The remains of an early mill and a saltpetre cave from the Revolutionary War are also within the Natural Area. The saltpetre was used in the production of gunpowder. Current reserve size is .
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It features an underground lake room and an underground waterfall. X Cave, named for the crossing pattern of its passages, features some of the largest rock formations in the park. Saltpetre Cave was mined during the War of 1812 because saltpetre, or potassium nitrate, is a major component in gunpowder. Historic activities are a major part of the Saltpetre Cave tour.
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Chile took over the highly lucrative saltpetre mining districts of Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879–83). In the first half of the 20th century copper mining overshadowed the declining saltpetre mining.
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At the same time mining activity in Chile reoriented to saltpetre operations.
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On the same shelf as the can of salt is another can full of white grains. The doctors ask the chef what this is; he responds that this is saltpetre, used to preserve meats. Its main component is sodium nitrate. The chef also mentions that once, he accidentally refilled the salt can with saltpetre, before realising his mistake and replacing the saltpetre with the real salt.
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Papers written by Henshaw on saltpetre and gunpowder were strongly attacked by Henry Stubbe.
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A typical nitrary (Germany, circa 1580) with leaching deposits (C) filled with decaying vegetal material mixed with manure. A worker collects effloresced saltpetre from deposits, transporting it then to be concentrated in the factory (A) boilers. A nitrary is a place of production of potassium nitrate or saltpetre used primarily for the manufacture of gunpowder. The saltpetre occurs naturally in certain places like the "Caves of Salnitre" (Collbató) known since the Neolithic.
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The Company traded in basic commodities, which included cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea and opium.
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Chilean newspaper El Ferrocarril predicted 1879 to be "a year of mass business liquidation". In 1878, then-President Aníbal Pinto expressed his concern through the following statement: Humberstone, a saltpetre work from the Saltpetre Republic epoch. It was during this context of economic crisis that Chile became involved the costly Saltpetre War (1879–1883) wrestling control of mineral-rich provinces of Peru and Bolivia. The notion that Chile entered the war to obtain economical gains has been a topic of debate among historians.
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British immigrants were also important in the northern zone of the country during the saltpetre boom, in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua. The "King of Saltpetre", John Thomas North, was the principal tycoon of nitrate mining. The British legacy is reflected in the streets of the historic district of the city of Iquique, with the foundation of various institutions, such as the Club Hípico (Racing Club). Nevertheless, the British active presence came to an end with the saltpetre crisis during the 1930s.
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In West African cuisine, potassium nitrate (saltpetre) is widely used as a thickening agent in soups and stews such as okra soup and isi ewu. It is also used to soften food and reduce cooking time when boiling beans and tough meat. Saltpetre is also an essential ingredient in making special porridges, such as kunun kanwa literally translated from the Hausa language as 'saltpetre porridge'. In the Shetland Islands (UK) it is used in the curing of mutton to make reestit mutton, a local delicacy.
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The water is seen oozing forth from the many bogs, and has a saltish taste, impregnated with saltpetre and sulphur.
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The two scientists discovered that saltpetre formed inside the walls of the caves of the doline, under certain conditions of humidity and temperature.necrologio-giovene, pag. 39 Prior to the discovery, nitraries were widespread all over the Kingdom of Naples. Manure was collected by the government and used to make saltpetre, which was a key ingredient for gunpowder.
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Nicolle (1995) p. 194 Saltpetre (also called "Chinese salt") was added to the mixture in the Islamic world, and China developed a dry saltpetre mixture in the 12th century, which eventually became gunpowder.Nicolle (1995), p. 295 Both the Parliamentarian and Royalist armies used Greek-fire-like petroleum-based incendiary devices known as "wildfire" during the British Civil Wars.
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Saltpetre is an unincorporated community located in Wayne County, West Virginia. The community takes its name from the local salpetre manufacturing industry.
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In the "Cova del Rat Penat", guano (bat excrements) deposited over thousands of years became saltpetre after being leached by the action of rainwater.
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Again in 1673, Banks successfully negotiated another contract for 700 tons of saltpetre at £37,000 between the king and the company. So high was the demand from armed forces that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the untaxed sales. One governor of the company was even reported as saying in 1864 that he would rather have the saltpetre made than the tax on salt.
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Starting, initially, by reworking damaged gunpowder and refining saltpetre for the US government, they quickly moved into gunpowder manufacture. Saltpetre was refined in an area between the house and the mills that now is occupied by a formal garden. Charcoal was produced from the willow trees that lined the Brandywine. By the end of 1804, DuPont had sold 39,000 pounds of powder; the following year, sales tripled.
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The frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel had a number of interventions prior to the restoration process which was started in 1980. Initial problems with the ceiling appear to have been caused by water penetrating through the floor above. In about 1547 Paolo Giovio wrote that the ceiling was being damaged by saltpetre and cracks. The effect of saltpetre is to leave a white efflorescence.
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The dissolutive water is made from vitriol of Cyprus, saltpetre, Jamenous Allom, and sal ammoniac, and it became known as aqua regia, the king of waters.
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1974, pp. 773–775. By 1929 copper exports had reached the same values as saltpetre exports, and in 1937 the value of copper exports largely surpassed that of saltpetre. In the 1920–1937 period both industries had combined a 70–83% share of the value of Chilean exports. In the 20th century two new economic actors rose to prominence in Chile; the state and capital from the United States.
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Saltpetre, shot and sulphur were also seized. The Vietnamese material losses were estimated to be around 20 million francs. The citadel commander fled to another village before committing suicide.
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The Haber process, first applied on an industrial scale in 1913 and later used as part of Germany's war effort due to its lack of access to Chilean saltpetre, ended Chile's monopoly on nitrate and led to an economic decline in Chile.Philip & Phyllis Morris, From Fertile Minds (review) American Scientist 2001 While saltpetre mining gradually waned in importance copper mining rose, exporting raw materials to a level unprecedented in the history of Chile.Villalobos et al.
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After 1960, most of the saltpetre production in Rjukan was transferred to Norsk Hydro factories at Herøya in Porsgrunn. Some industry is still present in Rjukan, among them Scan Alloys.
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Sir Robert Harvey (2 October 1847 – 14 March 1930) was a prominent British saltpetre producer in Bolivia, Peru and Chile during the late 19th century. Harvey was born in Truro, Cornwall to Samuel Harvey, a tailor. The young Harvey was apprenticed to William's engineering works at Truro. In 1872 he went to Bolivia to work in the Tocopilla Copper Mines and in 1875, moved to Iquique, which was then in Peru, and became involved in the production of saltpetre.
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The King of Saltpetre, John Thomas North, was the principal tycoons of nitrate mining. The British legacy is reflected in the streets of the historic district of the city of Iquique, with the foundation of various institutions, such as the Club Hípico (Racing Club). Nevertheless, the British active presence came to an end with the saltpetre crisis during the 1930s. An important contingent of British (principally Scottish and Irish) immigrants arrived between 1914 and 1950, settling in the present-day region of Magallanes.
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In 1811, iodine was discovered by French chemist Bernard Courtois, In French, seaweed that had been washed onto the shore was called "varec", "varech", or "vareck", whence the English word "wrack". Later, "varec" also referred to the ashes of such seaweed: The ashes were used as a source of iodine and salts of sodium and potassium. who was born to a manufacturer of saltpetre (an essential component of gunpowder). At the time of the Napoleonic Wars, saltpetre was in great demand in France.
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132 The economic revolution in England and the tariff policies of the British also caused massive de-industrialization in other sectors throughout India and Mysore. For example, the gunny bag weaving business had been a monopoly of the Goniga people, which they lost when the British began ruling the area. The import of a chemical substitute for saltpetre (potassium nitrate) affected the Uppar community, the traditional makers of saltpetre for use in gunpowder. The import of kerosene affected the Ganiga community which supplied oils.
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Following the above discovery, naturalists sent by academies from all Europe came in large number to visit Pulo di Molfetta, since the saltpeter was a fundamental ingredient in the production of gunpowder and these deposits were of considerable strategic interest.elogio-storico, pagg. 8-10 Soon, the government started to extract saltpetre from Pulo di Molfetta and today the doline still contains the remains of the ancient plant used to extract saltpetre, making it a site of industrial archaeology. Pulo di Molfetta is currently not open to tourists.
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Chilean newspaper El Ferrocarril predicted 1879 to be "a year of mass business liquidation". In 1878, then-President Aníbal Pinto expressed his concern through the following statement: Humberstone, a saltpetre work from the Saltpetre Republic epoch. It was during this context of economic crisis that Chile became involved the costly War of the Pacific (1879–1883) seizing control of mineral-rich provinces of Peru and Bolivia. The notion that Chile entered the war to obtain economical gains has been a topic of debate among historians.
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The violation of British neutral rights triggered an uproar in Britain. Britain sent 11,000 troops to Canada, and the British fleet was put on a war footing with plans to blockade New York City if war broke out. In addition, the British put an embargo on the export of saltpetre which the US needed to make gunpowder. Approximately 90% of the world's natural reserves of saltpetre were in British territory and the US had a purchasing commission in London buying up every ounce it could get.
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After an inspection, Fortis noted that Giovene had been right and that there was saltpetre in that doline.necrologio-giovene, pag. 39 According to other sources, however, Fortis and Giovene together discovered the "natural nitrary".elogio-storico, pag.
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Church Place, Pastscape The second site is in Churchplace Inclosure near Ashurst on a sandy knoll, and is a square earthwork comprising a broad bank with an outer ditch.Church Place, Pastscape Also near Ashurst are the earthwork remains of a 16th-century saltpetre house.Monument No. 226132, Pastscape It was probably in use for the manufacture of saltpetre when monopolies for its manufacture in England were granted to Germans. It now consists of banks and hollows of various sizes enclosed in a rectangular area about 100 metres by 50 metres.
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The 3,071 ton French four-master Antonin, which was loaded with Chilean saltpetre, was overhauled on 3 February and soon scuttled. On 9 February, the 1,811 ton Italian Buenos Aires, also carrying saltpetre, was sunk. On 19 February, a four-masted barque was spotted, which immediately piled on sail in an effort to get away; however, Seeadler engines allowed her to overhaul the 2,431 ton British steamer Pinmore, which was carrying a cargo of grain. By coincidence, Luckner had himself sailed in Pinmore in his civilian sailing days, back in 1902.
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Pulo di Molfetta The name of Giuseppe Maria Giovene is inextricably linked to the discovery of the so- called "natural nitrary" (, which means a natural deposit of saltpetre) of Pulo di Molfetta. In 1783, abbot Alberto Fortis visited Apulia in order to study the region, and Ciro Saverio Minervini appointed Giovene as Fortis' guide. On this occasion, Fortis and Giovene met,elogio-storico, pag. 8 and Giovene later told Alberto Fortis about a doline of that region called Pulo di Molfetta, in which Giovene believed that there was saltpetre.
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A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging Japanese samurai during the Mongol invasions of Japan, 1281. Most sources credit the discovery of gunpowder to Chinese alchemists in the 9th century searching for an elixir of immortality.Bhattacharya (in ) acknowledges that "most sources credit the Chinese with the discovery of gunpowder" though he himself disagrees. The discovery of gunpowder was probably the product of centuries of alchemical experimentation. Saltpetre was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpetre and sulfur in various largely medicine combinations.Buchanan.
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The English Civil War helped develop Banbury’s then arms industry. The Royalist garrison was constantly at work early in 1645 digging saltpetre in King's Sutton and making gunpowder out of it in a house specially built near Banbury. Just over 10 years earlier a government saltpetreman had operated at Banbury for a year, having moved there from the then small market town of Coventry, before moving on to Hook Norton a short while afterwards. King's Sutton was a local centre for saltpetre excavation and digging at the time.
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Aphronitre, or aphronitrum, is a kind of nitre, mentioned in ancient texts. It was supposed to be the foam or froth of a liquid, emerging to the top. Naturalists have taken the ancient aphronitre to have been a native saltpetre.
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It is known that the municipality of Tuxcueca was inhabited before the Spanish conquest; San Luis Soyatlán was founded by nomadic Chichimeca tribes who settled on the side of the river Las Cerretas. Some years before the conquest this region was invaded and governed by the King of the Purépecha, Tangaxoan Tzíntzicha who took over the coveted saltpetre fields of Zacoalco and Sayula. By the end of the early 16th century this led to the Saltpetre War against the King of Colima. Since its establishment as an official town, it was formerly part of the municipality of Jocotepec.
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A fire lance called 'awe-inspiring fierce-fire yaksha gun' as depicted in the Huolongjing, Siege of Orleans in 1428 (Vigiles de Charles VII, 15th century) The discovery of gunpowder was probably the product of centuries of alchemical experimentation.Chase 2003: 31–32 Saltpetre was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpetre and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations.Buchanan. "Editor's Introduction: Setting the Context", in Buchanan (2006). The impetus for the development of gunpowder weapons in China was increasing encroachment by tribes on its borders.
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Kamath (2001), p285 The economic revolution in England and the tariff policies of the British caused massive deindustrialization in India, especially in the textile sector. For example, Bangalore was known to have had a flourishing textile industry prior to 1800 and the gunny bag weaving business had been a monopoly of the Goniga people, a state of events that changed significantly when the British began ruling the area. The import of a chemical substitute of saltpetre (potassium nitrate) affected the Uppar community, the traditional makers of saltpetre for use in gunpowder. The import of kerosene affected the Ganiga community who supplied oils.
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His godmother, Luisa Polanco, a native of the now-defunct Santa Laura saltpetre office, went to live with Luis in the saltpetre office until she was 5 years old. When she returns to live with her brothers, she is interested in learning to play the guitar. His uncle, Romelio Jiménez Fajardo, was a baker and leader of the CUT and a councilman of the illustrious municipality of Iquique. He studied at No. 1 Santa María and the Escuela Básica E-76 Centenario de Iquique, then was sent to study in Santiago, graduating from the Universidad de Chile.
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Saltpetre used for gunpowder was one of the major trade goods of the company Sir John Banks, a businessman from Kent who negotiated an agreement between the king and the company, began his career in a syndicate arranging contracts for victualling the navy, an interest he kept up for most of his life. He knew that Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn had amassed a substantial fortune from the Levant and Indian trades. He became a director and later, as governor of the East India Company in 1672, he arranged a contract which included a loan of £20,000 and £30,000 worth of saltpetre—also known as potassium nitrate, a primary ingredient in gunpowder—for the King "at the price it shall sell by the candle"—that is by auction—where bidding could continue as long as an inch-long candle remained alight. Outstanding debts were also agreed and the company permitted to export 250 tons of saltpetre.
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Farquhar had arrived the day before. Farquhar had a cargo of saltpetre, rice, cotton, sugar, indigo, Madeira wine, and muslin.Piat (2007), p.95. On 9 August 1803, Bellone captured Diamond as Diamond was returning to England after having delivered slaves to Havana.
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The Great Saltpetre Cave is a notable limestone cave located in Rockcastle County in southeastern Kentucky. During the War of 1812, it served as an important source of saltpeter, a vital component of gunpowder. Robert Baker discovered the cave in the late eighteenth century.Kleber p.
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Peter Cave Hollow is a valley in Iron County in the U.S. state of Missouri. It is at an elevation of 955 feet (291 meters) above mean sea level (MSL). Peter Cave Hollow most likely was so named on account of deposits of saltpetre.
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In the years after the visit of Kemmerer there was a sharp increase in foreign investments. Soup kitchen to feed the unemployed in 1932. The Great Depression that begun 1929 was felt strongly in Chile from 1930 to 1932. Saltpetre and copper exports collapsed.
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Once they had gained the Tarapacá department, the saltpetre trade earnings went directly to the Chilean government, making the war effort much easier by allowing the purchase of supplies needed for the growing army. Chilean President Anibal Pinto sought to own the saltpetre factories, judging it safer to interpose Bolivia between Chile and Peru, and therefore prepared an invasion to Moquegua department in order to conquer Tacna and Arica, with the ultimate aim of ceding them to Bolivia. In the meantime, Gen. Erasmo Escala resigned his commission as Commander in Chief due to constant and bitter arguments with War Minister Rafael Sotomayor, who then replaced him with Gen.
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Corry's other work included the sending of intelligence concerning trade to and from the city of Danzig. Imports from Britain included salt, coal, tobacco and manufactured goods. The trade in tobacco alone was worth £100,000 annually. Exports to Britain included corn, linen, timber, wool, and saltpetre.
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"Matchlocks, Flintlocks, and Saltpetre: The Chronological Implications for the Use of Matchlock Muskets among Ottoman- Period Bedouin in the Southern Levant." International Journal of Historical Archaeology 4 (2000): 191–215. While European pistols were equipped with wheellock and flintlock mechanism, Asian pistols were equipped with matchlock mechanism.
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She had burnt to the water's edge and the hulk was sold on 19 October for sicca rupees 6200. The only cargo aboard was saltpetre and a number of bales of hemp. The EIC put a value of £2,635 on the cargo that it had lost.
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Henry Brarens Sloman (28 August 1848 – 24 October 1931) was a businessman and banker based in Hamburg, Germany. Around the First World War, he was considered a remarkable importer of saltpetre from his own mines in Chile, and was listed as the richest person in Hamburg.
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American Scientist. During World War I, the production of munitions required large amounts of nitrate. The Allies had access to large sodium nitrate deposits in Chile (Chile saltpetre) controlled by British companies. Germany had no such resources, so the Haber process proved essential to the German war effort.
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Babur had invaded India in 1526 and used brass cannons in the First Battle of Panipat, for the first time in this part of the world. This was the time when Hemu, who was dealing in food items till then, set up brass foundries to manufacture cannons in Rewari, to make supplies to the then Indian ruler Sher Shah Suri with whom he had close contacts. Hemu took technological help from Portuguese in manufacturing brass cannons and production of saltpetre used to make gunpowder. With the help of these supplies of brass cannons and saltpetre, that Sher Shah Suri could defeat Babur's son Humanyun in 1539, and force him to retreat to Kabul.
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The lack of accurate records and the vagueness of the descriptions had left much room in doubt for the true location of the sloth skeleton. Jefferson wanted to link the bones with early reports of a giant lion in North America, but knew the fossil was incomplete. He chose, until further discovery, to restrict the name to "Great-Claw," for it was at the time the most distinguishing characteristic of the skeleton. It was known that the saltpetre miners in the cave were using one of the sloth's leg-bones to prop up a saltpetre vat to aid in the process of manufacturing gunpowder nitre, but this leg was lost to time.
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The saltpetre derived from deposits in byres, stables and doocots would be stored in the Powder House. Plans for rebuilding it were made in 1781, at the time of the Napoleonic Wars, and accomplished by 1801; its use was discontinued in 1880.Strawhorn, John (1985). The History of Irvine. Pub.
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The 10-inch wasn't officially declared obsolete until 1920.Hogg pp. 174–176 Smoke balls also date back to the 17th Century, British ones contained a mix of saltpetre, coal, pitch, tar, resin, sawdust, crude antimony and sulphur. They produced a 'noisome smoke in abundance that is impossible to bear'.
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This describes the preparation of what Agricola calls "juices": salt, soda, nitre, alum, vitriol, saltpetre, sulphur and bitumen. Finally glass making is covered. Agricola seems less secure about this process. He is not clear about making glass from the raw ingredients but clearer about remelting glass to make objects. Prof.
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His recipe calls for only saltpetre, salt and sugar to be rubbed into the meat every few days for three weeks. He does not specify which cut of beef to use.Simpson, p. 731 David specifies round or silverside, and to Simpson's ingredients she adds crushed black pepper, allspice berries and juniper berries.
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The Regar (Raigar, Rehgar, Rehgarh) are a caste found in the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan in India. They are known as Bola in the Mewar region of Rajasthan. At the beginning of the 20th century, the British Raj administration imposed restrictions on the indigenous manufacturing of saltpetre which destroyed their livelihood.
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An attempt in 1633 to establish saltpetre works at Matching Green was defeated by local opposition. A belt of land southeast from Down Hall has been exploited for brickmaking. In 1843 Brick Kiln mead and further Brick Kiln field lay near Down Hall. Farther south were Brick Kiln field, and Brick House Farm.
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After testing the saltpetre, they find that instead of sodium nitrate, the can contains sodium nitrite. This minor difference is almost unnoticeable, as they both look and taste just like table salt. Both are used to preserve meat, but the levels present in food are closely monitored. However, sodium nitrite is extremely toxic.
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Potassium nitrate is one of several nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as saltpeter or saltpetre. Major uses of potassium nitrate are in fertilizers, tree stump removal, rocket propellants and fireworks. It is one of the major constituents of gunpowder (black powder). In processed meats, potassium nitrate reacts with hemoglobin and generates a pink color.
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Primitive rockets made from bamboo and leather were used by the Mongols, under Genghis Khan, but were inaccurate. However, the Fatamids used "Chinese arrows" from the 11th Century, which probably included saltpetre. The Mamluks experimented with a rocket-powered weapon described as "an egg which moves itself and burns".quoted in Nicolle (1996), p.
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Nitratine or nitratite, also known as cubic niter (UK: nitre), soda niter or Chile saltpeter (UK: Chile saltpetre), is a mineral, the naturally occurring form of sodium nitrate, NaNO3. Chemically it is the sodium analogue of saltpeter. Nitratine crystallizes in the trigonal system, but rarely occurs as well formed crystals. It is isostructural with calcite.
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The Upper Mill was foremost an oilmill. It was built in the mid 18th century and was shut down for good in 1954. For a shorter time, there was a Pulvermühle (“Powder Mill”), at which saltpetre was finely ground. This mill was built in the mid 17th century, but was shut down in the early 18th century.
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Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 308. . The Nawabs of Bengal oversaw a period of proto-industrialization. The Bengal-Bihar-Orissa triangle was a major production center for cotton muslin cloth, silk cloth, shipbuilding, gunpowder, saltpetre, and metalworks. Factories were set up in Murshidabad, Dhaka, Patna, Sonargaon, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Cossimbazar, Balasore, Pipeli, and Hugli among other cities, towns, and ports.
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The Emperor had 170,000 troops, of various qualities to be sure, in Germany. Such an army could not be prevented from seizing these places with the minimal resources that were at the command of the Protestant holdouts. Preparations were therefore made between 1629 and 1630. Nitrate (saltpetre) and sulphur were gathered in large qualities in anticipation for the campaign.
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Chroniclers of History like De Barros, Barbosa, Hamilton and Buchanan have recorded the history of the fort under the rule of Vijayanagara kings, under the name of Mergan. In 1720, Hamilton refers to its importance as a minor port that was used for export of pepper, cassia, saltpetre, and wild nutmeg. In 1801, Buchanan called the place a "Midijoy".
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The cave conservancy movement spread to other parts of the country in the 1980s with the addition of Pennsylvania Cave Conservancy (PCC), 1983; Michigan Karst Conservancy (MKC), 1983; New Jersey Cave Conservancy (NJCC), 1984; Indiana Karst Conservancy (IKC), 1985; Texas Cave Management Association (TCMA), 1985; Ellis Cave Conservancy (ECC), 1985; and Greater Cincinnati Grotto - Great Saltpetre Preserve (GSP), 1989.
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Ammonium nitrate is found as the natural mineral gwihabaite – the ammonium analogue of saltpetre – in the driest regions of the Atacama Desert in Chile, often as a crust on the ground or in conjunction with other nitrate, iodate, and halide minerals. Ammonium nitrate was mined there in the past, but virtually 100% of the chemical now used is synthetic.
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Soon it became a trading centre for saltpetre, urging other Europeans—French, Danes, Dutch and Portuguese—to compete in the lucrative business. Various European factories and godowns started mushrooming in Patna and it acquired a trading fame that attracted far off merchants. Peter Mundy, writing in 1632, calls this place, "the greatest mart of the eastern region".
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Saltpetre produced from French nitre beds required sodium carbonate, which could be isolated from seaweed collected on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany. To isolate the sodium carbonate, seaweed was burned and the ash washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid. Courtois once added excessive sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapour rose.
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Besides "Montepellusanus", during the thirteenth century (and beyond) the only supply of saltpetre across Christian Europe (according to "De Alchimia" in 3 manuscripts of Michael Scot, 1180–1236) was "found in Spain in Aragon in a certain mountain near the sea." In fact in 1561, Elizabeth I of England at war with Philip II of Spain, became unable to import the saltpetre (of which the Kingdom of England had no home production), and had to pay "300 pounds gold" to the German captain Gerrard Honrik for the manual "Instructions for making salpetre to growe" (the secret of the "Feuerwerkbuch" -the nitraries-).SP Dom Elizabeth vol.xvi 29-30 (1589) In 1783, Giuseppe Maria Giovene and Alberto Fortis together discovered a "natural nitrary" in a doline close to Molfetta, Italy, whose name is Pulo di Molfetta.
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The city developed during the heyday of the saltpetre mining in the Atacama Desert in the 19th century. Once a Peruvian city with a large Chilean population, it was conquered by Chile in the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). Today it is one of only two free ports of Chile, the other one being Punta Arenas, in the country's far south.
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The film was shot on location in and around Kentucky; parts of the "truck chase scene" were shot at Natural Bridge State Resort Park. Some of the opening scenes were filmed at Cumberland Falls State Resort Park. The cave scenes were filmed in the Great Saltpetre Cave. This was the third, and final time that Kane Hodder worked with Seagal as a stuntman.
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The Queen's Chameleon: The Life of John Byrom: A Study of Conflicting Loyalties. Jonathan Cape. pp. 122-123 In 1736, Ward set up the Great Vitriol Works in Twickenham for producing sulphuric acid. It used a process discovered in the seventeenth century by Johann Glauber in which sulphur is burned together with saltpetre (potassium nitrate), in the presence of steam.
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Monroe County is a rich, agriculturally blessed county with fine apple orchards, wineries, trout water, historic springs, farmland, and saltpetre (saltpeter)caves. Since settler times it has been called "the land of sinks" for its many sinkholes. One community is called Sinks Grove because of this terrain. It contains the Second Creek Watershed, which is maintained by Friends of THE Second Creek Watershed.
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The process involved burial of excrements (human or animal) in the fields prepared for that purpose beside the nitraries, watering them and waiting until the leaching process did its job; after a certain time, operators gathered the saltpetre that "came out" to the ground surface by efflorescence. Then they transported it to be concentrated by ebullition in the boiler plant.
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This expertise may have been gained due to the easy availability of saltpetre in their native areas. Most Purbiyas were mercenaries and were paid for their services but some were actual kings of smaller principalities.Journal of Indian history, Volume 66, Dept. of History, University of Kerala, 1988 This recruitment drive from Malwa saw the large influx of Purbiya soldiers into the region.
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Many changes were made to the church during the 19th century, including the removal of saltpetre soil and the paving, along with numerous additions: the lantern of the top of the octagonal tower in 1835, the Gothic portal in 1877, paintings by Paul Borel added to the choir in 1899, the eleven bells of the bell tower, and so forth.
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The Merovingian kings of France were also buried here — the tombs all disappearing during the French Revolution. Around 1000 a new Romanesque church with three bell towers was built. Two of these were knocked down in 1821 due to their state of decomposition from the saltpetre in the gunpowder stored there during the French Revolution. The third bell tower still remains.
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The Slovene term kranjska klobasa was first mentioned in the sixth edition of Slovenska kuharica (Slovene Cookbook) by Felicita Kalinšek in 1912. The Carniolan sausage contains at least 75 to 80% pork (aside from bacon), and at most 20% bacon. It may contain as much as 5% water, the sea salt from Sečovlje salt pans, little garlic, saltpetre and black pepper.
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A painting of the incident resides in the State House at Annapolis and the Court House at Baltimore. In 1776 Warfield became the First Major of the Elk Ridge Battalion and began manufacturing saltpetre. In 1777 he became a judge of the Anne Arundel County court. In 1803, he granted the 510-acre Paternal Gift Farm, Maryland to his son Gustavius Warfield.
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Authors such as A 7th century Chinese text mentions that people in northwest India were familiar with saltpetre and used it to produce purple flames. Nitisara, variously dated between 4th century BC – 6th century CE, is a treatise by a Buddhist scholar named Kamandaka mentions gunfiring (nalikadibhdi) and states that the bodyguards of the king should rouse him with gun-firing if he indulges in girls, drinks, bouts etc. The gun firing was probably shotless military pyrotechnic using tubular weapons (although Oppert states that another word 'Nadika is also used in one of the text's version and may well mean gongs). Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi mentions in a treaties dated 910 a material called 'Indian salt', which he describes as "black and friable, with very little glitter," which has been interpreted as saltpetre by Berthelot but this is disputed by Joseph Needham.
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Some would also leave their names in the cave, the most notable of which was Daniel Boone. Today the cave is owned by the Rockcastle Karst Conservancy, as part of the Great Saltpetre Preserve, off Kentucky State Route 1004. Overnight camping stays are possible upon request if the requester belongs to certain organizations. Artifacts from the cave's mining days are still visible at the site.
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This tax made saltpetre more expensive at a global scale, in other words it was a "tax exportation". In the 1920s this tax begun to be considered obsolete by Chilean politicians. A new mining code was enacted in 1888. From 1876 to 1891 Chilean copper mining declined, being largely replaced in international markets by copper from the United States and Río Tinto in Spain.
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In 1227 al-Kāmil extended his domination to Damascus, and Ibn al-Bayṭār accompanied him there, which provided him an opportunity to collect plants in Syria. His botanical researches extended over a vast area including Arabia and Palestine. He died in Damascus in 1248. Ibn al-Bayṭār used the name "snow of China" (in Arabic, thalj al-Ṣīn) to describe saltpetre while writing about gunpowder.
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Nitrophily is a botanical term that indicates a preference for a habitat rich in nitrate. This term was first introduced by George Fuller during the 1930s. The word is a contraction of the Greek words νἰτρον (nitron) meaning "saltpetre" and φίλος (philos) meaning "friendly". Nitrophily is traditionally expressed as a score between 1 (not nitrophilous at all) and 10 (extremely nitrophilous) according to the Ellenberg N Index.
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The political convulsions of Italy in 1799 brought Breislak to Paris, where he remained until 1802, when, being appointed inspector of the saltpetre and powder manufactories near Milan, he removed to that city. The mineral Breislakite was named after him. He died on 15 February 1826. His other publications include: Introduzione alla geologia (1811, French edition 1812); Trait sur la structure extrieure du globe, 3 vols.
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Slow burning cocoa powder: a form of brown prismatic powder, i.e. gunpowder, with more charcoal, saltpetre and moisture but less sulphur than black powder. Cocoa referred to the appearance rather than composition. Used in the late 19th century for early large long-barreled guns, where its slow-burning properties gave the projectile a prolonged smooth acceleration instead of the short violent acceleration typical of black powder.
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Research Cave, also known as the Arnold Research Cave and the Saltpetre Cave, and designated by the Smithsonian trinomial 23CY64, is a major Native American archaeological site near Portland, Missouri. Investigation of the site has uncovered evidence of human habition as far back as 8,000 years. The site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964; it has been recommended for de-designation due to looting.
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The Ratcliffe Fire was the largest fire disaster in London between the Great Fire of 1666 and the Blitz in 1940. The fire took place in July 1794 when a smaller fire ignited a barge loaded with saltpetre. The conflagration that followed destroyed over 400 homes and 20 warehouses and left 1000 people homeless. Following the fire tents were set up near to St. Dunstan's Church whilst the area was rebuilt.
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When Doctor Samuel Brown, a Transylvania University professor of anatomy, chemistry, and surgery, gave in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1806 the first scientific description of Kentucky's saltpeter production, he drew mainly from the experiences of the Great Saltpetre Cave.Kleber p.794 As with most saltpeter caves, the land above the cave is a hardwood forest-covered plateau. Typically the saltpeter would be sent to Lexington, Kentucky to be made into gunpowder.
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An aqueous solution of potassium ferrate(VI). Georg Ernst Stahl (1660 - 1734) first discovered that the residue formed by igniting a mixture of potassium nitrate (saltpetre) and iron powder dissolved in water to give a purple solution. Edmond Frémy (1814 - 1894) later discovered that fusion of potassium hydroxide and iron(III) oxide in air produced a compound that was soluble in water. The composition corresponded to that of potassium manganate.
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Jacques Rose Ferdinand Émile Sarrau (Perpignan 24 June 1837 – Saint-Yrieix 10 May 1904) was a French chemist. He worked most of his career at the laboratory in the Dépôt Central des Poudres et Salpêtres (Central Depot for Powder and Saltpetre). He did research on explosive shock waves, the effects of explosives and he developed new explosives. The Mach number was sometimes called in French the Nombre de Sarrau (Sarrau number).
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This region was the principal territory in dispute. This action marked the beginning of the Tarapacá Campaign, the first stage of the terrestrial phase of the War of the Pacific, which ended with Chilean control of the Tarapacá and of the exportation of saltpetre. This vast territory has never been returned to Bolivia and Peru; it was annexed in perpetuity to Chile by the Treaty of Ancon, signed in 1884.
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After the discovery, it was suggested that manure could be used for agriculture, in order to increase the production, rather than to make gunpowder. The discovery also generated issues; in particular, it was initially challenged by some scholars. Subsequently, chemist Giuseppe Vairo and his pupil Antonio Pitaro confirmed the discovery. This undoubtedly damaged producers of artificial saltpetre, and some scholars, most likely supported by the producers, tried to dismiss the discovery.
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Oxford : Clarendon Press and after that period more powerful acids could be created. Nitric acid (aqua fortis, called by Agricola aqua valens) could be made by the distillation of saltpetre (KNO3) with alum (KAl(SO4)2) or vitriol (FeSO4) with water. 2KNO3 \+ H2O + FeSO4 → FeO + K2SO4 \+ 2HNO3 Nitric acid, after distillation to increase the acid strength, is capable of dissolving the silver but it will not (by itself) dissolve the gold.
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A friendship developed between Scheele and Bergman after Scheele analyzed a reaction which Bergman and his assistant Johan Gottlieb Gahn could not resolve. The reaction was between melted saltpetre and acetic acid which produced a red vapor. Further study of this reaction later led to Scheele's discovery of oxygen (see "The theory of phlogiston" below). Based upon this friendship and respect Scheele was given free use of Bergman's laboratory.
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205Nicolle (1995), p. 296 The composition of gunpowder varied throughout the period, and did not settle into the current ratios of saltpetre, sulfur and charcoal until the 17th century. The years 904–906 saw the use of incendiary projectiles called 'flying fires' (fei-huo). Needham (1986) argues that gunpowder was first used in warfare in China in 919 as a fuse for the ignition of another incendiary, Greek fire.
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35 According to Zimmermann, the discovery was made by Alberto Fortis, and Giovene just told Fortis about Pulo di Molfetta and accompanied him. The discovery also generated issues; in particular, the discovery was initially challenged by some scholars. Subsequently, chemist Giuseppe Vairo and his assistant Antonio Pitaro confirmed the discovery. This undoubtedly damaged producers of artificial saltpetre, and some scholars, most likely supported by the producers, tried to dismiss the discovery.
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Birmingham Museum of Art. Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre, printing techniques, porcelain, playing cards, and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.
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In 1837 he issued, by permission of the U. S. government, a large quantity of one-cent pieces in nickel of which were known as Feuchtwanger Cents, and in 1864 he had struck off a number of three-cent pieces in the same metal, but they were not put into circulation. After the great fire of 1846 he called the attention of the authorities of New York to the fact that saltpetre would explode under certain conditions. This statement created much discussion; the expression "Will saltpetre explode?" became a byword, and a play was acted at one of the theatres in which a character representing Feuchtwanger was presented. He made two large collections of minerals of which he partially sold in 1832, one of these he exhibited in London at the World's fair in 1851, and the other, he bequeathed to his daughters, was for a time on exhibition at the American Museum of Natural History in Central Park.
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During the US Civil War, saltpetre was collected from caves to make gunpowder; it used to be thought that this was bat guano, but most of the nitrate comes from nitrifying bacteria. The Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas, is the summer home to North America's largest urban bat colony, an estimated 1,500,000 Mexican free-tailed bats. About 100,000 tourists a year visit the bridge at twilight to watch the bats leave the roost.
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Nandalal Chakravarty was their first agent, and subsequently, he was promoted to "Dewan". Patita Paban Roy, who came from Katulpur in Bankura, and Saphali Ram Dey were appointed agents for the supplying of saltpetre. Brothers Raghuram Goswami and Raghavram Goswami came to Serampore from their home village of Patuli, to seek their fortune. Raghuram secured a job at the commissariat of the Danish Governor, while Raghavram became the official moneylender to the factory.
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Every family kept horses, carriages, carts and later tractors and threshing machines. Some families had also a house in its fields, called Sallasch, where they kept more livestock and some serving-men. Many families from Kruševlje possessed their fields and vineyards to the north, towards Riđica, because all the other land parts were pasture-grounds, grassland, fens, or saltfields unsuitable for cultivation and tillage. Saltpetre excavating was also one of Kruševlje's main jobs.
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Charnock was entrusted with procuring the Company's saltpetre and appointed to the centre of the trade, Patna in Bihar, on 2 February 1659. After four years at the factory he contemplated returning to England, but the Company persuaded him to stay on by promoting him to the position of chief factor in 1664. Charnock took a Hindu common-law wife. Historian P. Thankappan Nair places the event in 1678 or a little earlier.
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Infantry formations, equipment and tactics were similar in both armies, although the basic formation of the regiment varied greatly in size. An infantry regiment was composed of both musketeers and pikemen. The musketeers were armed with muskets possessing barrels and, mostly, a matchlock firing mechanism. These relied on the glowing end of a length of slow match, thin cord soaked in saltpetre, igniting the weapon's priming powder when the trigger was pulled.
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Although the thermolamp received some interest in France, in Germany interest was the greatest. A number of books and articles were written on the subject in the period 1802–1812. There were also thermolamps designed and built in Germany, the most important of which were by Zachaus Winzler, an Austrian chemist who ran a saltpetre factory in Blansko. Under the patronage of the aristocratic zu Salm family, he built a large one in Brno.
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After the dissolution of the abbey in 1791 during the French Revolution the church was used as a saltpetre factory, and the other buildings were sold off at auction to different owners. Considerable demolition took place, which was brought to an end only in the years between 1829 and 1846, when a Dr. Husson bought up the site in small portions. The surviving buildings have been protected since 1927 as a Monument historique.
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She ruled for 54 years and also lived in the fort. During her reign, the port at Mirjan, which is to the south east of Karwar, was used for shipping pepper, saltpetre and betel nut to Surat. Gersoppa, a district annexed to Bednur, was famous for the pepper exported from this region. Consequently, the Portuguese gave the epithet "Rani, the Pepper queen" ("Rainha de Pimenta" in Portuguese) to the Queen of Gersoppa.
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Infantry formations, equipment and tactics were similar in both armies, although the basic formation of the regiment varied greatly in size. An infantry regiment was composed of both musketeers and pikemen. The musketeers were armed with muskets possessing barrels and, mostly, a matchlock firing mechanism. These relied on the glowing end of a length of slow match, thin cord soaked in saltpetre, igniting the weapon's priming powder when the trigger was pulled.
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Yunming, 489. In 1076 the Song prohibited the populaces of Hedong (Shanxi) and Hebei from selling sulphur and saltpetre to foreigners. In 1132 gunpowder was referred to specifically for its military values for the first time and was called "fire bomb medicine" rather than "fire medicine". While Chinese gunpowder formulas by the late 12th century and at least 1230 were powerful enough for explosive detonations and bursting cast iron shells,Khan, 2.
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Spiced beef is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served at Christmas in Ireland. It is a form of salt beef, cured with spices and saltpetre, intended to be boiled or broiled in Guinness or a similar stout, and then optionally roasted for a period after.Recipe for traditional dry spiced beef – An Bord Bia There are various other recipes for pickled beef. Sauerbraten is a German variant.
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In 1688 it was ordered that 'all guns, carriages and stores now at Deptford, be removed to Woolwich, and from henceforth new ordnance and carriages be laid there'. No manufacturing took place at this stage, however, except for the periodical production of fireworks for state celebrations; (between 1681 and 1694 saltpetre, a key ingredient of gunpowder, was regularly refined on the site). In due course, the site as a whole became known as The Warren.
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The name of Wiegleb is associated with the discovery of oxalic acid in 1779. It turned out that it was identical with sugar acid, which was discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1784. Wiegleb analyzed minerals, the formation of saltpetre on walls and the formation of silicic acid from the reaction of hydrofluoric acid and glass. He conducted studies of alkaline salts in plants, on the combustion of chalk and argued against the possibility of transmutation of elements.
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Reestit mutton is prepared by soaking a leg or shoulder of mutton in brine. The correct ratio of course salt to water for the brine is achieved when a potato or egg will float in the solution. Some recipes also call for the addition of a small amount of sugar or saltpetre to the solution. The mutton is kept in the brine until the solution has reached all parts of the meat, which can take around three weeks.
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Payne was not a published author: his significant work was left in manuscript. He undertook some chemical experiments with Newcastle in the 1630s. As reported later by Newcastle, one involved lapis prunellae (a mixture here of saltpetre and brimstone), as a form of indoor firework.Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, Charles Harding Firth (editor), The Life of William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle, to which is added The true relation of my birth, breeding and life (1886), p.
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The lake was first mentioned in ancient scriptures such as the Skanda Purana and the Padma Purana. The Ain-i-Akbari, a document written about 1600 CE, states: > These mountains produce all the requisites for making glass and soap. And > here are saltpetre works which yield a considerable revenue to the State, > from the duties collected. On these mountains is a spring of salt water, but > the water from the centre and the edges is perfectly fresh.
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It happened that near to his house in Baker's Row stood the premises of Messrs. Brocks Fireworks factory. On 4 September 1825 two boys were engaged in ramming gunpowder into squibs when a spark ignited and the boys ran out in fright, throwing the firework aside. Fifty pounds of gunpowder and a large amount of saltpetre suddenly exploded, blowing the roof off, setting fire to the building, and smashing every pane of glass in most of the adjoining streets.
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Sir Harry Dame Alida Luisa Brittain (née Harvey; 12 June 18831939 England and Wales Register – 5 January 1943) was a British harpist. She was the wife of politician and journalist Sir Harry Brittain. The only daughter of businessman Sir Robert Harvey and Franco-Peruvian Alida María Godefroy, Alida was born in Iquique (then in Peru),1891 England Census where her father made millions as a saltpetre producer. Her maternal grandfather was Émile Godefroy of Pessac, Bordeaux.
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This process was used from Lydian to post-medieval times. It is a solid state process relying on common salt as the active ingredient but it is possible to use a mixture of saltpetre (KNO3) and green vitriol (FeSO4). The basic process involved the mixing of argentiferous gold foil (in later periods granules were used), common salt and brick dust or burnt clay in a closed and sealed container. Theophilus mentions the addition of urine to the mix.
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Michael Sendivogius (; ; 2 February 1566 - 1636) was a Polish alchemist, philosopher, and medical doctor. A pioneer of chemistry, he developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds. He discovered that air is not a single substance and contains a life-giving substance—later called oxygen—170 years before Scheele's discovery of the element. He correctly identified this 'food of life' with the gas (also oxygen) given off by heating nitre (saltpetre).
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Saltpeter Cave There are several cave tours offered. Guided tours of Cascade Cave and X-Cave are available year round. Bat Cave and Saltpetre Cave are only open in the summer, and close during the winter hibernation season due to the threat of white nose syndrome, a disease which threatens several endangered species of bats. Cascade Cave is the name for three different caves in the same area and is together the largest cave in the park.
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150 During the American Civil War in the 1860s, hundreds of barrels of gunpowder and saltpetre were stored at Tucker's Town and Smith's Island.Jarvis (1998), p. 52 In 1862, a 42-year-old black labourer named James Talbot purchased over of Tucker's Town from the estate of lawyer Benjamin Dickinson Harvey, who in 1800 had acquired nearly of the area. In 1882, Talbot sold part of his estate for a nominal fee so that a school could be built.
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These include, for example, Rötenbach, which was first mentioned in 819. Some of the uprisings (including the Bundschuh movement) that preceded the German Peasants' War, originated in the 16th century from the Black Forest. Further peasant unrest, in the shape of the saltpetre uprisings, took place over the next two centuries in Hotzenwald. Remnants of military fortifications dating from the 17th and 18th centuries can be found in the Black Forest, especially on the mountain passes.
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Apart from textiles, the items traded in Dutch India include precious stones, indigo, and silk across the Indian Peninsula, saltpetre and opium in Dutch Bengal, and pepper in Dutch Malabar. Indian slaves were imported on the Spice Islands and in the Cape Colony. In the second half of the eighteenth century the Dutch lost their influence more and more. The Kew Letters relinquished all Dutch colonies to the British, to prevent them from being overrun by the French.
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Meat preservation as a survival technique dates back to ancient times. European seafarers preserved meat for their long journeys by curing meat in salt or brine. European settlers (Dutch, German, French) who arrived in southern Africa in the early 17th century used vinegar in the curing process, as well as saltpetre (potassium nitrate). The potassium nitrate in saltpeter kills Clostridium botulinum, the deadly bacterium that causes botulism, while the acidity of the vinegar inhibits its growth.
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The church was renovated in the 1980s and has been declared as a basilica by the authority of Rome. In 1656 the Dutch erected a factory on the site of the town. At that time Calcutta was the principal settlement in Dutch Bengal, who used it as a base for Dutch intra-Asian trade in opium, saltpetre, spices, cotton and indigo. In 1759 the garrison of Chinsura, on its march to Chandernagore, attacked a British force under Colonel Forde.
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Gunpowder, an explosive mixture of sulfur, charcoal and potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre), was the original propellant employed in firearms and fireworks. It was used from about the 10th or 11th century onwards, but it had disadvantages, including the large quantity of smoke it produced. With the 19th-century development of various "nitro explosives", based on the reaction of nitric acid mixtures on materials such as cellulose and glycerine, a search began for a replacement for gunpowder.
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Mary's Church); Malt house; Corn mill; Oil and grease works (Prices Candles); Chemical works; Plumbago Crucible works (later the Morgan Crucible Company); Chemical works; Saltpetre works; Foundry. Between these were numerous wharfs for shipping. In 1929, construction started on Battersea Power Station, being completed in 1939. From the late 18th century to comparatively recent times Battersea, and certainly north Battersea, was established as an industrial area with all of the issues associated with pollution and poor housing affecting it.
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The Huolongjing text of the 14th century also describes hollow, gunpowder-packed exploding cannonballs.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 264. In the 13th century contemporary documentation shows gunpowder beginning to spread from China by the Mongols to the rest of the world, starting with Europe and the Islamic world. The Arabs acquired knowledge of saltpetre – which they called "Chinese snow" ( ) – around 1240 and, soon afterward, of gunpowder; they also learned of fireworks ("Chinese flowers") and rockets ("Chinese arrows").
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According to Flavius Philostratos, an apocryphal letter by Alexander the Great describes the Oxydraces, a people of the Punjab, throwing flaming thunderbolts from their walls. A reference to explosive or inflammable powder called 'agnisamyogas' or 'agniyoga' appears in the Arthashastra. J.R. Partington notes that the ingredients for these explosives or 'inflammable power' is very similar to gunpowder recipes quoted in Chinese, Arabic and European texts. A device in the Arthashastra called ulka is used as a shower of firebrand which makes a thunder sound (or noise of drumming) in the sky which according to the Arthashastra is used by astrologists to show it to the enemy subjects on the day of their birth star. Authors such as A 7th century Chinese text mentions that people in northwest India were familiar with saltpetre and used it to produce purple flames. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi mentions in a treaties dated 910 a material called 'Indian salt', which he describes as "black and friable, with very little glitter," which has been interpreted as saltpetre by Berthelot but this is disputed by Joseph Needham.
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At the Battle of Flodden, each cannon had its crew of gunner, matrosses and drivers, and a group of "pioneers" were assigned to level to path ahead. Even with a level path, the gunpowder mixture used was unstable and could easily separate out into sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal during transport. Once on site, they would be fired at ground level behind a hinged timber shutter, to provide some protection to the artillery crew. Timber wedges were used to control the barrel's elevation.
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As the saltpetre decomposes, it oxidises the sulphur to sulfur trioxide, which combines with water to produce sulphuric acid. This was the first practical production of sulphuric acid on a large scale.Sulphur surplus: Up to our necks in a diabolical element, BBC, 18 July 2014 Ward was in many ways quite generous to those living in poverty. He opened hospitals for the poor in Westminster as well as in the City of London and the clinics did not charge people for their service.
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Flag of the Dutch East India Company The Dutch East India Company operated a directorate in Bengal for nearly two centuries. The directorate later became a colony of the Dutch Empire in 1725. Dutch territories in Bengal were ceded to Britain by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Dutch settlements in Bengal included the Dutch settlement in Rajshahi, the main Dutch port in Baliapal, as well as factories in Chhapra (saltpetre), Dhaka (muslin), Balasore, Patna, Cossimbazar, Malda, Mirzapur, Murshidabad, Rajmahal and Sherpur.
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The same charcoal resource that fed the furnace supported the development of the next industry to arrive - the manufacture of gunpowder using charcoal, sulphur and saltpetre. The Loch Fyne Powderworks, one of four in Argyll, was built in 1841 and was criticised for its safety standards after the Explosives Act 1875. The company had sited an 80-ton storage magazine 80 metres from the village school. 1883 saw the end of ‘The Powdermills’ when it blew up with a stove-house explosion.
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The mill made black powder, mixing imported sulphur and saltpetre with charcoal, which initially was made locally. It adopted the suggestion of government adviser Richard Watson, to control the conditions under which charcoal was prepared, as charcoal cylinders, for greater reliability. The large demand created for charcoal was met from coppices on Windermere, Coniston Water and Esthwaite Water. The best woods from the point of view of powder grain size were juniper (local name "savin"), followed by alder and silver birch.
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Some scholars based on the fact that it mentions matchlock firearms date the text to the modern period. Similarly H.L. Blackmore wrote in 1965 that Oppert's theories were absurd and no proper attempt to date the sources had been made. H.W.L. Hime goes as far as to say that "early Indian gunpowder is definitely a fiction" while Partington calls it a "legend." According to Kaushik Roy, the ancient and medieval Indians used saltpetre for incendiary devices but not for gunpowder.
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This Domesday mill was valueless in 1349, as all the soke tenants had perished in the plague. It had previously been worth 20s or 30s per year. In the Elizabethan times the mill was used as a gunpowder mill, in the ownership of George Evelyn, grandfather of diarist John Evelyn. On 28 January 1589 Evelyn was granted a wide-ranging royal licence to explore for saltpetre, a principal ingredient, and his mills at Godstone were the most important in the country.
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J.R. Partington rejected Oppert's claims in his A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder. Partington believes that the sataghni mentioned in Sanskrit text was an iron-mace rather than a cannon while Joseph Needham is of the opinion that its translation as cannon cannot be sustained. The word for cannon, nalika, does not appear in any Sanskrit dictionary, and the source of Sukratini is the mythical Usanas of Sukracharya. There is also no classical Sanskrit word for saltpetre while shoraka in late Sanskrit is derived from Persian.
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Earlier restorations had all left their marks on the frescoes. To counteract the whitening caused by salination, animal fat and vegetable oil had been applied, which effectively made the salt crystals transparent, but left a sticky layer that accumulated dirt. An additional problem, most obvious in the small putti which hold the nameplates on the pendentives, was saltpetre seeping through small cracks and appearing as dark rings on the surface. Unlike the white crystalline salt deposits, this could not be removed and the staining was irreversible.
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Written works from the Cabinet des Titres of the Imperial Library of Paris has found evidence of canons in France in 1338. The works illustrate canons being used on-board ships at the Rouen during that time. "...an iron Fire-arm, which was provided with forty-eight bolts, made of iron and freather; also one pound of saltpetre and half a pound of sulphur to make the powder propel arrows." Researchers have been unable to determine the sizes of these canons and others, outside the artifacts recovered.
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Before Scheele made his discovery of oxygen, he studied air. Air was thought to be an element that made up the environment in which chemical reactions took place but did not interfere with the reactions. Scheele's investigation of air enabled him to conclude that air was a mixture of "fire air" and "foul air;" in other words, a mixture of two gases. Scheele performed numerous experiments in which he heated substances such as saltpetre (potassium nitrate), manganese dioxide, heavy metal nitrates, silver carbonate and mercuric oxide.
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The Guano War of 1865–1866, retrieved on 22 December 2014 The war largely settled (or set up, depending on one's point of view) the "Tacna-Arica dispute", and is sometimes known by that name as well, although the details took decades to resolve. Wanu (Hispanicized guano) is a Quechua word for fertilizer.0 Potassium nitrate (ordinary saltpeter) and sodium nitrate (Chile saltpeter) are nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as salpeter, saltpetre, salitre, caliche, or nitrate. They are used as fertilizer, but have other important uses.
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Gunpowder magazine at Poaka, now repaired and converted to stables The Melfort Gunpowder Co was established in 1853.Crocker, Glenys Gunpowder Mills Gazetteer SPAB, 1988 At the same time as the mills were built, the company sought permission to build powder magazines at Headin Haw, PoakaCRO, Barrow, BPR/5/C/12 and Queensferry.Flintshire Chronicle, 29 October 1853 via British Library newspapers online Another magazine was built at Dudley.Birmingham Daily Post 16 July 1861 via British Library newspapers online The works included a saltpetre refinery and a cooperage.
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The British raiding party burned the warehouses where the captors had stored the silk and other valuable parts of the cargo from both Stratham and Europe. The French recorded the cargoes as comprising 1698 boxes of indigo, 1514 bales of piece goods, 1843 bales of silk, 11,000 bags of saltpetre, and 25 bales of handkerchiefs.Asiatic Annual Register, Or, A View of the History of ..., Volume 11, p.78. The EIC gave the value of the cargo it had lost on the two Indiamen at £140,000 per vessel.
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Issuing of fiat money then continued until 1907 but from there on currency was issued with convertibility to gold or saltpetre mining related legal titles. hawker in the early 20th century. The establishment of the Buenos Aires- Mendoza railroad in 1885 ended the lengthy and costly trade with carts that connected these two regions of Argentina and facilitated cattle exports from the pampas to Chile, albeit in the last portion of the route the cattle had to walk over the high mountain passes of the Andes.
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Two years later, the cruiser Errázuriz (1890) became a school ship for seamen cadets replacing the Lautaro and the Lautaro sailed bound for Australia, Peru and Mexico in commercial use. In September 1919 she sailed for Japan loaded with 2,750 tons of saltpetre, finally returning to Chile in January 1921 with a cargo of weapons and explosives for the Chilean Army. She was stationed off the Quiriquina Island and used as drill ship for seaman cadets until 1950. The ship was finally sold on 5 June 1954.
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However he believes it is the opposite and the gunpowder formula in the Wujing Zongyao came from the Sukraniti. Phillips and Oppert both consider The Rajalakshminarayana Hradaya, which Oppert dates to a "very remote period," as proof of ancient Indian knowledge of gunpowder since it mentions charcoal, sulphur, and other materials in the preparation of fire. The lack of saltpetre is explained by Phillips as a conscious omission for the sake of secrecy. J.R. Partington rejected Oppert's claims in his A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder.
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During the Ottoman Empire, it played an important role due to its strategic location on the crossroads between the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt and Greater Syria. In 1893, the Ottoman authorities reestablished control over the area by appointing a mutasarrıf (governor) resident in Kerak Castle with a garrison of 1400, including 200 cavalry. Parts of the castle were reused. Some of the destruction that had occurred to the structure was due to locals removing stones containing potassium nitrate ("saltpetre"), which is used to make gunpowder.
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When white settlers moved to the area in the early 19th century, one of them, John Phillips, began mining saltpetre from the cave for the manufacture of gunpowder. A later long-term owner was H.A. Arnold, giving the cave the name by which it is most commonly known. It has been the subject of archaeological interest since the mid-1950s, with intermixed materials that date back an estimate seven to ten thousand years. Finds at the cave are particularly notable for fine examples of footwear.
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34 To a lesser degree the cave was also mined during the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War. During the later war, the Union soldiers that worked at the cave also lived in the cave, due to its year-around temperature giving respite from cold winters and hot summers. For a time, ending in the 1970s, Great Saltpetre Cave was a commercial cave, and was open not only for tours, but also for ballroom dances, a museum, and weddings. However, the guests would often damage the cave formations by taking souvenirs.
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The western Mediterranean came under the control of the barbarians, after their invasion split the Empire in two, while Byzantium dominated the eastern half of the sea. The eastern empire lasted until 1453, such was the efficiency of the Byzantine navy, with its fleets armed with Byzantine fire (or Greek fire), a mixture of naphtha oil and saltpetre, fired through tubes in the bows of the ship. Enemy ships were often afraid to get too close to the Byzantine fleet, since the liquid fire gave the Byzantines a considerable advantage.
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As Britain was blockading French ports, the French commissioned ships from neutral Holland to transport much needed supplies from Danzig. These included timber to build Men-of-War, grain to relieve food shortages, and saltpetre used to make gunpowder. Corry bribed the Port Manager "Ten Pounds Sterling for each Ship he discovers going to France." On 29 September 1759 Corry wrote "the French are greatly distressed for want of Oak and Firr Planks to build Ships, and two Hollands Vessels now lying here have actually engaged to load said Article for the Port of Bordeaux".
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Om Prakash, "Empire, Mughal", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, World History in Context, accessed 3 August 2017 From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,John F. Richards (1995), The Mughal Empire, page 202, Cambridge University Press cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean. Bengal also had a large shipbuilding industry.
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In 1857, the Vale of Neath Powder Co. built a "gunpowder manufactory", having obtained "a licence to erect their mills over a space of two miles including the Upper and Lower Cilliepste Falls".The Cambrian Newspaper, 10 April 1857. The site on the River Mellte was chosen for its remoteness and the availability of both water power and timber for the production of charcoal, one ingredient of gunpowder. An inclined tramway was built from a siding on the Vale of Neath Railway near Pen-cae-drain, to bring in sulphur and saltpetre, the other ingredients.
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The first two of three Chilean landing units were now disembarked, and the fight became less favorable for the Allied defenders. This second wave brought the rest of the Atacama Battalion plus three companies of the "Buin" 1st Line Regiment commanded by Lt. Colonel José María del Canto. The Chileans struck both Playa Blanca and Caleta Guatas, dislodging the defenders, who fled to Alto Hospicio under a constant barrage. The Allied troops had taken cover behind bags filled with saltpetre and coal, which, because of the firing, began to burn.
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The growth of Chilean economy sustained in its saltpetre monopoly meant, compared to the previous growth cycle (1832–1873), that the economy became less diversified and overly dependent on a single natural resource. In addition the Chilean nitrate, used worldwide as fertilizer, was sensitive to economic downturns as farmers made cuts on fertilizer use one of their earliest economic measures in the face of economic decline. It has been questioned on whether the nitrate wealth conquered in the War of the Pacific was a resource curse or not.
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Salazar & Pinto 2002, pp. 124–125. The growth of Chilean economy sustained in its saltpetre monopoly meant, compared to the previous growth cycle (1832–1873), that the economy became less diversified and overly dependent on a single natural resource. The establishment of the Buenos Aires-Mendoza railroad in 1885 ended the lengthy and costly trade with carts that connected these two regions of Argentina and facilitated cattle exports from the pampas to Chile, albeit in the last portion of the route the cattle had to walk over the high mountain passes of the Andes.
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Excavations in the 1960s exposed parts of the church, including traces of a portal, the south-eastern corner of the foundation, and a limestone column. A small graveyard east of the church, in which excavations have unveiled remains of coffins and bones, is said to have been ravaged by King Gustav Vasa who was looking for raw material for his saltpetre production, a deed commented in the chronicles as Ej är kristeligt i väder så skjuta sina förfäder ("Not Christian is [in public] thus shoot/push one's ancestors").
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A woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin, 18th century Under the Mughal Empire, Bengal was an affluent province with a Muslim majority and Hindu minority. According to economic historian Indrajit Ray, it was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding. The capital Dhaka had a population exceeding a million people, and with an estimated 80,000 skilled textile weavers. It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpetre, and agricultural and industrial produce. Bengali farmers and agriculturalists were quick to adapt to profitable new crops between 1600 and 1650.
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237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017 From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.John F. Richards (1995), The Mughal Empire, page 202, Cambridge University Press Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in thirteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.
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Details of Hemu's early career are vague and involve much speculation. Following his start as a seller of saltpetre, he is said to have been a trader or a weighman in the market. After Sher Shah Suri's death in 1545, his son Islam Shah became the ruler of the Sur Empire and during his rule, Hemu rose to become the superintendent of the market in Delhi with some soldierly experience under his belt. Hemu is subsequently said to have been appointed the Chief of Intelligence and Superintendent of Posts.
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Its stock of timber — easily imported by water — was described in the East London Observer as "something enormous", yet swiftly turned into good furniture "at the lowest possible prices". Handled by a steam crane — risky in timber yards — the whole factory burned down in a colossal fire in 1887. (The fire got dangerously close to the East London Saltpetre Works, until extinguished by the Fire Brigade's floating engines on the Cut). Herrmann rebuilt the factory and introduced one of the world's first electric travelling cranes to save on the steep insurance premiums.
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Lorca City Hall After most of the land and water supplies had been held for centuries by a minority of landowners and by Roman Catholic religious orders, Lorca began a period of sluggish economic growth during the 1960s. Still today, its economy is largely based on agriculture and stock breeding (pigs and brown cows), although its service industries make it the commercial capital of the surrounding area. The economy of the town is thus dependent largely on export of pork products and textiles. It also has saltpetre, gunpowder, and lead-smelting works.
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124–125, 141–142. The Haber process, first applied on an industrial scale in 1913 and later used as part of Germany's war effort due to its lack of access to Chilean saltpetre, ended Chile's monopoly on nitrate and led to an economic decline in Chile.Philip & Phyllis Morris, From Fertile Minds (review) American Scientist 2001 In addition to this the opening of Panama Canal in 1914 caused a severe drop in traffic along Chilean ports due to shifts in the maritime trade routes.Figueroa, Victor; Gayoso, Jorge; Oyarzun, Edgardo; Planas, Lenia.
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British investment helped Chile become prosperous and British seamen helped the Chilean navy become a strong force in the South Pacific. Chile won two wars, the first against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation and the second, the War of the Pacific, in 1878-79, against an alliance between Peru and Bolivia. The liberal-socialist "Revolution of 1891" introduced political reforms modeled on British parliamentary practice and lawmaking. British immigrants were also important in the northern zone of the country during the saltpetre boom, in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua.
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The street goes back to the 14th century and beyond. It remained largely rural until the late 17th century when the growth of London caused its urbanisation. Known as a thoroughfare since records began, it soon came to be known as Peter Street. The origins of this name are unsure though scholars agree it is unlikely to have been an eminent Peter (notwithstanding perhaps St Peter) and more probable it derives from a saltpetre manufactory which is thought to have existed there long before the British Museum opened in the 1750s.
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Following the rail road, the raids found a water dwell at Dolores saltpetre office, which was rapidly reinforced with 6,500 men within the week, under Colonel Emilio Sotomayor. When the Chilean move over Pisagua was known at Tacna, the Allies rapidly decided that General Daza, the Bolivian President, would lead his army to a rendezvous point set at Tana River's den, near Pisagua, where he would meet Buendía. From here both later would counterattack the Chileans to the sea. But, Daza wasn't sure of his officers' loyalty, and deliberately wore down his army.
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He dreams of having a literary style which blends "the magic of Juan Rulfo, the marvels of Gabriel García Márquez, the playfulness of Cortázar, the refinement of Carlos Fuentes, and the intelligence of Borges." El arte de la resurrección is a comic love story set in the early 1940s during a strike by saltpetre miners in barren northern Chile. It centres on the obsession of the historical-mythical folk preacher El Cristo de Elqui (the Christ of Elqui) with making a disciple of a devout prostitute called Magalena Mercado.
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Academics might be exempted. Miners were also exempted from many taxes, and the resm-i bennâk was no exemption - for example, sipahis who worked in saltpetre mines would be exempt from resm-i bennâk, resm-i çift, and caba; they would also be exempted from avariz and other taxes. Some of the sadat - those claiming descent from Muhammed - were initially exempted from paying resm-i bennâk, but this exemption was eroded over time. There were even cases of people forging certificates of ancestry in order to claim tax exemptions.
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Built around 549 by the Lyon bishop Saint Sacerdos, the church was damaged in 732, then restored in the early 9th century by archbishop Leidrade. In the 10th century, it became a necropolis with three cemeteries. Archbishop Hugh of Die requested its reconstruction, which was accomplished during the 11th and 12th centuries (the bell tower in 1440). The church was damaged during the siege of the city by the Baron of Adrets, then during the revolution in 1793, after which it was transformed into a saltpetre store and became a parish church in 1801.
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Sam Eyde monument Rjukan was formerly a significant industrial centre in Telemark, and the town was established between 1905 and 1916, when Norsk Hydro started saltpetre (fertilizer) production there. Rjukan was chosen because Rjukan Falls, a 104-metre waterfall, provided easy means of generating large quantities of electricity. The man with the idea to use the Rjukan falls was Sam Eyde, the founder of Hydro. It is estimated that he, together with A/S Rjukanfoss (later Norsk Hydro), used about two times the national budget of Norway to build Rjukan.
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In 1695, during the Revolutions of Tunis, Mohamed Bey El Mouradi made an opening in one of the walls to stop the resistance of the followers of his brother Ali Bey al-Muradi who gathered inside the amphitheater. It is believed that the amphiteatre was used as a saltpetre manufacture in the end of the 18th and in the 19th century. Around 1850, the breach in the wall was enlarged by Ahmad I ibn Mustafa to approximately . In the second half of the 19th century, the structure was used for shops, dwellings, and grain storage.
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She was badly holed and Captain Feretier had to have some of her guns thrown overboard to lighten her. When the prisoners arrived at Saint-Paul Captain Dale and Captain William Gelston wrote a joint letter of thanks to Captain Féretier for the kind and humane treatment they received from him, his officers, and men. The British recaptured Streatham and Europe during the raid on Saint-Paul on the Île Bonaparte on 21 September. She had a part cargo of saltpetre on board, but her captors had landed the rest of her cargo.
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The Potosi at wharf The Potosi was launched in 1895 at the shipyard of J. C. Tecklenborg AG, Geestemünde and was used in the saltpetre trade (Salpeterfahrt) between Chile and Germany, setting record speeds in the process, due to her excellent sailing characteristics. She made twenty seven "round voyages" (Hamburg to Chile and back) under five captains between 1895 and 1914. Her first master, the legendary sea captain Robert Hilgendorf, sailed her up to 1901. Capt. Georg Schlüter (2 round voyages), Jochim Hans Hinrich Nissen (10), Johann Frömcke (3), and Robert Miethe (4) followed.
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Mr. Peacock, the chief of the factory in Patna, was imprisoned by the governor with the assumption that he was involved in the dispute. At the same time their saltpetre trade was disrupted by another rival English company. To protect their trade in Bengal, the original East India Company requested to build a fort in the mouth of Hooghly or on its banks. This request was immediately turned down by Shaista Khan and a 3.5% tax was imposed in addition to the already existing tax of 3,000 rupees, notwithstanding the Firman obtained earlier.
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Salazar & Pinto 2002, pp. 124–125. The growth of Chilean economy sustained in its saltpetre monopoly meant, compared to the previous growth cycle (1832–1873), that the economy became less diversified and overly dependent on a single natural resource. In addition the Chilean nitrate, used worldwide as fertilizer, was sensitive to economic downturns as farmers made cuts on fertilizer use one of their earliest economic measures in the face of economic decline. It has been questioned on whether the nitrate wealth conquered in the War of the Pacific was a resource curse or not.
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The World Economic Survey of the League of Nations declared Chile the worst affected nation by the depression. The crisis caused the authoritarian regime of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo to fall in July 1931 followed by a succession of short-lived governments until the election of Arturo Alessandri in December 1932. The economic crisis rose the levels of unemployment and caused a migration of unemployed saltpetre miners from the north to Santiago. Miners constituted around 6% of the active population but made up more than half of the unemployed during the crisis.
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In Partington's opinion the work is legendary. In 1902, P.C. Ray raised doubts about the authenticity of textual evidence supporting ancient Hindu knowledge of gunpowder. Ray pointed out that the gunpowder mixture of 4:1:1 saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur found in Sukraniti was the most efficient for guns and was not known in Europe until the 16th century, leading him to believe that the content was an interpolation by "the handiwork of some charlatan." P.K. Gode provided textual evidence that pyrotechnical recipes recorded in the Sanskrit treatise, Kautukacintamani, were copied from a Chinese source.
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Before receiving its current name it was variously called the Mammoth Cave of Indiana, the Epsom Salts Cave, and the Indiana Saltpetre Cave. The land beneath which the caves are located was bought by Henry Peter Rothrock in 1819. The Rothrocks seemed to have had little to do with the cave until 1850, when they offered the first commercial tours of the cave after the discovery of a large new section of cavern. This date of 1850 makes Wyandotte cave the fourth oldest commercial cave in the United States.
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After several delays, the crew loaded the ship with cotton, and departed from Surat, travelled around the tip of India, and reached Bengal in late 1697. There, the Armenian merchants sold their cotton for 1,200 muslins and other cloths, 1,400 bags of brown sugar, 84 bales of raw silk, 80 chests of opium, and other items such as iron and saltpetre. For safe passage, the group applied to Francois Martin, the representative for the French East India Company. The request was granted, and the ship began its return trip around the tip of India.
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The idea that ancient Hindus had knowledge of gunpowder traces back to two 18th century authors: N.B. Halhed and Q. Craufurd. Halhed's Persian translation of a Sanskrit digest of laws, Code of Gentoo Laws (1776), translates agni-astra as "firearms" or "fire-arrow discharged from bamboo," and sataghni, which literally means "hundred-killer" as "cannon." Craufurd's text published in 1790 thought the old Hindus used gunpowder but was doubtful of their use before Europeans. In 1848, Professor Wilson, Director of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, wrote that Indians were well acquainted with gunpowder and that rockets were an Indian inventioin. According to H.M. Elliot's The History of India as Told by its own Historians (1875), saltpetre may have possibly been used in explosives mentioned in the Ramayana and Sri Bhagavat. In 1880, Gustav Oppert claimed that the oldest documents describing gunpowder were the Sanskrit texts Sukraniti and Nitiprakasika. The Sukraniti contains descriptions of firearms and a formula for agni-curna (fire-powder) or 'suvarcilavana' (well-shining salt) very similar to that mentioned the Wujing Zongyao: 5 parts saltpetre, 1 part sulphur, and 1 part charcoal. The two firearms mentioned in the Sukraniti are a musket and a cart-drawn gun.
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H.W.L. Hime goes as far as to say that "early Indian gunpowder is definitely a fiction." According Kaushik Roy, the ancient and medieval Indians used saltpetre for incendiary devices but not for gunpowder. Gunpowder technology is believed to have arrived in India by the mid-14th century, but could have been introduced much earlier by the Mongols, who had conquered both China and some borderlands of India, perhaps as early as the mid-13th century. The unification of a large single Mongol Empire resulted in the free transmission of Chinese technology into Mongol conquered parts of India.
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In 1645 Parliamentary troops were billeted in nearby Hanwell village for nine weeks and villagers petitioned the Warwickshire Committee of Accounts to pay for feeding them. The Civil War helped develop Banbury's industry. Kings Sutton was a local centre for saltpetre digging, and the Royalist garrison was at work early in 1645 quarrying it there and making it into gunpowder in a specially built house near Banbury. Just over 10 years previously a government saltpetreman had operated at Banbury for a year, having moved there from the then small market town of Coventry, before moving on to Hook Norton a short while afterwards.
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During the 17th century Patna was the centre of international trade. The British opened a factory in Patna in 1620 for the purchase and storage of calico and silk. Soon it became a trading point for saltpetre, and other European countries like the French, the Danes, the Dutch and the Portuguese began to compete in the lucrative business. Various European factories and godowns started mushrooming in Patna and it acquired a trading fame that attracted far off merchants, as observed by Peter Mundy in 1632, who calls this place, "the greatest mart of the eastern region".
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He was then an easy, odds-on winner of the £10,000 Princess of Wales's Stakes at Newmarket on 30 June from Saltpetre (who won the Goodwood Cup on his next start) and William Rufus. Sceptre was not allowed to run in the race as her former owner, R. S. "Bob" Sievier had been "warned off" (banned from any involvement in racing). It was reported that Lillie Langtry, the former mistress of King Edward VII, eased her financial difficulties by winning £100 on the race. A few days later Rock Sand added the Lingfield Park Stakes, beating Loch Ryan and Henry the First.
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Verlag von Wilhelm Gottlieb Korn, Breslau 1871 Precious stones and salt were not part of the upper Bergregal in all countries, however. The lower Bergregal covered the mining of base metals, like iron, tin, copper, cobalt, lead and bismuth, as well as the minerals arsenic, sulphur, saltpetre and antimony. In many cases these rights were awarded to a third party or granted to landowners under the mining regulations (Bergordnung). The mining of bituminous coal, brown coal and peat did not initially come under the Bergregal; instead ownership remained with the landowners because these resources were classed as fossil fuels.
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The original tocino is marinated only with salt, sugar, and salitre (saltpetre), although pineapple juice may be added for a slightly tart flavor. The Kapampangans (kapampangan: Pindang) who make tocino mix it for four to six hours in order to achieve thickness and softness in the meat, then leave it overnight at room temperature before serving it as burong baboy (fermented pork). Tocino is often served as the popular breakfast or lunchtime combination called tosilog, which name is a portmanteau of tocino, sinangág (garlic rice) and itlóg (egg, which is cooked either sunny-side up or scrambled).
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After the departure of the Cherokee, Isaac Love and his sons created a partnership with the Shields Iron Co. to continue mining at Foxfire Mountain.;The Mountain Press, May 8, 2014 ''' In the 1860s, during the Civil War, the Confederate Army had a camp at the bend in the river near the base of Foxfire Mountain. The natural resources in the area and access to iron, sulfur and saltpetre made Foxfire Mountain strategic to the creation of much needed war materials. As the war encroached into Tennessee, Union soldiers were reported in the area near Foxfire.
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Salazar & Pinto 2002, pp. 124–125. The growth of Chilean economy sustained in its saltpetre monopoly meant, compared to the previous growth cycle (1832–1873), that the economy became less diversified and overly dependent on a single natural resource. The establishment of the Buenos Aires-Mendoza railroad in 1885 ended the lengthy and costly trade with carts that connected these two regions of Argentina and facilitated cattle exports from the pampas to Chile, albeit in the last portion of the route the cattle had to walk over the high mountain passes of the Andes.Benjamin S. 1997.
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Although they employed more than 40,000 people at one time, control rested in the hands of the extended family. When Pandia married in 1831, it was to Marietta Scaramanga (1810–60), another merchant from Chios, whose family had significant trading operations in Russia. From 1851 Ralli Brothers started operations in India with offices in Calcutta and Bombay that specialised in jute, shellac, teelseed, turmeric, ginger, rice, saltpetre, and borax,Rallis India company website with 4,000 clerks and 15,000 warehousemen and dockers. Their American operations ran from New York City and New Orleans, in association with their cousin Alexander Vlasto.
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Fort Spring was originally called "Mann's Ferry" and the community's current name refers to the old settler fort that has been lost to history. The rock cliff, or bluff, seen just prior to the primary two train tunnels when traveling eastward, was named 'Wilson's Bluff' due to a family settled there. Colonel John Stuart, who shipped Ice Age sloth bones (Megalonyx jeffersonii) to Thomas Jefferson, noted the presence of saltpetre caves in the area. The area is a combination of karst topography, riparian floodplain and ancient riverbeds with limestone (karst) outcropping mixing with farmlands and deciduous forest.
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These immigrants founded the "Body of Fire" (called "Cristobal Colon") of the city and its "Italian School," whose building the government of Chile has declared a National Historic Monument (Spanish: "Monumento Histórico Nacional"). At the end of the 19th century, many Italian merchants were rooted in the northern part of Arica, where they began exploiting the rich mines of saltpetre. Meanwhile, many Italian families settled in the capital Santiago, Concepción and Punta Arenas. In 1904, an emigration of 7,800 immigrants of Emilia was planned to a town of the Araucanía Region, which was named "Colonia Nueva Italia" and now called Capitán Pastene.
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Traditionally biltong was only made during the cold winter months when the risk of bacterial growth and mould would be at a minimum. Some recipes require the meat to be marinated in a vinegar solution (grape vinegar is traditional but balsamic and cider also work very well) for a few hours, then the vinegar is poured off before the meat is flavoured with salt and spices. The spice mix is sprinkled liberally over the meat and rubbed in. Saltpetre is optional and can be added as an extra preservative (necessary only for wet biltong that is not going to be frozen).
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"Velvril paint" was used to line larger common shells in the early 20th century to prevent the gunpowder filling from coming into contact with the iron or steel shell wall. This was both to avoid the saltpetre from causing corrosion in the presence of any moisture, and also provided a smooth surface that prevented friction between the gunpowder and shell wall, hence reducing the risk of spontaneous ignition when the shell was fired. It was made up of 24 parts zinc oxide, 3.5 yellow ochre, 0.5 red iron oxide, 15 nitrated castor oil, 7.5 nitro-cellulose of very low nitration, 60 acetone oil.
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The ingredients listed in Sukraniti as constituents for gunpowder such as realgar, opiment, lac, camphor, indigo, pine gum, megnetic oxide of iron, vermillion, graphite are used in the manufacture of incendiary weapons in Arthashastra and also appear in Chinese accounts. The Arthashastra lists recipes for explosive and inflammable powder called 'agnisamyogas' or 'agniyoga' which J.R. Partington notes are very similar to gunpowder recipes quoted in Chinese, Arabic and European texts. However they do not contain saltpetre. A. Kalyanamaran argues that sulphur was not needed to create gunpowder and nitre could be obtained from fermented dung mentioned in the ingredients.
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Partington believes that the sataghni mentioned in Sanskrit text was an iron-mace rather than a cannon while Joseph Needham is of the opinion that its translation as cannon cannot be sustained. The word for cannon, nalika, does not appear in any Sanskrit dictionary, and the source of Sukratini is the mythical Usanas of Sukracharya. There is also no classical Sanskrit word for saltpetre while shoraka in late Sanskrit is derived from Persian. Rajendralala Mitra raised doubts about the age of another work by Usanas, Nitisara of Sukracharya, noting that it contains descriptions of firearms as they were a hundred years ago.
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Her first book was the bestselling The Pauper's CookbookThe Pauper's Cookbook (Penguin Handbooks) (1971), born as she said "out of necessity" during an impecunious spell. A self-taught cook, who idolised Elizabeth David, she was determined to show that making great food does not depend on buying expensive ingredients or having special expertise. This was followed by The Pauper’s Homemaking Book in 1976The Pauper's Homemaking Book (Penguin Handbooks) which took the same democratic approach to interiors and The Country KitchenThe Country Kitchen (Frances Lincoln) which dealt with old- fashioned rural British cookery and crafts – Damson Cheese, curing hams in saltpetre and parsnip wine.
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Admiral Maximilian von Spee. Rhakotis violated Chilean neutrality by supplying von Spee's naval squadron in November 1914 Following her completion in April 1907, Rhakotis entered service with the Kosmos Line. Though the precise route of Rhakotis is not known, ships of the Kosmos Line operated between their homeport of Hamburg, Germany and various countries in South America, including Peru, Chile, Ecuador and states in Central America, with some services continuing on to California, United States. While ships of the Kosmos Line offered some passenger accommodations, they operated mainly as cargo carriers, with principle imports of the Line to Germany in this period including saltpetre, grain and tin.
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Although China at that time was under Yuan dynasty, the first Ming emperor, Chu Yuan-Chang seems to have treated the request kindly and responded in some measure. The Goryeosa mentions a certain type of bombard (ch'ong t'ong) which could send arrows from the Nam-kang hill to the south of the Sun-ch’on Sa temple with such force and velocity that they would penetrate completely into the ground together with their fins. In ca. 1372 Li Khang (or Li Yuan), a saltpetre expert (yen hsiao chiang), perhaps a merchant, came from South China to Korea, and he was befriended by the courtier Choi Muson.
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Seeing a passage above them, they had a ladder lowered which they used to ascend into the passage. Here they found what they thought was a rich mine "an abundance of strange places, the flooring being a kind of a white stone, enamelled with lead-ore, and the pendant rocks were glazed with saltpetre, which distilled upon them from above, and which time had petrified." After a few hours they ascended to the surface, but the unfortunate Captain Sturmy suffered from a severe headache for four days, developed a fever and died. This gave the hole a bad reputation and for a long time, nobody was willing to explore it further.
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Over the next forty years, starting from 1619 until the Dutch capture of Jaffna fort in 1658, there were three rebellions against Portuguese rule. Two were led by Migapulle Arachchi,Sabaratnam, Sri Lankan Tamil Struggle, Chapter 5 during that period, Portuguese destroyed every Hindu temple and the Saraswathy Mahal library in Nallur, the royal repository of all literary output of the kingdom. Due to excessive taxation, population decreased and many people moved to Ramanathapuram in India and the Vanni Districts further south. External commerce was negatively impacted, though elephants, Jaffna's principal export, were traded for saltpetre with various kingdoms in India and sent to Lisbon.
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They relate to ploughing land, fertilising barren ground, raising water by fire, propelling ships and boats, manufacture of saltpetre, making tapestry without a loom, refining copper, bleaching wax, separating gold and silver from the base metals, dyeing fabrics, heating boilers, kilns for drying and burning bricks and tiles, and smelting and refining iron by means of coal (Cal. State Papers, 1619, 1622–3–5). In his later years he fell into poverty, and in 1641, while a prisoner for debt, he petitioned the House of Lords for payment of six years' arrears of his pension as groom of the privy chamber (Hist. MSS. Comm.
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The activities of a young naturalist, who observes and collects objects such as butterflies, plants, shells and minerals, are often regarded with contempt by colonial officials. He described his exploration of Cape Verde in seven letters sent to the minister Martinho de Mello e Castro and discusses the geography, topography and flora of the island. The work of Feijó disappointed his sponsor Mello e Castro, who criticized the packaging of shipments and paucity of material sent. It was regretted that Feijó has not proposed any method of exploiting the saltpetre and sulphur which was believed to be readily available in the volcanic regions of Cape Verde.
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General Baquedano, commander in chief of the Chilean Army in the War of the Pacific Territorial disputes between Chile, Peru and Bolivia triggered the War of the Pacific in 1879 with Chile invading and occupying Peruvian and Bolivian land. In the course of the war, North suffered damage to his waterworks, and one of his ships was sunk. However he also befriended the Chilean Admiral Patricio Lynch who later supported him in his business ventures. During the war, North was assisted by two British men: Robert Harvey, who had worked for the Peruvian government in the nitrates (saltpetre) industry, and John Dawson, a banker.
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For > when he was told of the revolt of Egypt, he is said to have exclaimed "What! > We cannot do without Egyptian linen!" and when informed that Asia had been > devastated both by the violence of nature and by the inroads of the > Scythians, he said, "What! We cannot do without saltpetre!" and when Gaul > was lost, he is reported to have laughed and remarked, "Can the commonwealth > be safe without Atrebatic cloaks?" Thus, in short, with regard to all parts > of the world, as he lost them, he would jest, as though seeming to have > suffered the loss of some article of trifling service.
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It was also Hermann Fölsch who arranged for Sloman getting work in Iquique where he later acted as director of the Fölsch & Martin company. After 22 years of working for Fölsch & Martin, Sloman established his own saltpetre business in Tocopilla and returned to Hamburg in 1889 as a wealthy man. In 1912, Sloman was recorded as leading a list of the richest citizens of Hamburg with a net worth of Goldmark 60 million and an annual income of 3 million. In 1924, he founded the bank Finanzbank AG which developed into Sloman Bank KG. In 1976, it was merged with Bankhaus Hardy & Co. GmbH to become Hardy-Sloman Bank GmbH.
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Two of Chile's UNESCO World Heritage Sites correspond to former company towns. Humberstone was a settlement dedicated to the extraction of saltpetre during said commodity's boom in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The town was founded and administered by James Thomas Humberstone's Peru Nitrate Company, later acquired by Compañía Salitrera de Tarapacá y Antofagasta (COSATAN), before turning into a ghost town by the 1960s due to the steady decline in the global price of nitrates caused by the development of chemically engineered fertilizers. Sewell was a mining town intended as both a residential and industrial hub linked to the nearby El Teniente copper mine.
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His trading was centred on the Eastern ports and purchasing indigo, saltpetre, silk, sugar, rice, and other commodities, which were sent to England by the Company. He named his ship the Sherborne, after his old school, and she was commanded by Captain Henry Cornwall. It was on this ship when in August 1720 he set out on a trading voyage to China sailing from Surat, that he was captured by Kanhoji Angre, admiral of the Maratha Navy in 18th century India and then at war with the English at Bombay. Curgenven remained in a miserable captivity as a galley slave in fetters for about nine years.
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Edward I had sulphur and saltpetre, components of gunpowder, brought to the siege from England."Castles and sieges", Foghlam Alba Impatient with the lack of progress, Edward ordered his chief engineer, Master James of St. George, to begin work on a new, more massive engine called Warwolf (a trebuchet). The castle's garrison of 30, led by William Oliphant, eventually were allowed to surrender on 24 July after Edward had previously refused to accept surrender until the Warwolf had been tested. Despite previous threats, Edward spared all the Scots in the garrison and executed only one Englishman who had previously given over the castle to the Scots.
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Gaudí is usually considered the great master of Catalan Modernism, but his works go beyond any one style or classification. They are imaginative works that find their main inspiration in geometry and nature forms. Gaudí studied organic and anarchic geometric forms of nature thoroughly, searching for a way to give expression to these forms in architecture. Some of his greatest inspirations came from visits to the mountain of Montserrat, the caves of Mallorca, the saltpetre caves in Collbató, the crag of Fra Guerau in the Prades Mountains behind Reus, the Pareis mountain in the north of Mallorca and Sant Miquel del Fai in Bigues i Riells.
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When the prisoners arrived at Saint-Paul Captain Gelston and Captain Dale wrote a joint letter of thanks to Captain Féretier for the kind and humane treatment they received from him, his officers, and men. The British recaptured Streatham and Europe during the raid on Saint-Paul on the Île Bonaparte on 21 September. The British raiding party burned the warehouses where the captors had stored the silk and other valuable parts of the cargo from both Stratham and Europe. The French recorded the cargoes as comprising 1698 boxes of indigo, 1514 bales of piece goods, 1843 bales of silk, 11,000 bags of saltpetre, and 25 bales of handkerchiefs.
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However the peace was broken again when some Company troops misbehaved with Shaista Khan's troops in Hooghly on 28 October 1686 for which the former were severely beaten by the latter. At the same time the admiral opened fire and burnt down 500 houses; property losses were about thirty lacs of rupees. However a truce was again obtained between Mr. Charnock and the local Foujidar, and the English were allowed to put saltpetre on board their ships. However, Shaista Khan upon hearing this ordered the closing and confiscation of all their factories and properties in Bengal and sent a large force to drive out the English from Hooghly.
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The Chinese do seem to have invented guns independently of the Europeans, at least in principle; but, in terms of effective cannon, the edge goes to Europe." There was also a stream of thought in Europe that emerged as early as the 15th century that attributed the invention of both gunpowder and the gun to a certain Berthold Schwartz. However it's not exactly certain who Berthold was or if he ever existed as there are no contemporary records of him. Some consider him a mythical figure, used as a stand-in "for all the curious and ingenious experiments related to the new and dangerous mixture of saltpetre, sulfur (brimstone) and carbon.
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In this region, the preservation of the bodies was due to the dry climate, and also reportedly, the saltpetre and other preservative elements contained in the soil. In the late 1800s, archaeologist digging here found bodies, sometimes tattooed, adorned with beads, copper earrings and bird feathers, and swathed in richly colored blankets or cotton cloth, with jars of provisions beside them. Tablets fashioned of cloth, stretched upon frames of wood and painted with figures and characters, described the virtues of the deceased. Pre-historic Ancón was a fishing village, so many handmade nets were found, along with baskets of woven fibre representing the industries of women.
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Littleton, on the other hand, did not vacillate but immediately rallied to Parliament. A week after he wrote to Leveson, he was back at Parliament, where he was ordered, along with two other MPs, to notify his father-in-law Courten that he must not sell or move his stocks of saltpetre, an essential component of gunpowder, which Parliament intended to buy from him.House of Commons Journal, volume 2, 13 June 1642. On 6 August the king, then at York, appointed Littleton Custos Rotulorum of Staffordshire, to replace Essex, who was Lord Lieutenant of the county and a leader of the opposition among the Lords.
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At present, Popper Synagogue serves as bookshop and also as an art gallery in the women's area upstairs.Adam Mickiewicz Institute, The Popper Synagogue Wolf Popper, nicknamed as "the stork" for having been able to stand on one leg when lost in deep thought, founded the synagogue in 1620.Jewish Krakow, The Wolf Popper Synagogue Page stored at the Internet Archive He financed its construction towards the end of his life. Popper made his fortune in large-scale international trade in cloth and saltpetre (main ingredient in the making of gunpowder), and eventually, became Kazimierz's richest banker with the fortune reaching 200,000 zloty, which made him one of the richest men in Europe.
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Over the next 40 years, there were six rebellions against the Portuguese rule led by Karaiyar chiefs, one which were led by Migapulle Arachchi and Varunakulattan with the forces of Thanjavur Nayak kingdom after the invasion by the Kandyan king Senarat I until the Dutch capture of Jaffna fort in 1658. During that period, Portuguese destroyed every Hindu temple and the Saraswathy Mahal library in Nallur, the royal repository of all literary output of the kingdom. Due to excessive taxation, population decreased and many people moved to Ramanathapuram in India and the Vanni districts further south. External commerce was negatively impacted, though elephants, Jaffna's principle export, were traded for saltpetre with various kingdoms in India and sent to Lisbon.
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Among the caravans, the remains of nine incorporating mills, some corning mills, an engine house, a dusting house, glaze houses, stove houses, a press house, a pump house, a boiler station, a saltpetre refinery, stables and a joiner's shop, and much of the water management system which supplied waterwheels and a water turbine, can still be found. The site is an ancient monument while some of the detached buildings are grade II listed. The final mill was Basin Ghyll or Basingill Mill, which was located below Force Bridge at Sedgwick. It was located on the east bank of the river, and was unusual, in that it was not a complete gunpowder works.
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Contemporary accounts of Hemu's early life are fragmentary, due to his humble background, and often biased, because they were written by Mughal historians such as Bada'uni and Abu'l-Fazl who were employed by Hemu's rival, Akbar. Modern historians differ on his family's ancestral home and caste, and the place and year of his birth. What is generally accepted is that he was born in a Hindu family of limited means, and that he spent his childhood in the town of Rewari, in the Mewat region, south- west of Delhi. Due to his family's financial condition, Hemu at a young age started working as a tradesman, either as a green-grocer or selling saltpetre.
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Engraving of the Hospital made around 1660 by Adam Pérelle. The Salpêtrière was originally a gunpowder factory (saltpetre being a constituent of gunpowder), but in 1656 at the direction of Louis XIV, it was converted into a hospice for the poor women of Paris as part of the General Hospital of Paris. It served as a prison for prostitutes, and a holding place for women who were learning disabled, mentally ill or epileptic, as well as poor; it was also notable for its population of rats and a bloated and unresponsive bureaucracy. Although the Pitié-Salpêtrière was much admired for the architectural ambitions of Libéral Bruant, it provided wretched living conditions for its inmates.
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23 Specific weapons from the ancient and medieval periods continued to develop, and many have modern equivalents. Rocket technology, originally trialled by the Mongols, Indians and the Chinese, amongst others, was improved by the 19th century; one example was the incendiary Congreve rocket, which had a tail, a fuse, and a powder charge (saltpetre, sulfur and carbon) inside a hollow shell.Bluth, p. 140 Grenades continued to develop, although still retaining some aspects of their medieval equivalents. The grenades carried on board British Royal Navy ships in the late 18th century and early 19th century were constructed from hollow cast iron, filled with gunpowder; the fuse was a hollow wooden tube filled with combustible material.
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Initially, this device was composed of a metal frame, which was covered with a canvas cover and filled with a special recipe, typically 50 saltpetre parts, 25 sulfur parts, 8 rosin parts, 5 antimony parts, and 5 pitch parts. However, during the early 19th century, another form of carcass became common and this took the form of a common shell with two or three apertures in its exterior into which a similar composition was put. Carcass rounds were normally issued only to howitzers or mortars, the suggestion being they were intended to attack towns. This does not preclude them from being used on the field, but quite what their purpose would have been there is not clear.
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In 1713 the nave of the ancient St Mary's Church collapsed, and the church was rebuilt in the Neo-classical style to designs by a local architect, John James. In 1736, the noted pharmacist and quack doctor Joshua Ward set up the Great Vitriol Works to produce sulphuric acid, using a process discovered in the seventeenth century by Johann Glauber in which sulphur is burned together with saltpetre (potassium nitrate), in the presence of steam. The process generates an extremely unpleasant smell, which caused objections from local residents. The area was also soon home to the world's first industrial production facility for gunpowder, on a site between Twickenham and Whitton on the banks of the River Crane.
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He was a commissioner on 30 May 1635 and 10 April 1636 for dealing with the new buildings which had been erected in or about London and Westminster. He was a lord commissioner of the admiralty, one of the adventurers with the Earl of Lindsey and others for draining various parts of Lincolnshire and a commissioner for improving the supply of saltpetre. On 13 June 1636 he was constable of Beaumaris Castle. While sitting on the Star-chamber commission in 1636, he advised the imprisonment of the peers who refused to pay a forced loan although in April 1636 he himself was one of the defaulters for ship-money in Kent to the extent of £5.
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Experimenting with different levels of saltpetre content eventually produced bombs, grenades, and land mines, in addition to giving fire arrows a new lease on life. By the end of the 12th century, there were cast iron grenades filled with gunpowder formulations capable of bursting through their metal containers. The 14th century Huolongjing contains gunpowder recipes with nitrate levels ranging from 12 to 91 percent, six of which approach the theoretical composition for maximal explosive force. In China, the 13th century saw the beginnings of rocketry and the manufacture of the oldest gun still in existence, a descendant of the earlier fire-lance, a gunpowder-fueled flamethrower that could shoot shrapnel along with fire.
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Batman's English parents, William and Mary Bat(e)man, came to Sydney in 1797 aboard the ship the Ganges. William had been transported to the colony of New South Wales for receiving stolen saltpetre (a precursor ingredient for making gunpowder), but Mary accompanied him as a free passenger, along with their children Maria and Robert. John, the couple's second son, was born on January 21, 1801 at Rosehill, Parramatta, now a suburb of Sydney, but at the time one of the early farming settlements of the fledgling colony. After obtaining his ticket-of-leave, William started a timber-yard business that prospered, and he owned several properties and the licence for the Duke of Wellington hotel in Church Street, Paramatta.
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The lack of saltpetre is explained by Phillips as a conscious omission for the sake of secrecy. Sukraniti contains descriptions of a musket and a cart drawn cannon firing iron ammunition. Some scholars based on the fact that it mentions matchlock firearms date the text to the modern period while Oppert assigns it considerable antiquity. Accoding to Firishta, Mehmud Ghaznavi (r. 999–1030) employed 1,008 cannon (top) and muskets (tufang) during his battle of Peshawar with Kabul Shahi king Annandapal. Nitisara, variously dated between 4th century BC – 6th century CE, is a treatise by a Buddhist scholar named Kamandaka mentions gunfiring (nalikadibhdi) and states that the bodyguards of the king should rouse him with gun-firing if he indulges in girls, drinks, bouts etc.
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In a separate article, each party undertook not to assist enemies of the other; England would withdraw its Portuguese expeditionary force, while Spain remained neutral in the Anglo-Dutch war. Saltpetre; used in gunpowder, it was hugely profitable for the East India Company, a major beneficiary of the treaty The commercial treaty consisted of forty separate articles, the most important being Article Seven, part of Fanshawe's draft but omitted from the original terms. English merchants were given equal status with the Dutch and granted the right to import goods tax free into European Spain. Articles Seven, Eight, Eleven and Twelve went further than this, by allowing English colonies in North America and the East India Company to ship goods direct to Spanish ports.
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Italian immigration In comparison, larger numbers of Italian immigrants to Chile were from the Northern Italian regions such as Liguria, Emilia-Romagna, Piedmont and Lombardy and to a much smaller number of Central or Southern. Italian Chileans along with French Chileans contributed to the development, cultivation and ownership of the world-famous Chilean wines from haciendas in the Central Valley ever since the first wave of Italians arrived in colonial Chile in the early 19th century. At the end of the 19th century many Italian merchants are rooted in the northern part of Arica, where they began exploiting the rich mines of saltpetre. Meanwhile, many Italian families settled in the capital Santiago, Concepción, Viña del Mar, La Serena and Punta Arenas.
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In the meantime, the British found that the Nepalese were preparing for war; that they had for some time been laying up large stores of saltpetre; purchasing and fabricating arms, and organizing and disciplining their troops under some European deserters in this service, after the model of the companies of East India's sepoy battalions.Anon (1816), p.425. The conviction that the Nepalese raids into the flatlands of the Terai, a much prized strip of fertile ground separating the Nepalese hill country from India, increased tensions – the British felt their power in the region and their tenuous lines of communication between Calcutta and the northwest were under threat. Since there was no clear border, confrontation between the two powers was "necessary and unavoidable".
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After informal protests on Sunday 26 April, groups of protesters congregated on the Île de la Cité and in the , Marais, and Faubourg Saint-Antoine the next day for a series of protest-marches. Though the first three marches - one of which targeted the Third Estate's Assembly of Electors - were resolved peacefully, confrontations between troops and participants in the fourth demonstration led to the outbreak of violence in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine that evening. While the protesters did not manage to destroy the factory, which was being guarded by a group of around fifty troops, a factory owned by the saltpetre manufacturer Henriot was destroyed after he made similar comments. However Réveillon's factory was destroyed a day later as was his home.
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In these appalling conditions, the War of the Pacific had begun. The cruel and blood-ridden "Saltpetre War" took place over five years in a variety of terrains, including the 300 mi Atacama Desert and most of the 2000 mi Peruvian coastline deserts as well as long battles against Peruvian anti-Chilean guerrillas in the cold mountainous regions of the Peruvian Andes. The war's first battle was the Battle of Topáter. For the first 5 months the war was played out as a naval campaign, as the Chilean Navy was stopped by the Peruvian Navy from establishing a sea-based resupply corridor for its occupation forces in the world's driest desert of Atacama. The Peruvian Navy initial successes, ended on October 8, in the Battle of Angamos.
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In the 1590s, Molyneux sought Elizabeth I's patronage for the production of a cannon, which he described as his "new invention, of shot and artillery, to be used principally in naval warfare: protection of ports and harbours, a new shot to discharge a thousand musket shot; with wildfire not to be quenched".Calendar of State Papers: Domestic Series, 1574–1580; 1595–1597. In March 1593, Molyneux was issued with a royal warrant. Two years later, the merchant Robert Parkes purchased coal, saltpetre, pitch, oils and waxes for him, possibly for the cannon. On 4 November 1596 the Privy Council urged the Lord Admiral "to speak to Molyneux, Bussy and the two Engelberts about their offensive engines"Calendar of State Papers: Domestic Series, 1595–1597, p. 303.
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From the violence of > that salt called saltpetre [together with sulphur and willow charcoal, > combined into a powder] so horrible a sound is made by the bursting of a > thing so small, no more than a bit of parchment [containing it], that we > find [the ear assaulted by a noise] exceeding the roar of strong thunder, > and a flash brighter than the most brilliant lightning. At the beginning of the 20th century, Henry William Lovett Hime of the Royal Artillery published the theory that Bacon's ' contained a cryptogram giving a recipe for the gunpowder he witnessed. The theory was criticised by Thorndike in a 1915 letter to Science and several books, a position joined by Muir, Stillman, Steele, and Sarton. Needham et al.
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Inside of Abbaye de Saint-Germain-des-Prés recently restored, 2012 Childebert, from the former refectory portal (Louvre) The Abbey was founded in the 6th century by the son of Clovis I, Childebert I (ruled 511-558). Under royal patronage the Abbey became one of the richest in France, as demonstrated by its ninth-century polyptych; it housed an important scriptorium in the eleventh century and remained a center of intellectual life in the French Catholic church until it was disbanded during the French Revolution. An explosion of saltpetre in storage levelled the Abbey and its cloisters, but the church was spared. the statues in the portal were removed (illustration) and some destroyed, and in a fire in 1794 the library vanished in smoke.
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Even Hentzi, on his death bed, supposedly said about the magnanimity of the Hungarian soldiers towards the defenders: "Indeed, the Hungarians are a chivalrous nation" General Görgei used 19 infantry battalions, 4 jäger companies and sapper units in the final attack. He kept his troops on constant alert against possible attempts by the imperial cavalry to break out from the castle. The imperials lost 30 officers and 680 men, of which 4 officers and 174 men died from the epidemics which broke out in the castle during the siege. 113 officers and 4,091 men surrendered and became prisoners of the Hungarians. 248 cannon of various types, 8,221 projectiles, 931 q (quintal) gunpowder, 5,383 q saltpetre, 894 q sulfur, 276 horses, and 55,766 cash Forints.
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The village was named after Jacob Fults, born in Pennsylvania in 1793, to German immigrants. Fults, after leaving the service of the United States during the War of 1812 in 1817, settled on Moredock Lake. He then moved to the Renault precinct, first up Braun's Hollow, then in 1829 to the settlement known at the time as Braunsberg, which would eventually take his name, until his death in 1841. A site on the bluffs just north of Fults, overlooking the Bottoms is known as Saltpetre Cave and took its name from the quantities of bat guano mined there for potassium nitrate which was used in the local manufacture of black powder by the French at Fort de Chartres and later inhabitants.
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Flywheel and decompressor lever To start the Marshall a smouldering piece of special paper, containing saltpetre, is inserted into the cylinder head by means of the special screw-in holder in the cylinder head (this smouldering paper acts as a glow plug). The engine is then turned over with a starting handle placed in the starting dog on the flywheel. This is aided by the decompression valve, which decompresses the engine and makes it easier to turn over to allow the flywheel to gain speed and momentum to turn the engine through compression, and get the engine to fire. A spiral groove on the perimeter of the flywheel carries a wheel on the decompressor mechanism and is used to determine the number of revolutions before the decompressor disengages.
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During the late 15th century a second city wall in wood was built here, during the 1580s replaced by a more permanent wall in stone. No later than 1499, Sten Sture the Elder transferred the lot now forming the southern part of the façade to the Order of Saint John, which had a church built here, inaugurated in 1514, and demolished in 1530 following the Reformation. A wall from and the graveyard of this church was rediscovered under the alley Johannesgränd passing south of the block; King Gustav Vasa is known to have looted the graveyard to assemble raw material to produce saltpetre used for gunpowder, a deed commented: "Not Christian is thus shoot one's forefathers in the air" (Ej är kristeligt i väder så skjuta sina förfäder).
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In June 1863, the county was included by the federal government in the new state of West Virginia against the wishes of many of the inhabitants. That fall, Union General W.W. Averell swept up the South Branch valley, and destroyed the Confederate saltpetre works above Franklin.West Virginia Writers Project (1940), Smoke Hole and Its People: A Social-Ethnic Study; Charleston, West Virginia: State Department of Education; Reprinted (pp 101-132) in: Shreve, D. Bardon (2005), Sheriff from Smoke Hole (and Other Smoke Hole Stories), Fredericksburg, Virginia: The Fredericksburg Press, Inc, pg 118. In the months following the state's establishment, West Virginia's counties were divided into civil townships, with the intention of encouraging local government. This proved impractical in the heavily rural state, and in 1872 the townships were converted into magisterial districts.
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Rotten wood, known as touchwood, was also used, as well as amadou, which was a tinder prepared from fungus steeped in potassium nitrate (saltpetre) and dried. In use the flint was struck in a vigorous downward motion against the steel, sending a shower of sparks into the tinder which was arranged in the bottom of the box. The sparks (actually pieces of burning steel broken off by the harder flint) created very small embers as they fell onto the charcloth, the glow of which, with some gentle blowing, would be enough to ignite a sulfur tipped wooden splint. The splint could then be carried to a candle, often set in a holder on the top of the box, and finally the cloth would be extinguished with a damper to preserve it for further use.
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He was assistant professor of chemistry in the New Hampshire medical college, 1826–28, and an expert chemist in Boston, Mass. , 1828-82. He was the discoverer of the organic alkaloid sanguinaria; invented in 1838 a novel arrangement of steam boilers for the economical generation of steam: and first suggested the application of oxides of iron in refining pig-iron ; and a process for the production of saltpetre from sodium nitrate by the action of potassium hydroxide. He was state assayer of Massachusetts and author of papers on The Cause of the Color of Lake Leman, Geneva ; The Bed Oxide of Zinc in New Jersey, and technical papers contributed to the Proceedings of various scientific societies of which he was a member and to the American Journal of Science.
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War was unlikely in any event, as not only was the United States importing saltpetre from Britain it was also providing Britain with over 40% of its wheat imports during the war years, and suspension would have caused severe disruption to its food supply. Britain imported about 25-30% of its grain ("corn" in British English), and poor crops in 1861 and 1862 in France made Britain even more dependent on shiploads from New York City. Furthermore, British banks and financial institutions in the City of London had financed many projects such as railways in the US. There were fears that war would result in enormous financial losses as investments were lost and loans defaulted on. Britain's shortage of cotton was partially made up by imports from India and Egypt by 1863.
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Two bronze copies of this may be found — one in the Dresden Gallery and the other in the Louvre, Paris, while a colossal statue of the same confronts the visitor on entering the Saint Louis Art Museum in Forest Park (St. Louis). The qualities of the New England pioneer mingle with those of the family of Hughey's father, who were prominent in Southern New York and Northern Virginia all through the life of the colonies, and the subsequent history of the United States. After the death of McKinney's mother in South Africa, her father was forced to return to his native land on account of the ill-health of his daughter, Fannie, and because of this urgent need, boarded the first vessel coming into port. This was a freight vessel, with a prize cargo of saltpetre for the federal army, which was in the midst of its struggle with the Southern States in the War of the Rebellion.
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Niter, or nitre (chiefly British), is the mineral form of potassium nitrate, KNO3, also known as saltpeter or saltpetre. Historically, the term niter was not well differentiated from natron, both of which have been very vaguely defined but generally refer to compounds of sodium or potassium joined with carbonate or nitrate ions. Related minerals are soda niter (sodium nitrate), ammonia niter or gwihabaite (ammonium nitrate), nitrostrontianite (strontium nitrate), nitrocalcite (calcium nitrate), nitromagnesite (magnesium nitrate), nitrobarite (barium nitrate) and two copper nitrates, gerhardtite and buttgenbachite; in fact all of the natural elements in the first three columns of the periodic table and numerous other cations form nitrates which are uncommonly found for the reasons given, but have been described. Niter was used to refer specifically to nitrated salts known as various types of saltpeter (only nitrated salts were good for making gunpowder) by the time niter and its derivative nitric acid were first used to name the element nitrogen, in 1790.
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He continued using the Gun Yard for shipping and storage of military and non- military provisions, as well as adding a repair shop for gun carriages and a saltpetre refinery. Around the same time the north-west part of the yard was fenced off for the exclusive use of the ropeyard. West of Bell Water Gate, around present-day Glass Yard, there was some glass industry in the 17th century, while pottery production seems to have continued here at the same time.In 1974 two 17th-century pottery kilns were discovered at Woolwich Ferry approach, one of these a redware kiln, the other one an important early stoneware kiln. , 2008, pp. 3-5. The redware kiln which had been reburried, was cleaned in a temporary shed near Greenwich Heritage Centre in 2017.Saint & Guillery (2012), pp. 38-41, 129-130. Old Woolwich between the King's Yard and the Warren (John Rocque, 1746) By the end of the 17th century, the Warren, later the Royal Arsenal, had grown to rival the Tower of London as the country's main ordnance depot.
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In his life, Giovene also wrote a few works on theology, including a hagiography in Latin entitled Vita Beati Corradi Bavari (1836), about the life of Saint Conrad of Bavaria, and for this purpose he had to travel to North Italy and Germany in order to consult medieval sources about the saint. His work was appreciated by Pope Gregory XVI, and it granted the city of Molfetta the official recognition of the cult of Saint Conrad of Bavaria, which had started in Molfetta as early as the XII century.elogio- storico, pagg. 13-14 He also wrote a letter to Saverio Mattei, in which he answered the question Mattei had asked Giuseppe Vairo on the type of matter Jesus Christ referred to in the passage from the gospel where he said to the apostles vos estis sal terrae (which means "you are the salt of the earth") Giovene, with reasoning in which he showed his erudition and his knowledge of physics and chemistry, came to the conclusion that Jesus Christ referred to saltpetre (potassium nitrate).
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Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies", the company rose to account for half of the world's trade, particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, spices, saltpetre, tea, and opium. The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. In his speech to the House of Commons in July 1833, Lord Macaulay explained that since the beginning, the East India Company had always been involved in both trade and politics, just as its French and Dutch counterparts had been. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, coming relatively late to trade in the Indies. Before them the Portuguese Estado da Índia had traded there for much of the 16th century and the first of half a dozen Dutch Companies sailed to trade there from 1595. These Dutch companies amalgamated in March 1602 into the Dutch East India Company (VOC), which introduced the first permanent joint stock from 1612 (meaning investment into shares did not need to be returned, but could be traded on a stock exchange).
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