A polysaccharide is a carbohydrate made up of a chain of sugar molecules.
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This causes pectin — the polysaccharide glue that holds plant cells together — to break down more rapidly.
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The exchange also wanted confirmation that the compound, a polysaccharide injection, had been patented as claimed.
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Highsun said that preliminary research had found the polysaccharide to be 92% effective in preventing the disease in clinical trials.
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"I started researching what an SAP was, and what they all had in common was a chain molecule polysaccharide," Nirghin recalls.
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But the ministry said it had not received a research application and without experimental data, the claim that a polysaccharide injection is effective in preventing the virus lacked scientific proof.
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The Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, at Harvard, has extracted chitosan, a polysaccharide, from shrimp and lobster shells and combined it with silk fibers to create an alternative to plastic packaging, called Shrilk.
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Highsun said that preliminary research had found the polysaccharide to be 92% effective in preventing the disease in clinical trials - an announcement which triggered a 10% surge in its shares on Wednesday, leading to a trading suspension.
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Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine Meningococcal conjugate vaccine How to protect your kids from meningococcal meningitis Virginia teen dies from highly contagious infection Each option helps prevent different strands of the infection.
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The Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Affairs for Hainan province said on its website on Thursday that it had supported a research team that had isolated a polysaccharide compound from tropical plants which had shown a "certain preventive effect" against African swine fever.
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The Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Affairs for Hainan province said on its website on Thursday that it had supported a research team that had isolated a polysaccharide compound from tropical plants, which had shown a "certain preventive effect" against African swine fever.
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For those in high-risk populations, three types of pneumonia vaccines are currently available: PCV13 or pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, which protects against a few serotypes of Streptococal bacteria; PPSV23 or pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine, which protects against many more; and Hib, or Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine.
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Fructan - A polysaccharide of fructose 3\. Galactan - A polysaccharide of galactose 4\. Araban - A polysaccharide of arabinose 5\. Xylan - A polysaccharide of xylose Champe, Harvey, Ferrier.
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Capsular-polysaccharide endo-1,3-alpha-galactosidase (, polysaccharide depolymerase, capsular polysaccharide galactohydrolase) is an enzyme with systematic name Aerobacter-capsular-polysaccharide galactohydrolase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Random hydrolysis of (1->3)-alpha-D-galactosidic linkages in Aerobacter aerogenes capsular polysaccharide Hydrolyses the galactosyl-alpha-1,3-D-galactose linkages only in the complex substrate, bringing about depolymerization.
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The generalized transport reaction catalyzed by PST family proteins is: Lipid-linked polysaccharide precursor (in) + energy → Lipid- linked polysaccharide precursor (out).
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The main components are the polysaccharide guar gum and sodium tetraborate. As an alternative to the polysaccharide, other alcohol-group containing polymers (such as polyvinyl alcohol) may be used to a similar result. These non- polysaccharide polymer products are more often referred to as flubber.
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Trametes versicolor, the mushroom from which PSK was isolated. Polysaccharide-K (Krestin, PSK) is a protein-bound polysaccharide isolated from the fruitbody of Trametes versicolor.
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There are currently 2 subcategories of glycogen storage diseases in horses: Type 1 polysaccharide storage myopathy, glycogen branching enzyme deficiency, and Type 2 polysaccharide storage myopathy.
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In enzymology, a capsular-polysaccharide-transporting ATPase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction :ATP + H2O + capsular polysaccharidein \rightleftharpoons ADP + phosphate + capsular polysaccharideout The 3 substrates of this enzyme are ATP, H2O, and capsular polysaccharide, whereas its 3 products are ADP, phosphate, and capsular polysaccharide. This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those acting on acid anhydrides to catalyse transmembrane movement of substances. The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP phosphohydrolase (capsular-polysaccharide- exporting).
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In enzymology, a feruloyl esterase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction :feruloyl-polysaccharide + H2O \rightleftharpoons ferulate + polysaccharide Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are feruloyl- polysaccharide and H2O, whereas its two products are ferulate and polysaccharide. This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those acting on carboxylic ester bonds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is feruloyl esterase. Other names in common use include ferulic acid esterase (FAE), hydroxycinnamoyl esterase, hemicellulase accessory enzyme, cinnamoyl ester hydrolase (cinnAE).
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Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV)—known as Pneumovax 23 (PPV-23)—is the first pneumococcal vaccine derived from a capsular polysaccharide, and an important landmark in medical history. The polysaccharide antigens were used to induce type-specific antibodies that enhanced opsonization, phagocytosis, and killing of Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcal) bacteria by phagocytic immune cells. The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine is widely used in high- risk adults. As a result, there have been important reductions in the incidence, morbidity, and mortality from invasive pneumococcal disease.
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CRP was so named because it was first identified as a substance in the serum of patients with acute inflammation that reacted with the antibody against the somatic capsular polysaccharide (C-polysaccharide) of pneumococcus.
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The immune systems of young children are not able to recognize the antigen as the polysaccharide covering disguises the antigen. By combining the bacterial polysaccharide with another antigen, the immune system is able to respond.
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The realization of Branhamella catarrhalis as a respiratory pathogen. Chest 1986;90:447-50. as common causes of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), developed the currently used ELISA for measuring antibody to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide, studied the response to pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccineMusher DM, Luchi MJ, Watson DA, Hamilton R, Baughn RE. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in young adults and older bronchitics: determination of IgG responses by ELISA and the effect of adsorption of serum with non-type-specific cell wall polysaccharide. J Infect Dis 1990;161:728-35.
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Mannan may refer to a plant polysaccharide that is a linear polymer of the sugar mannose. Plant mannans have β(1-4) linkages. It is a form of storage polysaccharide. Ivory nut is a source of mannan.
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Polymer–polymer systems. In a Polymer–polymer system, both phases are generated by a dissolved polymer. The heavy phase will generally be a polysaccharide, and the light phase is generally Polyethylene glycol (PEG). Traditionally, the polysaccharide used is dextran.
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K5 polysaccharide from E. coli acts as a heparinoid when it is sulfated.
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The soluble fiber in psyllium is the polysaccharide heteroxylan, a hemicellulose.Fischer MH, Yu N, Gray GR, Ralph J, Anderson L, Marlett JA. (2004) The gel-forming polysaccharide of psyllium husk (Plantago ovata Forsk). Carbohydr Res. 2004 Aug 2;339(11):2009–17.
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Lentinan is a polysaccharide isolated from the fruit body of shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes mycelium).
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Department of Veterinary Science & Microbiology at The University of Arizona Vaccines by Janet M. Decker, PhD Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine (ViCPS) is another subunit vaccine (contains the signature polysaccharide linked to the Vi capsular antigen), in this case, against typhoid caused by the Typhiserotype of Salmonella. It is also called a conjugate vaccine, in which a polysaccharide antigen has been covalently attached to a carrier protein for T-cell-dependent antigen processing (utilizing MHC II).
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Cordycepin Polysaccharide components and cordycepin are under basic research and have been isolated from C. militaris.
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Certain bacteria have polysaccharide outer coats that are poorly immunogenic. By linking these outer coats to proteins (e.g., toxins), the immune system can be led to recognize the polysaccharide as if it were a protein antigen. This approach is used in the Haemophilus influenzae type B vaccine.
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M. Geldmacher-Mallinckrodt und F. May: Die Polysaccharide der Weinbergschnecke II. Die Mucin-Polysaccharide der Eiweißdrüse. 1. Mitteil.: Die Identität von Galaktogen und Sinistrin. Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie. Band 307, Heft 1-2, S. 191–201, ISSN (Online) 1437-4315, ISSN (Print) 0018-4888. .
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Polysaccharide peptide (PSP) is a protein-bound polysaccharide extracted from the edible mushroom Coriolus versicolor. PSP is currently in the animal- testing phase of research in many countries for use as an anti-tumor drug. It appears to work as a biological response modifier (BRM), enhancing the body's own use of macrophages and T-lymphocytes, rather than directly attacking any tumors. Polysaccharide Krestin (PSK) was first isolated in Japan in the late 1960s while PSP was isolated about 1983 in China.
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As a group where the capsule is present they are known as polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria or encapsulated bacteria.
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Cellulin or cellulin granules are a type of polysaccharide found exclusively within the oomyceteous fungi of the order Leptomitales.
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Recently, there have been a number of studies in the lab and in the clinic investigating new possible therapies for cancers associated with catenin. Integrin antagonists and immonochemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil plus polysaccharide-K have shown promising results. Polysaccharide K can promote apoptosis by inhibiting NF-κB activation, which is normally up- regulated, and inhibiting apoptosis, when β-catenin levels are increased in cancer. Therefore, using polysaccharide K to inhibit NF-κB activation can be used to treat patients with high β-catenin levels.
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Phase 3 clinical trials are still underway to further compare of the safety profile of MenAfriVac with existing polysaccharide vaccines.
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The tunnel allows for the enzyme to attach to polysaccharide and then release product while still attached to the sugar.
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DEAE-Sepharose is a tradename for the anion-exchange reactive group, diethylaminoethanol (DEAE) covalently linked to Sepharose (a polysaccharide polymer).
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Transferrin is a serum protein that carries iron through the bloodstream to the bone marrow, where red blood cells are manufactured, as well as to the liver and spleen. Structurally, transferrin is a polypeptide with two N-linked polysaccharide chains. These polysaccharide chains are branched with sialic acid residues. Sialic acid is a monosaccharide carbohydrate.
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Other research describes the identification of three new high molecular weight polysaccharide preparations isolated from food-grade microalgae that are effective activators of human monocytes/macrophages, including "Immunon" from Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. Immunostimulatory activity was measured using transcription factor-based bioassay. Each polysaccharide studied in this research, including AFA, substantially increased mRNA levels of interleukin and tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a). These polysaccharides are between one hundred and one thousand times more active for in vitro monocyte activation than polysaccharide preparations that are currently used clinically for cancer immunotherapy.
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When used for medicinal purposes, the iron complex is polymerized and the sucrose molecules combined to form a larger polysaccharide. The number of polymerizations does not have to be the same as the number of sucrose molecules in the polysaccharide. Structure of iron sucrose. Sucrose molecule is black, and iron complex and ions in solution are red.
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When grown in pure culture, it was observed under a microscope that KT71 formed aggregates. These formations were supported by genome analysis in which genes coding for Type IV pili as well as extracellular polysaccharide production were found. It was predicted by Fuchs et al. that KT71 uses the polysaccharide formation to help form marine snow.
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Either type may have an enclosing capsule of polysaccharides for extra protection. As a group these are known as polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria.
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In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.
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The term was initially applied to the polysaccharide matrix coating epithelial cells, but its functions have been discovered to go well beyond that.
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Neisseria polysaccharea was described in 1983 and is characterized by its ability to produce acid from glucose and maltose and polysaccharide from sucrose. It is nonpathogenic. Strains of this species were previously identified as nontypable strains of N. meningitidis. Strains of N. polysaccharea also may have been misidentified previously as N. subflava because their ability to produce polysaccharide from sucrose was not determined.
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Balomenou, Stavroula, Sofia Arnaouteli, Dimitris Koutsioulis, Vassiliki E. Fadouloglou, and Vassilis Bouriotis. "Polysaccharide Deacetylases: New Antibacterial Drug Targets."Frontiers in Anti-Infective Drug Discovery 4 (2015): 68-130. As a result the enzymatic mechanism of polysaccharide de-acetylases is being investigated, that catalyze the removal of an acetyl group from N-acetyl- glucosamine and N-acetyl-muramic acid, components of the peptidoglycan layer.
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These side chains contain three monosaccharide residues. Xanthan lyase is produced by bacteria that degrade this polysaccharide, such as Bacillus, Corynebacterium and Paenibacillus species.
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Enzymes in the Golgi append proteins to glycosaminoglycans, thus creating proteoglycans. Glycosaminoglycans are long unbranched polysaccharide molecules present in the extracellular matrix of animals.
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The peel can be used in the manufacture of pectin, a polysaccharide used as a gelling agent and stabilizer in food and other products.
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There are currently no biotechnological applications for this microorganisms. The organism is known to actively produce polysaccharide when inoculated on sucrose sugar agar plates.
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Sunopta press release, 2007. Genencor and Novozymes have received United States Department of Energy funding for research into reducing the cost of cellulases, key enzymes in the production of cellulosic ethanol by enzymatic hydrolysis. A recent breakthrough in this regard was the discovery and inclusion of lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases. These enzymes are capable of boosting significantly the action of other cellulases by oxidatively attacking a polysaccharide substrate.
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Normally, polysaccharides by themselves cannot be loaded onto the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of antigen presenting cells (APC) because MHC can only bind peptides. In the case of a conjugate vaccine, the carrier peptide linked to the polysaccharide target antigen is able to be presented on the MHC molecule and the T cell can be activated. This improves the vaccine as T cells stimulate a more vigorous immune response and also promote a more rapid and long-lasting immunologic memory. The conjugation of polysaccharide target antigen to the carrier protein also increases efficiency of the vaccine as a non conjugated vaccine against the polysaccharide antigen is not effective in young children.
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Most commonly, the weak antigen is a polysaccharide that is attached to strong protein antigen. However, peptide/protein and protein/protein conjugates have also been developed.
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All of these processes often involve thermal treatments to facilitate the polysaccharide hydrolysis, hence give thermostable variants of glycoside hydrolases an important role in this context.
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Inulin is a naturally occurring polysaccharide, Complex carbohydrate composed of Dietary fiber a plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes.
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S. aureus is one of the causal agents of mastitis in dairy cows. Its large polysaccharide capsule protects the organism from recognition by the cow's immune defenses.
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The reaction catalyzed by AgnG is: agrocin (in) → agrocin (out) AgnG homologue 2 of Lyngbya sp. (TC# 2.A.66.5.3) is thought to be a polysaccharide exporter.
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Orchis militaris contains the nutritious polysaccharide glucomannan, and is one of the original species of orchid whose ground-up roots are used to make the drink salep.
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The first Hib vaccine licensed was a pure polysaccharide vaccine, first marketed in the United States in 1985. Similar to other polysaccharide vaccines, immune response to the vaccine was highly age-dependent. Children under 18 months of age did not produce a positive response for this vaccine. As a result, the age group with the highest incidence of Hib disease was unprotected, limiting the usefulness of the vaccine.
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Kino flows from a wound in the trunk of a marri (Corymbia calophylla) Gum is a sap or other resinous material associated with certain species of the plant kingdom. This material is often polysaccharide-based and is most frequently associated with woody plants, particularly under the bark or as a seed coating. The polysaccharide material is typically of high molecular weight and most often highly hydrophilic or hydrocolloidal.
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Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure, these macromolecules can have distinct properties from their monosaccharide building blocks. They may be amorphous or even insoluble in water. When all the monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are the same type, the polysaccharide is called a homopolysaccharide or homoglycan, but when more than one type of monosaccharide is present they are called heteropolysaccharides or heteroglycans.
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Ganoderma lingzhi Some mushrooms are used or studied as possible treatments for diseases, particularly their extracts, including polysaccharides, glycoproteins and proteoglycans. In some countries, extracts of polysaccharide-K, schizophyllan, polysaccharide peptide, or lentinan are government-registered adjuvant cancer therapies, even though clinical evidence of efficacy in humans has not been confirmed. Historically in traditional Chinese medicine, mushrooms are believed to have medicinal value, although there is no evidence for such uses.
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This polysaccharide is a primary component of cell walls in fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods, such as crustaceans and insects, the radulae of molluscs, cephalopod beaks, and the scales of fish and lissamphibians. The structure of chitin is comparable to another polysaccharide, cellulose, forming crystalline nanofibrils or whiskers. In terms of function, it may be compared to the protein keratin. Chitin has proved useful for several medicinal, industrial and biotechnological purposes.
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Researchers attribute this to the crushing of the natural polysaccharide follicular gel, releasing a homogenous sol. This unsurprising finding was awarded the 2014 Ig Nobel Prize for physics.
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Mathematical Geology. Volume 23, Is. 3. April 1993. 329-355. The water bound to the polysaccharide moves more slowly within the matrix, which is unfavorable with respect to entropy.
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Aureococcus anophagefferens is a species of heterokont alga. Its cells have a single chloroplast, nucleus, and mitochondrion and an unusual exocellular polysaccharide-like layer. It causes harmful algal blooms.
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Chapman & Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, FL. # Arora et al. (2019) Structural dynamics of lytic polysaccharide monoxygenases reveals a highly flexible substrate binding region.J Mol Graph Model, 88, 1-10.
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Cellulomonas terrae is a Gram-positive, polysaccharide-degrading, cellulolytic, xylanolytic and non-motile bacterium from the genus of Cellulomonas which has been isolated from soil from Daejeon in Korea.
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In the second step, a transpeptidase links together long polysaccharide chains which are linked together through peptide bonds. The amino acid sequence of D-alanyl-D-alanine is recognized by the transpeptidase at the end of the peptide chain. The enzyme cleaves off the alanine on the terminal end and joins the remainder to a peptide chain from an adjacent polysaccharide. This transpeptidation reaction is inhibited by β-lactam antibiotics like cephalosporins.
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All sieve cells have groups of pores at their ends that grow from modified and enlarged plasmodesmata, called sieve areas. The pores are reinforced by platelets of a polysaccharide called callose.
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A glucan is a polysaccharide derived from D-glucose, linked by glycosidic bonds. Many beta-glucans are medically important. They represent a drug target for antifungal medications of the echinocandin class.
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While abnormalities indicating muscle damage can be seen on histologic sections of muscle as young as 1 month of age, abnormal polysaccharide accumulation may take up to 3 years to develop.
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The idea of a conjugate vaccine first appeared in experiments involving rabbits in 1927, when the immune response to the Streptococcus pneumoniae type 3 polysaccharide antigen was increased by combining the polysaccharide antigen with a protein carrier. The first conjugate vaccine used in humans became available in 1987. This was the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate, which protects against meningitis. The vaccine was soon incorporated with the schedule for infant immunization in the United States.
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Vaccines evoke an immune response to an antigen, and the immune system reacts by producing T cells and antibodies. The T cells remember the antigen so that if the body encounters it later, antibodies can be produced by B cells to break down the antigen. For bacteria with a polysaccharide coating, the immune response creates B cells independent of T cell stimulation. By conjugating the polysaccharide to a protein carrier, a T cell response can be induced.
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As early as 1976, low levels of maternal antibodies against the GBS capsular polysaccharide were shown to be correlated with susceptibility to GBS-EOD and GBS-LOD. Maternal-specific antibodies, transferred from the mother to the newborn, were able to confer protection to babies against GBS infection. The capsular polysaccharide of GBS, which is an important virulence factor, is also an excellent candidate for the development of an effective vaccine. GBS protein-based vaccines are also in development.
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Pneumococcus is characterized by smooth colonies which have a polysaccharide capsule that induces antibody formation; the different types are classified according to their immunological specificity. The purification procedure Avery undertook consisted of first killing the bacteria with heat and extracting the saline-soluble components. Next, the protein was precipitated out using chloroform and the polysaccharide capsules were hydrolyzed with an enzyme. An immunological precipitation caused by type-specific antibodies was used to verify the complete destruction of the capsules.
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The extracellular polysaccharide colanic acid is produced by species of the family Enterobacteriaceae. In Escherichia coli strain K12 the colanic acid cluster comprises 19 genes. The wzx gene encodes a protein with multiple transmembrane segments that may function in export of the colanic acid repeat unit from the cytoplasm into the periplasm in a process analogous to O-unit export. The colanic acid gene clusters may be involved in the export of polysaccharide from the cell.
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The molecule laminarin (also known as laminaran) is a storage glucan (a polysaccharide of glucose) found in brown algae. It is used as a carbohydrate food reserve in the same way that chrysolaminarin is used by phytoplankton, especially in diatoms. It is created by photosynthesis and is made up of β(1→3)-glucan with β(1→6)-branches. It is a linear polysaccharide, with a β(1→3):β(1→6) ratio of 3:1.
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Health Canada's general recommendations are 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV 13) vaccine for children aged 2 months to 18 years and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV 23) vaccine for adults.
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Lambda-carrageenase (, endo-beta-1,4-carrageenose 2,6,2'-trisulfate-hydrolase) is an enzyme which breaks down a polysaccharide found in red seaweeds, lambda- carrageenan. This enzyme has only been found in marine bacteria.
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The plant's chemical constituents include phytosterols, polysaccharides, ligustilide, butylphthalide, cnidilide, isoenidilide, p-cymene, ferulate, and flavonoids. When isolated from the plant, one of the chemicals, angelica polysaccharide sulfate, has in vitro antioxidant activity.
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Prevention of bacterial pneumonia is by vaccination against Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine for adults and pneumococcal conjugate vaccine for children), Haemophilus influenzae type B, meningococcus, Bordetella pertussis, Bacillus anthracis, and Yersinia pestis.
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Aoki, Y. and Kamei, Y. 2006 Preparation of recombinant polysaccharide-degrading enzymes from the marine bacterium, Pseudomonas sp. ND137 for the production of protoplasts of Porphyra yezoensis Eur. J. Phycol. 41: 321-328.
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Galactogen is a polysaccharide of galactose that functions as energy storage in pulmonate snails and some Caenogastropoda. Goudsmit, E.M. (1972). Carbohydrates and carbohydrate metabolism in Mollusca. In: Florkin, M. and Scheer, B.T. eds.
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In addition, the strong environmental protection response of B. cenocepacia is attributed to the biofilm formed by groups of the organism. This biofilm contains exopolysaccharides (abbreviated EPS) that strengthen the bacterium's resistance to antibiotics. It is made up of a highly branched polysaccharide unit with one glucose, one glucuronic acid, one mannose, one rhamnose, and three galactose molecules. This species in the Bcc has also created another polysaccharide with one 3-deoxy-d-manno-2-octulosonic acid and three galactose molecules.
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In 1936, a pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine was used to abort an epidemic of pneumococcal pneumonia. In the 1940s, experiments on capsular transformation by pneumococci first identified DNA as the material that carries genetic information. In 1900 it was recognized that different serovars of pneumococci exist and that immunization with a given serovar did not protect against infection with other serovars. Since then over ninety serovars have been discovered each with a unique polysaccharide capsule that can be identified by the quellung reaction.
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Vaccines against serotype B meningococcal disease have proved difficult to produce, and require a different approach from vaccines against other serotypes. Whereas effective polysaccharide vaccines have been produced against types A, C, W-135, and Y, the capsular polysaccharide on the type B bacterium is too similar to human neural adhesion molecules to be a useful target.Finne J et al. An IgG monoclonal antibody to group B meningococci cross-reacts with developmentally regulated polysialic acid units of glycoproteins in neural and extraneural tissues.
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Ty21a, the Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine, and Vi-rEPA are effective in reducing typhoid fever with low rates of adverse effects. Newer vaccines such as Vi-TT (PedaTyph) are awaiting field trials to demonstrate efficacy against natural exposure. The oral Ty21a vaccine prevents around one-half of typhoid cases in the first three years after vaccination. The injectable Vi polysaccharide vaccine prevented about two-thirds of typhoid cases in the first year and had a cumulative efficacy of 55% by the third year.
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Appropriate preventive measures reduced the rate of these infections by 50% between 1992 and 1997. Influenza vaccination and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine are often recommended in people with HIV/AIDS with some evidence of benefit.
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The CDC and the WHO recommend that all infants be vaccinated using a polysaccharide-protein conjugate Hib vaccine, starting after the age of six weeks. The vaccination is also indicated in people without a spleen.
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Microbulbifer mangrovi is a polysaccharide-degrading bacterium isolated from an Indian mangrove, hence its name. It is rod-shaped, Gram-negative, non- motile, aerobic and non-endospore forming, its type strain designated DD-13(T).
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Mangosteen peel contains xanthonoids, such as mangostin, and other phytochemicals. Polysaccharide and xanthone compounds are found in the fruit, leaves, and heartwood of the mangosteen. Fully ripe fruit contain xanthones, garthanin, 8-disoxygartanin, and normangostin.
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The polysaccharide sheath is hypothesized to protect A. lagunensis from being digested in the guts of some zooplankton like that of the copepod Acartia tonsa as viable cells can be detected in its fecal pellets.
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PRP covalently linked to a protein carrier was found to elicit a greater immune response than the polysaccharide form of the vaccine. This is due to the protein carrier being highly immunogenic in nature. The conjugate formulations show responses which are consistent with T-cell recruitment (namely a much stronger immune response). A memory effect (priming of the immune system against future attack by Hib) is also observed after administration; indicative that memory B cell formation is also improved over that of the polysaccharide form.
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Illustrates the difference in structure between N-linked and O-linked glycosylation on a polypeptide chain. Post-translational modifications can incorporate more complex, large molecules into the folded protein structure. One common example of this is glycosylation, the addition of a polysaccharide molecule, which is widely considered to be most common post-translational modification. In glycosylation, a polysaccharide molecule (known as a glycan) is covalently added to the target protein by glycosyltransferases enzymes and modified by glycosidases in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
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The Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine (or ViCPS) is a typhoid vaccine recommended by the World Health Organization for the prevention of typhoid (another is Ty21a). The vaccine was first licensed in the US in 1994 and is made from the purified Vi capsular polysaccharide from the Ty2 Salmonella Typhi strain; it is a subunit vaccine. A newer conjugate form of the vaccine (Vi bound to a non-toxic recombinant Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin, or Vi- rEPA) has enhanced efficacy, including protection of children under 5 years of age.
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30 wt. %), whereas tender stem tips exhibit a low cellulose content (9.2 wt. %). Salicornia brachiata revealed the dominance of rhamnose, arabinose, mannose, galactose, and glucose, with meager presence of ribose and xylose in their structural polysaccharide.
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Notable accomplishments included development of a new method for observational measurement of the effectiveness of the pneumoccal polysaccharide vaccine (the "indirect cohort" or "Broome" method),Bolan G, Broome CV, Facklam RR, Plikaytis BD, Fraser DW, Schlech WF. Pneumococcal vaccine efficacy in selected populations in the United States. Ann Intern Med 1986;104:1 6. which has been used since then to assess serotype specific effectiveness, duration of effectiveness, and effectiveness in groups with underlying disease; designed observational and field trials to evaluate vaccine performance, including sequential case control studies to define duration of meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine effectiveness in Burkina Faso;Reingold AL, Broome CV, Hightower AW, Ajello GW, Bolan GA, Adamsbaum C, Jones EE, Phillips C, Tiendrebeogo H, Yada A. Age specific differences in duration of clinical protection after vaccination with meningococcal polysaccharide A vaccine. The Lancet 1985;ii:114 118.
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Other causes include granulomatous meningoencephalitis and vasculitis. The fungus, Cryptococcus neoformans, can be symptomatically manifested within the CNS as meningoencephalitis with hydrocephalus being a very characteristic finding due to the unique thick polysaccharide capsule of the organism.
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For example, both salt provides sodium and chloride, both essential nutrients, but will cause illness or even death in too large amounts. Dietary fibre is a carbohydrate (polysaccharide or oligosaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in some animals.
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Menveo and Menactra contain the same antigens as Menomune, but the antigens are conjugated to a diphtheria toxoid polysaccharide–protein complex, resulting in anticipated enhanced duration of protection, increased immunity with booster vaccinations, and effective herd immunity.
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In enzymology, a xanthan lyase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction of cleaving the beta-D-mannosyl-beta-D-1,4-glucuronosyl bond on the polysaccharide xanthan. This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically those carbon-oxygen lyases acting on polysaccharides. Xanthan lyase was first identified and partially purified in 1987. Xanthan is a polysaccharide secreted by several different bacterial taxa, such as the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris, and it consists of a main linear chain based on cellulose with side chains attached to alternate glucosyl (glucose) residues.
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Some Tremella species produce polysaccharides that are of interest to the medical field, because of their biological activity; several patents have been filed in China pertaining to the use of these compounds for cancer prevention or immune system enhancement. In 1966, Slodki reported discovering an acidic polysaccharide from haploid cells of T. mesenterica that closely resembled those produced by the species Cryptococcus laurentii. The structural similarity of the polysaccharides from the two species suggested a phylogenetic relationship between them. Subsequently, researchers chemically synthesized the polysaccharide, and determined the chemical identities of the component sugar units.
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In enzymology, a N-acetylgalactosaminoglycan deacetylase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction :N-acetyl-D-galactosaminoglycan + H2O \rightleftharpoons D-galactosaminoglycan + acetate Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are N-acetyl-D-galactosaminoglycan and H2O, whereas its two products are D-galactosaminoglycan and acetate. This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those acting on carboxylic ester bonds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is N-acetyl-D-galactosaminoglycan acetylhydrolase. Other names in common use include polysaccharide deacetylase, Vi-polysaccharide deacetylase, and N-acetyl galactosaminoglycan deacetylase.
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In order to prove this specificity, he first had to identify and purify a specific enzyme that cleaved hexosamine (a hexosaminidase) from a soil organism. Treating the polysaccharide with this enzyme abrogated its serological reactivity. McCarty further demonstrated the precise configuration of the hexosamine linkage by synthesizing both α- and β-N-acetyl-glucosamine ovalbumin and showing that only the second reacted with group A antisera. A similar analytical strategy indicated that the polysaccharide of group C streptococci differed by having a terminal β-N-acetyl galactosamine as the serological determinant.
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With respect to P. digitatum, this species is known to cause generalized mycosis in humans, although the incidence of such events are very low. Various studies have also noted a presence of circulating antibodies to the extracellular polysaccharide of P. digitatum in both human and rabbit sera. This presence is suggested to be due to the intake of contaminated fruits and/or breathing air contaminated with extracellular polysaccharide. In terms of allergy testing, P. digitatum is present in various clinical allergy test formulations, testing for allergy to moulds.
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In the early 1920s, Howell isolated a water-soluble polysaccharide anticoagulant, which he also termed 'heparin', although it was different from the previously discovered phosphatide preparations. McLean's work as a surgeon probably changed the focus of the Howell group to look for anticoagulants, which eventually led to the polysaccharide discovery. In the 1930s, several researchers were investigating heparin. Erik Jorpes at Karolinska Institutet published his research on the structure of heparin in 1935, which made it possible for the Swedish company Vitrum AB to launch the first heparin product for intravenous use in 1936.
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By varying the degree of cross-linking, the fractionation properties of the gel can be altered. These highly specialized gel filtration and chromatographic media are composed of macroscopic beads synthetically derived from the polysaccharide dextran. The organic chains are cross-linked to give a three-dimensional network having functional ionic groups attached by ether linkages to glucose units of the polysaccharide chains. Available forms include anion and cation exchangers, as well as gel filtration resins, with varying degrees of porosity; bead sizes fall in discrete ranges between 20 and 300 µm.
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N. meningitidis has a polysaccharide capsule that surrounds the outer membrane of the bacterium and protects against soluble immune effector mechanisms within the serum. It is considered to be an essential virulence factor for the bacteria. N. gonorrhoeae possesses no such capsule. Unlike most other Gram-negative bacteria, which possess lipopolysaccharide (LPS), both pathogenic and commensal species of Neisseria have a lipooligosaccharide (LOS) which consists of a core polysaccharide and lipid A. It functions as an endotoxin, protects against antimicrobial peptides, and adheres to the asialoglycoprotein receptor on urethral epithelium.
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M.A. Rojas-Graüa, M.S. Tapiab, O. Martín-Bellosoa. Using polysaccharide-based edible coatings to maintain quality of fresh-cut Fuji apples. LWT Food Science and Technology, 41 (2008), pp. 139-147 Lotus root tea is consumed in Korea.
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Neisseria meningitidis has 13 clinically significant serogroups, classified according to the antigenic structure of their polysaccharide capsule. Six serogroups, A, B, C, Y, W-135, and X, are responsible for virtually all cases of the disease in humans.
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An example of this is that secondary wall in wood contains polysaccharides called xylan, whereas the primary wall contains the polysaccharide xyloglucan. The cellulose fraction in secondary walls is also higher.Taiz, L. and E. Zeiger (2006). Plant physiology.
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Klebsiella variicola was described as a species of Klebsiella distinct from its closely related species Klebsiella pneumoniae in 2004. Like other Klebsiella species, K. variicola is gram-negative, rod-shaped, non-motile, and covered by a polysaccharide capsule.
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The first, O antigen, is a component of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS), of which 9 varieties exist. The second is K antigen, a capsular polysaccharide with more than 80 varieties. Both contribute to pathogenicity and form the basis for serogrouping.
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Styphnolobium has galactomannans as seed polysaccharide reserve, in contrast Sophora contains arabinogalactans, and Dermatophyllum amylose. The New Zealand Sophora species are known as kōwhai or kowhai. The seeds of species such as Sophora affinis are reported to be poisonous.
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As suggested to him by Walther and Fanny Hesse, Koch began to utilize agar to grow and isolate pure cultures, because this polysaccharide remains solid at 37 °C, is not degraded by most bacteria, and results in a transparent medium.
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The glands were evolved though protein synthesis, as RNA of the cytoplasm and nucleoli can be observed. Analysis has discovered that the gland secretion is very complex, as proteins, neutral polysaccharide, as well as lipids are released by these glands.
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Inulin is a heterogeneous collection of fructose polymers. It consists of chain- terminating glucosyl moieties and a repetitive fructosyl moiety,Barclay, Thomas, et al. Inulin – a versatile polysaccharide with multiple pharmaceutical and food chemical uses. Diss. International Pharmaceutical Excipients Council, 2010.
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Vachellia seyal is, along with other Vachellias, an important source for gum arabic, a natural polysaccharide, that exudes from damaged stems and solidifies.Purdue University The gum of V. seyal is called gum talha, from the Arabic name of the tree: (talh).
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Glucose is an energy source in most life forms. For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers by enzymes (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues from glycogen, a polysaccharide). Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides.
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The next stage begins when cisternae at carbohydrate synthesis swap material via COPI vesicles. This is when glycosylation and polysaccharide synthesis occur. Mature cisternae reach the final stage where cargo proteins are sent to transport carriers and finally the cisternae disassemble.
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Unlike other heterokonts, their chloroplasts do not contain fucoxanthin, which accounts for their lighter colour. Their storage polysaccharide is chrysolaminarin. Xanthophyte cell walls are produced of cellulose and hemicellulose. They appear to be the closest relatives of the brown algae.
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The Meningitis Vaccine Project partnered with SynCo Bio Partners, a Dutch biotech company, and the US government's Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research to develop MenAfriVac, and the Serum Institute of India to manufacture it. MenAfriVac is a freeze-dried vaccine of a polysaccharide from a type of Neisseria meningitidis called group A. The polysaccharide has been purified by affinity chromatography and bound to a carrier protein called tetanus toxoid. The TT is prepared by extraction by ammonium sulfate precipitation and the toxin is inactivated with formalin from cultures of Clostridium tetani grown in a modified Mueller-Hinton agar.
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Diferulic acids are thought to have a structural function in plant cell walls, where they form cross-links between polysaccharide chains. They have been extracted attached to a few sugar molecules at both ends, but so far no definitive proof of them linking separate polysaccharide chains has been found. In suspension-cultured maize cells, dimerisation of ferulic acid esterified to polysaccharides occurs mostly in the protoplasm, but may occur in the cell walls when peroxide levels increase due to pathogenesis. In suspension-cultured wheat cells, only the 8,5'-diferulic acid is formed intraprotoplasmically with the other dimers being formed in the cell wall.
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Boletus edulis mushrooms are 9% carbohydrates, 3% fat, and 7% protein (table). Fresh mushrooms consist of over 80% moisture, although reported values tend to differ somewhat as moisture content can be affected by environmental temperature and relative humidity during growth and storage. The carbohydrate component contains the monosaccharides glucose, mannitol and α,α-trehalose, the polysaccharide glycogen, and the water-insoluble structural polysaccharide chitin, which accounts for up to 80–90% of dry matter in mushroom cell walls. Chitin, hemicellulose, and pectin-like carbohydrates—all indigestible by humans—contribute to high proportion of insoluble fibre in B. edulis.
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Fucoidan is a sulfated polysaccharide (MW: average 20,000) found mainly in various species of brown algae and brown seaweed such as mozuku, kombu, bladderwrack, wakame, and hijiki (variant forms of fucoidan have also been found in animal species, including the sea cucumber).
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This increase in size forces the cell to increase the number of paramylon storage granules and develop a polysaccharide mucilaginous wall for protection until it enters a more habitable environment. In addition, cell division continues to take place even as a reproductive cyst.
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Structure of Polygalactosamine Produced by Aspergillus parasiticus. Biochem. 89, 1265-1274Fontaine, T., Delangle, A., Simenel, C., Coddeville, B., van Vliet, S.J., van Kooyk, Y., Bozza, S., Moretti, S., Schwarz, F., Trichot, C., et al. (2011). Galactosaminogalactan, a new immunosuppressive polysaccharide of Aspergillus fumigatus.
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Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare approved the use of polysaccharide-K extracted from the mushroom, Coriolus versicolor, in the 1980s, to stimulate the immune systems of patients undergoing chemotherapy. It is a dietary supplement in the US and other jurisdictions.
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T7 grows on rough strains of Escherichia coli (i.e. those without full-length O-antigen polysaccharide on their surface) and some other enteric bacteria, but close relatives also infect smooth and even capsulated strains.Molineux, I. J. (2006). Chapter 20: The T7 group.
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Sinistrin is a naturally occurring sugar polymer or polysaccharide, also known as polyfructosane. It belongs to the fructan group, like inulin. As it is the case with similar substances, such as fructans or inulin, sinistrin acts as an energy storage molecule in plants.
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Microbacterium kitamiense is a heterotrophic, strictly aerobic, mesophilic and non-motile bacterium from the genus of Microbacterium which has been isolated from waste water from a sugar-beet factory in Kitami in Japan. Microbacterium kitamiense produces polysaccharide. Microbacterium kitamiense has a high GC- content.
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Acetyl and pyruvyl residues are added as non-carbohydrate decorations. Mature repeat units are polymerized and exported in a way resembling the Wzy- dependent polysaccharide synthesis mechanism of Enterobacteriaceae. Products of the gum gene cluster drive synthesis, polymerization, and export of the repeat unit.
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Kim and Geider found that no signal sequence was observed at the N-terminus of the enzyme and suggested that the holin possibly facilities the export of an which may export a lysozyme and EPS depolymerase that carries out extracellular polysaccharide (EPS)-degrading activity.
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When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined, it is called an oligosaccharide (oligo- meaning "few"). These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses.Varki (1999), p. 17. Many monosaccharides joined together form a polysaccharide.
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S. mutans is one of a few specialized organisms equipped with receptors that improve adhesion to the surface of teeth. S. mutans uses the enzyme glucansucrase to convert sucrose into a sticky, extracellular, dextran-based polysaccharide that allows them to cohere, forming plaque. S. mutans produces dextran via the enzyme dextransucrase (a hexosyltransferase) using sucrose as a substrate in the following reaction: : n sucrose -> (glucose)n \+ n fructose Sucrose is the only sugar that bacteria can use to form this sticky polysaccharide. However, other sugars—glucose, fructose, lactose—can also be digested by S. mutans, but they produce lactic acid as an end product.
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His Lasker award was for the development and clear demonstration of the efficacy of a purified vaccine of capsular polysaccharides in the prevention of pneumococcal disease. Prior to the Austrian polysaccharide vaccine scientists had prepared simpler whole bacteria and capsular polysaccharide vaccines but they were not accepted as standard of care by the medical community. Several medical authorities touted this era as “the end of infectious diseases” due to the remarkable mortality benefits derived from new antimicrobials and anti-parasitics and vaccine research was not thought to be worthwhile. When antibiotics came into use for the cure of pneumococcal infections in the 1950s and 60s, further pneumococcal vaccine development was abandoned.
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Pneumonia occurs if the organisms are inhaled into the lungs and not cleared (again, viral infection, or smoking-induced ciliary paralysis might be contributing factors). The organism's polysaccharide capsule makes it resistant to phagocytosis and if there is no pre-existing anticapsular antibody alveolar macrophages cannot adequately kill the pneumococci. The organism spreads to the blood stream (where it can cause bacteremia) and is carried to the meninges, joint spaces, bones, and peritoneal cavity, and may result in meningitis, brain abscess, septic arthritis, or osteomyelitis. S. pneumoniae has several virulence factors, including the polysaccharide capsule mentioned earlier, that help it evade a host's immune system.
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Dubos began his career in microbiology in 1927, when he joined Oswald Avery's laboratory at The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Avery was looking for a microbe that could break down the polysaccharide capsule of a deadly strain of bacterial pneumonia in the same way that soil bacteria digested decaying organic matter in the woods. Dubos identified a bacterium that secreted an enzyme that broke down polysaccharide. In 1939, with the help of Rockefeller Institute biochemist Rollin Hotchkiss, Dubos isolated the antibacterial agents tyrothricin and gramicidin from the bacterium Bacillus brevis that killed or inhibited Gram-positive bacteria and tested their bacterial, chemical, and clinical properties.
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In enzymology, a polysaccharide O-methyltransferase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction :S-adenosyl-L-methionine + 1,4-alpha-D- glucooligosaccharide \rightleftharpoons S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine + oligosaccharide containing 6-methyl-D-glucose units Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are S-adenosyl methionine and 1,4-alpha-D-glucooligosaccharide, whereas its two products are S-adenosylhomocysteine and oligosaccharide containing 6-methyl-D-glucose units. This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those transferring one-carbon group methyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is S-adenosyl-L- methionine:1,4-alpha-D-glucan 6-O-methyltransferase. Other names in common use include polysaccharide methyltransferase, and acylpolysacharide 6-methyltransferase.
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Dried Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia auricula-judae has been the subject of research into possible medicinal applications. Experiments in the 1980s concluded that two glucans isolated from the species showed potent antitumour properties when used on mice artificially implanted with Sarcoma 180 tumours. This was despite the conclusion of earlier research indicating that, while aqueous extracts from several other fungal species had antitumour effects, extracts from A. auricula-judae did not. Further, research on genetically diabetic mice showed that a polysaccharide extracted from A. auricula-judae had a hypoglycemic effect; mice fed with food including the polysaccharide showed reduced plasma glucose, insulin, urinary glucose and food intake.
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Clinical features suggesting CEDS should be investigated by immunologic studies assessing serum immunoglobulin levels, antibody function, and lymphocyte activation. Patients with CEDS have hypogammaglobulinemia, make poor antibody responses to pneumococcal polysaccharide antigens, and their B cells, T cells, and NK cells do not activate well to stimuli.
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The fundamental structure of a cerebroside is ceramide. Monoglycosyl and oligoglycosylceramides having a mono or polysaccharide bonded glycosidically to the terminal OH group of ceramide are defined as cerebrosides. Sphingosine is the main long-chain base present in ceramide. Galactosylceramide is the principal glycosphingolipid in brain tissue.
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Most antibodies have the similar structure except the hypervariable region which is called the antigen binding site. This region is constituted by the combination of various amino acids. When the antigen is a kind of carbohydrate (Polysaccharide), the binding could be regarded as a protein-carbohydrate interaction.
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Just like other streptococci they are catalase-negative. A Quellung test can identify specific capsular polysaccharides. Pneumococcal antigen (cell wall C polysaccharide) may be detected in various body fluids. Older detection kits, based on latex agglutination, added little value above Gram staining and were occasionally false-positive.
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In dead Sphagnum, sphagnan a polysaccharide with D-lyxo-5-hexosulouronic acid is a major remaining substance. It makes the bog very acidic, so that bacteria cannot grow. Not only that, the plant ensures there is no available nitrogen. Holocellulose also absorbs any digestive enzymes around.
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PGs can be produced by pathogens to degrade the polygalacturonan component of plant cell walls.Jones, T. M., Anderson, A. J., and Albersheim, P. (1972) Hostpathogen interactions IV, Studies on the polysaccharide-degrading enzymes secreted by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici, Physiol. Plant Pathol. 2, 153-166.
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Pneumococcal vaccines are vaccines against the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. Their use can prevent some cases of pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. There are two types of pneumococcal vaccines: conjugate vaccines and polysaccharide vaccines. They are given by injection either into a muscle or just under the skin.
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Flash release is a technique used in wine pressing.Flash release and wine quality. Escudier J.L., Kotseridis Y. and Moutounet M., Progrès Agricole et Viticole, 2002 (French) The technique allows for a better extraction of wine polysaccharides.Effect of Flash Release and Pectinolytic Enzyme Treatments on Wine Polysaccharide Composition.
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Compound collagen-based scaffolds have been developed in an attempt to improve the function of these scaffolds for tissue engineering. An example of a compound collagen scaffold is the collagen-chitosan matrix. Chitosan is a polysaccharide that is chemically similar to cellulose. Unlike collagen, chitosan biodegrades relatively slowly.
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The seeds of the guar bean contain a large endosperm. This endosperm consists of a large polysaccharide of galactose and mannose. This polymer is water-soluble and exhibits a viscosifying effect in water. Guar gum has a multitude of different applications in food products, industrial products, and extractive industry.
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Schizophyllan (Sonifilan, SPG) is a neutral extracellular polysaccharide produced by the fungus Schizophyllum commune. Schizophyllan is a β-1,3 beta- glucan with β-1,6 branching. Schizophyllan is also known as sizofiran. Schizophyllan has a molecular weight of 450,000 Da, and a specific rotation in water of +18-24°.
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The encapsulated, Gram-positive, coccoid bacteria have a distinctive morphology on Gram stain, lancet-shaped diplococci. They have a polysaccharide capsule that acts as a virulence factor for the organism; more than 90 different serotypes are known, and these types differ in virulence, prevalence, and extent of drug resistance.
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Polysaccharide antioxidants are also produced by E. nigrum. Epicocconone is a fluorescent pigment unique to E. nigrum. Epicocconone is valuable in terms of its ability to pigment cells orange, which then fluoresce red without impacting cell structure or function. Industrially, E. nigrum has a variety of broad applications.
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Fomitopsis palustris is known to possess three different cellulase enzymes. An endoglucanase, named EG-II, has been purified and characterized from this species in 2008; it is believed to assist in the wood rot process by loosening the polysaccharide network in cell walls by disentangling hemicelluloses associated with cellulose.
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This polysaccharide is a major component of brown algae, and is not found in land plants. Alginic acid can also be used in aquaculture. For example, alginic acid enhances the immune system of rainbow trout. Younger fish are more likely to survive when given a diet with alginic acid.
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A sequon is a sequence of consecutive amino acids in a protein that can serve as the attachment site to a polysaccharide, frequently an N-linked-Glycan. The polysaccharide is linked to the protein via the nitrogen atom in the side chain of asparagine (Asn). The sequon for N-glycosylation is either Asn-X-Ser or Asn-X-Thr, where X is any amino acid except proline, Ser denoting serine and Thr threonine. Occasionally, other amino acids can take the place of Ser and Thr, such as in the leukocyte surface protein (CD69), where the amino acid sequence Asn-X-Cys is an acceptable sequon for the addition of N-linked glycans.
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Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) is a pneumococcal vaccine and a conjugate vaccine used to protect infants, young children, and adults against disease caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus). It contains purified capsular polysaccharide of pneumococcal serotypes conjugated to a carrier protein to improve antibody response compared to the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of the conjugate vaccine in routine immunizations given to children. The most common side effects in children are decreased appetite, fever (only very common in children aged six weeks to five years), irritability, reactions at the site of injection (reddening or hardening of the skin, swelling, pain or tenderness), somnolence (sleepiness) and poor quality sleep.
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Lichens can show intense antioxidant activity. Secondary metabolites are often deposited as crystals in the apoplast. Secondary metabolites are thought to play a role in preference for some substrates over others. Sometimes lichens contain structures made from fungal metabolites, for example crustose lichens sometimes have a polysaccharide layer in the cortex.
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Guar gum, also called guaran, is a galactomannan polysaccharide extracted from guar beans that has thickening and stabilizing properties useful in food, feed, and industrial applications. The guar seeds are mechanically dehusked, hydrated, milled and screened according to application. It is typically produced as a free-flowing, off-white powder.
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A chemically analogous polysaccharide, scleroglucan, is formed by the fungus Athelia rolfsii. Both polysaccharides share the chemical structure of the backbone with curdlan. It is known for several things, including its ability to stimulate the immune system, carry metals in water, aid in delivering drugs, and use in some nanofibers.
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The vaccine offers a statistically significant protection for the first seven years. The vaccine is most commonly used to protect travelers to endemic countries, but some agencies claim that the vaccine could be used in large scale public prevention programs. The Vi polysaccharide vaccine is also effective at preventing typhoid fever.
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Xanthan gum () is a polysaccharide with many industrial uses, including as a common food additive. It is an effective thickening agent and stabilizer to prevent ingredients from separating. It can be produced from simple sugars using a fermentation process, and derives its name from the species of bacteria used, Xanthomonas campestris.
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As a wood-rotting fungus genus, species of Trogia have enzymes that break down lignin, a complex polysaccharide that is largely responsible for giving wood its strength. Trogia buccinalis has been investigated for its ability to use these enzymes to break down common pollutant molecules such as anthracene, pentachlorophenol, and polyvinylchloride.
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When combined in the way that the image to the right depicts, sucrose, one of the more common sugar products found in plants, is formed. A chain of monosaccharides form to make a polysaccharide. Such polysaccharides include pectin, dextran, agar, and xanthan. Sugar content is commonly measured in degrees brix.
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In other cases, rest may be contraindicated. Animals with a history of upward fixation of the patella, polysaccharide storage myopathy,Valberg SJ. A Review of the Diagnosis and Treatment of Rhabdomyolysis in Foals. Proc. AAEP 2002(48) 117-121. and equine recurrent rhabdomyolysis are often best kept on a schedule of regular exercise.
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The powdered shells of crustaceans are processed to acquire chitin, a polysaccharide found in the shells, from which chitosan is derived via de-acetylation. Water that is more brackish, or saline requires larger amounts of flocculant. Flocculation is often too expensive for large operations. Alum and ferric chloride are other chemical flocculants.
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The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. Carbohydrates are central to nutrition and are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide.
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Haemophilus influenzae type b is a bacterium with a polysaccharide capsule; the main component of this capsule is polyribosyl ribitol phosphate (PRP). Anti-PRP antibodies have a protective effect against Hib infections. Thus, purified PRP was considered a good candidate for a vaccine. However, the antibody response to PRP diminished rapidly after administration.
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In addition, small particle beta-glucans modified to prevent re-aggregation during digestion have the most positive effects on immune potentiation. Ninety percent of horses with active ulceration treated with ta schizophyllan-containing polysaccharide blend showed complete resolution and/or improvement in ulcerative areas, increased appetite, weight gain, and positive behavioral changes.
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Nannochloropsis sp. Eustigmatophytes are a small group (17 genera; ~107 species) of eukaryotic algae that includes marine, freshwater and soil-living species. All eustigmatophytes are unicellular, with coccoid cells and polysaccharide cell walls. Eustigmatophytes contain one or more yellow-green chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll a and the accessory pigments violaxanthin and β-carotene.
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Methylocapsa acidiphila is a bacterium. It is a methane-oxidizing and dinitrogen-fixing acidophilic bacterium first isolated from Sphagnum bog. Its cells are aerobic, gram-negative, colourless, non-motile, curved coccoids that form conglomerates covered by an extracellular polysaccharide matrix. The cells use methane and methanol as sole sources of carbon and energy.
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Serovera is a nutritional supplement marketed by TeamTrade, Inc., Serovera products were formulated to support immune and digestive health. It is sold at retailers as well as through direct internet marketing. Currently sold in the United States with the stabilized and isolated agent aloe mucilaginous polysaccharide, Like many nutraceuticals, its efficacy is questionable.
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A Polysaccharide Virulence Factor of a Human Fungal Pathogen Induces Neutrophil Apoptosis via NK Cells. Journal of Immunology. 192(11):5332-42 and reduce inflammation. Gresnigt, M.S., Bozza, S., Becker, K.L., Joosten, L.A., Abdollahi-Roodsaz, S., van der Berg, W.B., Dinarello, C.A., Netea, M.G., Fontaine, T., De Luca, A., et al. (2014).
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Neisseria spp.) and select Gram-positive bacteria. Its ligands also include several viral proteins, polysaccharide, and a variety of endogenous proteins such as low-density lipoprotein, beta- defensins, and heat shock protein. TLR4 has also been designated as CD284 (cluster of differentiation 284). The molecular weight of TLR4 is approximately 95 kDa.
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Brown algae have a value in the range of , in contrast with red algae and greens. This reflects their different metabolic pathways. They have cellulose walls with alginic acid and also contain the polysaccharide fucoidan in the amorphous sections of their cell walls. A few species (of Padina) calcify with aragonite needles.
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Besides the storage polysaccharide inulin (C6H12O6[C6H10O5]n), a polymer of fructose, the root contains helenin (C15H20O2), a stearoptene, which may be prepared in white acicular crystals, insoluble in water, but freely soluble in alcohol. When freed from the accompanying inula-camphor by repeated crystallization from alcohol, helenin melts at 110 °C.
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In most cases, it is equivalent to alpha-glucosidase, but the term "maltase" emphasizes the disaccharide nature of the substrate from which glucose is cleaved, and "alpha-glucosidase" emphasizes the bond, whether the substrate is a disaccharide or polysaccharide. Vampire bats are the only vertebrates known to not exhibit intestinal maltase activity.
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All the medically significant species of Neisseria are positive for both catalase and oxidase. Different Neisseria species can be identified by the sets of sugars from which they will produce acid. For example, N. gonorrhoeae makes acid from only glucose, but N. meningitidis produces acid from both glucose and maltose. Polysaccharide capsule.
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Too high an NSC level causes difficulties for animals prone to laminitis or equine polysaccharide storage myopathy (EPSM). NSC cannot be determined by looking at forage, but hay and pasture grasses can be tested for NSC levels.Watts, Kathryn. "Finding and Testing Low-Sugar Forage," The Horse Web site, accessed May 16, 2007.
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A flour called salep or sachlav is made of the ground tubers of this or some other species of orchids. It contains a nutritious starch-like polysaccharide called glucomannan. In some magical traditions, its root is called Adam and Eve Root. It is said that witches used tubers of this orchid in love potions.
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Asplenia is a form of immunodeficiency, increasing the risk of sepsis from polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria, and can result in overwhelming post splenectomy infection (OPSI), often fatal within a few hours. In particular, patients are at risk from Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and meningococcus. The risk is elevated as much as 350–fold.AAP Red Book 2006.
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Mannan may also refer to a cell wall polysaccharide found in yeasts. This type of mannan has a α(1-6) linked backbone and α(1-2) and α(1-3) linked branches. It is serologically similar to structures found on mammalian glycoproteins. Detection of mannan leads to lysis in the mannan-binding lectin pathway.
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Fucose is a hexose deoxy sugar with the chemical formula C6H12O5. It is found on N-linked glycans on the mammalian, insect and plant cell surface. Fucose is the fundamental sub-unit of the seaweed polysaccharide fucoidan. The α(1→3) linked core of fucose is a suspected carbohydrate antigen for IgE-mediated allergy.
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Heparin was first isolated from dog liver by medical student Jay McClean in 1916. Jorpes discovered the structure of the heparin polysaccharide in 1935, identifying that it is a highly sulfated polymer of glycosaminoglycoglycan (GAG) and uronic acid. Around that time, heparin began to be used in the prophylaxis and treatment of post-operative thrombosis.
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These KDO and heptoses comprise the "inner core". The ketosidic bond between KDO and lipid A (α2→6) is especially susceptible to acid cleavage. LPS researchers use a weak acid treatment to separate the lipid and polysaccharide portions of LPS. An LPS molecule that includes only a lipid A and an inner core (or less.
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Arame is high in calcium, iodine, iron, magnesium, and vitamin A as well as being a dietary source of many other minerals. It also is harvested for alginate, fertilizer and iodide. It contains the storage polysaccharide laminarin and the tripeptide eisenin, a peptide with immunological activity. Lignan content in arame is noted by several sources.
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Advantages include reduced side-effects and reduced risk of the bacterium's developing resistance. Disadvantages include the difficulty of finding an effective phage for a particular infection. Phages are often compared to antibiotics. Phages tend to be more successful than antibiotics where there is a biofilm covered by a polysaccharide layer, which antibiotics typically cannot penetrate.
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The common garden snail (Helix aspersa) is herbivorous. These snails are able to digest most vegetation including carrots and lettuce. They also have a specialized crop of symbiotic bacteria that aid in their digestion, especially with the breakdown of the polysaccharide cellulose into simple sugars. Many predators, both specialist and generalist, feed on snails.
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Dialdehyde starch is a polysaccharide derived by chemical modification from natural starch from wheat or corn. It is prepared by periodate oxidation of starch. There are many uses including the paper industry, where in it has been shown to improve the wet strength of consumer products. These products include toilet paper and paper towels.
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Once sufficient residues have been added, glycogen synthase takes over extending the chain. Glycogenin remains covalently attached to the reducing end of the glycogen molecule. Evidence accumulates that a priming protein may be a fundamental property of polysaccharide synthesis in general; the molecular details of mammalian glycogen biogenesis may serve as a useful model for other systems.
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Increased viscosity in wines is known as ropiness. Ropiness is a common type of spoilage in wines. Ropy wines have an oily or slimy appearance and higher voscosity due to the production of extracellular polysaccharide glucan. Lactic acid bacteria do not often produce glucan and only a few strains of lactic acid bacteria have been reported to produce glucan.
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The polysaccharide, known as glucuronoxylomannan—produced by fruit bodies and in pure culture conditions—has been shown to consist of a mannan backbone that is glycosylated with xylan chains in a regular repeating structure. Laboratory tests have associated a number of biological activities with T. mesenterica glucuronoxylomannan, including immunostimulatory,antidiabetic, anti- inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, hepatoprotective, and antiallergic effects.
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Xanthomonas species produce an edible polysaccharide called xanthan gum that has a wide range of industrial uses, including foods, petroleum products, and cosmetics. Xanthan also plays role in the disease cycle of Xanthomonas. In particular, xanthan gum is one of the main components of biofilm matrix. Biofilms help these bacteria sustain abiotic stresses on the leaf surface.
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The Kitchen as Laboratory: Reflections on the Science of Food and Cooking. New York: Columbia University Press. 142–145 This instability is caused by interactions between hydrophobic molecules and charged molecules within the ketchup suspension. Pectin is a polysaccharide within tomatoes that has the ability to bind to itself and to other molecules, especially water, around it.
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69-78 A fly 12 hours into being trapped by a cape sundew. The sundew secretes mucin to trap prey items – often insects and arthropods. The mucin is approximately 4% of an acidic polysaccharide in an aqueous solution with a pH of approximately 4. Fresh mucin can be stretched up to a meter in length thread.
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Non-motile bacteria cannot recognize surfaces or aggregate together as easily as motile bacteria. During surface colonization bacteria cells are able to communicate using quorum sensing (QS) products such as N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL). Once colonization has begun, the biofilm grows by a combination of cell division and recruitment. Polysaccharide matrices typically enclose bacterial biofilms.
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Callose is a plant polysaccharide. Its production is due to the glucan synthase-like gene (GLS) in various places within a plant. It is produced to act as a temporary cell wall in response to stimuli such as stress or damage. Callose is composed of glucose residues linked together through β-1,3-linkages, and is termed a β-glucan.
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Streptococcus zooepidemicus are gram- positive, non-sporulating, non-motile, catalase and oxidase negative cocci. S. zooepidemicus is encapsulated, with a capsular polysaccharide containing hyaluronic acid, as well as being facultative anaerobes. The cells usually form in pairs, or as long chains. When plated on agar, colonies are usually 0.5-1.5 mm in diameter, circular, and opaque colored.
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Because pyrogens are often difficult to remove, inactivation or destruction of the LPS molecule can sometimes be preferable. ;Acid-base hydrolysis :This method has been shown to cleave Lipid A from the polysaccharide in the LPS molecule (see right). The lipid moiety alone is not soluble in water. Thus unable to bind to endothelial cells, it is rendered inactive.
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Galactan (galactosan) is a polysaccharide consisting of polymerized galactose. In general, galactans in natural sources contain a core of galactose units connected by α(1→3) or α(1→6), with structures containing other monosaccharides as side-chains. Galactan derived from Anogeissus latifolia is primarily α(1→6), but galactan from acacia trees is primarily α(1→3).
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Senna obtusifolia The term cassia gum refers to the flour made from the endosperms of the seeds of Senna obtusifolia and Senna tora (also called Cassia obtusifolia or Cassia tora). It is composed of at least 75% polysaccharide, primarily galactomannan with a mannose:galactose ratio of 5:1, resulting in a high molecular mass of 200,000-300,000 Da.
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Alginate dressings are produced from the calcium and sodium salts of alginic acid, a polysaccharide comprising mannuronic and guluronic acid units. Alginate is initially extracted from the cell wall of Brown seaweeds. Alginate dressings can be in the form of freeze-dried, porous (foam) sheets or flexible fibres. Flexible fibres are used to treat cavity wounds.
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Fructan beta-fructosidase (, exo-beta-D-fructosidase, exo-beta-fructosidase, polysaccharide beta-fructofuranosidase, fructan exohydrolase) is an enzyme with systematic name beta-D-fructan fructohydrolase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Hydrolysis of terminal, non-reducing (2->1)- and (2->6)-linked beta-D-fructofuranose residues in fructans Hydrolyses inulin and levan, and also sucrose.
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The main component of the gel used in Nuru massages is the sulfated polysaccharide fucoidan, which is obtained from the leaves of the brown seaweed plant Sphaerotrichia divaricata. Chamomile, azulene and other minerals are often added. There are pre-made versions of Nuru Gel available as well as powdered versions. Often, a Nuru massage finishes with a sexual act.
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When linked together monosaccharides can form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides: the nomenclature is dependent on the number of monosaccharides linked together. Common dissacharides, two monosaccharides joined together, are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Important polysaccharides, links of many monosaccharides, are cellulose, starch, and chitin. Cellulose is a polysaccharide made up of beta 1-4 linkages between repeat glucose monomers.
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3D structure of cellulose, a beta-glucan polysaccharide Amylose is a linear polymer of glucose mainly linked with α(1→4) bonds. It can be made of several thousands of glucose units. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylopectin. Polysaccharides (), or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrate found in food.
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Luden's brand throat drops are demulcents (meaning a swelling or irritation reliever) and mild oral anesthetics. The active ingredient in fruit flavors is pectin, a soluble gelatinous polysaccharide found in ripe fruits. Pectin places a coating on the throat to reduce irritation and swelling. Original Menthol and the various Honey flavors contain menthol, an oral anesthetic and irritant reliever.
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S. pyogenes is CAMP and hippurate tests negative. Serological identification of the organism involves testing for the presence of group-A-specific polysaccharide in the bacterium's cell wall using the Phadebact test. The rapid pyrrolidonyl arylamidase (PYR) test is used for the presumptive identification of group A beta-hemolytic streptococci. GBS gives a negative finding on this test.
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Scytothamnus australis is a brown alga species in the genus Scytothamnus found in New Zealand. It is a sulphated polysaccharide and the type species in the genus. The species contains the phlorotannins trifucol, tetrafucol A, tetrafucol B, cis-pentafucol A, diphlorethol A and triphlorethol A.Fucols and Phlorethols from the Brown Alga Scytothamnus australis Hook. et Harv. (Chnoosporaceae).
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The genome for B. mallei is made up of two circular chromosomes. Chromosome 1 is where genes relating to metabolism, capsule formation, and lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis are located. B. mallei has a polysaccharide capsule which indicates its potential as a pathogen. Chromosome 2 is where most of the information regarding secretion systems and virulence-associated genes are located.
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For example, many Japanese individuals possess the genes for the consumption of the algal polysaccharide porphyran in their microbiomes, which are rarely found in North American and European individuals. For individuals who harbor such a porphyran-degrading strain, porphyran would be a MAC. However, porphyran would not be a MAC for those without a microbiota adaptation to seaweed.
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Photosynthetic pigments of Rhodophyta are chlorophylls a and d. Red algae are red due to phycoerythrin. They contain the sulfated polysaccharide carrageenan in the amorphous sections of their cell walls, although red algae from the genus Porphyra contain porphyran. They also produce a specific type of tannin called phlorotannins, but in a lower amount than brown algae do.
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A DNA test is available for LWS so that horses who are carriers of this gene are not bred to one another. Horses can carry the LWS gene and not visibly exhibit overo coloring; cases have appeared in the offspring of both tobiano and solid-colored parents, though all cases to date are horses that had overo ancestors. LWS is also not unique to Paint Horses; it can occur in any equine breed where the frame overo coat pattern is found. Due to the heavy influx of American Quarter Horse breeding, some Paints may also carry genetic disorders such as hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), hereditary equine regional dermal asthenia (HERDA), equine polysaccharide storage myopathy (called PSSM - polysaccharide storage myopathy - in Paints, Quarter Horses and Appaloosas), malignant hyperthermia (MH) and glycogen branching enzyme deficiency (GBED).
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Two new vaccines, both approved in 2014, are effective against a wider range of group B meningococci strains. In Africa, until recently, the approach for prevention and control of meningococcal epidemics was based on early detection of the disease and emergency reactive mass vaccination of the at-risk population with bivalent A/C or trivalent A/C/W135 polysaccharide vaccines, though the introduction of MenAfriVac (meningococcus group A vaccine) has demonstrated effectiveness in young people and has been described as a model for product development partnerships in resource-limited settings. Routine vaccination against Streptococcus pneumoniae with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV), which is active against seven common serotypes of this pathogen, significantly reduces the incidence of pneumococcal meningitis. The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine, which covers 23 strains, is only administered to certain groups (e.g.
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The virulence of the pathogen implies the production of polysaccharide capsular layer, and extracellular products, and is also depending on iron availability (Lopez- Doriga et al., 2000). The bacteria spreads via infected phagocytes, mainly macrophages. This spread can be rapid, and lethal effects may occur within a few days of challenge, affecting tissues containing large numbers of the pathogens (Evelyn, 1996).
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The ability to form biofilms on plastic devices is a major virulence factor for S. epidermidis. One probable cause is surface proteins that bind blood and extracellular matrix proteins. It produces an extracellular material known as polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA), which is made up of sulfated polysaccharides. It allows other bacteria to bind to the already existing biofilm, creating a multilayer biofilm.
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Bast fibre from the stem of the plant has industrial uses such as the reinforcement of polymer composites. The mucilage produced by the okra plant can be used for the removal of turbidity from wastewater by virtue of its flocculent properties. Having composition similar to a thick polysaccharide film, okra mucilage is under development as a biodegradable food packaging, as of 2018.
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The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the smooth protective polysaccharide capsule. Equipped with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host. The exact nature of the transforming principle (DNA) was verified in the experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty and by Hershey and Chase.
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Dextran is a complex branched glucan (polysaccharide derived from the condensation of glucose). IUPAC defines dextrans as "Branched poly-α-d- glucosides of microbial origin having glycosidic bonds predominantly C-1 → C-6". Dextran chains are of varying lengths (from 3 to 2000 kilodaltons). The polymer main chain consists of α-1,6 glycosidic linkages between glucose monomers, with branches from α-1,3 linkages.
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Disease-causing strains are classified according to the antigenic structure of their polysaccharide capsule.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Meningococcal Disease, Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, 13th Ed., April, 2015. Serotype distribution varies markedly around the world. Among the 13 identified capsular types of N. meningitidis, six (A, B, C, W135, X, and Y) account for most disease cases worldwide.
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Since optimal contact between B cells and T cells is required (via MHC II) to maximize antibody production, it is reasoned that the conjugate vaccine allows B cells to properly recruit T cells, this is in contrast to the polysaccharide form in which it is speculated that B cells do not interact optimally with T cells leading to the TI interaction.
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The dried corm of the konjac plant contains around 40% glucomannan gum. This polysaccharide makes konjac jelly highly viscous and may be responsible for many of its putative health benefits as used in traditional Chinese medicine, detoxification, tumour-suppression, blood stasis alleviation and phlegm liquefaction. The dietary fiber from the corm of konjac is used as a component of weight loss supplements.
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Structure of a lipopolysaccharide Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also known as endotoxins, are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide composed of O-antigen, outer core and inner core joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The term lipooligosaccharide ("LOS") is used to refer to a low-molecular-weight form of bacterial lipopolysaccharides.
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Another option is for extraction techniques to utilize standardization methods to monitor the bioactive content and quality of the extract against standardization markers. Among standardization markers that have been used for E. longifolia are eurycomanone, total protein, total polysaccharide and glycosaponin, which have been recommended in a technical guideline developed by the Scientific and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM).
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As other virulent bacteria, GBS harbors an important number of virulence factors (virulence factors are molecules produced by bacteria that boosts their capacity to infect and damage human tissues), the most important being the capsular polysaccharide (rich in sialic acid) and a pore-forming toxin, β-hemolysin. Today it is considered that GBS pigment and hemolysin are identical or closely related molecules.
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This allows for quick and easy identification of C. neoformans. Unusual morphological forms are rarely seen. For identification in tissue, mucicarmine stain provides specific staining of polysaccharide cell wall in C. neoformans. Cryptococcal antigen from cerebrospinal fluid is thought to be the best test for diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis in terms of sensitivity, though it might be unreliable in HIV-positive patients.
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The hypha narrows as it passes through the cell wall and then expands on invaginating the cell. A thickened, electron-dense collar of material is deposited around the hypha at the point of invagination. Further, the host cell wall becomes highly modified in the invaginated zone. Inclusions normally present in plasma membrane are absent, and the outer layer contains more polysaccharide.
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Homopolysaccharides are polysaccharides composed of a single type of sugar monomer. For example, cellulose is an unbranched homopolysaccharide made up of glucose monomers connected via beta-glycosidic linkages; glycogen is a branched form, where the glucose monomers are joined by alpha-glycosidic linkages. Depending upon the molecules attached that are of the following types 1\. Glucan - A polysaccharide of glucose 2\.
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The bacteria emit a strong soil smell after 24 to 48 hours of growth in culture. B. pseudomallei produces a glycocalyx polysaccharide capsule that makes it resistant to many types of antibiotics. It is generally resistant to gentamicin and colistin, but sensitive to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav). B. pseudomallei is a biosafety level 3 pathogen, which requires specialized laboratory handling.
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Glucomannan is a water-soluble polysaccharide that is considered a dietary fiber. It is a hemicellulose component in the cell walls of some plant species. Glucomannan is a food additive used as an emulsifier and thickener. Products containing glucomannan, under a variety of brand names, are marketed as dietary supplements with claims they can relieve constipation and help lower cholesterol levels.
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Pullulan, which is produced from starch, is a polysaccharide polymer consisting of repeating maltotriose units. It provides a protective effect against cellular desiccation in low-moisture environments. The presence of neopullulanase allows cells to recycle unneeded or excess pullulan by breaking it down into panose, maltose, and glucose which can then be formed back into starch or consumed for energy production.
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Activation of mucosal immunity and the intestinal microbiota may contribute to inflammatory bowel disease. Many bacteria cause inflammation in the gut including Escherichia coli, which replicate in macrophages and secretes cytokine tumor necrosis factor. However, some bacteria, including the human symbiont B. fragilis, may prevent colitis by producing polysaccharide A (PSA). PSA induces production of IL-10, an immunosuppressive cytokine that suppresses inflammation.
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Amylose is a polysaccharide made of α-D-glucose units, bonded to each other through α(1→4) glycosidic bonds. It is one of the two components of starch, making up approximately 20-30%. Because of its tightly packed helical structure, amylose is more resistant to digestion than other starch molecules and is therefore an important form of resistant starch.
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Polysaccharides are an important class of biological polymers. Their function in living organisms is usually either structure- or storage- related. Starch (a polymer of glucose) is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In animals, the structurally similar glucose polymer is the more densely branched glycogen, sometimes called "animal starch".
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Chemical Zoology vol VII Mollusca. Academic Press, New York. pp. 219-244 This polysaccharide is exclusive of the reproduction and is only found in the albumen gland from the female snail reproductive system and in the perivitelline fluid of eggs. Galactogen serves as an energy reserve for developing embryos and hatchlings, which is later replaced by glycogen in juveniles and adults.
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An example of a cyanobacterial species that does so is Microcoleus vaginatus. M. vaginatus stabilizes soil using a polysaccharide sheath that binds to sand particles and absorbs water. Some of these organisms contribute significantly to global ecology and the oxygen cycle. The tiny marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus was discovered in 1986 and accounts for more than half of the photosynthesis of the open ocean.
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Due to its industrial value, the biochemical and catalytic properties of several hydrolases from A. aculeatus have been extensively studied. Also, structural studies using X-ray crystallography have been carried out on several polysaccharide degrading enzymes from Aspergillus aculeatus. (Luis M. Chong L.) The genome of A. aculeatus was sequenced and published in 2010. The genome assembly size was 36.01 Mbp.
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Gram-negative bacteria are phloxine B-resistant due to the outer cell membrane that surrounds them. This polysaccharide-coated lipid bilayer creates a permeability barrier that prevents efficient uptake of the compound. Addition of EDTA, which is known to strip the lipopolysaccharides and increase membrane permeability, removes the phloxine B resistance and allows gram-negative bacteria to be killed as well.
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Glycogen is a multi-branched polysaccharide. It is primary means of glucose storage in animal cells. In the human body, the two main tissues which store glycogen are liver and skeletal muscle. Glycogen is typically more concentrated in the liver, but because humans have much more muscle mass, our muscles store about three quarters of the total glycogen in our body.
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Japanese "Mozuku" dish is a type of edible seaweed in the genus Cladosiphon, naturally found in Okinawa, Japan. Most mozuku is now farmed by locals, and sold to processing factories. The main use of mozuku is as food, and as a source of one type of sulfated polysaccharide called Fucoidan, which is used as a cancer treatment aid and health supplement.
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The polysaccharide structure represents the main storage form of glucose in the body. Glycogen functions as one of two forms of energy reserves, glycogen being for short-term and the other form being triglyceride stores in adipose tissue (i.e., body fat) for long-term storage. In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle.
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A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue; which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation.
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When xylose and fufural are the goal, acid catalysts, such as formic acid, are added to increase the transition of polysaccharide to monosaccharide. This catalyst also has been show to also utilize a solvent effect to be aid the reaction. One method of pretreatment is to soak the wood with diluted acids (with concentrations around 4%). This converts the hydroloze hemicellulose into monosaccharaides.
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Primary immunization with meningitis A, C, Y and W-135 vaccines is recommended for college students who plan to live in dormitories, although the risk for meningococcal disease for college students 18–24 years of age is similar to that of the general population of similar age. Routine primary immunization against meningococcal disease is recommended for most adults living in areas where meningococcal disease is endemic or who are planning to travel to such areas. Although conjugate vaccines are the preferred meningococcal vaccine in adults 55 years of age or younger, polysaccharide vaccines are an acceptable alternative for adults in this age group if the conjugated vaccine is unavailable. Since safety and efficacy of conjugate vaccines in adults older than 55 years of age have not been established to date, polysaccharide vaccines should be used for primary immunization in this group.
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Together with Dr. Stephen Calderwood, Dr. Jason Harris, Dr. Regina LaRocque, Dr. Daniel Leung, Dr. Richelle Charles and colleagues at Harvard, and Dr. Firdausi Qadri and colleagues at the ICDDRB, Ryan has focused on advancing understanding of host- pathogen and immune responses during cholera, a human-restricted infection that largely afflicts impoverished individuals in resource-limited areas of the world. Ryan’s investigative work is supported by the U.S. National Institutes of Health. Significant contributions include the finding that contrary to the previously established paradigm, cholera induces a pro- inflammatory response in afflicted humans, and that this response correlates with magnitude and duration of immunity against cholera. Ryan has particularly focused on analyzing immune responses against the polysaccharide coating of the Vibrio cholerae organism, the O-specific polysaccharide (OSP), working with Dr. Paul Kovac of the National Institutes of Health.
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2-Epimerase was discovered as a target because it was one of the enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway for synthesizing an essential neutral polysaccharide in the cell wall of B. anthracis (Glu:Gal- NAc:Man-NAc at a 3:2:1 ratio). This polysaccharide is only found in B. anthracis and is the receptor for a bacteriophage lysin enzyme called PlyG, which is produced by the γ-bacteriophage to release its progeny from infected B. anthracis. For bacteriophage to survive they need to replicate inside a bacterial cell and release their progeny phage when they are assembled using their lysin. Since lysins from bacteriophage that infect Gram-positive bacteria must bind to a cell wall receptor to function, the enzymes have evolved over a billion years to identify substrate receptors in the bacterial cell wall that the bacteria cannot change easily.
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Nigerose, also known as sakebiose, is an unfermentable sugar obtained by partial hydrolysis of nigeran, a polysaccharide found in black mold, but is also readily extracted from the dextrans found in rice molds and many other fermenting microorganisms, such as L. mesenteroides. It is a disaccharide made of two glucose residues, connected with a 1->3 link. It is a product of the caramelization of glucose.
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Auxiliary Activity family 9 (formerly GH61) is a family of lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases. The family was previously incorrectly classified as glycoside hydrolase family 61, however it was re-classified in March 2013. AA9 is known to be a copper dependent, oxidative enzyme able to cleave crystalline cellulose. Activity greatly depends on the presence of a divalent copper ion and a reductant such as gallate or ascorbate.
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Inserting the gel comb in an agarose gel electrophoresis chamber Agarose gels are made from the natural polysaccharide polymers extracted from seaweed. Agarose gels are easily cast and handled compared to other matrices because the gel setting is a physical rather than chemical change. Samples are also easily recovered. After the experiment is finished, the resulting gel can be stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator.
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Pullulan is a polysaccharide polymer consisting of maltotriose units, also known as α-1,4- ;α-1,6-glucan'. Three glucose units in maltotriose are connected by an α-1,4 glycosidic bond, whereas consecutive maltotriose units are connected to each other by an α-1,6 glycosidic bond. Pullulan is produced from starch by the fungus Aureobasidium pullulans. Pullulan is mainly used by the cell to resist desiccation and predation.
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Klebsiella is a genus of Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, rod-shaped bacteria with a prominent polysaccharide-based capsule. Klebsiella species are found everywhere in nature. This is thought to be due to distinct sublineages developing specific niche adaptations, with associated biochemical adaptations which make them better suited to a particular environment. They can be found in water, soil, plants, insects and other animals including humans.
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The cultured organism can be further characterized using catalase and oxidase tests, both of which should be positive. Further serological testing is necessary to distinguish the capsular polysaccharide and differentiate between H. influenzae b and nonencapsulated species. Although highly specific, bacterial culture of H. influenzae lacks sensitivity. Use of antibiotics prior to sample collection greatly reduces the isolation rate by killing the bacteria before identification is possible.
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If lipid A, part of the lipopolysaccharide, enters the circulatory system it causes a toxic reaction by activating toll like receptor TLR 4. Lipid A is very pathogenic and not immunogenic. However, the polysaccharide component is very immunogenic, but not pathogenic, causing an aggressive response by the immune system. The sufferer will have a high temperature and respiration rate and a low blood pressure.
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Halococcus species are able to survive in high-saline habitats because of chlorine pumps that maintain osmotic balance with the salinity of their habitat, and thus prevent dehydration of the cytoplasm. The cells are cocci, 0.6–1.5 micrometres long with sulfated polysaccharide walls. The cells are organtrophic, using amino acids, organic acids, or carbohydrates for energy. In some cases they are also able to photosynthesize.
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DTDP-6-deoxy-L-talose 4-dehydrogenase (NAD+) (, tll (gene name)) is an enzyme with systematic name dTDP-6-deoxy-beta-L-talose:NAD+ 4-oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : dTDP-6-deoxy-beta-L-talose + NAD+ \rightleftharpoons dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-beta-L-mannose + NADH + H+ The enzyme from bacterium Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans participates in the biosynthesis of the serotype c-specific polysaccharide antigen.
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Chitosan, a naturally abundant polysaccharide, is particularly useful due to its biocompability and lack of toxicity. With its adsorptive and mucoadhesive properties, chitosan can overcome limitations of internasal administration to the brain. It has been shown that cationic chitosan nanoparticles interact with the negatively charged brain endothelium. Coating these polymeric nanoparticle devices with different surfactants can also aid BBB crossing and uptake in the brain.
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Chemical structure of chitin chains Chitin is the second most abundant natural polymer in the world, with collagen being the first. It is a “linear polysaccharide of β-(1-4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose”. Chitin is highly crystalline and is usually composed of chains organized in a β sheet. Due to its high crystallinity and chemical structure, it is insoluble in many solvents.
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Primary immunization against meningococcal disease with meningitis A, C, Y and W-135 vaccines is recommended for all young adolescents at 11–12 years of age and all unvaccinated older adolescents at 15 years of age. Although conjugate vaccines are the preferred meningococcal vaccine in adolescents 11 years of age or older, polysaccharide vaccines are an acceptable alternative if the conjugated vaccine is unavailable.
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D. magna is a typical water flea of the genus Daphnia. The females reach up to 5 mm in size, the males about 2 mm, thus they are among the largest species in the genus. The body is protected by a translucent carapace made of chitin, a transparent polysaccharide. It has a ventral opening and five pairs of thoracic limbs, used to help the filtering process.
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Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) is a class of anticoagulant medications. They are used in the prevention of blood clots and treatment of venous thromboembolism (deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism) and in the treatment of myocardial infarction. Heparin is a naturally occurring polysaccharide that inhibits coagulation, the process that leads to thrombosis. Natural heparin consists of molecular chains of varying lengths, or molecular weights.
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During the metabolism of taurolidine to taurinamide and ultimately taurine and water, methylol groups are liberated that chemically react with the mureins in the bacterial cell wall and with the amino and hydroxyl groups of endotoxins and exotoxins. This results in denaturing of the complex polysaccharide and lipopolysaccharide components of the bacterial cell wall and of the endotoxin and in the inactivation of susceptible exotoxins.
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Acetalated dextran is a biodegradable polymer based on dextran that has acetal modified hydroxyl groups. After synthesis, the hydrophilic polysaccharide dextran is rendered insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents. This allows it to be processed in the same manner as many polyesters, like poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), through processes like solvent evaporation and emulsion. Acetalated dextran is structurally different from acetylated dextran.
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Root mucilage is made of plant-specific polysaccharides or long chains of sugar molecules. This polysaccharide secretion of root exudate forms a gelatinous substance that sticks to the caps of roots. Root mucilage is known to play a role in forming relationships with soil-dwelling life forms. Just how this root mucilage is secreted is debated, but there is growing evidence that mucilage derives from ruptured cells.
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HS chains function as low-affinity co-receptors which promote dimerization of FGFs, aids in the sequestration of the growth factors (GFs) and causes activation of the signaling tyrosine kinase receptors even under low circulating concentrations of growth factors. Heparanase expressed by cancer cells participates in angiogenesis and neovascularization by degrading the polysaccharide scaffold of the endothelial BM, thereby releasing angiogenic growth factors from the ECM.
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Typhoid vaccines are vaccines that prevent typhoid fever. Several types are widely available: typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV), Ty21a (a live vaccine given by mouth) and Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine (ViPS) (an injectable subunit vaccine). They are about 30 to 70% effective for the first two years depending on the specific vaccine in question. The Vi-rEPA vaccine has been shown to be efficacious in children.
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It secretes a polysaccharide into this reservoir, which may be useful for its survival in the cold climate. The plant is named after the Austro-Hungarian explorer, Count Sámuel Teleki. L. telekii plants usually consist of a single rosette, which grows for several decades, flowers once, and then dies. However, a very small number of plants have multiple rosettes connected by an underground stem.
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An Endoglycosidase is an enzyme that releases oligosaccharides from glycoproteins or glycolipids. It may also cleave polysaccharide chains between residues that are not the terminal residue, although releasing oligosaccharides from conjugated protein and lipid molecules is more common. It breaks the glycosidic bonds between two sugar monomer in the polymer. It is different from exoglycosidase that it does not do so at the terminal residue.
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Natural biodegradable polymers are formed in nature during growth cycles of all organisms. When searching for natural fibers to replace synthetic materials in athletic shoes, the major natural biodegradable polymer that offers the most potential are polysaccharides. Starch is a polysaccharide that is useful because it readily degrades into harmless products when placed in contact with soil microorganisms.Díaz, Angélica, Ramaz Katsarava, and Jordi Puiggalí.
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The protein component of proteoglycans is synthesized by ribosomes and translocated into the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Glycosylation of the proteoglycan occurs in the Golgi apparatus in multiple enzymatic steps. First, a special link tetrasaccharide is attached to a serine side chain on the core protein to serve as a primer for polysaccharide growth. Then sugars are added one at a time by glycosyl transferase.
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In addition, three pinto color patterns are also recognized: sabino, frame overo, and splashed white. The tobiano pattern has not been noted in Morgans. One genetic disease has been identified within the Morgan breed. This is Type 1 polysaccharide storage myopathy, an autosomal dominant muscle disease found mainly in stock horse and draft horse breeds caused by a missense mutation in the GYS1 gene.
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The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of the conjugate vaccine in the routine immunizations given to children. This includes those with HIV/AIDS. The recommended three or four doses are between 71 and 93% effective at preventing severe pneumococcal disease. The polysaccharide vaccines, while effective in healthy adults, are not effective in children less than two years old or those with poor immune function.
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The cause of shivers is currently unknown. Horses with shivers have been shown to have degeneration of the axons of their cerebellar Purkinje cells, although Purkinje cell number remains normal. The strong breed predilection suggests a genetic basis to the disease. Despite some similarities in breed prevalence, there is no evidence to suggest a link between equine shivers and equine polysaccharide storage myopathy (PSSM).
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Aureoumbra lagunensis is a unicellular planktonic marine microalga that belongs in the genus Aureoumbra under the class Pelagophyceae. It is similar in morphology and pigments to Aureococcus anophagefferens and Pelagococcus subviridis. The cell shape is spherical to subspherical and is 2.5 to 5.0 μm in diameter. It is golden-coloured and is encapsulated with extracellular polysaccharide layers and has a single chloroplast structure with pigments.
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It also contains a borate cross-link between apiosyl residues. The backbone consists of a linear polymer of alpha-1,4-linked D-galactopyranosiduronic acid. RG-II can be isolated from apple juice and red wine. The gut bacterium Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron has a polysaccharide utilization locus that contains enzymes that allows deconstruction of rhamnogalacturonan-II, cleaving all but 1 of its 21 distinct glycosidic linkages.
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To produce agave syrup from the Agave americana and A. tequilana plants, the leaves are cut off the plant after it has been growing for seven to fourteen years. The juice is then extracted from the core of the agave, called the piña. The juice is filtered, then heated to break the complex components (the polysaccharides) into simple sugars. The main polysaccharide is called fructan, a polymer of fructose molecules.
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Prof Helen Kemp Porter later Mrs Huggett FRS FRSE (10 November 1899 – 7 December 1987) was a British botanist from Imperial College London. She was a Fellow of the Royal Society and the first female professor at Imperial College London. Her studies of polysaccharide metabolism in tobacco plants were groundbreaking; she was one of the first British scientists to use the innovative technologies of chromatography and radioactive tracers.
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PSK is a protein polysaccharide consisting of a beta-glucan β-1,4 main chain with β-1,3 and β-1,6 side chains. The approximate molecular weight of PSK is 100,000 Da, and the protein component is reported at the β-1,6 side chain. PSK is isolated from the "CM-101" strain of Trametes versicolor. The analogous compound PSP, is derived from the "COV-1" strain of Trametes versicolor.
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The carbohydrates of ulluco are composed mainly of starch. But there is also a significant amount of mucilage, a heterogeneous and complex polysaccharide that is recognized as a type of soluble fiber. The mucilage level varies among tubers, high content gives to the raw tubers a gummy texture. Soaked in water or cut very finely are methods used to remove the greatest amount of mucilage from raw tubes,.
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The most notable feature of P. capsulatus's morphology is its large capsule composed of an exo-polysaccharide which has been dubbed "capsulan". Capsulan is thought to be synthesised in the Golgi and then secreted through the decapore (a specialised circle of 10 pores through the cell wall). After exiting the decapore capsulan becomes visible and it is thought that it cross links with divalent ions in the seawater.Sieburth et al.
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Because polyelectrolytes may be biocompatible, it follows that they can be used to stabilize emulsion in foods. Several studies have focused on using polyelectrolytes to induce mixing of proteins and polysaccharides in oil-in-water emulsions. DSS has been successfully used to stabilize these types of emulsions. Other studies have focused on stabilizing oil-in-water emulsions using β-lactoglobulin (β-Lg), a globular protein, and pectin, an anionic polysaccharide.
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Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth.
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Glucanases are enzymes that break down a glucan, a polysaccharide made of several glucose sub-units. As they perform hydrolysis of the glucosidic bond, they are hydrolases. Used in enological practices during the aging process of wine, particularly when aged on lees with microxygenation. The enzyme aids in autolysis of yeast cells to release polysaccharides and mannoproteins, which is believed to aid in the color and texture of the wine.
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Alataspora solomoni, a myxosporean parasite of Atlantic Horse Mackerel, showing the arrangement of the polar capsules on either side of the sutural line.Polar capsules are structures found in the valves of Myxosporean parasites, which contain the polar filament. The polar capsule is constructed of a proteinaceous and a polysaccharide layer, both layers of which continue into the polar filament. The mouth of the capsule is covered with a cap-like structure.
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Mixed-linkage glucan (MLG), sometimes incorrectly referred to as beta-glucan, is a hemicellulosic polysaccharide consisting of β-D(1-3) and β-D(1-4) linked glucosyl residues. MLG is highly prevalent within the Poales, where it has important properties in the diet. In addition, although thought to be confined to the Poales, MLG has been found to be highly prevalent in plants of the distantly related genus Equisetum.
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Egger told WebMD that in this study, "The effect of homeopathy disappears if you look only at large, good trials; whereas the conventional medicines' effect is still there." Egger has also published research on a wide variety of other medical topics, such as the demographics of people who choose assisted suicide, the association between exposure to aircraft noise and heart attacks, and the effectiveness of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines.
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A repetitive glycan polymer contained within an LPS is referred to as the O antigen, O polysaccharide, or O side-chain of the bacteria. The O antigen is attached to the core oligosaccharide, and comprises the outermost domain of the LPS molecule. The composition of the O chain varies from strain to strain. For example, there are over 160 different O antigen structures produced by different E. coli strains.
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As the fertilization envelope elevates, non-fertilizing sperm are lifted away from the egg plasma membrane, and as they are not able to pass through the fertilization envelope, they are prevented from entering the egg. Therefore, the cortical reaction prevents polyspermic fertilization, a lethal event. Another cortical granule component, polysaccharide-rich hyalin, remains adherent to the outer surface of the plasma membrane, and becomes part of the hyaline layer.
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Oat beta-glucan is a viscous polysaccharide made up of units of the monosaccharide D-glucose. Oat beta- glucan is composed of mixed-linkage polysaccharides. This means the bonds between the D-glucose or D-glucopyranosyl units are either beta-1, 3 linkages or beta-1, 4 linkages. This type of beta-glucan is also referred to as a mixed-linkage (1→3), (1→4)-beta-D-glucan.
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CXorf26 (Chromosome X Open Reading Frame 26), also known as MGC874, is a well conserved human gene found on the plus strand of the short arm of the X chromosome. The exact function of the gene is poorly understood, but the polysaccharide biosynthesis domain that spans a major portion of the protein product (known as UPF0368), as well as the yeast homolog, YPL225, offer insights into its possible function.
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Maltodextrin is a polysaccharide that is used as a food additive. It is produced from vegetable starch by partial hydrolysis and is usually found as a white hygroscopic spray-dried powder. Maltodextrin is easily digestible, being absorbed as rapidly as glucose and may be either moderately sweet or almost flavorless (depending on the degree of polymerisation). It is commonly used for the production of soft drinks and candy.
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Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom. Fungi produce compounds that inhibit viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan.
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Calcofluor-white or CFW is a fluorescent blue dye that is used to bind to the polysaccharide polymers of amebic cysts. It functions by being able to bind to 1-3 beta and 1-4 beta polysaccharides on chitin and cellulose that is present in cell walls on fungi, plants, and algae. The fluorescent staining of yeast with calcofluor-white. The yeast shows a vivid blue color for the cell walls.
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The most harmful strains of V. vulnificus documented have been observed in three different forms. The first is in an anti-phagocytic polysaccharide capsule that protects the bacteria. By encapsulating the bacteria, phagocytosis and opsonization are not able to occur, thus allowing the bacteria to continue throughout the organism it is in. The second way that V. vulnificus has been most harmful is with some of the toxins that it creates.
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The A-layer consists of a 50-kD protein, and provides protection to the bacterium. The lipopolysaccharide consists of three moieties: lipid A, a core oligosaccharide, and an O-polysaccharide (O-antigen). The extracellular products of A. salmonicida consist of 25 proteins, enzymes, and toxins, and many more. In addition, the genome is composed of a single circular chromosome (4,702,402 bp), with two large and three small plasmids.
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3-Deoxy-2-octulosonidase (, 2-keto-3-deoxyoctonate hydrolase, octulosylono hydrolase, octulofuranosylono hydrolase, octulopyranosylonohydrolase) is an enzyme with systematic name capsular-polysaccharide 3-deoxy-D- manno-2-octulosonohydrolase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Endohydrolysis of the beta-ketopyranosidic linkages of 3-deoxy-D- manno-2-octulosonate in capsular polysaccharides The bacteriophage enzyme depolymerizes polysaccharides containing 3-deoxy-2-octulosonide in the cell wall of Escherichia coli.
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Mucicarmine stain is a staining procedure used for different purposes. In microbiology the stain aids in the identification of a variety of microorganisms based on whether or not the cell wall stains intensely red. Generally this is limited to microorganisms with a cell wall that is composed, at least in part, of a polysaccharide component. One of the organisms that is identified using this staining technique is Cryptococcus neoformans.
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As a result of her work, Jeanes was the first woman to receive the Distinguished Service Award given by the Department of Agriculture, in 1953. She was also awarded the Garvan Medal in 1956. Jeanes was also part of the team that developed xanthan gum. Another polysaccharide, synthesized by the bacteria Xanthomonas campestris, xanthan gum acts as a thickener and keeps foods such as oil and vinegar salad dressings from separating.
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Wilting and yellowing of the leaves, as well as overall stunting of the plant, are typical symptoms. The leaves may also take on a bronze cast along with stems becoming streaked and tuber eyes becoming discolored. Tubers also start to rot if left in the ground. A milky-white sticky exudate or ooze, consisting of bacterial cells and their extracellular polysaccharide, is usually noticeable in freshly cut-sections of infected tubers.
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The anthropod exoskeleton is highly hierarchical. Polysaccharide chitin fibrils arrange with proteins to form fibers, the fibers coalesce into bundles, and then the bundles arrange into horizontal planes which are stacked helicoidally, forming the twisted plywood Bouligand structure. Repeating Bouligand structures form the exocuticle and endocuticle. Differences in the Bouligand structure of the exocuticle and endocuticle have been found to be critical for analyzing the mechanical properties of both regions.
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The term macromolecular assembly (MA) refers to massive chemical structures such as viruses and non-biologic nanoparticles, cellular organelles and membranes and ribosomes, etc. that are complex mixtures of polypeptide, polynucleotide, polysaccharide or other polymeric macromolecules. They are generally of more than one of these types, and the mixtures are defined spatially (i.e., with regard to their chemical shape), and with regard to their underlying chemical composition and structure.
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The multidrug/oligosaccharidyl-lipid/polysaccharide (MOP) flippase superfamily (TC# 2.A.66) is a group of integral membrane protein families. The MOP flippase superfamily includes twelve distantly related families, six for which functional data are available: # One ubiquitous family (MATE) specific for drugs - (TC# 2.A.66.1) The Multi Antimicrobial Extrusion (MATE) Family # One (PST) specific for polysaccharides and/or their lipid-linked precursors in prokaryotes - (TC# 2.
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The acidic capsular polysaccharide (CPS) is a thick, mucous-like, layer of polysaccharide that surrounds some pathogen E. coli. There are two separate groups of K-antigen groups, named group I and group II (while a small in-between subset (K3, K10, and K54/K96) has been classified as group III). The former (I) consist of 100 kDa (large) capsular polysaccharides, while the latter (II), associated with extraintestinal diseases, are under 50 kDa in size. Group I K antigens are only found with certain O-antigens (O8, O9, O20, and O101 groups), they are further subdivided on the basis of absence (IA, similar to that of Klebsiella species in structure) or presence (IB) of amino sugars and some group I K-antigens are attached to the lipid A-core of the lipopolysaccharide (KLPS), in a similar way to O antigens (and being structurally identical to O antigens in some instances are only considered as K antigens when co-expressed with another authentic O antigen).
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Expression levels of CXorf26 in common human tissues, as referenced in GEO profiles from NCBI Expression data for CXorf26 shows it is highly ubiquitously expressed throughout human tissues and ESTs in nearly all situations. The GEO profile to the right shows the expression levels for CXorf26 in common human tissues to consistently be around the 75th percentile range, suggesting it may possess a housekeeping function due its seemingly ubiquitous expression. If the conserved domain does indeed play a role in polysaccharide biosynthesis of some sort, this high gene expression is sensible to that function. CXorf26 expression goes down greatly when CLDN1 is overexpressed, suggesting a relationship between CXorf26 and the cell surface, as predicted by its polysaccharide biosynthesis domain Gene expression profiles in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) repository located within the NCBI website demonstrated that there were not many treatments that resulted in a changing of expression of CXorf26 in examined tissues.
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The action of PVPP appears to be through the formation of hydrogen bonds between its carbonyl groups and the phenolic hydrogens of the polyphenols. It attracts the low molecular weight polyphenols rather than the condensed tannins and leucanthocyanins that are removed by gelatin.Fining & Clarifying Agents, by Terry Rayner The enzymatic finings are pectin and pectinase. They aid in destroying the large polysaccharide molecule named pectin, which otherwise causes haze in fruit wines and juices.
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The crude cell extracts of all Equisetum species tested contain mixed-linkage glucan : Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (MXE) activity. This is a novel enzyme and is not known to occur in any other plants. In addition, the cell walls of all Equisetum species tested contain mixed-linkage glucan (MLG), a polysaccharide which, until recently, was thought to be confined to the Poales. The evolutionary distance between Equisetum and the Poales suggests that each evolved MLG independently.
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The increased order within the polysaccharide-water complex gives rise to a high-energy state, in which the water will want to be relieved. This concept implies that water will more favorably bind with itself because of the increased disorder between water molecules. This is partially the cause for water leaching out of solution when left undisturbed for a short period of time. Other interactions that induce leaching are electrostatic and ionic interactions.
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The mucin secretions of Drosera capensis has a high viscosity - this suggests that the mucin contains a predominant composition of acidic polysaccharide that interact extensively and are highly hydrated. Drosera capensis has two color forms; red and white. When fruit flies were introduced to the two differently colored plants, there was no difference between the means of the flies captured. Fruit flies seemed to have no preference over the color of the plant.
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In enzymology, a glucuronate-2-sulfatase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction of cleaving off the 2-sulfate groups of the 2-O-sulfo-D- glucuronate residues of chondroitin sulfate, heparin and heparitin sulfate. This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those acting on sulfuric ester bonds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is polysaccharide-2-O-sulfo-D-glucuronate 2-sulfohydrolase. This enzyme is also called glucurono-2-sulfatase.
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Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan (also called murein), which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan.
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Psiloparmelia species are foliose lichens growing on rocks, to which they can be tightly or loosely attached, depending on the species. The thallus, which reaches a diameter of , is made of irregularly shaped lobes whose margins lack cilia. The upper cortex of Psiloparmelia is a palisade plectenchyma – comprising hyphae arranged perpendicular to the surface. It is partly covered by a rudimentary epicortex (a thin homogeneous polysaccharide layer on the surface of the cortex) with pores.
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Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species on 2017-09-15. Ascidians are characterized by a tough outer "tunic" made of the polysaccharide cellulose. Ascidians are found all over the world, usually in shallow water with salinities over 2.5%. While members of the Thaliacea and Larvacea (Appendicularia) swim freely like plankton, sea squirts are sessile animals after their larval phase: they then remain firmly attached to their substratum, such as rocks and shells.
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The PNRI developed a Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) Carrageenan dressing: a fully permanent gel in a form of a sheet that is 3-4mm thick and containing over 90% water, used to treat burns, wounds, and bedsores. It is made from Polyvinylpyrrolidone, a water-soluble polymer, and Carrageenan, a seaweed polysaccharide by the means of Radiation Processing to effect cross-linking and to sterilize the product into a final form.Abad, "PVP-Carrageenan Hydrogel Dressing." 2008.
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Asplenia refers to a non-functioning spleen, which may be congenital, or caused by traumatic injury, surgical resection (splenectomy) or a disease such as sickle cell anaemia. Hyposplenia refers to a partially functioning spleen. These conditions may cause a modest increase in circulating white blood cells and platelets, a diminished response to some vaccines, and an increased susceptibility to infection. In particular, there is an increased risk of sepsis from polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria.
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These bacteria produce various extracellular enzymes such as polysaccharide-degrading enzymes and proteases, which can catalyze a wide variety of synthetic reactions in fields ranging from cosmetics to biofuel production. Various Paenibacillus spp. also produce antimicrobial substances that affect a wide spectrum of micro-organismsGirardin H, Albagnac C, Dargaignaratz C, Nguyen-The C, Carlin F: Antimicrobial activity of foodborne Paenibacillus and Bacillus spp. against Clostridium botulinum. J Food Prot 2002, 65:806-813.
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The genome of N. magadii consists of four replicons with a total sequence of 4,443,643 bp and encodes 4,212 putative proteins. The genome analysis identified multiple genes coding putative proteins involved in adaptation to hypersalinity, stress response, glycosylation, and polysaccharide biosynthesis. Additionally, proton-driven ATP synthase and a variety of putative cytochromes and other proteins required for aerobic respiration and electron transfer had been found. The genome encodes a number of putative proteases/peptidases.
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Gum karaya or gum sterculia, also known as Indian gum tragacanth, is a vegetable gum produced as an exudate by trees of the genus Sterculia. Chemically, gum karaya is an acid polysaccharide composed of the sugars galactose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid. It is used as a thickener and emulsifier in foods, as a laxative, and as a denture adhesive. It is also used to adulterate Gum tragacanth due to their similar physical characteristics.
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The outer core oligosaccharide chain varies depending on the bacterial strain. The term lipooligosaccharide is used to refer to the low molecular weight form of bacterial lipopolysaccharides, which can be categorized into two forms: the high molecular weight (Mr, or smooth) form possesses a high molecular weight, repeating polysaccharide O-chain, while the low molecular weight (low-Mr or rough) form, lacks the O-chain but possesses a short oligosaccharide in its place.
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Dry and/or cold seasons cause the aerial shoots to die back, but the plant resprouts from the rhizome under favourable conditions of temperature and moisture. The edible storage tubers are large and typically weigh from a few hundred grams to a kilogram or so. The tubers contain fructooligosaccharide, an indigestible polysaccharide made up of fructose. Fructooligosaccharides taste sweet, but pass through the human digestive tract unmetabolised, hence have very little caloric value.
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The (1→3)-linkages break up the uniform structure of the beta-D-glucan molecule and make it soluble and flexible. In comparison, the indigestible polysaccharide cellulose is also a beta-glucan, but is not soluble because of its (1→4)-beta-D-linkages. The percentages of beta-glucan in the various whole oat products are: oat bran, having from 5.5% to 23.0%; rolled oats, about 4%; and whole oat flour about 4%.
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Xylanase () is any of a class of enzymes that degrade the linear polysaccharide xylan into xylose, thus breaking down hemicellulose, one of the major components of plant cell walls. As such, it plays a major role in micro- organisms thriving on plant sources for the degradation of plant matter into usable nutrients. Xylanases are produced by fungi, bacteria, yeast, marine algae, protozoans, snails, crustaceans, insect, seeds, etc.; mammals do not produce xylanases.
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Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed β-(1→4)-linked D-glucosamine (deacetylated unit) and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (acetylated unit). It is made by treating the chitin shells of shrimp and other crustaceans with an alkaline substance, such as sodium hydroxide. Chitosan has a number of commercial and possible biomedical uses. It can be used in agriculture as a seed treatment and biopesticide, helping plants to fight off fungal infections.
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Pleuran is an insoluble polysaccharide (β-(1,3/1,6)-D-glucan), isolated from Pleurotus ostreatus. Pleuran belongs to a group of glucose polymers commonly called beta-glucans demonstrating biological response modifier properties. These immunomodulating properties render the host more resistant to infections and neoplasms. In a study published in December 2010, pleuran demonstrated to have a protective effect against exercise-induced suppression of immune cell activity (NK cells) in subjects taking 100 mg per day.
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New cell wall material is formed locally by activation of the polysaccharide synthetase zymogen. The process of bud emergence is regulated by the synthesis of these cellular components as well as by the turgor pressure in the parent cell. Mitosis occurs, as the bud grows, and both the developing conidium and the parent cell will contain a single nucleus. A ring of chitin forms between the developing blastoconidium and its parent yeast cell.
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Carbohydrate markers are employed in a technique known as polysaccharide analysis by carbohydrate gel electrophoresis (PACE), which is a measurable separation technique. It allows for the analysis of enzyme hydrolysis products. It has been used in applications such as characterizing enzymes involved in hemicellulose degradation, determining the structure of hemicellulose polysaccharides, and analysis of enzymatic cleavage of cellulose products. PACE depends on derivitization, which is the conversion of a chemical compound into a derivative.
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Metabolic causes of lameness include hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) and polysaccharide storage myopathy, which directly affect muscular function. Circulatory causes of lameness occur when blood flow to an area is compromised. This may be due to abnormal blood clotting, as in the case of aortic-iliac thrombosis, or decreased blood flow (ischemia) to an area, such as is sometimes seen in laminitis. Infectious causes of lameness are the result of inflammation and damage to tissue.
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Around the outside of the cell membrane is the cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan (also called murein), which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by peptides containing D-amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi, which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan.
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In bacterial efflux systems, certain substances that need to be extruded from the cell include surface components of the bacterial cell (e.g. capsular polysaccharides, lipopolysaccharides, and teichoic acid), proteins involved in bacterial pathogenesis (e.g. hemolysis, heme-binding protein, and alkaline protease), heme, hydrolytic enzymes, S-layer proteins, competence factors, toxins, antibiotics, bacteriocins, peptide antibiotics, drugs and siderophores. They also play important roles in biosynthetic pathways, including extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis and cytochrome biogenesis.
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Alpha-L-arabinofuranosidase (, arabinosidase, alpha-arabinosidase, alpha-L- arabinosidase, alpha-arabinofuranosidase, polysaccharide alpha-L- arabinofuranosidase, alpha-L-arabinofuranoside hydrolase, L-arabinosidase, alpha-L-arabinanase) is an enzyme with systematic name alpha-L- arabinofuranoside arabinofuranohydrolase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Hydrolysis of terminal non-reducing alpha-L- arabinofuranoside residues in alpha-L-arabinosides The enzyme acts on alpha-L- arabinofuranosides, alpha-L-arabinans containing (1,3)- and/or (1,5)-linkages, arabinoxylans and arabinogalactans.
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It is the most abundant source of sugar in nature and is a major part of the paper industry. Starch is also a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers; however, they are connected via an alpha 1-4 linkage instead of beta. Starches, particularly amylase, are important in many industries, including the paper, cosmetic, and food. Chitin is a derivation of cellulose, possessing an acetamide group instead of an –OH on one of its carbons.
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In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine. Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose.
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An agarose gel in tray used for gel electrophoresis Agarose is a polysaccharide, generally extracted from certain red seaweed. It is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose.Agar at lsbu.ac.uk Water Structure and Science Agarose is one of the two principal components of agar, and is purified from agar by removing agar's other component, agaropectin.
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However, in its unattached state, it is noted that polysaccharide yields are lower and some consider this to be the result of narrower thallus filaments giving way to a smaller amount of galactan present. Also, phycobiliproteins can be extracted from F. lumbricalis, from which the R-phycoerythrin yield is ~0.1% by dry weight.M. Saluri, M. Kaldmäe and R. Tuvikene, "Extraction and quantification of phycobiliproteins from the red alga," Algal Research, vol. 37, pp.
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He is known for his pioneering research in molecular self- assembly. Molecular self-assembly is the assembly of molecules without guidance or management from an outside source. His main field of expertise and research interests are Host Guest Chemistry, Molecular Recognition, Liquid Crystals/Organic Gelators, Sugar Sensing/Sugar-Based Combinatorial Chemistry, Boronic-acids, Polysaccharide-Polynucleotide Interactions, Sol-Gel Transcription and Inorganic Combinatorial Chemistry. His most recent research is related to chiral discrimination using AIE.
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The species tolerates up to 10% of NaCl and grows between 10 °C and 35 °C. Colonies on malt extract agar on average grow to 25 mm in 7 days (at 25 °C), appearing smooth and slimy due to abundant sporulation and EPS formation. In two weeks the colonies become green to black due to the production of melanin. Melanin is produced during the production of pullulan, a polysaccharide partly responsible of the biofilm formation.
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Dolichols are found in eukaryotes and in archaea, although similar polyprenols molecules are found in bacteria. Polyprenols in bacteria do not contain an α-saturated isoprenoid and are typically smaller in terms of isoprenoid units or carbon length. Polyprenols perform similar functions within bacteria; that is, they function as glycosyl carrier lipids involved in formation of complex branched polysaccharide. However, the cellular process they are involved in is not glycosylation, but instead cell wall biosynthesis.
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In 1928, Rebecca Lancefield published a method for serotyping S. pyogenes based on its cell-wall polysaccharide, a virulence factor displayed on its surface. Later, in 1946, Lancefield described the serologic classification of S. pyogenes isolates based on their surface T-antigen. Four of the 20 T-antigens have been revealed to be pili, which are used by bacteria to attach to host cells. As of 2016, a total of 120 M proteins are identified.
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Lignin-based polymer composites are bio-renewable natural aromatic polymers with biodegradable properties. Lignin is found as a byproduct of polysaccharide extraction from plant material through the production of paper, ethanol, and more. It is high in abundance with reports showing that 50 million tons are being created by chemical pulp industries each year. Lignin is useful due to its low weight material and the fact that it is more environmentally friendly than other alternatives.
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Analyses conducted in 1997 showed that members of the PST family formed two major clusters. One is concerned with lipopolysaccharide O-antigen (undecaprenol pyrophosphate-linked O-antigen repeat unit) export (flipping from the cytoplasmic side to the periplasmic side of the inner membranes) in Gram-negative bacteria. On the periplasmic side, polymerization occurs catalyzed by Wzy. The other is concerned with exopolysaccharide or capsular polysaccharide export in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.
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Ingestion has been shown to improve human immune function, and it has been patented several times. Normal gut microbiota L.brevis is found in human intestines, vagina and feces. L. brevis is one of the major Lactobacillus species found in tibicos grains, used to make kefir, and has been identified as the species responsible for the production of the polysaccharide (dextran) that forms the grains. Major metabolites of L. brevis include lactic acid and ethanol.
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Her full admission was dependent on an evaluation of her first year performance. She succeeded in her courses and decided not to transfer to medicine, remaining in the veterinary school. She graduated with her degree in 1937, and defended her doctoral thesis, Praecipitatiós kísérletek polysaccharida- antigénnel gastrophilosis esetén (Precipitation Experiments with Polysaccharide Antigen in Cases of Gastrophilosis) in 1939. Her doctoral advisor was , who allowed her to work in his laboratory as an intern.
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Most bacterial capsules are composed of polysaccharide, but some species use other materials, such as poly-D-glutamic acid in Bacillus anthracis. Because most capsules are so tightly packed, they are difficult to stain because most standard stains cannot penetrate the capsule. To visualize encapsulated bacteria using a microscope, a sample is treated with a dark stain, such as India ink. The structure of the capsule prevents the stain from penetrating the cell.
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Melanelixia is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. It contains 15 Northern Hemisphere species that grow on bark or on wood. The genus is characterized by a pored or fenestrate epicortex (a thin homogeneous polysaccharide layer on the surface of the cortex), and the production of lecanoric acid as the primary chemical constituent of the medulla. Melanelixia was circumscribed in 2004 as a segregate of the related genus Melanelia.
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J. Pharm. Biopharm., 81 (2012), 657-665 are polymer and polysaccharide based, with plasticizers and pigments included. Tablet coatings must be stable and strong enough to survive the handling of the tablet, must not make tablets stick together during the coating process, and must follow the fine contours of embossed characters or logos on tablets. Coatings are necessary for tablets that have an unpleasant taste, and a smoother finish makes large tablets easier to swallow.
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The BioMarine Complex in all US Imedeen tablets is a proprietary blend of fish proteins and polysaccharide. It has been studied on its own (in-vitro) and as part of IMEDEEN formulations in clinical studies. Because it has not been studied on its own in clinical studies, it is impossible to know does it really benefit the skin. And because the formula is proprietary, it is impossible to know the optimal dose.
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Chrysolaminarin is a storage polysaccharide typically found in photosynthetic heterokonts. It is used as a carbohydrate food reserve by phytoplankton such as Bacillariophyta (similar to the use of laminarin by brown algae).Biological use of chrysolaminarin , California State University, Stanislaus Chrysolaminarin is stored inside the cells of these organisms dissolved in water and encapsuled in vacuoles whose refractive index increases with chrysolaminarin content. In addition, heterokont algae use oil as a storage compound.
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The exact pathogenesis is not fully elucidated. The hallmark feature is the formation of polyclonal IgG autoantibody against the P antigen, which is a polysaccharide surface antigen on red cells in most humans. As a weak, biphasic antibody, it absorbs to the P antigen in the cold temperature as in the periphery in the primary phase, and fixes complement on recirculation to the core temperature in the secondary phase, resulting in intravascular hemolysis.
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A proteoglycan molecule consists of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains covalently attached, so that it may be up to 95% carbohydrate. Large proteoglycan complexes can form when hundreds of proteoglycans become noncovalently attached to a single long polysaccharide molecule. Some cells are attached to the ECM by still other ECM glycoproteins such as fibronectin. Fibronectin and other ECM proteins bind to cell surface receptor proteins called integrins that are built into the plasma membrane.
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Phytoglycogen is a type of glycogen extracted from plants. It is a highly branched, water-soluble polysaccharide derived from glucose.Structure and Hydration of Highly-Branched, Monodisperse Phytoglycogen Nanoparticles Jonathan D. Nickels, John Atkinson, Erzsebet Papp-Szabo, Christopher Stanley, Souleymane O. Diallo, Stefania Perticaroli, Benjamin Baylis, Perry Mahon, Georg Ehlers, John Katsaras, and John R. Dutcher 2016 17 (3), 735-743 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b01393 It can be found in millets grown in Central and Southern parts of India.
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The JUMPstart RNA motif describes a conserved RNA-based secondary structure associated with JUMPstart elements. The 39-base-pair JUMPstart sequence describes a conserved element upstream of genes that participate in polysaccharide synthesis. The JUMPstart element has been shown to function as an RNA, and is present in the 5' untranslated regions of the genes it regulates. JUMPstart sequences include an ops element, which is an acronym for "operon-polarity suppressor" and has the nucleotide consensus GGCGGUAG.
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In turn, disaccharides are mostly degraded by specific glycosidases to glucose. The names of the degrading enzymes are often derived from the particular poly- and disaccharide; inter alia, for the degradation of polysaccharide chains there are amylases (named after amylose, a component of starch), cellulases (named after cellulose), chitinases (named after chitin) and more. Furthermore, for the cleavage of disaccharides, there are maltase, lactase, sucrase, trehalase and others. In humans, about 70 genes are known that code for glycosidases.
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The toxin binds to cell-surface polysaccharide receptors with a high affinity (Ka in the range of 107–108/M). When the toxin binds to the cell, the A-chain enters through either active transport or endocytosis. Once inside the cell the A-chain enters the cytoplasmic space, binds to the 60S ribosomal subunit and enzymatically inactivates it. The mechanism is catalytic because of this one toxin molecule is enough to disrupt protein synthesis and kill the target cell.
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Their thylakoids are arranged in loose stacks of three. Chlorarachniophytes have a form of polysaccharide called chrysolaminarin, which they store in the cytoplasm, often collected around the chloroplast pyrenoid, which bulges into the cytoplasm. Chlorarachniophyte chloroplasts are notable because the green alga they are derived from has not been completely broken down—its nucleus still persists as a nucleomorph found between the second and third chloroplast membranes—the periplastid space, which corresponds to the green alga's cytoplasm.
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21 (11), 1998, p. 1154-9 Celosian, a polysaccharide from the seeds of the cockscomb tuft, shows the animal model hepatoprotective and immunostimulating effects as well as the aqueous extract from the seeds, wherein also an anti-metastatic effect in the liver of mice could be detected. The alcohol extract of the seeds generates an anti-diabetic effect in certain laboratory rats.Mamta B. Shah, KN Patel, Malati G. Chauhan: Contribution to Indigenous Drugs Part I: Celosia Argentea .
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Researchers are continually finding new applications where it can replace other less efficient, more toxic Lewis acids. Recently it has been tested in synthesizing epoxies and other polymerisation reactions, and in polysaccharide synthesis. It has also been trialled in green solvents other than water, such as ionic liquids and supercritical carbon dioxide. To enhance recovery, researchers have developed La(OTf)3 catalysts stabilised by ion exchange resin or polymer backbones, which can be separated by ultrafiltration.
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Micafungin is indicated for the treatment of candidemia, acute disseminated candidiasis, Candida peritonitis, abscesses and esophageal candidiasis. Since January 23, 2008, micafungin has been approved for the prophylaxis of Candida infections in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Micafungin works by way of concentration- dependent inhibition of 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase resulting in reduced formation of 1,3-beta-D-glucan, which is an essential polysaccharide comprising one-third of the majority of Candida spp. cell walls.
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Polygalacturonase (), also known as pectin depolymerase, PG, pectolase, pectin hydrolase, and poly-alpha-1,4-galacturonide glycanohydrolase, is an enzyme that hydrolyzes the alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds between galacturonic acid residues. Polygalacturonan, whose major component is galacturonic acid, is a significant carbohydrate component of the pectin network that comprises plant cell walls.Jones, T. M., Anderson, A. J., and Albersheim, P. (1972) Hostpathogen interactions IV, Studies on the polysaccharide-degrading enzymes secreted by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici, Physiol.
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The hydroxyl groups on polysaccharide biopolymers allow them to form hydrogen bonds directly with charged clay particles (in dry soils), as well as with soil pore water itself (in moist soil). These interactions are promoted by the high surface area of both the biopolymers themselves and the clay particles they bond with. When ionized polymers (such as many biopolymers) with the same charge as clay particles adsorb to their surface, they increase the electrical double layer repulsion.
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Functional asplenia can occur when patients with metabolic or haematological disorders have their splenic tissue organisation altered. This can lead to results similar to those seen in patients who have undergone a splenectomy e.g. becoming infected with encapsulated bacteria such as Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis. Patients who have some form of asplenia have an increased susceptibility to these encapsulated bacterial infections mainly because they lack IgM memory B cells and their non-adherence to polysaccharide vaccines.
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Polysaccharides are considered to be polymers of monosaccharides containing ten or more monosaccharide residues. Polysaccharides have been given trivial names that reflect their origin. Two common examples are cellulose, a main component of the cell wall in plants, and starch, a name derived from the Anglo-Saxon stercan, meaning to stiffen. To name a polysaccharide composed of a single type of monosaccharide, that is a homopolysaccharide, the ending “-ose” of the monosaccharide is replaced with “-an”.
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Its polysaccharide-metabolizing abilities make it a food source for other components of the microbiome. For example, while B. thetaiotaomicron expresses sialidase enzymes, it cannot catabolize sialic acid; as a result its presence increases the free sialic acid available for other organisms in the gut. These interactions can contribute to the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as Clostridium difficile, which uses sialic acid as a carbon source. Similar interactions can cause B. thetaiotaomicron to exacerbate pathogenic E. coli infection.
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Ogonori, the most common red algae used to make agar Agar ( or ), or agar- agar, is a jelly-like substance, obtained from red algae. Agar is a mixture of two components: the linear polysaccharide agarose, and a heterogeneous mixture of smaller molecules called agaropectin. It forms the supporting structure in the cell walls of certain species of algae, and is released on boiling. These algae are known as agarophytes, and belong to the Rhodophyta (red algae) phylum.
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The function of vanadocytes is still unclear. It has been proposed that the vanadocyte transports and processes nutrients, contributes to the polysaccharide external tunic, or serves as a defense mechanism. It is unlikely that the vanadium complex serves as an oxygen transport mechanism because it is unable to reversibly bind oxygen. Research into their utility as anti-biofouling (allelopathic) mechanisms concluded that the high acidity and high vanadium levels function to significantly reduce epizoic recruitment and predation.
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Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy (EPSM, PSSM, EPSSM) is an inheritable glycogen storage disease of horses that causes exertional rhabdomyolysis. It is currently known to affect the following breeds American Quarter Horses, American Paint Horses, Warmbloods, Cobs, Dales Ponies, Thoroughbreds, Arabians, New Forest ponies, and a large number of Heavy horse breeds. While incurable, PSSM can be managed with appropriate diet and exercise. There are currently 2 subtypes, known as Type 1 PSSM and Type 2 PSSM.
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Alginate, or alginic acid, is a natural acidic linear polysaccharide derived from seaweed. It is composed of α-L-guluronate and β-D-mannuronate. Bulk alginate is widely used in the food industry and for medical purposes due to its unique characteristics such as high viscosity in aqueous solution and gel-forming property in the presence of calcium ions. Previous studies have also shown that alginate oligosaccharides may act as growth promoting agents on some plant cells.
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The cell wall consists of the hydrophobic mycolate layer and a peptidoglycan layer held together by a polysaccharide, arabinogalactan. The cell wall makes a substantial contribution to the hardiness of this genus. The biosynthetic pathways of cell wall components are potential targets for new drugs for tuberculosis. Many Mycobacterium species adapt readily to growth on very simple substrates, using ammonia or amino acids as nitrogen sources and glycerol as a carbon source in the presence of mineral salts.
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Biofilm dispersal is dependent on Rhammnolipids, however other factors such as degradation of the matrix and activation of motility are also likely to be necessary. It has been shown using fluorescence microscopy that the rhlAB operon is induced in the centre of the mushroom cap, followed by dispersal of cells from the polysaccharide matrix from the centre of these caps causing a cavity to form. A mutation in rhlA causes a failure in formation of mushroom caps at all.
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These cells can be extracted from whole blood using ficoll, a hydrophilic polysaccharide that separates layers of blood, and gradient centrifugation, which will separate the blood into a top layer of plasma, followed by a layer of PBMCs and a bottom fraction of polymorphonuclear cells (such as neutrophils and eosinophils) and erythrocytes. The polymorphonuclear cells can be further isolated by lysing the red blood cells. Basophils are sometimes found in both the denser and the PBMC fractions.
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T. ananas is one of the most popular edible sea cucumber species consumed in China, and some other Southeast Asian countries. Research published in 2014 by Long Yu et al. examined the chemical properties of this organism that makes it such a delicacy. They found that they contained a polysaccharide that is present in brown algae and sea cucumbers called Fucoidan, that contains L-fucose and sulphate groups, which is a primary component aiding their popularity.
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The N and C terminus of AlyGC form right-handed β-helix folds, which is uncommon among polysaccharide lyases. Three β-sheets comprise each fold. These sheets are designated PB1-PB3, and the twists in between each sheet are named T1-T3, with T1 coming after PB1, T2 coming after PB2, and so on. The active site is located on the N-terminus, where it is encircled by a C-terminal loop, as well as N-terminal loops and N-terminal β-strands.
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If excision is precise and the original sequence of DNA is restored, reversible phase variation can be mediated by transposition. Phase variation mediated by transposition targets specific DNA sequences. P. atlantica contains an eps locus that encodes extracellular polysaccharide and the ON or OFF expression of this locus is controlled by the presence or absence of IS492. Two recombinases encoded by MooV and Piv mediate the precise excision and insertion, respectively, of the insertion element IS492 in the eps locus.
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He also dealt with bacterial polysaccharide synthesis as well as bioconversion and biotransformation. Between 1970 and 1972 Edward Galas was the dean of the Faculty of Biotechnology, then between 1972 and 1975 he was the vice-rector and deputy rector of Lodz University of Technology and in 1975 he became the rector of Lodz University of Technology, and held this position until 1981. He is the author of 200 scientific publications and 350 research notebooks. He supervised 25 PhD dissertations.
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Glycoside hydrolase family 14 CAZY GH_14 comprises enzymes with only one known activity; beta-amylase (). A Glu residue has been proposed as a catalytic residue, but it is not known if it is the nucleophile or the proton donor. Beta-amylase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes 1,4-alpha-glucosidic linkages in starch-type polysaccharide substrates so as to remove successive maltose units from the non-reducing ends of the chains. Beta-amylase is present in certain bacteria as well as in plants.
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Phytoglycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide used to store glucose in a similar way that glycogen is the glucose storage for animals. It is made up of branched, flexible chains on glucose molecules that grow similarly to synthetic dendrimers. The special structure of the phytoglycogen allows it to have low viscosity, high water retention, as well as high stability in water, and stabilize bioactive compounds and form films on surfaces. Thus, this monodisperse nanoparticle is able to be used in many different technologies.
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Chitosan is a polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed β-(1-4)-linked D-glucosamine (deacetylated unit) and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (acetylated unit). It is derived from the N-deacetylation of chitin and has been used for several applications such as drug delivery, space-filling implants and in wound dressings. However, one drawback of this polymer is its weak mechanical properties and is thus often combined with other polymers such collagen to form a polymer with stronger mechanical properties for cell encapsulation applications.
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The presence of this polysaccharide also facilitates diffusion of molecules both into and out of the cell. As an edible, mostly tasteless polymer, the chief commercial use of pullulan is in the manufacture of edible films that are used in various breath freshener or oral hygiene products such as Listerine Cool Mint of Johnson and Johnson (USA) and Meltz Super Thin Mints of Avery Bio-Tech Private Ltd. (India). As a food additive, it is known by the E number E1204.
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Suillus americanus contains a polysaccharide known as a beta glucan that laboratory tests suggest may have anti-inflammatory activity. Known specifically as a (1→3)-, (1→4)-β-D-glucan, its natural function is as a component of the fungal cell wall, where it forms microcrystalline fibrils in the wall that give it rigidity and strength. The anti-inflammatory activity results from the polysaccharide's ability to inhibit the production of nitric oxide in activated macrophages, a cell of the immune system.
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Larger molecules, including proteins (for example green fluorescent protein) and RNA, can also pass through the cytoplasmic sleeve diffusively. Plasmodesmatal transport of some larger molecules is facilitated by mechanisms that are currently unknown. One mechanism of regulation of the permeability of plasmodesmata is the accumulation of the polysaccharide callose around the neck region to form a collar, thereby reducing the diameter of the pore available for transport of substances. Through dilation, active gating or structural remodeling the permeability of the plasmodesmata is increased.
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Summary of features on the Cxorf26 protein sequence, with conserved polysaccharide biosynthesis domain highlighted in green CXorf26 was found to have conserved domain known as DUF757 within its sequence. NCBI BLAST Assembled RefSeq Genomes The conserved domain spans a majority of the protein sequence, from amino acids 39-159. Conservation of the domain is strong throughout all homologs compared, including mammals, invertebrates such as insects, and even sponges. The yeast homolog, YPL225W, shows 42.4% identity and 62% similarity in this domain.
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He discovered also in 1811 chitin in mushrooms, the earliest known polysaccharide. In 1819, he published a memoir describing for the first time the conversion of wood, straw or cotton into a sugar by a sulfuric acid treatment. The name glucose was proposed 24 years later by Dumas for a sugar similarly obtained from starch, cellulose, or honey. By the same acid process, Braconnot obtained a "gelatin sugar" (named later glycocolle, now glycine) from gelatin and leucine from muscle fibers.
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Fermented water kefir with grains on the bottom and a floating piece of grapefruit peel Tibicos grains average in dimension. Tibicos, or water kefir, is a traditional fermented drink made with water and a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts (SCOBY) held in a polysaccharide biofilm matrix created by the bacteria. It is sometimes consumed as an alternative to milk based probiotic drinks or tea-cultured products such as kombucha. Water kefir is typically made as a probiotic homebrew beverage.
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Resistant starch does not release glucose within the small intestine, but rather reaches the large intestine where it is consumed or fermented by colonic bacteria (gut microbiota). On a daily basis, human intestinal microbiota encounter more carbohydrates than any other dietary component. This includes resistant starch, non-starch polysaccharide fibers, oligosaccharides, and simple sugars which have significance in colon health. The fermentation of resistant starch produces short-chain fatty acids, including acetate, propionate, and butyrate and increased bacterial cell mass.
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Most of the bacterial species found in the mouth belong to microbial communities, called biofilms, a feature of which is inter-bacterial communication. Cell–cell contact is mediated by specific protein adhesins and often, as in the case of inter-species aggregation, by complementary polysaccharide receptors. Another method of communication involves cell–cell signalling molecules, which are of two classes: those used for intra-species and those used for inter-species signalling. An example of intra-species communication is quorum sensing.
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Pneumococci has two general forms—rough (R) and smooth (S). The S form is more virulent, and bears a capsule, which is a slippery polysaccharide coat—outside the peptidoglycan cell wall common among all classical bacteria—and prevents efficient phagocytosis by the host's innate immune cells. Injected subcutaneously with S form, mice succumbed to pneumonia and death within several days. However, the R form, lacking a capsule—its outer surface being cell wall—is relatively avirulent, and does not cause pneumonia as often.
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Aerial mycelium is generally absent (with exceptions). Frequently both mycelium and yeast-like cells are present. The genome of A. melanogenum (as well as other closely related species) contains unusually high numbers of genes for extracellular enzymes for carbohydrate degradation (CAZy) and proteases, MFS membrane sugar transporters, and alkali metal cation transporters (or ion transporters). Genes presumably involved in the synthesis of the biotechnologically important polysaccharide pullulan and siderophores were found, but the gene for antibiotic Aureobasidin A could not be identified.
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Glycogen, a glucose polysaccharide, acts as an oxidative energy source during times of physiological stress. Because it binds up to five times its weight in bulk water, insects with increased levels of body glycogen also have higher amounts of internal water. In general, insects selected for desiccation resistance also exhibit longer larval stages than those sensitive to desiccation. This increase in development time is likely a response to the environment, allowing larvae more time to accumulate glycogen, and therefore more water before eclosion.
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Schematic two-dimensional cross-sectional view of glycogen: A core protein of glycogenin is surrounded by branches of glucose units. The entire globular granule may contain around 30,000 glucose units. A view of the atomic structure of a single branched strand of glucose units in a glycogen molecule. Glycogen (black granules) in spermatozoa of a flatworm; transmission electron microscopy, scale: 0.3 µm Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria.
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After the influenza epidemic, Avery returned to his work on pneumococcus. He identified R and S strains of the bacterium; the latter caused disease and had a polysaccharide capsule, while the former lacked the capsule and was harmless. Griffith's experiment of 1928 showed that the ability to produce a capsule could be transferred from S to R strain bacteria, even if the S strain bacteria were killed first. For many years, genetic information was thought to be contained in cell protein.
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Hyaluronan or hyaluronic acid (HA) is a high molecular weight unbranched polysaccharide synthesized by a wide variety of organisms from bacteria to mammals, and is a constituent of the extracellular matrix. It consists of alternating glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine residues that are linked by beta-1-3 and beta-1-4 glycosidic bonds. HA is synthesized by membrane-bound synthase at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, and the chains are extruded via ABC-transporter into the extracellular space.
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Kang K.S., Veeder G.T., Mirrasoul P.J., Kaneko T., Cottrell I.W. (1982) Agar-like polysaccharide produced by a Pseudomonas species: Production and basic properties. Applied & Environmental Microbiology, 43, 1086-1091. Its initial commercial product with the trademark as Gelrite gellan gum, was subsequently identified as a suitable agar substitute as gelling agent in various clinical bacteriological media.Shungu D, Valiant M, Tutlane V, Weinberg E, Weissberger B, Koupal L, Gadebusch H, Stapley E.: GELRITE as an Agar Substitute in Bacteriological Media, Appl Environ Microbiol.
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The fruit bodies of the fungus contain biologically active polysaccharides. A β-D-glucan called T-5-N and prepared from alkaline extracts has been shown to have anti- inflammatory properties. Its chemical structure is a linear chain backbone made largely of α-1→3 linked D-mannopyranosyl residues, with traces of 1→6 linked D-mannopyrosyl residues. The polysaccharide has tumour-suppressing activity against subcutaneously implanted sarcoma 180 (a transplantable, non- metastasizing connective tissue tumour often used in research) in mice.
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The majority of patient peripheral blood mononucleated cells are polyclonal naïve mature B cells, with a significant increase in immature, transitional B cell numbers (identified as CD10+). Percentages of circulating class-switched and memory B cells are very low, and in vitro studies show poor B cell differentiation and immunoglobulin secretion. Serum IgM is low in most patients, while total IgG and IgA may be on the low end of normal. Patients demonstrate defective antibody production against T cell-independent, polysaccharide-based vaccines.
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Ceftriaxone is a third-generation antibiotic from the cephalosporin family of antibiotics. It is within the β-lactam family of antibiotics. Ceftriaxone selectively and irreversibly inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to transpeptidases, also called transamidases, which are penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) that catalyze the cross-linking of the peptidoglycan polymers forming the bacterial cell wall. The peptidoglycan cell wall is made up of pentapeptide units attached to a polysaccharide backbone with alternating units of N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid.
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Lipophosphoglycan (sometimes abbreviated to LPG) is a class of molecules found on the surface of some eukaryotes, in particular protozoa. A lipophosphoglycan is made up of two parts; a lipid part and a polysaccharide (also called glycan) part. The two are linked by a phosphodiester bond, hence the name lipo-phospho-glycan. A notable group of organisms which have an extensive lipophosphoglycan coat are the Leishmania species, a group of single-celled protozoan parasite which cause Leishmaniasis in many mammals, including humans.
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In enzymology, a poly(beta-D-mannuronate) lyase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of alginate into various monosaccharide and polysaccharide products. Alginate lyase cleaves the glycosidic bonds of alginate via a β-elimination mechanism, in which it first converts alginate into several oligosccharides containing unsaturated uronic acids at their non-reducing ends. It then cleaves the oligosaccharides, forming 4-deosy-L- erythro-5-hexoseulose uronic acid. This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically those carbon-oxygen lyases acting on polysaccharides.
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Microcystis floating colonies in an Erlenmeyer flask. As the etymological derivation implies, Microcystis is characterized by small cells (a few micrometers in diameter), possessing gas filled vesicles (also lacking individual sheaths). The cells are usually organized into colonies (macroscopic aggregations of which are visible with the naked eye) that begin in a spherical shape, losing coherence to become perforated or irregularly shaped over time. These colonies are bound by a thick mucilage composed of complex polysaccharide compounds, including xylose, mannose, glucose, fucose, galactose, rhamnose, among other compounds.
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Absence of effective splenic function or absence of the whole spleen (asplenia) is associated with increased risks of overwhelming post splenectomy infection, especially from polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria and organisms that invade erythrocytes. People without a spleen have a weakened immune system, although other immune organs compensate for the missing spleen. Vaccination against encapsulated bacteria and prophylactic antibiotics can be used to counteract lowered immunity in asplenic patients. Specifically, people without a spleen are recommended to be vaccinated against pneumonia, influenza, Haemophilus influenzae type b and meningococci.
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Researchers have actively been working to develop safe, effective vaccines to lower the worldwide incidence of E. coli infection. In March 2006, a vaccine eliciting an immune response against the E. coli O157:H7 O-specific polysaccharide conjugated to recombinant exotoxin A of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (O157-rEPA) was reported to be safe in children two to five years old. Previous work had already indicated it was safe for adults. A phase III clinical trial to verify the large-scale efficacy of the treatment is planned.
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Peptidoglycan is made up of a polysaccharide backbone consisting of alternating N-Acetylmuramic acid (NAM) and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) residues in equal amounts. Peptidoglycan is responsible for the rigidity of the bacterial cell wall, and for the determination of cell shape. It is relatively porous and is not considered to be a permeability barrier for small substrates. While all bacterial cell walls (with a few exceptions such as extracellular parasites such as Mycoplasma) contain peptidoglycan, not all cell walls have the same overall structures.
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Unlike animal cells, almost every plant cell is surrounded by a polysaccharide cell wall. Neighbouring plant cells are therefore separated by a pair of cell walls and the intervening middle lamella, forming an extracellular domain known as the apoplast. Although cell walls are permeable to small soluble proteins and other solutes, plasmodesmata enable direct, regulated, symplastic transport of substances between cells. There are two forms of plasmodesmata: primary plasmodesmata, which are formed during cell division, and secondary plasmodesmata, which can form between mature cells.
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The cells of these species are covered in a thin layer of glycoprotein capsular material that has a gelatin-like consistency, and that among other functions, serves to help extract nutrients from the soil. The C. neoformans capsule consists of several polysaccharides, of which the major one is the immunomodulatory polysaccharide called glucuronoxylomannan (GXM). GXM is made up of the monosaccharides glucuronic acid, xylose and mannose and can also contain O-acetyl groups. The capsule is functioning as the major virulence factor in cryptococcal infection and disease.
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Injectable filler (injectable cosmetic filler, injectable facial filler) is a soft tissue filler injected into the skin at different depths to help fill in facial wrinkles, provide facial volume, and augment facial features: restoring a smoother appearance. Most of these wrinkle fillers are temporary because they are eventually absorbed by the body. Most dermal fillers today consist of hyaluronic acid, a naturally occurring polysaccharide that is present in skin and cartilage. Some people may need more than one injection to achieve the wrinkle-smoothing effect.
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TI-2 antigens can activate only mature B lymphocytes. Immature B cells are anergized, so they do not elicit any immune response. That may explain why children up to 5 years are not capable of producing effective antibodies against polysaccharide antigens, as the majority of their B cell population is immature. Even though the response on TI antigens is not dependent on T lymphocytes, there are some cytokines, produced mainly by T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells, necessary for eliciting reaction against these antigens.
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The lower cortex of foliose lichens often bears rootlike fungal structures known as rhizines, which serve to attach the thallus to the substrate on which it grows. Lichens also sometimes contain structures made from fungal metabolites, for example crustose lichens sometimes have a polysaccharide layer in the cortex. Although each lichen thallus generally appears homogeneous, some evidence seems to suggest that the fungal component may consist of more than one genetic individual of that species. This seems to also be true of the photobiont species involved.
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Salep drink Salep, also spelled sahlep or sahlab,(; , ; , ; ; ; , ; , ; Serbian, Macedonian, Bulgarian and Bosnian: салеп, salep) is a flour made from the tubers of the orchid genus Orchis (including species Orchis mascula and Orchis militaris). These tubers contain a nutritious, starchy polysaccharide called glucomannan. Salep flour is consumed in beverages and desserts, especially in the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire, notably in the Levant where it is a traditional winter beverage. An increase in consumption is causing local extinctions of orchids in parts of Turkey and Iran.
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In the 19th century it was demonstrated that immunization of rabbits with killed pneumococci protected them against subsequent challenge with viable pneumococci. Serum from immunized rabbits or from humans who had recovered from pneumococcal pneumonia also conferred protection. In the 20th century, the efficacy of immunization was demonstrated in South African miners. It was discovered that the pneumococcus's capsule made it resistant to phagocytosis, and in the 1920s it was shown that an antibody specific for capsular polysaccharide aided the killing of S. pneumoniae.
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Gluten, the protein found in grains such as wheat, rye, spelt, and barley, contributes to protein aggregation and firm texture of a normally cooked pasta. Gluten-free pasta is produced with wheat flour substitutes, such as vegetable powders, rice, corn, quinoa, amaranth, oats and buckwheat flours. Other possible gluten-free pasta ingredients may include hydrocolloids to improve cooking pasta with high heat resistance, xanthan gum to retain moisture during storage, or hydrothermally-treated polysaccharide mixtures to produce textures similar to those of wheat pasta.
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Group B streptococcal infection, also known as Group B streptococcal disease or just Group B strep, is the infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus agalactiae (S. agalactiae) (also known as group B streptococcus or GBS). GBS infection can cause serious illness and sometimes death, especially in newborns, the elderly, and people with compromised immune systems. As other virulent bacteria, GBS harbours an important number of virulence factors, the most important are the capsular polysaccharide (rich in sialic acid), and a pore-forming toxin, β-haemolysin.
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Most glycosyltransferase enzymes form one of two folds: GT-A or GT-B Glycosyltransferases (GTFs, Gtfs) are enzymes (EC 2.4) that establish natural glycosidic linkages. They catalyze the transfer of saccharide moieties from an activated nucleotide sugar (also known as the "glycosyl donor") to a nucleophilic glycosyl acceptor molecule, the nucleophile of which can be oxygen- carbon-, nitrogen-, or sulfur-based. The result of glycosyl transfer can be a carbohydrate, glycoside, oligosaccharide, or a polysaccharide. Some glycosyltransferases catalyse transfer to inorganic phosphate or water.
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Rarely, consumption of raw or slightly cooked shiitake mushrooms may cause an allergic reaction called "shiitake dermatitis", including an erythematous, micro-papular, streaky pruriginous rash that occurs all over the body including face and scalp, appearing about 24 hours after consumption, possibly worsening by sun exposure and disappearing after 3 to 21 days. This effect – presumably caused by the polysaccharide, lentinan – is more common in East Asia, but may be growing in occurrence in Europe as shiitake consumption increases. Thorough cooking may eliminate the allergenicity.
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A.66.2) The Polysaccharide Transport (PST) Family # One (OLF) specific for lipid-linked oligosaccharide precursors of glycoproteins in eukaryotes - (TC# 2.A.66.3) The Oligosaccharidyl-lipid Flippase (OLF) Family # One (MVF) lipid-peptidoglycan precursor flippase involved in cell wall biosynthesis - (TC# 2.A.66.4) The Mouse Virulence Factor (MVF) Family # One (AgnG) which includes a single functionally characterized member that extrudes the antibiotic, Agrocin 84 - (TC# 2.A.66.5) The Agrocin 84 Antibiotic Exporter (AgnG) Family # And finally, one (Ank) that shuttles inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) - (TC# 2.
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Gellan gum is a water-soluble anionic polysaccharide produced by the bacterium Sphingomonas elodea (formerly Pseudomonas elodea based on the taxonomic classification at the time of its discovery). The gellan-producing bacterium was discovered and isolated by the former Kelco Division of Merck & Company, Inc. in 1978 from the lily plant tissue from a natural pond in Pennsylvania, USA. It was initially identified as a substitute gelling agent at significantly lower use level to replace agar in solid culture media for the growth of various microorganisms.
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Rhamnogalacturonan-II (RG-II) is a complex polysaccharide termed a pectin that is found in the primary walls of dicotyledenous and monocotyledenous plants and gymnosperms. RG-II is also likely to be present in the walls of some lower plants (ferns, horsetails, and lycopods). Its structure is conserved across vascular plants. RG-II is composed of 12 different glycosyl residues including D-rhamnose, apiose, D-galactose, L-galactose, Kdo, galacturonic acid, L-arabinose, xylose, and L-aceric acid, linked together by at least 21 distinct glycosidic linkages.
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Although the B. fragilis group is the most common species found in clinical specimens, it is the least common Bacteroides present in fecal microbiota, comprising only 0.5% of the bacteria present in stool. Their pathogenicity partly results from their ability to produce capsular polysaccharide, which is protective against phagocytosis and stimulates abscess formation. B. fragilis is involved in 90% of anaerobic peritoneal infections. It also causes bacteremia associated with intra- abdominal infections, peritonitis and abscesses following rupture of viscus, and subcutaneous abscesses or burns near the anus.
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250px A trilobite's carapace consisted of calcite and calcium phosphate deposited on a lattice (framework) of chitin (a polysaccharide). The trilobite body is divided into three major sections: a cephalon (head section) with eyes, mouthparts and sensory organs such as antennae; a thorax of multiple segments which are similar to each other; and a pygidium, or tail section. In many species the cephalon had sutures running from back to front round the outside edges of the eyes. These sutures divided the cephalon into 3 pieces.
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Examples of lyophilized biological products include many vaccines such as live measles virus vaccine, typhoid vaccine, and meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine groups A and C combined. Other freeze-dried biological products include antihemophilic factor VIII, interferon alfa, anti-blood clot medicine streptokinase, and wasp venom allergenic extract. Many bio- pharmaceutical products based on therapeutic proteins such as monoclonal antibodies require lyophilization for stability. Examples of lyophilized biopharmaceuticals include blockbuster drugs such as etanercept (Enbrel by Amgen), infliximab (Remicade by Janssen Biotech), rituximab, and trastuzumab (Herceptin by Genentech).
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Fresh masa that has been dried and powdered is called masa seca or masa harina. Some of the corn oil breaks down into emulsifying agents (monoglycerides and diglycerides), and facilitates bonding the corn proteins to each other. The divalent calcium in lime acts as a cross-linking agent for protein and polysaccharide acidic side chains. Cornmeal from untreated ground corn cannot form a dough with the addition of water, but the chemical changes in masa (aka masa nixtamalera) make dough formation possible, for tortillas and other food.
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Alginate is a linear polysaccharide that has been isolated from a variety of organisms, ranging from viruses and bacteria to fungi. It is also a major component of the cell wall in brown algae and a major source of fixed carbon for other organisms. Many organisms from which alginate lyase has been isolated are found in close association with brown algae. For example, some strains of bacteria from the Paenibacillus genus were isolated from L. japonica and S. siliquatrum, and these strains were discovered to excrete alginate lyase.
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In enzymology, a hyaluronate lyase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction :Cleaves hyaluronate chains at a beta-D-GalNAc-(1->4)-beta-D-GlcA bond, ultimately breaking the polysaccharide down to 3-(4-deoxy-beta-D- gluc-4-enuronosyl)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically those carbon-oxygen lyases acting on polysaccharides. The systematic name of this enzyme class is hyaluronate lyase. Other names in common use include hyaluronidase [but cf. internal_xref(ec_num(3,2,1,35)), (hyalurononglucosaminidase) and internal_xref(ec_num(3,2,1,36)), (hyaluronoglucuronidase)], glucuronoglycosaminoglycan lyase, spreading factor, and mucinase.
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In the company's early days, much of its profits were derived from the "miracle medicine" Phospho-Energon. During World War II, Swedish chemist Björn Ingelman (who worked for Arne Tiselius at Uppsala university) researched various uses for the polysaccharide dextran. Together with the medical researcher Anders Grönwall, he discovered that dextran could be used as a replacement for blood plasma in blood transfusions, for which there could be a large need in wartime. Pharmacia, which then was still a small company, was contacted in 1943 and its CEO Elis Göth was very interested.
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P22TSP recognizes the O-antigen polysaccharide of LPS serotypes A, B, or D1. The serotypes correspond to species S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis, and S. Paratyphi A. These carbohydrates share the same main chain trisaccharide repeating unit alpha-D- mannose-(1—4)-alpha-L-rhamnose-(1—3)-alpha-D-galactose-(1—2), but each have a different 2,6-dideoxyhexose substituent at C-3 of the mannose. In vivo, P22TSP binds as a homotrimer and one phage particle can carry up to 6 tailspikes. P22TSP can bind multivalently, leading to an essentially irreversible attachment.
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1999 Widespread occurrence of the oceanic ultraplankter Prasinococcus capsulatus (Prasinophyceae), the diagnostic "Golgi-Decapore complex" and the newly discovered polysaccharide "capsulan" Research is currently underway to find potential applications for capsulan and how to maximise its production. The capsule's function is not clearly defined but various explanations have been suggested. One is that it offers protection to newly divided cells which lack a thick cell wall, another is that it provides a template for daughter cells to synthesise their new cell wall. The capsule may also interfere with filter feeding, thus reducing predation.
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Capsulan has been found to be mostly carbohydrate (70%) with some protein and sulfur. The main sugars making up the carbohydrate are galactose and glucose while other sugars such as xylose, arabinose and mannose are also present in smaller quantities. Myklestad, 1999, Phytoplankton extracellular production and leakage with considerations on the polysaccharide accumulation Sugar acids are common in plant and algal polysacchride but there is disagreement in the literature concerning capsulan's sugar acid content. Kurano claims that capsulan contains none, while Myklestad maintains that both galacturonic and glucuronic acids are present.
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Lipooligosaccharide (LOS) is a component of the outer membrane of N. meningitidis. This acts as an endotoxin and is responsible for septic shock and hemorrhage due to the destruction of red blood cells. Other virulence factors include a polysaccharide capsule which prevents host phagocytosis and aids in evasion of the host immune response; fimbriae mediate attachment of the bacterium to the epithelial cells of the nasopharynx. It infects the cell by sticking to it mainly with long thin extensions called pili and the surface-exposed proteins Opa and Opc.
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A number of vaccines are available in the U.S. to prevent meningococcal disease. Some of the vaccines cover serogroup B, while others cover A, C, W, and Y. A meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV4) has been available since the 1970s and is the only meningococcal vaccine licensed for people older than 55. MPSV4 may be used in people 2–55 years old if the MCV4 vaccines are not available or contraindicated. Two meningococcal conjugate vaccines (MCV4) are licensed for use in the U.S. The first conjugate vaccine was licensed in 2005, the second in 2010.
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The ability to form a floating colony is one of the unique attributes of Phaeocystis - hundreds of cells are embedded in a polysaccharide gel matrix, which can increase massively in size during blooms. The largest Phaeocystis blooms form in the polar seas: P. pouchetii in the north and P. antarctica in the south. This intense Phaeocystis productivity generally persists for about a three-month period, spanning most of the summer in the Southern Hemisphere. Phaeocystis-abundant ecosystems are generally associated with commercially important stocks of crustaceans, molluscs, fish and mammals.
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Together with his students and collaborators, over the next 20 years, McCarty's work changed the understanding of the organism from a gram-positive streptococcus with a particular serological characteristic to one of the best characterized bacterial species. Work on bacterial cell-wall anatomy and chemistry was just beginning. His work led to the isolation of the streptococcal cell wall as a structural entity suitable for anatomic inspection by electronmicroscopy. Chemical dissection led to characterization of the group A–specific polysaccharide and the peptidoglycan, and the identification of its serological specificity in the terminal hexosamine.
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There is significant variation in symptoms between diseases, though some symptoms are expressed across species. On a macroscopic scale, plants infected with a X. fastidiosa- related disease exhibit symptoms of water deficiencies, manifesting as leaf scorching and stunting in leaves, fruit, and overall plant height. As the bacterium progressively colonizes xylem tissues, affected plants often block off their xylem which can limit the spread of this pathogen; blocking can occur in the form of polysaccharide rich gels, tyloses, or both. These plant defenses do not seem to hinder the movement of X. fastidiosa.
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C. neoformans stained by Gram stain C. neoformans grows as a yeast (unicellular) and replicates by budding. It makes hyphae during mating, and eventually creates basidiospores at the end of the hyphae before producing spores. Under host-relevant conditions, including low glucose, serum, 5% carbon dioxide, and low iron, among others, the cells produce a characteristic polysaccharide capsule. The recognition of C. neoformans in Gram-stained smears of purulent exudates may be hampered by the presence of the large gelatinous capsule which apparently prevents definitive staining of the yeast-like cells.
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These functions do not seem to relate to a polysaccharide biosynthesis function as would be assumed due to its conserved domain, but it may still play a role in secondary structure or sites of phosphorylation. Further experimentation into the potential role of CXorf26 can give further insight into its exact function in these key cellular processes. Experiments such as a RNA polymerase II inhibitior and subsequent gene expression of CXorf26 could enlighten potential function as well as a complete knockout of YPL225W in yeast using methods such as RNAi.
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20 predicted transcription factor binding sites with their transcription factor family was collected as well. A high amount of the transcriptional factors relate to zinc finger factors, which have the function of stabilizing protein folds, while none of the factors seem to relate to a potential polysaccharide biosynthesis function. One transcription factor family predicted to bind to the promoter region was V$CHRF, and is involved in regulation of the cell cycle. The regulation could be related to ubiquitin function; proteins with ubiquitination type function were found to interact with CXorf26.
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The vaccine is manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline and sold under the trade name Bexsero. Bexsero is for use in all age groups from two months of age and older. Menveo and Mencevax of GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Menactra and Menomune of Sanofi-Aventis, and NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 (has not been licensed in the US) of JN-International Medical Corporation, are the commonly used vaccines. Vaccines offer significant protection from three to five years (plain polysaccharide vaccine Menomune, Mencevax and NmVac-4) to more than eight years (conjugate vaccine Menactra).
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Notice the two streptococci at the top of the photo that appear to have no capsule. Quellung is the German word for "swelling" and describes the microscopic appearance of pneumococcal or other bacterial capsules after their polysaccharide antigen has combined with a specific antibody. The antibody usually comes from a bit of serum taken from an immunized laboratory animal. As a result of this combination, and precipitation of the large, complex molecule formed, the capsule appears to swell, because of increased surface tension, and its outlines become clearly demarcated.
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Xanthan gum is produced by the fermentation of glucose and sucrose. The polysaccharide is prepared by the bacteria being inoculated into a sterile aqueous solution of carbohydrate(s), a source of nitrogen, dipotassium phosphate, and some trace elements. The medium is well-aerated and stirred, and the xanthan polymer is produced extracellularly into the medium. After one to four days, the polymer is precipitated from the medium by the addition of isopropyl alcohol, and the precipitate is dried and milled to give a powder that is readily soluble in water or brine.
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This alga has remarkable characteristics, including four flagella, a theca (polysaccharide envelope) and a vacuole (stigma or "eyespot") that contains photo-receptor molecules. T. convolutae lives in the free living state in the water column but is mainly benthics. Thus, in hospite, the alga does not have the same phenotype as in the free living state: it no longer has its flagella, its theca and stigma. These phenotypical differences did not allow Geddes, Delage and Haberlandt to deduce that the green cells in the tissues could have been micro-algae.
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On physical exam, one key difference between the two is that post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation changes are usually seen with bleomycin- induced flagellate dermatitis and are not typically present with shiitake mushroom induced flagellate dermatitis. The median time of onset from ingestion of shiitake mushrooms is typically 24 hours, ranging from 12 hours to 5 days. Most patients completely recover by 3 weeks, with or without treatment. Although the pathogenesis of shiitake induced flagellate dermatitis is not clear, the theory most argued for is a toxic reaction to lentinan, a polysaccharide isolated from shiitake mushrooms.
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Several studies done on animals and in vitro suggest P. pulmonarius and its extracts may have possible medicinal applications for a wide range of conditions. A polysaccharide called β-D- Glucan from P. pulmonarius reduces sensitivity to pain in mice, and could be an "attractive" basis for new analgesic medications. In a different study on mice, a glucan from P. pulmonarius showed potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. A methanol extract of P. pulmonarius displayed anti- inflammatory and antitumor activity comparable to the standard reference drugs diclofenac and cisplatin, respectively.
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NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 is the commercial name of the polysaccharide vaccine against the bacteria (specifically serogroups A, C, Y, and W-135) that causes Meningococcal meningitis. The product, by JN-International Medical Corporation, is designed and formulated to be used in developing countries for protecting populations during meningitis disease epidemics. Meningococcal meningitis is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis, also known as meningococcus. The vaccine is made from bacterial capsular polysaccharides through fermentation of each individual serogroup of Neisseria meningitidis in bioreactors.
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Nodobryoria is a genus of medium to large, reddish-brown lichens that are hair-like to shrubby in shape and grow on conifer trees. The genus contains three species, distributed in North America and Greenland, which were previously included in the genus Bryoria. Nodobryoria is similar in appearance to Bryoria, but is differentiated because it does not contain the polysaccharide lichenin (which is present in high quantities in Bryoria), and it has a unique cortex composed of interlocking cells that look like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle when viewed under a light microscope.
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Chains of varying molecular weights, from 5000 to over 40,000 Daltons, make up polydisperse pharmaceutical-grade heparin. LMWHs, in contrast, consist of only short chains of polysaccharide. LMWHs are defined as heparin salts having an average molecular weight of less than 8000 Da and for which at least 60% of all chains have a molecular weight less than 8000 Da. These are obtained by various methods of fractionation or depolymerisation of polymeric heparin. Heparin derived from natural sources, mainly porcine intestine or bovine lung, can be administered therapeutically to prevent thrombosis.
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Attempts at reverse vaccinology first began with Meningococcus B (MenB). Meningococcus B caused over 50% of meningococcal meningitis, and scientists had been unable to create a successful vaccine for the pathogen because of the bacterium's unique structure. This bacterium's polysaccharide shell is identical to that of a human self-antigen, but its surface proteins vary greatly; and the lack of information about the surface proteins caused developing a vaccine to be extremely difficult. As a result, Rino Rappuoli and other scientists turned towards bioinformatics to design a functional vaccine.
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Glucan 1,4-beta-glucosidase (or 4-beta-D-glucan glucohydrolase) is an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of (1->4)-linkages in 1,4-beta-D-glucans and related oligosaccharides, removing successive glucose units. This is one of the cellulases, enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of cellulose and related polysaccharides; more specifically, an exocellulase, that acts at the end of the polysaccharide chain. Other names for this enzyme are exo-1,4-beta- glucosidase, exocellulase, exo-beta-1,4-glucosidase, exo-beta-1,4-glucanase, beta-1,4-beta-glucanase, exo-1,4-beta-glucanase, and 1,4-beta-D-glucan glucohydrolase.
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Maturation of the GI tract is mediated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which recognize non-self pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) including bacterial cell wall components and nucleic acids. These data suggest that commensal microbes aid in intestinal homeostasis and immune system development. To prevent constant activation of immune cells and resulting inflammation, hosts and bacteria have evolved to maintain intestinal homeostasis and immune system development. For example, the human symbiont Bacteroides fragilis produces polysaccharide A (PSA), which binds to toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2) on CD4+ T cells.
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Research on material types in bone grafting has been traditionally centered on producing composites of organic polysaccharides (chitin, chitosan, alginate) and minerals (hydroxyapatite). Alginate scaffolds, composed of cross-linked calcium ions, are actively being explored in the regeneration of skin, liver, and bone. Alginate's ability to scaffold and makes it a novel polysaccharide. Even though many minerals can be adapted for bone composition, hydroxyapatite remains the dominant material, as its strength and the known Jager-Fratzl model of human bone provide a pre-existing framework for spacing and fabrication.
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Structure of the amylopectin molecule Amylopectin is a water-soluble Subscription required for online access. polysaccharide and highly branched polymer of α-glucose units found in plants. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylose. Glucose units are linked in a linear way with α(1→4) glycosidic bonds. Branching takes place with α(1→6) bonds occurring every 24 to 30 glucose units, resulting in a soluble molecule that can be quickly degraded as it has many end points onto which enzymes can attach.
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Dermatan sulfate is one example of a compound that is classified as a heparinoid. It is a naturally-occurring polysaccharide of O-sulfated N-acetyl-D-galatosamine, L-iduronic acid, and D-glucuronic acid that has been clinically used as an antithrombotic agent. Chondroitin sulfate shows slightly less biological activity than dermatan sulfate, and is composed of O-sulfated N-acetyl-D-galatosamine and D-glucuronic acid. It is theorized that this change in efficacy is related to the absence of L-induronic acid, which affects the flexibility of the polymer chain.
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In 1929 he relinquished this position of director and in 1931 became Professor of organic and inorganic Chemistry at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. There, one of his long-time collaborators was A.J.A. van der Wijk. Among his many students and collaborators was Edmond H. Fischer, who obtained in 1992 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine he shared with Edwin G. Krebs. Fischer’s doctoral research was involved with the isolation and purification of the Alpha-amylase, where he confirmed its nature as that of a protein, and not of a polysaccharide.
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Macrocystis pyrifera, the largest species of giant kelp Alginic acid, also called algin, is a polysaccharide distributed widely in the cell walls of brown algae that is hydrophilic and forms a viscous gum when hydrated. With metals such as sodium and calcium, its salts are known as alginates. It is a significant component of the biofilms produced by the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a major pathogen found in the lungs of some people who have cystic fibrosis. The biofilm and P. aeruginosa have a high resistance to antibiotics, and are susceptible to inhibition by macrophages.
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Pectin is an important cell wall polysaccharide that allows primary cell wall extension and plant growth. During fruit ripening, pectin is broken down by the enzymes pectinase and pectinesterase, in which process the fruit becomes softer as the middle lamellae break down and cells become separated from each other. A similar process of cell separation caused by the breakdown of pectin occurs in the abscission zone of the petioles of deciduous plants at leaf fall. Pectin is a natural part of the human diet, but does not contribute significantly to nutrition.
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Agarose is often used as a support for the tri-dimensional culture of human and animal cells. Because agarose forms a non-cytotoxic hydrogels, it can be utilized to reproduce the natural environment of cells in the human body, the extracellular matrix. However, agarose forms a stiff inert hydrogel that does not carry any biological information, thus the human and animal cells can not adhere to the polysaccharide. Because of these specifics properties, agarose hydrogel mimics the natural environment of cartilage cells and have been shown to be support the differentiation of chondrocytes into cartilage.
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In order to modify the mechanical properties of agarose to reproduce the natural environment of other human cells, agarose can be chemically modified through the precise oxidation of the primary alcohol of the D-galactose into carboxylic acid. This chemical modification provides a novel class of materials named carboxylated agarose. Through the control over the number of carboxylated D-galactose on the polysaccharide backbone, the mechanical properties of the resulting hydrogel can be precisely controlled. These carboxylated agarose hydrogels can be then covalently bond to peptides to form hydrogel on which cells can adhere.
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Each motor element appears to be localized to the periplasmic space and is bound to the peptidoglycan layer. The motors are hypothesized to move on helical cytoskeletal filaments. Gliding force generated by these motors is coupled to adhesion sites that move freely in the outer membrane, and which provide a specific contact with the substratum, possibly aided by extracellular polysaccharide slime. S-motility may represent a variation of twitching motility, since it is mediated by the extension and retraction of type IV pili that extend through the leading cell pole.
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Cations need to be present to form a strong gel in an aqueous solution. It is a process that depends on the nature of the polysaccharide, polymer concentration, temperature and the ions. K+, Rb+ and Cs+ ions produce strong κ-carrageenan and furcellaran gels, whereas Ca2+ ions aid the gelling of ι-carrageenan (extracted from the cell walls of C. truncatus). An initial coil-to-helix transition has been observed as the primary change in the gelling process, which is followed by the aggregation of these helices to form a gel.
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Frequently both mycelium and yeast-like cells are present. The genome of A. namibiae (as well as other closely related species) contains unusually high numbers of genes for extracellular enzymes for carbohydrate degradation (CAZy) and proteases, MFS membrane sugar transporters, and alkali metal cation transporters (or ion transporters). Genes presumably involved in the synthesis of the biotechnologically important polysaccharide pullulan and siderophores were found, but the gene for antibiotic Aureobasidin A could not be identified. Genes possibly associated with the degradation of plastic and aromatic compounds are also present.
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A representation of glucose molecules linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds, with a single α-1,6-glycosidic bond leading to a branch off of the chain. Glycogen is a molecular polymer of glucose (a polysaccharide) used to store energy, and is important for maintaining glucose homeostasis in the blood, as well as for providing energy for skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle contraction. Molecules of glucose are linked into linear chains by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Additionally, branches of glucose are formed off of the chain by α-1,6-glycosidic bonds.
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Type 1 PSSM is caused by an autosomal dominant genetic mutation known as GSY1. This mutation causes an up-regulation of glycogen synthase, and high levels of glycogen synthase relative to glycogen branching enzyme (GBE). This altered ratio of glycogen synthase to GBE results in glycogen molecules with long chains and few branches, making these molecules somewhat amylase resistant. The GSY1 mutation is associated with altered glucose metabolism (but normal glycogen metabolism), as well as accumulation of high levels of glycogen and abnormal polysaccharide in the muscles of the horse.
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Chemical configurations of the different monosaccharides (glucose and N-acetylglucosamine) and polysaccharides (chitin and cellulose) presented in Haworth projection The structure of chitin was determined by Albert Hofmann in 1929. Hofmann hydrolyzed chitin using a crude preparation of the enzyme chitinase, which he obtained from the snail Helix pomatia. Chitin is a modified polysaccharide that contains nitrogen; it is synthesized from units of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (to be precise, 2-(acetylamino)-2-deoxy-D-glucose). These units form covalent β-(1→4)-linkages (like the linkages between glucose units forming cellulose).
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Hyaluronan synthase 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HAS2 gene. Hyaluronan or hyaluronic acid is a high molecular weight unbranched polysaccharide synthesized by a wide variety of organisms from bacteria to mammals, and is a constituent of the extracellular matrix. It consists of alternating glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine residues that are linked by beta-1-3 and beta-1-4 glycosidic bonds. Hyaluronic acid is synthesized by membrane-bound synthase at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, and the chains are extruded via ABC-TransporterSchulz,T.
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The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine most commonly used today consists of purified polysaccharides from 23 serotypes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6b, 7F, 8, 9N, 9V, 10A, 11A, 12F, 14, 15B, 17F, 18C, 19A, 19F, 20, 22F, 23F, and 33F). Immunity is induced primarily through stimulation of B-cells which release IgM without the assistance of T cells. This immune response is less robust than the response provoked by conjugated vaccines, which has several consequences. The vaccine is ineffective in children less than 2 years old, presumably due to their less mature immune systems.
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A photomicrograph of Candida albicans showing hyphal outgrowth and other morphological characteristics Some species of yeast are opportunistic pathogens that can cause infection in people with compromised immune systems. Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are significant pathogens of immunocompromised people. They are the species primarily responsible for cryptococcosis, a fungal disease that occurs in about one million HIV/AIDS patients, causing over 600,000 deaths annually. The cells of these yeast are surrounded by a rigid polysaccharide capsule, which helps to prevent them from being recognised and engulfed by white blood cells in the human body.
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The thick bark of some species is used by indigenous peoples of the Amazon to make canoes. Seeds contain large amounts (40% of dry weight) of a highly viscous polysaccharide (xyloglucan) which can be used in several industrial sectors such as food, paper, cosmetic and pharmaceutical. The trees also make hard resins that are used to manufacture varnish, especially the resin from Hymenaea courbaril (jatobá) in Brazil. The resin that is produced in Brazil is known as South American copal, and Hymenaea verrucosa is the source of the valuable Zanzibar copal.
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Out of the 10,688 predicted genes from the A. brassicicola genome, 139 encode small secretion proteins that may be involved in pathogenesis, 76 encode lipases and 249 encode glycosyl hydrolases that are important for polysaccharide digestion, potentially damaging host cells. In contrast, mutations in genes such as AbHog1, AbNPS2, and AbSlt2 affect cell wall integrity and make the fungus more susceptible to host defenses. Currently, research is being done to identify the gene(s) responsible for encoding a transcription factor, Bdtf1, important for the detoxification of host metabolites.
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In most cases, the Gal residues terminate with α-L-arabinofuranose (Araf) residues. Some AGPs are rich in uronic acids (GlcA), resulting in a charged polysaccharide moiety, and others have short oligosaccharides of Araf. Specific sets of hydroxyproline O-β- galactosyltransferases, β-1,3-galactosyltransferases, β-1,6-galactosyltransferases, α-arabinosyltransferases, β-glucuronosyltransferases, α-rhamnosyltransferases, and α- fucosyltransferases are responsible for the synthesis of these complex structures. One of the features of type II AGs, particularly the (1,3)-linked β-D-Galp residues, is their ability to bind to the Yariv phenylglycosides.
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The molecule itself is a system of 32 fused rings. It resembles large fatty acid chains and it is notable because it is one of the largest and most complex non-protein, non-polysaccharide molecules produced by any organism. Maitotoxin includes 32 ether rings, 22 methyl groups, 28 hydroxyl groups, and 2 sulfuric acid esters and has an amphipathic structure. Its structure was established through analysis using nuclear magnetic resonance at Tohoku University, Harvard University and the University of Tokyo in combination with mass spectrometry, and synthetic chemical methods.
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Glucagon generally elevates the concentration of glucose in the blood by promoting gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Glucagon also decreases fatty acid synthesis in adipose tissue and the liver, as well as promoting lipolysis in these tissues, which causes them to release fatty acids into circulation where they can be catabolised to generate energy in tissues such as skeletal muscle when required. Glucose is stored in the liver in the form of the polysaccharide glycogen, which is a glucan (a polymer made up of glucose molecules). Liver cells (hepatocytes) have glucagon receptors.
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Chemical structure of α-1,4-glucan, the main polysaccharide in AHCC. Active Hexose Correlated Compound is a chemical isolated from the Shiitake mushroom. AHCC is the brand name of an alpha-glucan rich nutritional supplement produced from the mycelia of shiitake (Lentinula edodes) of the basidiomycete family of mushrooms. The product/supplement/compound-mix is a subject of research as a potential anti-cancer agent but has not been conclusively found to treat cancer or any other disease, and there are conflict of interest concerns about the published research.
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The aldehyde functional group allows the sugar to act as a reducing agent, for example, in the Tollens' test or Benedict's test. The cyclic hemiacetal forms of aldoses can open to reveal an aldehyde, and certain ketoses can undergo tautomerization to become aldoses. However, acetals, including those found in polysaccharide linkages, cannot easily become free aldehydes. Reducing sugars react with amino acids in the Maillard reaction, a series of reactions that occurs while cooking food at high temperatures and that is important in determining the flavor of food.
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Frequently both mycelium and yeast-like cells are present. The genome of A. subglaciale (as well as other closely related species) contains unusually high numbers of genes for extracellular enzymes for carbohydrate degradation (CAZy) and proteases, MFS membrane sugar transporters, and alkali metal cation transporters (or ion transporters). Genes presumably involved in the synthesis of the biotechnologically important polysaccharide pullulan and siderophores were found, but the gene for antibiotic Aureobasidin A could not be identified. Genes possibly associated with the degradation of plastic and aromatic compounds are also present.
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Lipomannan is a phosphorylated polysaccharide associated with the cell envelop and is considered to be the multimannosylated form of PIM which is primarily located in the plasma membrane. Structurally, LM is composed of two segments: a PI anchor to which is attached an α-D-mannan domain; both play key roles in inducing cytokine production by phagocytic cells. Mannose core consists of a linear α(1-6)-linked mannan backbone extending from the c-6 of the myo-inositol; the mannan chains is further substituted by α-(1-2) man-p side branches.
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The Compresstome uses a specimen syringe or "lipstick-like" tube to hold the tissue. The tissue specimen is completely embedded in agarose (a polysaccharide), and the tissue is slowly and gently pressed out of the tube for the vibrating blade to cut. The device operates in the following way: the end of the specimen tube where the tissue emerges is slightly narrower than the loading end, which allows gentle "compression" of the tissue as it comes out of the tube. The slight compression prevents shearing, uneven cutting, and vibration artifacts from forming.
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As of late 2019, 15 structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes , , , 1VAV, 1UAI, 4OZX, 37PY, 4BE3, 3GNE, 5GMT, 1QAZ, 4OZV, 380O, 4NEI, and 5GKD. Alginate lyases can be categorized into different polysaccharide lyase families based on their amino acid sequences. There are 24 families, ranging from Pl-1 to PL-24, but alginate lyases are generally only found in seven: PL-5, PL-6, PL-7, PL-14, PL-17, and PL-18. The structure and amino acid sequence can help elucidate the activity of the enzyme, indicating whether it is endolytic or exolytic.
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Heparan sulfate binds with a large number of extracellular proteins. These are often collectively called the “heparin interactome” or "heparin-binding proteins", because they are isolated by affinity chromatography on the related polysaccharide heparin, though the term “heparan sulfate interactome” is more correct. The functions of heparan sulfate binding proteins ranges from extracellular matrix components, to enzymes and coagulation factors, and most growth factors, cytokines, chemokines and morphogens The laboratory of Dr. Mitchell Ho at the NCI isolated the HS20 human monoclonal antibody with high affinity for heparan sulfate by phage display. The antibody binds heparan sulfate, not chondroitin sulfate.
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Probiotic bacteria found in kefir products include: Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens, Lactococcus lactis, and Leuconostoc species. Lactobacilli in kefir may exist in concentrations varying from approximately 1 million to 1 billion colony-forming units per milliliter, and are the bacteria responsible for the synthesis of the polysaccharide kefiran. In addition to bacteria, kefir often contains strains of yeast that can metabolize lactose, such as Kluyveromyces marxianus, Kluyveromyces lactis, and Saccharomyces fragilis, as well as strains of yeast that do not metabolize lactose, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Torulaspora delbrueckii, and Kazachstania unispora.
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However, the kefir grains may cease growing if the medium used does not contain all the growth factors required by the bacteria. Milk sugar is not essential for the synthesis of the polysaccharide that makes up the grains (kefiran), and rice hydrolysate is a suitable alternative medium. Additionally, kefir grains will reproduce when fermenting soy milk, although they will change in appearance and size due to the differing proteins available to them. A variation of kefir grains that thrive in sugary water also exists, see water kefir (or tibicos), and can vary markedly from milk kefir in both appearance and microbial composition.
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Another alternative, polysaccharide SIs meet the requirements for environmentally friendly materials; they contain no Phosphorus or Nitrogen and are noted for their non-toxic, renewable, and biodegradable properties. Carboxymethyl inulin (CMI), which is isolated from the roots of Inula helenium has been used in oil exploration and its very low toxicity and crystal growth inhibition power has been reported for treating calcite scales. Examples of poorly biodegradable SIs such as the amino-phosphonate and acrylate-based SIs are being phased-out by stringent environmental regulations as demonstrated in the North sea by Norway zero discharge policy.
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The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) core region of P. penneri strains contains higher structural variability than that observed in other representatives of Enterobacterales. These differences have been used to cluster P. penneri strains into serogroups based on their agglutinating activity when mixed with antibodies directed against specific species of LPS molecules. Presently, 15 O-serogroups have been proposed for P. penneri based on the chemical structure of the O-specific polysaccharide chain (O-antigen) of the lipopolysaccharide.Sidorczyk Z., Zych K., Kołodziejska K., Drzewiecka D. and Zabłotni A. (2002) Progress in serological classification of further strains from genus Proteus and determination of epitopes and new serogroups.
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The study of IgM began with the report in 1937 that horses hyperimmunized with pneumococcus polysaccharide produced antibody that was much larger than the typical rabbit γ-globulin, with a molecular weight of 990,000 daltons. In accordance with its large size, the new antibody was originally referred to as γ-macroglobulin, and then in subsequent terminology as IgM—M for “macro”. The V domains of normal immunoglobulin are highly heterogeneous, reflecting their role in protecting against the great variety of infectious microbes, and this heterogeneity impeded detailed structural analysis of IgM. Two sources of homogeneous IgM were subsequently discovered.
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Griffith used two strains of pneumococcus (Streptococcus pneumoniae) bacteria which infect mice – a type III-S (smooth) which was virulent, and a type II-R (rough) strain which was nonvirulent. The III-S strain synthesized a polysaccharide capsule that protected itself from the host's immune system, resulting in the death of the host, while the II-R strain did not have that protective capsule and was defeated by the host's immune system. A German bacteriologist, Fred Neufeld, had discovered the three pneumococcal types (Types I, II, and III) and discovered the quellung reaction to identify them in vitro.Lehrer, Steven.
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Some dinophytes, like Kryptoperidinium and Durinskia have a diatom (heterokontophyte) derived chloroplast. These chloroplasts are bounded by up to five membranes, (depending on whether the entire diatom endosymbiont is counted as the chloroplast, or just the red algal derived chloroplast inside it). The diatom endosymbiont has been reduced relatively little—it still retains its original mitochondria, and has endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, a nucleus, and of course, red algal derived chloroplasts—practically a complete cell, all inside the host's endoplasmic reticulum lumen. However the diatom endosymbiont can't store its own food—its storage polysaccharide is found in granules in the dinophyte host's cytoplasm instead.
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It is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal flour, such as bread, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey are often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary fiber.
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The "fat-soluble" vitamins (A, D, E and K) – which are isoprene-based lipids – are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues, with a diverse range of functions. Acyl-carnitines are involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids in and out of mitochondria, where they undergo beta oxidation. Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives also play important transport roles, in this case the transport of oligosaccharides across membranes. Polyprenol phosphate sugars and polyprenol diphosphate sugars function in extra-cytoplasmic glycosylation reactions, in extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis (for instance, peptidoglycan polymerization in bacteria), and in eukaryotic protein N-glycosylation.
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He noted that "graisse" was due to the production of polysaccharide, degradation of sugars led to mannitic acid and that the degradation of glycerol led to bitterness in the wine. Pasteur found that the particular problem of Burgundy wine spoiling and turning into vinegar on long voyages to England was caused by the bacterium acetobacter. The results of Pasteur's studies revolutionized the French understanding of winemaking and eventually spread to other wine regions across the globe. The development of railway networks throughout France opened up new opportunities for wine regions that were historically disadvantaged due to the lack of river-based trading routes.
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D. cuprea inhabits a parchment- like tube made of a mucous polysaccharide material, the tip of which projects from the sediment in which the rest of the tube is buried. The tube acts as a chimney; the lower part may be a metre long and is smooth with grains of sediment adhering to it. The upper part resembles an inverted "J", with the outer surface being reinforced with shell fragments and tiny pebbles which are cemented in the style of an overlapping mosaic. This part is extended by the worm if siltation threatens to bury it, and the tube occasionally has two entrances.
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Ty21a is a live attenuated bacterial vaccine that protects against typhoid. First licensed in Europe in 1983 and in the United States in 1989, it is an orally administered, live-attenuated Ty2 strain of S. Typhi in which multiple genes, including the genes responsible for the production of Vi, have been mutated chemically so as to render it harmless but nevertheless immunogenic. It is one of the three typhoid vaccines currently recommended by the World Health Organization (the other two being the Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine (TCV) and Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine). The vaccine is given by mouth.
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The increased risk of infection is due to inability to clear opsonised bacteria from circulating blood. There is also a deficiency of T-cell independent antibodies, such as those reactive to the polysaccharide capsule of Streptococcus pneumoniae.Kasper, D. et al (2015) Harrison's principles of internal medicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education The risk to asplenic patients has been expressed as equivalent to an adult dying in a road traffic accident (in every 100 people without spleens, 1 to 5 would develop a severe infection per decade) (reference UK Splenectomy Trust Advice)—hence sensible precautions are advisable.
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The species is subclassified into ten serotypes (Ia, Ib, II–IX) depending on the immunologic reactivity of their polysaccharide capsule. This is why the plural term group B streptococci (referring to the serotypes) and the singular term group B streptococcus (referring to the single species) are both commonly encountered. In general, GBS is a harmless commensal bacterium being part of the human microbiota colonizing the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tract of up to 30% of healthy human adults (asymptomatic carriers). Nevertheless, GBS can cause severe invasive infections especially in newborns, the elderly, and people with compromised immune systems.
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Though IAP for EOD prevention is associated with a large decline in the incidence of the disease, there is, however, no effective strategy for preventing late-onset neonatal GBS disease. Vaccination is considered an ideal solution to prevent not only EOD and LOD but also GBS infections in adults at risk. Nevertheless, though research and clinical trials for the development of an effective vaccine to prevent GBS infections are underway, no vaccine was available in 2019. The capsular polysaccharide of GBS is not only an important GBS virulence factor but it is also an excellent candidate for the development of an effective vaccine.
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Individual cells may regulate buoyancy via an ionic pump. Some pennate diatoms are capable of a type of locomotion called "gliding", which allows them to move across surfaces via adhesive mucilage secreted through the raphe (an elongated slit in the valve face). In order for a diatom cell to glide, it must have a solid substrate for the mucilage to adhere to. Cells are solitary or united into colonies of various kinds, which may be linked by siliceous structures; mucilage pads, stalks or tubes; amorphous masses of mucilage; or by threads of chitin (polysaccharide), which are secreted through strutted processes of the cell.
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China has passed the World Health Organization's (WHO) regulatory vaccine assessments, demonstrating that they adhere to international standards. The Chinese government's Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) was created in 1978 and provides certain obligatory vaccines, named Category 1 vaccines, for free to all children up to 14 years of age. Initially, the vaccines consisted of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, oral polio vaccine (OPV), measles vaccine (MV) and diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (DPT vaccine). By 2007, the vaccine list was expanded to include hepatitis A, hepatitis B, Japanese encephalitis, A + C meningococcal polysaccharide, mumps, Rubella, hemorrhagic fever, anthrax, and leptospirosis.
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Lime and ash are highly alkaline: the alkalinity helps the dissolution of hemicellulose, the major glue-like component of the maize cell walls, and loosens the hulls from the kernels and softens the corn. Some of the corn oil is broken down into emulsifying agents (monoglycerides and diglycerides), while bonding of the corn proteins to each other is also facilitated. The divalent calcium in lime acts as a cross-linking agent for protein and polysaccharide acidic side chains. The chemical changes in masa allow dough formation, and also allow the nutrient niacin to be absorbed by the digestive tract.
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The LCP family or TagU family of proteins is a conserved family of phosphotransferases that are involved in the attachment of teichoic acid (TA) molecules to gram-positive cell wall or cell membrane. It was initially thought as the LytR (lytic repressor) component of a LytABC operon encoding autolysins, but the mechanism of regulation was later realized to be the production of TA molecules. It was accordingly renamed TagU. The "LCP" acronym derives from three proteins initially identified to contain this domain, LytR (now TagU, ), cpsA ("Capsular polysaccharide expression regulator"), and psr ("PBP 5 synthesis repressor").
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Food Chem., 2006, 54 (12), pages 4270–4276, and wine polysaccharides.Effect of Flash Release and Pectinolytic Enzyme Treatments on Wine Polysaccharide Composition. Thierry Doco, Pascale Williams and Véronique Cheynier, J. Agric. Food Chem., 2007, 55 (16), pages 6643–6649, The treatment consists of heating the grapes at 95 °C (203 °F) for several minutes with vapour and then submitting them to a strong vacuum. The technique can be applied to other type of juice extraction.Application of flash-release, a new extraction procedure (juice, pulp, essential oil); Brat P, 2001, Fruitrop (85), pages 11-13, Journée professionnelle Technofruits 2001, 2001-09-05, Montpellier, France.
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Penicillium digitatum is used as a biological tool during the commercial production of latex agglutination kits. Latex agglutination detects Aspergillus and Penicillium species in foods by attaching antibodies specific for the extracellular polysaccharide of P. digitatum to 0.8 μm latex beads. This method has been successful in detecting contamination of grains and processed foods at a limit of detection of 5–10 ng/mL of antigen. In comparison to other detection assays, the latex agglutionation assay exceeds the detection limit of the Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and is as effective in detecting Aspergillus and Pencillium species as the ergosterol production assay.
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Porphyran, the major water soluble polysaccharide of Porphyra has a linear structure composed of 4-linked α-l-galactopyranose-6-sulfate (L6S) residues and 3-linked β-d- galactopyranose (G) residues. Beta porphyranase (EC 3.2.1 178; 3= Hydrolase; 3.2= Glycosylase; 3.2.1 = Glycosidases (enzymes hydrolyzing O- and S- glycosyl compounds)) acts as a glycosidase to catalyze the following chemical reaction: : Hydrolysis of beta-D-galactopyranose-(1->4)-alpha-L- galactopyranose-6-sulfate linkages in porphyran The backbone of porphyran consists largely (~70%) of (1->3)-linked beta-D-galactopyranose followed by (1->4)-linked alpha-L-galactopyranose-6-sulfate.
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McLean entered Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in 1915 where he met and began work with physiologist William Henry Howell. In 1916, when McLean was a second-year medical student, he was investigating pro-coagulant compounds when he first isolated a fat-soluble phosphatide anti-coagulant. This anti-coagulant was first isolated from the liver tissue of canines, which is how Heparin got its name(hepar or "ήπαρ" is Greek for "liver"; hepar + -in), first coined in 1918. Following the departure of McLean, Howell continued his work and with the assistance of T. Emmett Holt he isolated a water-soluble polysaccharide anticoagulant.
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Tibicos cultures are found around the world, with no two being exactly the same; but typical tibicos have a mix of Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Pediococcus and Leuconostoc bacteria, with yeasts from Saccharomyces, Candida, Kloeckera and possibly others. Lactobacillus brevis bacteria has been identified as the species responsible for the production of the dextran polysaccharide that forms the "grains." As with milk kefir "grains", the microbes present in tibicos act in symbiosis to maintain a stable culture. Tibicos can do this in many different sugary liquids, feeding off the sugar to produce lactic acid, alcohol (ethanol), and carbon dioxide gas, which carbonates the drink.
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Blood types Red blood cells contain antigens in their plasma membranes that distinguish them as part of a specific category of blood cell. These antigens can be polysaccharides, glycoproteins, or GPI (a glycolipid) -linked proteins. Antigens range in complexity, from small molecules bound to the extracellular side of the phospholipid bilayer, to large membrane proteins that loop many times between both sides of the membrane. The smaller polysaccharide antigens classify blood cells into types A, B, AB, and O, while the larger protein antigens classify blood cells into types Rh D-positive and Rh D-negative.
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The duration of immunity mediated by Menomune (MPSV-4) is three years or less in children aged under five because it does not generate memory T cells. Attempting to overcome this problem by repeated immunization results in a diminished, not increased, antibody response, so boosters are not recommended with this vaccine. As with all polysaccharide vaccines, Menomune does not produce mucosal immunity, so people can still become colonised with virulent strains of meningococcus, and no herd immunity can develop. For this reason, Menomune is suitable for travelers requiring short-term protection, but not for national public health prevention programs.
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The extracellular matrix of plant cells, fungi, and some protist is referred to as the cell wall. The plant cell wall is composed of a tough cellulose polysaccharide rather than the collagen fibers of the animal ECM. Even with these differences, research indicates that similar proteins involved in the interaction between the ECM and animals cells are also involved in the interaction of the cell wall and plant cells. Integrin-like receptors and integrin-linked kinases together have been implicated in surface adhesion, immune response, and ion accumulation in plant cells in a manner akin to the family of integrin proteins.
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Wilting occurs at high bacterial populations in the xylem and is partially due to vascular dysfunction in which sufficient water cannot reach the leaves. At this time, extracellular polysaccharide (EPS1) content is about 10 μg/g tissue in the taproot, hypocotyl, and midstem; EPS1 concentration is higher later on at more than 100 μg/g tissue in fully wilted plant. Ralstonia's systemic toxin also causes loss of stomatal control, but no evidence shows excessive transpiration as its consequence. The primary factor contributing to wilting is probably blocking of pit membranes in the petioles and leaves by the high molecular weight EPS1.
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Instead, the agent was killed by light at 237 nm, a wavelength specific to polysaccharide inactivation. Alper and colleagues reported these properties of the scrapie agent – a finding that was greeted with astonishment in many quarters, for it appeared to contravene the central dogma that holds that replication (and hence the growth of the disease and its infectious properties) can only proceed via DNA. However, once these empirical findings were accepted, several theories developed to accommodate the peculiar properties of the scrapie agent. The most widely accepted theory today is the prion theory, which posits a 'rogue' protein as the infectious source.
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Agar has been used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia, and also as a solid substrate to contain culture media for microbiological work. Agar can be used as a laxative, an appetite suppressant, a vegetarian substitute for gelatin, a thickener for soups, in fruit preserves, ice cream, and other desserts, as a clarifying agent in brewing, and for sizing paper and fabrics. The gelling agent in agar is an unbranched polysaccharide obtained from the cell walls of some species of red algae, primarily from tengusa (Gelidiaceae) and ogonori (Gracilaria). For commercial purposes, it is derived primarily from ogonori.
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Some bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Clostridium perfringens, produce hyaluronidase as a means of using hyaluronan as a carbon source. It is often speculated that Streptococcus and Staphylococcus pathogens use hyaluronidase as a virulence factor to destroy the polysaccharide that holds animal cells together, making it easier for the pathogen to spread through the tissues of the host organism, but no valid experimental data are available to support this hypothesis. Hyaluronidases are found in the venom of certain lizards and snakes, as well as honeybees, where they are referred to as "spreading factors", having a function akin to bacterial hyaluronidases.
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Another chemical extracted from the species was an acidic polysaccharide (made up of mostly mannose, glucose, glucuronic acid and xylose) which showed anticoagulant properties. The article concluded that "the polysaccharides from these mushrooms may constitute a new source of compounds with action on coagulation, platelet aggregation and, perhaps, on thrombosis". Another study reported that the species may be effective in stopping platelet binding in vitro, with possible uses regarding hypercholesterolemia. Research has shown that A. auricula-judae can be used to lower cholesterol levels generally, and, in particular, is one of two fungi shown to reduce the level of bad cholesterol.
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The fourth class of GAG, hyaluronic acid, is not sulfated and is synthesized by three transmembrane synthase proteins HAS1, HAS2, and HAS3. HA, a linear polysaccharide, is composed of repeating disaccharide units of →4)GlcAβ(1→3)GlcNAcβ(1→ and has a very high molecular mass, ranging from 105 to 107 Da. Each HAS enzyme is capable of transglycosylation when supplied with UDP-GlcA and UDP-GlcNAc. HAS2 is responsible for very large hyaluronic acid polymers, while smaller sizes of HA are synthesized by HAS1 and HAS3. While each HAS isoform catalyzes the same biosynthetic reaction, each HAS isoform is independently active.
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Due to the polysaccharides in the cell walls, F. lumbricalis is grouped with other commercially important carrageenophytes (red algae that produce carrageenans). From F. lumbricalis a polysaccharide called furcellaran (hybrid β/κ-carrageenan) can be extracted. Furcellaran is non- stoichometrically undersulphated κ-carrageenan, where every 3rd or 4th 3-linked-β-galactose monomer possesses a sulphate ester group at the 4th carbon position. For comparison, an ideal κ-carrageenan molecule would have a sulphate ester group at the 4th carbon in every 3-linked-β-galactose monomer. Furcellaran’s physical properties (gel strengths, gelling and melting temperatures) are similar to κ-carrageenan.
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She proceeded to identify an 18-gene locus that encoded functions for extrapolysaccharide production, which she named the Symbiosis Polysaccharide, Syp. The Visick Lab proceeded to determine that RscS is a key regulator of the syp EPS genes, and this system regulates bacterial biofilm formation and aggregation in host tissue during the initiation of the symbiosis. The lab has proceeded to characterize the regulation and function of the biofilm. Visick was the co-organizer (Jean-Marc Ghigo was lead organizer) of the Biofilms 2018 conference in Washington, DC, which had over 500 attendees, and is the lead organizer of the Biofilms 2021 conference.
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They also may be ground into a flour form used for making water chestnut cake, which is common as part of dim sum cuisine. They are unusual among vegetables for remaining crisp even after being cooked or canned, because their cell walls are cross-linked and strengthened by certain phenolic compounds, such as oligomers of ferulic acid.Phenolics and phenolic- polysaccharide linkages in Chinese water chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis) cell walls. Grassby Terri, Doctoral thesis, 2008, University of East Anglia (link) This property is shared by other vegetables that remain crisp in this manner, including the tiger nut, lotus root and spurge nettle root.
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The terms glycan and polysaccharide are defined by IUPAC as synonyms meaning "compounds consisting of a large number of monosaccharides linked glycosidically". However, in practice the term glycan may also be used to refer to the carbohydrate portion of a glycoconjugate, such as a glycoprotein, glycolipid, or a proteoglycan, even if the carbohydrate is only an oligosaccharide. Glycans usually consist solely of O-glycosidic linkages of monosaccharides. For example, cellulose is a glycan (or, to be more specific, a glucan) composed of β-1,4-linked D-glucose, and chitin is a glycan composed of β-1,4-linked N-acetyl-D-glucosamine.
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Notoparmelia differs morphologically from Parmelia species by having thinner ascospore walls and a proper exciple (a layer of hyphae directly surrounding and derived from the ascocarp itself, not including any thalline material) that is reduced to one layer without zonation and comprising exclusively loosely branched large hyphae embedded in an abundant polysaccharide matrix. The proper exciple is surrounded by a continuous layer of algae. The genus name combines the Greek nǒto- ("southern", "south" – referring to its Southern Hemisphere distribution) with Parmelia. The name Aspidelia is an earlier legitimate generic name for the genus that was overlooked when Notoparmelia was published.
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Although chitin exoskeletons of arthropods are subject to decomposition, they often maintain shape during permineralization, especially if they are already somewhat mineralized. Both DNA and proteins are unstable, and rarely survive more than hundreds of thousands of years before degrading. Polysaccharides also have low preservation potential, unless they are highly cross-linked; this interconnection is most common in structural tissues, and renders them resistant to chemical decay. Such tissues include wood (lignin), spores and pollen (sporopollenin), the cuticles of plants (cutan) and animals, the cell walls of algae (algaenan), and potentially the polysaccharide layer of some lichens.
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Although the ocular pigments of many invertebrate groups have been poorly investigated, there is strong evidence that the dual melanosome morphology and presence of an RPE is a uniquely vertebrate trait. In 2020, McCoy and colleagues used Raman spectroscopy to identify the molecular bonds present in the organic material preserved with Tullimonstrum. Based on samples from multiple points in the body, they identified the organic material as representing proteins and their decay products (as is seen in vertebrates) as opposed to the polysaccharide-based chitin (as is seen in arthropods), supporting the interpretation that Tullimonstrum is a vertebrate.
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The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine consists of capsular polysaccharides covalently bound to the diphtheria toxoid CRM197, which is highly immunogenic but non- toxic. This combination provokes a significantly more robust immune response by recruiting CRM197-specific type 2 helper T cells, which allow for immunoglobulin type switching (to produce non-IgM immunoglobulin) and production of memory B cells. Among other things, this results in mucosal immunity and the eventual establishment of lifelong immunity after several exposures. The main drawbacks to conjugated vaccines are that they only provide protection against a subset of the serotypes covered by the polysaccharide vaccines.
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In enzymology, a glucomannan 4-beta-mannosyltransferase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction : GDP-mannose + (glucomannan)n \rightleftharpoons GDP + (glucomannan)n+1 Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are GDP-mannose and (glucomannan)n, whereas its two products are GDP and (glucomannan)n+1, a noncellulosic polysaccharide which is used in the formation of cell walls. This enzyme belongs to the family of glycosyltransferases, specifically the hexosyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is GDPmannose:glucomannan 1,4-beta-D- mannosyltransferase. Other names in common use include GDP-man-beta-mannan manosyltransferase, and glucomannan-synthase.
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Thus, each Gram-negative bacterial PST system specific for an exo- or capsular polysaccharide functions in conjunction with a cytoplasmic membrane-periplasmic auxiliary (MPA) protein with a cytoplasmic ATP-binding domain (MPA1-C; TC# 3.C.3) as well as an outer membrane auxiliary protein (OMA; TC #3.C.5). Each Gram-positive bacterial PST system functions in conjunction with a homologous MPA1 + C pair of proteins equivalent to an MPA1-C proteins of Gram-negative bacteria. The C-domain has been shown to possess tyrosine protein kinase activity, so it may function in a regulatory capacity.
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In multiple studies a higher abundance of Firmicutes has been found in obese individuals than in lean controls. A higher level of Lactobacillus (of the Firmicutes phylum) has been found in obese patients and in one study, obese patients put on weight loss diets showed a reduced amount of Firmicutes within their guts. Diet changes in mice have also been shown to promote changes in Firmicutes abundance. A higher relative abundance of Firmicutes was seen in mice fed a western diet (high fat/high sugar) than in mice fed a standard low fat/ high polysaccharide diet.
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Microorganisms are for example used for the biosynthesis of xanthan, alginate, cellulose, cyanophycin, poly(gamma-glutamic acid), levan, hyaluronic acid, organic acids, oligosaccharides polysaccharide and polyhydroxyalkanoates. Microorganisms are beneficial for microbial biodegradation or bioremediation of domestic, agricultural and industrial wastes and subsurface pollution in soils, sediments and marine environments. The ability of each microorganism to degrade toxic waste depends on the nature of each contaminant. Since sites typically have multiple pollutant types, the most effective approach to microbial biodegradation is to use a mixture of bacterial and fungal species and strains, each specific to the biodegradation of one or more types of contaminants.
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Structure formula of a heparan sulfate subunit Heparan sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in all animal tissues. It occurs as a proteoglycan (HSPG) in which two or three HS chains are attached in close proximity to cell surface or extracellular matrix proteins. It is in this form that HS binds to a variety of protein ligands, including Wnt, and regulates a wide range of biological activities, including developmental processes, angiogenesis, blood coagulation, abolishing detachment activity by GrB (Granzyme B), and tumour metastasis. HS has also been shown to serve as cellular receptor for a number of viruses, including the respiratory syncytial virus.
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Lime and ash are highly alkaline: the alkalinity helps the dissolution of hemicellulose, the major glue-like component of the maize cell walls, and loosens the hulls from the kernels and softens the maize. Some of the corn oil is broken down into emulsifying agents (monoglycerides and diglycerides), while bonding of the maize proteins to each other is also facilitated. The divalent calcium in lime acts as a cross-linking agent for protein and polysaccharide acidic side chains. As a result, while cornmeal made from untreated ground maize is unable by itself to form a dough on addition of water, the chemical changes in masa allow dough formation.
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HhMAN1 is a gene in the genome of Hypothenemus hampei, a.k.a. Coffee borer beetle, which codes for mannanase, an enzyme used to digest galactomannan, a complex polysaccharide that is found in coffee beans. Because mannanase is not commonly found in similar beetles, and the characteristic of the gene is bacterial, the gene is thought to have originated from bacteria in the beetle's gut, and transposed to the beetle's genome through horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Although horizontal gene transfer from bacteria to eukaryotes have been known to occur, albeit rarely, the HhMAN1 is the first to have a known and beneficial function to the recipient.
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Geddes began his career in the Department of Biochemistry of the University of Auckland as a senior lecturer in 1970, after obtaining BSc(Hons) and PhD degrees in chemistry ifrom the University of Edinburgh, and postdoctoral fellowships in physical biochemistry at the Australian National University (1967–69), and at Georgetown University, Washington, DC, (1965–66). In Auckland he investigated the structure and metabolism of glycogen, an energy storage polysaccharide, by physical biochemistry methods. His work provided evidence for the existence of a protein core, now known as glycogenin, within glycogen.Albert L. Lehninger, David Lee Nelson, Michael M. Cox: Principles of Biochemistry, 2nd ed 1993, Worth.
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Chondrus crispus—commonly called Irish moss or carrageen moss (Irish carraigín, "little rock")—is a species of red algae which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. In its fresh condition this protist is soft and cartilaginous, varying in color from a greenish-yellow, through red, to a dark purple or purplish-brown. The principal constituent is a mucilaginous body, made of the polysaccharide carrageenan, which constitutes 55% of its dry weight. The organism also consists of nearly 10% dry weight protein and about 15% dry weight mineral matter, and is rich in iodine and sulfur.
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The resulting product, GDP-4-keto-6-deoxymannose, then reacts with the PLP-dependent enzyme GDP-4-keto-6-deoxymannose-3-dehydratase (ColD), which removes the hydroxyl at C-3 in a manner similar to that of serine dehydratase. In the final step, the product of ColD, GDP-4-keto-3,6-dideoxymannose, reacts with ColC, which reduces the ketone functionality at C-4 back to an alcohol and inverts the configuration about C-5. The resulting product, GDP-L-colitose, is then incorporated into the O-antigen by glycosyltransferases and O-antigen processing proteins. Further reactions join the O-antigen to the core polysaccharide to form the full lipopolysaccharide.
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Mechanical properties of cellulose in primary plant cell wall are correlated with growth and expansion of plant cells. Live fluorescence microscopy techniques are promising in investigation of the role of cellulose in growing plant cells. A triple strand of cellulose showing the hydrogen bonds (cyan lines) between glucose strands Cotton fibres represent the purest natural form of cellulose, containing more than 90% of this polysaccharide. Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60–70 °C in water (as in cooking), cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in water.
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The B. thetaiotaomicron are bacteria that have been shown to bind polysaccharides thanks to a receptor system located on the outer membrane before introducing the polysaccharides into the periplasm for their degradation to monosaccharides. These bacteria use α-mannose as a carbon source. Transcriptional studies have identified three different PULs (Polysaccharide Utilization Loci) which are activated by α-Mannan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Schizosaccharomyces pombe and the yeast pathogen Candida albicans. To demonstrate the specificity of these PULs, the researchers have engineered different B. thetaiotaomicron strains which showed that mutants lacking MAN-PUL1, MAN-PUL3 or PUL2 are unable to grow in vitro with yeast Mannan as the sole carbon source.
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The phoronids feed with a lophophore, burrow or encrust on surfaces, and build three-layered tubes made of polysaccharide, possibly chitin, mixed with particles with seabed material. Traditionally they have been regarded as a separate phylum, but increasingly detailed molecular phylogeny studies between 1997 and 2000 have concluded that phoronids are a sub-group of brachiopods. However, an analysis in 2005 concluded that phoronids are a sub-group of bryozoans. While all molecular phylogeny studies and half the combined studies until 2008 conclude that brachiopods are lophotrochozoans, they could not identify which lophotrochozoan phylum were the closest relatives of brachiopods—except phoronids, which are a sub-group of brachiopods.
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Two additional groups, the Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta (glaucophyte algae), also have primary chloroplasts that appear to be derived directly from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, although they differ from Viridiplantae in the pigments which are used in photosynthesis and so are different in colour. These groups also differ from green plants in that the storage polysaccharide is floridean starch and is stored in the cytoplasm rather than in the plastids. They appear to have had a common origin with Viridiplantae and the three groups form the clade Archaeplastida, whose name implies that their chloroplasts were derived from a single ancient endosymbiotic event. This is the broadest modern definition of the term 'plant'.
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Rather, they act as specific surface recognition molecules, allowing the targeting of a particular bacterium to a particular surface such as root tissue in plants, lacrimal duct tissues in mammals, or even tooth enamel. FimH is a bacterial adhesin that helps bacteria such as Escherichia coli to bind to host cells and their receptors (here: the human proteins CD48 and TLR4, or mannose residues). Most fimbria of gram- negative bacteria function as adhesins, but in many cases it is a minor subunit protein at the tip of the fimbriae that is the actual adhesin. In gram-positive bacteria, a protein or polysaccharide surface layer serves as the specific adhesin.
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The DOMI Typhoid program was initiated to address the barriers of access to typhoid vaccines in the developing world and to accelerate the introduction of modern typhoid vaccines in countries where they were needed. DOMI Typhoid utilized the Vi-Polysaccharide (Vi-PS) vaccine because it is easily and inexpensively produced by manufacturers in developing countries, it is given in a single dose, and it is relatively thermostable. DOMI Typhoid operated in five study sites: Heichi, China; Kolkata, India; North Jakarta, Indonesia; Karachi, Pakistan; and Hue, Vietnam. From these sites, IVI experts conducted disease surveillance, disease burden studies, cost-of-illness studies, socio- behavioral studies, and vaccine demonstration projects.
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First, for PBP2a to properly fit onto the cell wall, to continue transpeptidation, it needs the proper amino acid residues, specifically a pentaglycine residue and an amidated glutamate residue. Second, PBP2a has an effective transpeptidase activity but lacks the transglycosylation domain of PBP2, which builds the backbone of the cell wall with polysaccharide monomers, so PBP2a must rely on PBP2 to continue this process. The latter forms a therapeutic target to improve the ability of beta-lactams to prevent cell wall synthesis in resistant S. aureus. Identifying inhibitors of glycosylases involved in the cell wall synthesis and modulating their expression can resensitize these previously resistant bacteria to beta-lactam treatment.
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Gellan tetrasaccharide unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase (, UGL, unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase) is an enzyme with systematic name beta-D-4-deoxy- Delta4-GlcAp-(1->4)-beta-D-Glcp-(1->4)-alpha-L-Rhap-(1->3)-beta-D-Glcp beta-D-4-deoxy-Delta4-GlcAp hydrolase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : beta-D-4-deoxy-Delta4-GlcAp-(1->4)-beta-D- Glcp-(1->4)-alpha-L-Rhap-(1->3)-beta-D-Glcp + H2O \rightleftharpoons 5-dehydro-4-deoxy-D-glucuronate + beta-D-Glcp-(1->4)-alpha-L-Rhap-(1->3)-beta- D-Glcp The enzyme releases 4-deoxy-4(5)-unsaturated D-glucuronic acid from oligosaccharides produced by polysaccharide lyases.
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All individuals with A–T should have at least one comprehensive immunologic evaluation that measures the number and type of lymphocytes in the blood (T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes), the levels of serum immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, and IgM) and antibody responses to T-dependent (e.g., tetanus, Hemophilus influenzae b) and T-independent (23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide) vaccines. For the most part, the pattern of immunodeficiency seen in an A–T patient early in life (by age five) will be the same pattern seen throughout the lifetime of that individual. Therefore, the tests need not be repeated unless that individual develops more problems with infection.
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Other than fat, glucose is stored in most tissues, as an energy resource available within the tissue through glycogenesis which was usually being used to maintained glucose level in blood. Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-Glc) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures. The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases.
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Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized, it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber. ;Insoluble dietary fiber :Consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so.
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In February 2010, a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine which protects against an additional six serotypes was introduced (PCV 13/brand name: Prevnar 13) and can be given instead of the original Prevnar. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV, Pneumovax is one brand) gives at least 85% protection in those under 55 years of age for five years or longer. Immunization is suggested for those at highest risk of infection, including those 65 years or older; generally the vaccine should be a single lifetime dose, as there is a high risk of side effects if repeated. The standard 23-valent vaccines are ineffective for children under two years old.
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Already in 1949 the reaction of 1,4-butanesultone with the water-insoluble polysaccharide cellulose in sodium hydroxide solution was reported, which leads to a water-soluble product. Derived from this the derivatization of β-cyclodextrin to sulfobutyl ether- beta-cyclodextrin (SBECD) is by now an important application of 1,4-butanesultone. Sulfobutyl ether-beta-cyclodextrin is a water-soluble inclusion compound for the solubilization and stabilization of sparsely water- soluble and chemically instable components. β-Cyclodextrin can be reacted with 1,4-butanesultone in sodium hydroxide solution at 70 °C to the sulfobutyl ether in yields of up to 80% and a degree of substitution of 6.68.
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Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 21(2), 205-212. L. brevis is one of the major Lactobacillus species found in tibicos grains (aka water kefir grains), and has been identified as the species responsible for the production of the polysaccharide (dextran) that forms the grains. Major metabolites of L. brevis include lactic acid and ethanol. Strains of L. brevis and L. hilgardii have been found to produce the biogenic amines tyramine, which is found by the fermentation metabolic pathway and is commonly found in spoiled or fermented foods and phenylethylamine, which is found in chocolates but can also produce a fishy odor in other foods.
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Xylan is the most abundant structural polysaccharide in nature other than cellulose, and is broken down through many enzymes, including xylanase. The xylanase of T. lanuginosus is a polypeptide of 225 amino acids and is highly homologous with other xylanases, but it differs due to the presence of a disulfide bridge that most mesophilic xylanases do not have, and its increased density of charged residues throughout the protein. This makes starch degrading enzymes of T. lanuginosus the most thermostable enzymes among fungal sources. While the temperature optima of most xylanases range from 55 to 65 °C, xylanases of some strains of T. lanuginosus are optimally active at 70 to 80 °C.
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Diamond's primary interests are in the mechanisms of central and peripheral tolerance of autoreactive B cells,J. Immunol. 176:3311 and the defects in these mechanisms that are present in autoimmune disease, as well as the role of antibodies in brain disease.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 103:19854-19859 She identified the first idiotype marker on anti-DNA antibodies in patients with lupus,Journal of Immunology, 133;1852 and discovered that anti-DNA antibodies in patients and mice shared characteristics with antibodies to pneumococcal polysaccharide. Diamond showed that a single base change in a protective anti-pneumococcal antibody could convert it into a potentially pathogenic anti-DNA antibody.
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All individuals have circulating antibodies directed against red blood cells, but their concentrations are often too low to trigger disease (titers under 64 at 4 °C). In individuals with cold agglutinin disease, these antibodies are in much higher concentrations (titers over 1000 at 4 °C). At body temperatures of 28–31 °C, such as those encountered during winter months, and occasionally at body temperatures of 37 °C, antibodies (generally IgM) bind to the polysaccharide region of glycoproteins on the surface of red blood cells (typically the I antigen, i antigen, and Pr antigens). Binding of antibodies to red blood cells activates the classical pathway of the complement system.
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For bacteria with a polysaccharide coating, like Haemophilus influenzae type b, the best way to prevent infection is to use a conjugate vaccine. A conjugate vaccine is a type of vaccine which combines a weak antigen with a strong antigen as a carrier so that the immune system has a stronger response to the weak antigen. Vaccines are used to prevent diseases by invoking an immune response to an antigen, the foreign part of a bacteria or virus that the immune system recognizes. This is usually accomplished with an attenuated or dead version of a pathogenic bacterium or virus in the vaccine, so that the immune system can recognize the antigen later in life.
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As a result of the equilibrium of those forces, liquids subjected to the influence of electric force become charged. In addition to the applied hydraulic pressure ∆pH the process is influenced also by the electro-osmotic pressure Pe. Modifying the Darcy’s basic equation, describing filter cake formation, with electro-kinetic effects by integration under assumption of using the constants of electro-osmotic pressure Pe, the critical electric field Ekrit and the electric field E results: Previous scientific works conducted in the Dept. of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Engineering in Life Sciences, University of Karlsruhe demonstrated that electrofiltration is effective for the concentration of charged biopolymers. Very promising results concerning purification of the charged polysaccharide xanthan are already obtained.
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To begin with, few people had the necessary expertise with this pathogen from a biological perspective — it was dangerous to work with, and at the same time, it was finicky to grow. In order to assay its virulence, one needed to use mice as a selective filter. Most critically lacking as corroboration was the examination of other phenotypic markers, besides the capsular polysaccharide, to determine the extent that the findings on the gene for one pneumococcal antigen would apply to other metabolic markers of S. pneumoniae. However, by 1953, influenced by the enormous impact of Watson and Crick's bihelical structure of DNA, the majority of researchers had fully accepted the 1944 paper.
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Calcium ion stabilizes the polysaccharide gel, protecting the embryonic receptacle from drying out during the growth of the egg. Potassium is required for the gelatinous layer to retain its osmotic pressure and retain water; high concentrations of the element are needed to support the rapid growth of the receptacle. The high concentration of elements suggests that the gelatinous layer has a "placenta- like" function—serving as a reservoir from which the receptacle may draw upon as it rapidly expands. Pigments responsible for the orange to red colors of the mature fruit bodies have been identified as carotenes, predominantly lycopene and beta-carotene—the same compounds responsible for the red and orange colors of tomatoes and carrots, respectively.
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It was manufactured by Wyeth (which was acquired by Pfizer). Prevnar was approved for use in the United States in February 2000, and vaccination with Prevnar was recommended for all children younger than two years, and for unvaccinated children between 24 and 59 months old who were at high risk for pneumococcal infections. Prevnar was produced from the seven most prevalent strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria in the U.S. The bacterial capsule sugars, a characteristic of these pathogens, are linked to CRM197, a nontoxic recombinant variant of diphtheria toxin (Corynebacterium diphtheriae). The vaccine's polysaccharide sugars are grown separately in soy peptone broths. Through reductive amination, the sugars are directly conjugated to the protein carrier CRM197 to form the glycoconjugate.
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The bodies of all types have two main parts. The cystid consists of the body wall and whatever type of exoskeleton is secreted by the epidermis. The exoskeleton may be organic (chitin, polysaccharide or protein) or made of the mineral calcium carbonate. The body wall consists of the epidermis, basal lamina (a mat of non-cellular material), connective tissue, muscles, and the mesothelium which lines the coelom (main body cavity) – except that in one class, the mesothelium is split into two separate layers, the inner one forming a membranous sac that floats freely and contains the coelom, and the outer one attached to the body wall and enclosing the membranous sac in a pseudocoelom.
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Follow-up work in response to criticism and challenges included the purification and crystallization, by Moses Kunitz in 1948, of a DNA depolymerase (deoxyribonuclease I), and precise work by Rollin Hotchkiss showing that virtually all the detected nitrogen in the purified DNA came from glycine, a breakdown product of the nucleotide base adenine, and that undetected protein contamination was at most 0.02% by Hotchkiss's estimation.Fruton (1999), p. 439 Oswald Avery Colin MacLeod Maclyn McCarty (with Watson and Crick) The experimental findings of the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment were quickly confirmed, and extended to other hereditary characteristics besides polysaccharide capsules. However, there was considerable reluctance to accept the conclusion that DNA was the genetic material.
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Two typhoid vaccines are licensed for use for the prevention of typhoid: the live, oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif by Crucell Switzerland AG) and the injectable typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur and Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline). Both are efficacious and recommended for travellers to areas where typhoid is endemic. Boosters are recommended every five years for the oral vaccine and every two years for the injectable form. An older, killed whole-cell vaccine is still used in countries where the newer preparations are not available, but this vaccine is no longer recommended for use because it has a higher rate of side effects (mainly pain and inflammation at the site of the injection).
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P. multocida expresses a range of virulence factors including a polysaccharide capsule and the variable carbohydrate surface molecule, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The capsule has been shown in strains of serogroups A and B to help resist phagocytosis by host immune cells and capsule type A has also been shown to help resist complement-mediated lysis.Chung JY, Wilkie I, Boyce JD, Townsend KM, Frost AJ, Ghoddusi M, Adler B: Role of capsule in the pathogenesis of fowl cholera caused by Pasteurella multocida serogroup A. Infect Immun 2001, 69(4):2487-2492.Boyce JD, Adler B: The capsule is a virulence determinant in the pathogenesis of Pasteurella multocida M1404 (B:2). Infect Immun 2000, 68(6):3463-3468.
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Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae is a species of Mycoplasma bacteria that most commonly inhabits and affects ovine animals. M. ovipneumoniae is a respiratory pathogen of domestic sheep, domestic goats, bighorn sheep, mountain goats, and other caprinae that can both cause primary atypical pneumonia and also predispose infected animals to secondary pneumonia with other agents, including Mannheimia haemolytica. Several mechanisms are involved in the pathogenicity of M. ovipneumoniae, including altering macrophage activity, adhering to the ruminants' ciliated epithelium via its polysaccharide capsule, inducing the production of autoantibodies to ciliary antigens, and suppressive activity on lymphocytes, all of which are important factors that contribute to the disease in sheep and other small ruminants. The bacterium also has the ability to act as a prediposing factor for other bacterial and viral infections.
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In a study comparing the two types of separation, Isenberg, Brewer, Côté, and Striegel use both methods for polysaccharide characterization and conclude that HDC coupled with multiangle light scattering (MALS) achieves more accurate molar mass distribution when compared to off-line MALS than SEC in significantly less time. This is largely due to SEC being a more destructive technique because of the pores in the column degrading the analyte during separation, which tends to impact the mass distribution. However, the main disadvantage of HDC is low resolution of analyte peaks, which makes SEC a more viable option when used with chemicals that are not easily degradable and where rapid elution is not important. HDC plays an especially important role in the field of microfluidics.
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Anderson studied biochemistry at the University of Melbourne, followed by La Trobe University for her doctoral studies, which she completed in 1976. Her area of focus was polysaccharide hydrolases and carbohydrate chemistry, an area she continued working on during her first research position, at the University of Miami. She later worked on the SV40 virus and oncogenes, and then moved to Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, where she worked on the oncogenes from adenovirus. In 1982, Anderson returned to Australia and worked with Adrienne Clarke to establish molecular biology at the new Plant Cell Biology Research Centre at the University of Melbourne, In 1995, Anderson moved back to La Trobe University, where she researches defence molecules produced by plants to protect themselves against pests.
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Xanthan ketal pyruvate transferase (, KPT) is an enzyme with systematic name phosphoenolpyruvate:D-Man-beta-(1->4)-GlcA-beta-(1->2)-D-Man- alpha-(1->3)-D-Glc-beta-(1->4)-D-Glc-alpha-1-diphospho-ditrans,octacis- undecaprenol 4,6-O-(1-carboxyethan-1,1-diyl)transferase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : phosphoenolpyruvate + D-Man- beta-(1->4)-D-GlcA-beta-(1->2)-D-Man-alpha-(1->3)-D-Glc-beta-(1->4)-D-Glc- alpha-1-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol \rightleftharpoons 4,6-CH3(COO-)C-D-Man-beta-(1->4)-D-GlcA-beta-(1->2)-D-Man-alpha-(1->3)-D-Glc- beta-(1->4)-D-Glc-alpha-1-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol + phosphate This enzyme is involved in the biosynthesis of the polysaccharide xanthan.
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Coextensive in the primary cell wall to both cellulose microfibrils and complementary glycan networks, is pectin which is a polysaccharide that contains many negatively charged galacturonic acid units. Additionally, cellulose microfibrils also contribute to the shape of the plant via controlled-cell expansion. The stereoscopic arrangement of microfibrils in the cell wall create systems of turgor pressure which ultimately leads to cellular growth and expansion. Cellulose microfibrils are unique matrix macromolecules, in that they are assembled by cellulose synthase enzymes located on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. It is believed that the plant can “anticipate their future morphology by controlling the orientation of microfibrils” by a mechanism where cellulose microfibrils are arranged atop a cortical array of microtubules.
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Efforts to engineer plant cell wall formation for enhanced biofuel production commonly target lignin biosynthesis in order to reduce lignin content and thereby improve yields of ethanol from cellulose, a complex polysaccharide important for cell wall structure. Lignin is troublesome for biofuel production because it is the main contributor to plant biomass recalcitrance due to its toughness and heterogeneity. By reducing lignin content, the cellulose is more easily accessible to the chemical and biological reagents used to break it down. Lowering the expression level of CCR in particular has emerged as a common strategy for accomplishing this goal, and this strategy has resulted in successful lignin content reduction and increased ethanol production from several plant species including tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and poplar (Populus tremula x Populus alba).
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The biological, chemical, and physical processes occurring here may be some of the most important anywhere on Earth, and this thin layer experiences the first exposure to climatic changes such as heat, trace gases, winds, precipitation, and also wastes such as nanomaterials and plastics. The SML also has important roles in air-sea gas exchange and the production of primary organic aerosols. A study using water samples and ambient conditions from the North Atlantic Ocean found that a polysaccharide-containing exopolymer and a protein are easily aerosolized in surface ocean waters, and scientists were able to quantify the amount and size resolution of the primary sea to air transport of biogenic material. These materials are small enough (0.2μm) to be largely emitted from phytoplankton and other microorganisms.
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Sticky rice mortar had high adhesive strength, sturdiness, waterproofing capability, and prevented weeds from growing as crude mortar made of sticky rice and burnt lime created a seal between bricks that would rival modern cement in strength. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), brick-making techniques improved significantly in terms of quantity and quality of production. Since then, Great Wall sections were widely built with bricks, with lime mortar and sticky rice used to reinforce the bricks strongly enough to resist earthquakes and modern bulldozers while keeping the building intact. Modern chemists, through their research, identified amylopectin, a type of polysaccharide, or complex carbohydrate, found in rice and other starchy foods to appear to be responsible for the sticky rice mortar's strength and durability.
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Plants synthesise a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose, pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed. Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress. Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibres that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood. Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record.
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In this electron micrograph of bacteriophages attached to a bacterial cell, the viruses are the size and shape of coliphage T1 Bacterial cells are protected by a cell wall of polysaccharides, which are important virulence factors protecting bacterial cells against both immune host defenses and antibiotics. To enter a host cell, bacteriophages attach to specific receptors on the surface of bacteria, including lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids, proteins, or even flagella. This specificity means a bacteriophage can infect only certain bacteria bearing receptors to which they can bind, which in turn, determines the phage's host range. Polysaccharide- degrading enzymes, like endolysins are virion-associated proteins to enzymatically degrade the capsular outer layer of their hosts, at the initial step of a tightly programmed phage infection process.
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The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by- side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This confers tensile strength in cell walls where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix. The high tensile strength of plant stems and of the tree wood also arises from the arrangement of cellulose fibers intimately distributed into the lignin matrix. The mechanical role of cellulose fibers in the wood matrix responsible for its strong structural resistance, can somewhat be compared to that of the reinforcement bars in concrete, lignin playing here the role of the hardened cement paste acting as the "glue" in between the cellulose fibers.
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He analyzed 83 known types of pneumococci, and determined 14 types were responsible for 80% of invasive pneumococcal infections in man, and that the outer coatings or capsules of these organisms should be included in an effective vaccine. Austrian then devised a multi-valent polysaccharide vaccine and then played a major role in the successful clinical trials which resulted in its licensure. His Lasker award reads as follows “For his persistent, dedicated efforts which permitted the development of a vaccine that soon may significantly reduce human disease caused by the pneumococcus, this Albert Lasker Clinical Medical Research Award is given.” Robert Austrian also gives rise to the medical eponym "Austrian syndrome" which describes the clinical syndrome of pneumococcal meningitis, pneumonia and endocarditis, after his 1957 paper in Archives of Internal Medicine.
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Maclyn McCarty (June 9, 1911 – January 2, 2005) was an American geneticist. Maclyn McCarty, who devoted his life as a physician-scientist to studying infectious disease organisms, was best known for his part in the monumental discovery that DNA, rather than protein, constituted the chemical nature of a gene. Uncovering the molecular secret of the gene in question — that for the capsular polysaccharide of pneumococcal bacteria — led the way to studying heredity not only through genetics but also through chemistry, and initiated the dawn of the age of molecular biology. McCarty was the youngest and longest surviving member of the research team responsible for this feat (known as the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment), which also included Oswald T. Avery and Colin MacLeod; he died on January 2, 2005, from congestive heart failure.
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In 2008, after widespread use of antenatal screening and intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis (IAP), the CDC reported an incidence of 0.28 cases of EOD per thousand live births in the US. It has been indicated that where there was a policy of providing IAP for GBS colonization the overall risk of EOGBS is 0.3%. Since 2006 to 2015 the incidence of GBS EOD decreased from 0.37 to 0.23 per thousand live births in the US. Though maternal GBS colonization is the key determinant for EOD, other factors also increase the risk. These factors include onset of labor before 37 weeks of gestation (premature birth), prolonged rupture of membranes (≥18h before delivery), intra-partum fever (>38 °C, >100.4 °F), amniotic infections (chorioamnionitis), young maternal age, and low levels of GBS anticapsular polysaccharide antibodies in the mother.
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Gelidium amansii, also known as umutgasari, is an economically important species of red algae commonly found and harvested in the shallow coast (3 to 10 m or 10 to 33 ft of depth below the water) of many East Asian countries including North and South Korea, China, Japan, Singapore, and northeast Taiwan. G. amansii is an important food source in East Asian countries and has been shown to have medicinal effects on dieting. Hence, in folklore medicine G. amansii is used to treat constipation. This algae is used to make agar, whose components are the polysaccharide agarose and agaropectin, from the large amount of algin which is located in the algae's cell wall, as well it is sometimes served as part of a salad, puddings, jams, and other culinary dishes in producing regions.
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Charophyta are complex green algae that form a sister group to the Chlorophyta and within which the Embryophyta emerged. The chlorophyte and charophyte green algae and the embryophytes or land plants form a clade called the green plants or Viridiplantae, that is united among other things by the absence of phycobilins, the presence of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, cellulose in the cell wall and the use of starch, stored in the plastids, as a storage polysaccharide. The charophytes and embryophytes share several traits that distinguish them from the chlorophytes, such as the presence of certain enzymes (class I aldolase, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, glycolate oxidase, flagellar peroxidase), lateral flagella (when present), and, in many species, the use of phragmoplasts in mitosis. Thus Charophyta and Embryophyta together form the clade Streptophyta, excluding the Chlorophyta.
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Derivatization of botryosphaeran by carboxymethylation and sulfonylation results in improved solubility in water, and diminishes its viscous nature in solution. In the case of sulfonated botryosphaeran, the chemically modified polysaccharide containing sulfonate groups exhibited new biological functions: anticoagulation, and antiviral activity against enveloped viruses such as human herpes simplex and Dengue, The latter is a mosquito-borne virus. Related exopolysaccharides (β-glucans) from several strains of Botryosphaeria rhodina (the teleomorph Lasiodiplodia theobromae) isolated from rotting tropical fruits have been described, The chemical structures of three β-glucans produced were characterized; a (1→3)(1→6)-β-D-glucan with a single glucose repeat substituent (frequency of 20%), an unbranched (1→6)-β-glucan named lasiodiplodan, and a new (1→3)(1→6)-β-glucan with unique branches comprising gentiobiose and gentiotriose residues, but not glucose.
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However, given the high diversity of composition of xyloglucans from different plant sources, there is a keystone enzyme, an endo-xyloglucanase called BoGH5A, that has the ability to cleave a range of xyloglucans to generate short xyloglucans ready for uptake. A detailed analysis of the structure and function of the enzyme has revealed the presence of a domain called the BACON domain whose primary function in BoGH5A may be to distance the catalytic module from the cell surface and confer additional mobility to the catalytic domain to attack the polysaccharide. A broad active-site cleft engendering binding plasticity is the key feature allowing BoGH5A which allows it to accommodate a wide range of natural XyGs. The prevalence of XyGs in the human diet suggests that the mechanism by which bacteria degrade these complex polysaccharides is highly important to human energy acquisition.
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The first S-layers were discovered in bacteria in the 1950s and the presence of S-layers in many Archaea was determined through microscopic (both light and electron) studies of Archaea. The presence of an S-layer in a member of the Methanosarcinales was determined in the 1980s by electron microscope (EM) studies examining the cell morphology of Methanosarcina mazei. This, and other EM studies, confirmed that the cell envelope structure of the Methanosarcinales is composed of a cytoplasmic membrane (CM) with an additional barrier (the S-layer) external to the CM. Under conditions of low osmolarity the S-layer is extensively decorated with a polysaccharide, termed methanochondroitin, and the cells tend to grow in multicellular aggregates. Upon adaptation to high osmolarity conditions the cells disaggregate and grow as single cells that lack the methanochondroitin layer.
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The water-soluble proteins tend to have their hydrophobic residues (Leu, Ile, Val, Phe, and Trp) buried in the middle of the protein, whereas hydrophilic side chains are exposed to the aqueous solvent. (Note that in biochemistry, a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid.) The integral membrane proteins tend to have outer rings of exposed hydrophobic amino acids that anchor them into the lipid bilayer. Some peripheral membrane proteins have a patch of hydrophobic amino acids on their surface that locks onto the membrane. In similar fashion, proteins that have to bind to positively charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged amino acids like glutamate and aspartate, while proteins binding to negatively charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine.
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By analogy to the above, one can use an anion exchange (positively charged) column surface chemistry to reduce the influence on retention of cationic (positively charged) functional groups for a set of analytes, such as when selectively isolating phosphorylated peptides or sulfated polysaccharide molecules. Use of a pH between 1 and 2 pH units will reduce the polarity of two of the three ionizable oxygens of the phosphate group, and thus will allow easy desorption from the (oppositely charged) surface chemistry. It will also reduce the influence of negatively charged carboxyls in the analytes, since they will be protonated at this low a pH value, and thus contribute less overall polarity to the molecule. Any common, positively charged amino groups will be repelled from the column surface chemistry and thus these conditions enhance the role of the phosphate's polarity (as well as other neutral polar groups) in the separation.
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As a by-product of his work on type-specific staphylococcus antigens, Verwey reported in 1940 that a protein fraction prepared from extracts of these bacteria non-specifically precipitated rabbit antisera raised against different staphylococcus types. In 1958, Jensen confirmed Verwey’s finding and showed that rabbit pre-immunization sera as well as normal human sera bound to the active component in the staphylococcus extract; he designated this component Antigen A (because it was found in fraction A of the extract) but thought it was a polysaccharide. The misclassification of the protein was the result of faulty tests but it was not long thereafter (1962) that Löfkvist and Sjöquist corrected the error and confirmed that Antigen A was in fact a surface protein on the bacterial wall of certain strains of S. aureus. The Bergen group from Norway named the protein "Protein A" after the antigen fraction isolated by Jensen.
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The galactomannans (a form of polysaccharide) from Cassia tora (CT gum), after proper processing and chemical derivatization (converting chemical into a product of a similar structure), could function as an improved and more economical thickener than locust bean gum for textiles, because of the bean gum’s current high price ($18/kg) and limited availability. Most of the CT-gum processing plants in India are located in Gujarat state because of the availability of Cassia tora beans in the neighbouring states, but the widespread use of these beans as vegetables and seeds as cattle feed has been pushing up the raw material cost for the CT-gum industry. The total fixed capacity in the country is 0.2 million tonnes for splits and 59,000 for powder based on Cassia tora seeds. The capacity utilization in the industry has been around 70 percent for the last three years.
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His role as consulting chemist in its department of medicine suited his generous temperament. The door to his office, which he likened to "42nd Street and Broadway" because of its traffic, was open for anyone, especially junior researchers, to stop by, discuss matters of science or politics, and seek his advice. During his 27 years there he used his unique knowledge of polysaccharide antigen chemistry to develop methods, in particular the precipitin reaction, for isolating pure antibodies, which he proved were protein and which he measured in absolute units of weight for the first time. He and his collaborators Forrest E. Kendall and Elvin A. Kabat formulated a quantitative theory of precipitin and other immune reactions, which showed that such reactions unfolded in three distinct stages and which posited that antigens and antibodies were bi-or multivalent, meaning that they could combine in varying proportions.
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RVP, a water-soluble polysaccharide present in the mushroom, is made largely of galactomannan subunits and has antioxidant activity. Ribonucleases (or RNases) are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), and collectively they play a critical role in many biological processes. A RNase from R. virescens was shown to be biochemically unique amongst seven edible mushroom species in several ways: it has a co- specificity towards cleaving RNA at poly A and poly C, compared to the monospecific RNases of the others; it can be adsorbed on chromatography columns containing DEAE–cellulose as the adsorbent; it has a pH optimum of 4.5, lower than all other species; and, it has a "distinctly different" N-terminal amino acid sequence. The mushroom contains a unique laccase enzyme that can break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry, such as bromothymol blue, eriochrome black T, malachite green, and reactive brilliant blue.
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Co-adhesion involves the adherence of planktonic or single culture cells to already attached organisms on a surface. The organisms which make first contact with the surface and allow the platform for later co-adhesion of bacteria are called "early colonisers", they facilitate the formation of complex multispecies dental biofilms #Multiplication: Through continued growth and maturation of existing plaque micro-organisms and the further recruitment of later colonisers #Climax community (homeostasis): After a prolonged period of stability the bacterial community has sufficient nutrients and protection to survive. These complex biofilms are usually found in hard to cleanse areas. Nutrition is provided from dietary consumption of the host for supra-gingival biofilm organisms and from blood and GCF for the sub gingival biofilm organisms #Detachment: From one surface to another or within biofilm allows colonisation at remote site Bacteria contained within the biofilm are protected by an slimy extracellular polysaccharide matrix which helps to protect them from the outside environment and chemotherapeutics agents.
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Carbohydrate conformation refers to the overall three-dimensional structure adopted by a carbohydrate (saccharide) molecule as a result of the through- bond and through-space physical forces it experiences arising from its molecular structure. The physical forces that dictate the three-dimensional shapes of all molecules—here, of all monosaccharide, oligosaccharide, and polysaccharide molecules—are sometimes summarily captured by such terms as "steric interactions" and "stereoelectronic effects" (see below). Saccharide and other chemical conformations can be reasonably shown using two-dimensional structure representations that follow set conventions; these capture for a trained viewer an understanding of the three-dimensional structure via structure drawings (see organic chemistry article, and "3D Representations" section in molecular geometry article); they are also represented by stereograms on the two dimensional page, and increasingly using 3D display technologies on computer monitors. Formally and quantitatively, conformation is captured by description of a molecule's angles—for example, sets of three sequential atoms (bond angles) and four sequential atoms (torsion angles, dihedral angles), where the locations and angular directions of nonbonding electrons ("lone pair electrons") must sometimes also be taken into account.
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Backbone chemical structure upon which the unique triterpenes astrahygrol (R1=OH, R2=H), 3-epi-astrahygrol (R1=H, R2=OH), and astrahygrone (R1=R2=O) are formed Mushroom polysaccharides from a number of species have attracted research interest for their immunomodulatory and antitumor properties. Extracts from A. hygrometricus containing the polysaccharide named AE2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests, and stimulated the growth of splenocytes, thymocytes, and bone marrow cells from mice. The extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system; specifically, it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells, stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide, and enhanced production of cytokines. The activation of macrophages by AE2 might be mediated by a mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction. AE2 is made of the simple sugars mannose, glucose, and fucose in a 1:2:1 ratio. In addition to the previously known steroid compounds ergosta-7,22-diene-3-ol acetate and ergosta-4,6,8-(14),22-tetraene-3-one, three unique triterpenes—derivatives of 3-hydroxy-lanostane—have been isolated from fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus.
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