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, ratified by Chile in 1980. These cultural sites are the Rapa Nui National Park (1995), the Churches of Chiloé (2000), the historical district of the port city of Valparaíso (2003), Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works (2005) and the mining city Sewell (2006). In 1999 the Cultural Heritage Day was established as a way to honour and commemorate Chiles cultural heritage. It is an official national event celebrated in May every year.

His play Gaudeamus, a contemporary adaptation of the Assemblywomen by Aristophanes, was staged at the Arcola in London in 2006, starring Kika Markham and Chipo Chung. Morris was a founding member of the Obie-winning theatre company The Civilians, and worked with them on two productions, Gone Missing and Nobody's Lunch. From 2003 to 2007, Morris taught as writer-in- residence at LAMDA, where he staged A Million Hearts for Mosley, which used the music from The Yeomen of the Guard by Gilbert and Sullivan to stage an exploration of the British Union of Fascists and the careers of Sir Oswald Mosley and his wife Diana Mosley. Morris' adaptation of La Mort de Tintagiles by Maurice Maeterlinck, entitled "The Death of Tintagel", was published in The Paris Review in 2003, and will be staged for the first time in London in autumn 2010, at People Show Studios, produced by Saltpeter Productions and directed by Vik Sivalingam.

Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel, and processed exports included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century. In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.

Piaggio formed one of the first large business groups in the South American region, with interests spanning everything from finance, commerce, services, mining, and oil. In 1907, based on a University of Pennsylvania letter, Faustino Piaggio owned the oil fields of Zorritos and Los Organos, an oil refinery, several ships, a major trading company working between Callao and Genoa, finance holdings, mines, land holdings, and had a fortune worth about 24 million dollars. He was a large shareholder and board member of the Banco de Peru y Londres, the largest South American bank of its day, major shareholder at Banco Italiano. Owned a large sodium nitrate mine called Compania Salitrera La Aguada de Pisagua (mineral fertilizer saltpeter), silver and zinc mines under Minera Nueva Italia, and owned 60% of the Compania Nacional de Cerveza, maker of Pilsen Callao (this brewery and the industrial/financial conglomerate attached to it was the last large business controlled by his heirs, it was sold to a competitor in 1994).

Sushruta performed surgeries like nose repair, intestinal repairs, plastic surgery etc. in ancient times. A combination of archaeological and anthropological studies offer insight into man's early techniques for suturing lacerations, amputating unsalvageable limbs, and draining and cauterizing open wounds. Many examples exist: some Asian tribes used a mix of saltpeter and sulfur that was placed onto wounds and lit on fire to cauterize wounds; the Dakota people used the quill of a feather attached to an animal bladder to suck out purulent material; the discovery of needles from the stone age seem to suggest they were used in the suturing of cuts (the Maasai used needles of acacia for the same purpose); and tribes in India and South America developed an ingenious method of sealing minor injuries by applying termites or scarabs who bit the edges of the wound and then twisted the insects' neck, leaving their heads rigidly attached like staples.

The Arabs acquired knowledge of gunpowder some time after 1240, but before 1280, by which time had written, in Arabic, recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries.. Ahmad Y. al-Hassan claims that the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 saw the Mamluks use against the Mongols in "the first cannon in history" gunpowder formulae which were almost identical with the ideal composition for explosive gunpowder, which he claims were not known in China or Europe until much later. However, Iqtidar Alam Khan states that it was invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world. and cites Mamluk antagonism towards early riflemen in their infantry as an example of how gunpowder weapons were not always met with open acceptance in the Middle East.. Al-Hassan interprets Ibn Khaldun as reporting the use of cannon as siege machines by the Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf at the siege of Sijilmasa in 1274. Super-sized bombards were used by the troops of Mehmed II to capture Constantinople, in 1453.

Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours was the son of a Parisian watchmaker and a member of a Burgundian Huguenot family, and descendant of a minor noble family on his mother's side. He and his sons, Victor Marie du Pont and Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, migrated from France in 1800 to the United States and used the resources of their Huguenot heritage to found one of the most prominent of American families, and one of its most successful corporations, E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, initially established by Éleuthère Irénée as a gunpowder manufacturer. In 1802, Éleuthère Irénée du Pont established a gunpowder mill on the banks of the Brandywine River near Wilmington, Delaware. The location (named Eleutherian Mills) provided all the necessities to operate the mill: a water flow sufficient to power it, available timber (mainly willow trees) that could be turned into charcoal fine enough to use for gunpowder, and close proximity to the Delaware River to allow for shipments of sulfur and saltpeter, the other ingredients used in the manufacture of gunpowder.

His father was Jean Barré de Saint-Venant, (1737–1810), a colonial officer of the Isle of Saint-Domingue (later Haiti), manager of the Duplaa plantation in Quartier-Morin known for his particular cruelty, and member of the Cercle des Philadelphes in Cap- Français, a society dedicated to colonial science founded in Haiti. His father's Des colonies modernes (1802) would attempt to find a scientific justification for the system of enslavement on which the colonial economy depended, and propose further methods of ensuring the continuation of the colonial system. Barré de Saint-Venant would follow in his father's footsteps in science, entering the École Polytechnique, in 1813 at sixteen years old, and studying under Gay-Lussac. Graduating in 1816 he worked for the next 27 years as an engineer, initially his passion for chemistry led him a post as a élève-commissaire (student commissioner) for the Service des Poudres et Salpêtres (Powders and Saltpeter Service) and then as a civil engineer at the Corps des Ponts et Chaussées. He married in 1837, Rohaut Fleury from Paris.

The crisis in has also been considered by Jorge Pinto Rodríguez a force behind the new pulse of conquest of indigenous lands that took place in Araucanía in the 1870s. When Chile found herself in command of the then still Peruvian province of Tarapacá during the War of the Pacific and being subjected to pressure from Peru's creditors, who threatened Chile's credit in Europe if their claims were not met, the Chilean government essentially had two options: to nationalize the industry for Chile (that is to pay the Peruvian debt certificates), or to recognize the holders of the Peruvian debt certificates (which John Thomas North hurried to purchase at knock-down prices) as the owner of the assets. On June 11, 1881 Chile issued a decree in favor of the second option and to enact an export tax upon the export of saltpeter. The Chilean war debts, the impossibility to assume the financial obligations of nitrate certificates and the will to deflate European opposition to the annexation were the reasons to the decree that was criticized in Chile after the war.

Another facet of the gunpowder transmission theory is the appearance of gunpowder in Europe ready made for military usage, and is generally referred to as gunpowder rather than a civilian term such as the Chinese "fire-drug," which suggests an originally non-military usage, whereas in Europe it was almost immediately and exclusively used for its military qualities. Muslim terms of saltpeter may also point toward a gunpowder transmission, if not the gun itself, as an Andalusian botanist referred to it as "Chinese snow," while in Persia it was called "Chinese salt." Perhaps even further in the Sinocentric gun transmission camp is Joseph Needham who claims that "all the long preparations and tentative experiments were made in China, and everything came to Islam and the West fully fledged, whether it was the fire-lance or the explosive bomb, the rocket or the metal- barrel hand-gun and bombard." However, theories of European, Islamic, and Indian origins for the gun and gunpowder still persist today in tandem with the transmission theory.

Marie Antoinette with pouf hairstyle From the 16th to the 19th century, European women's hair became more visible while their hair coverings grew smaller, with both becoming more elaborate, and with hairstyles beginning to include ornamentation such as flowers, ostrich plumes, ropes of pearls, jewels, ribbons and small crafted objects such as replicas of ships and windmills. Bound hair was felt to be symbolic of propriety: loosening one's hair was considered immodest and sexual, and sometimes was felt to have supernatural connotations. Red hair was popular, particularly in England during the reign of the red-haired Elizabeth I, and women and aristocratic men used borax, saltpeter, saffron and sulfur powder to dye their hair red, making themselves nauseated and giving themselves headaches and nosebleeds. During this period in Spain and Latin cultures, women wore lace mantillas, often worn over a high comb, and in Buenos Aires, there developed a fashion for extremely large tortoise-shell hair combs called peinetón, which could measure up to three feet in height and width, and which are said by historians to have reflected the growing influence of France, rather than Spain, upon Argentinians.

In 1876 the Peruvian government bought the saltpeter licenses for "El Toco" fields in Bolivia through an intermediary, Henry Meiggs, the builder of the Peruvian railroads, but also with the involvement of Anthony Gibbs and Sons, the company that would owe Bolivia for the licenses. The picturesque agreement, as Crozier called it, about property would have long standing consequences; it was called "Caso Squire" in the Chilean courts after the war. In 1876 President Pardo urged Gibbs to ensure the success of the monopoly by limiting the production of the CSFA, and in 1878, Anthony Gibbs and Sons warned the management board of the CSFA that they would get trouble with a "neighbouring Government" [sic] if they insisted on swamping the market with their nitrate.Manuel Ravest Mora, La Casa Gibbs y el Monopolio Salitrero Peruano, 1876-1878, Historia N°41, vol. I, enero-junio 2008: 63-77, ISSN 0073-2435 Bolivian historian Querejazu cited George Hicks, manager of the Chilean CSFA, who knew that the highest bidder for the confiscated property of the CSFA on 14 February 1879 would be the Peruvian consul in Antofagasta.