431 Sentences With "parsimony" | Random Sentence Generator

Baseball officials justify the new parsimony with a bow to analytics.

But its parsimony has been matched by the profligacy of India's 29 states.

The parsimony of Italy and Greece is partly connected with their economic difficulties.

Its defensive parsimony remains: Only Real Madrid has conceded fewer goals this season.

Thanks partly to British parsimony, the multiyear budget in 2014-20 will also cut spending.

"Phylogenetic data sets submitted to this journal should be analysed using parsimony," the editorial reads. https://twitter.

You have so many good reasons: You do not like the bride, whom you suspect of parsimony.

But the parsimony did not last after Zanu-PF took full control of the government in 2013.

Call this the parsimony theory of plausibility: the fewer laws something violates, the more credible it will seem.

Advocates should welcome the seriousness, and parsimony, that the Trump strategy can, and should, bring to the agenda.

Moreover, thanks to the Treasury's parsimony, national health insurance never developed in Britain the way it did in Germany.

More important, he took the lead in attacking what he saw as the Conservative government's parsimony toward the arts.

"In some places, people don't even put out water at all," he said, shaking his head at the parsimony.

It was Wenger who first introduced the idea of "financial doping" to the sport, preaching parsimony during a gold rush.

Even Pochettino — one of the few to buck the trend — admits his parsimony is partly enforced, rather than entirely voluntary.

Will's "pay for your own damn kids" philosophy, despite its appealing parsimony, is out of touch with the shifting economic realities.

In the battle of the post-war memoirs, Montgomery still blamed him for his parsimony (while admitting to mistakes of his own).

This leads households to spend more cautiously, businesses to invest with parsimony, banks to lend more watchfully and investors to trade vigilantly.

But, above all, there's a parsimony among Canadians when it comes to politicians spending money on themselves that's almost alien to Americans.

Stretching the tin of caviar into a sandwich that could conceivably treat four people is already all the parsimony the dish can take.

Olivier was careful of what he said to the point of parsimony; I spent my words like an oligarch with a terminal disease.

The character of Julieta seems to embody Almodóvar's parsimony toward women who are made beautiful by men and whose beauty recedes when men go away.

Such parsimony, Simmons said, illustrates Swinney's ability to evaluate and develop talent, a necessity for a school with less money than many of its rivals.

No, it's the parsimony of the production that's at fault, offering little that's lovely except Michael John LaChiusa's original music, in an apt neoclassical mode.

"Any review should be carried out with caution and parsimony, and only when a precedent no longer corresponds to society's sense of justice," she wrote.

As an antipoverty strategy, it's impossible to square the circle of the largess of Republican tax plans and military spending plans with their parsimony everywhere else.

Though much maligned abroad in recent years, Germany's parsimony has arguably put it in a better position than any other country to weather the current storm.

Even then, further parsimony will lie ahead for a country whose public expenditure is 58% of GDP, the highest in the European Union (the average is 47%).

The constraints of the MPC — such as a limited memory bank and a time limit for samples on early models — required great parsimony and creativity to work around.

Mr. Pfohl, who died in 1986 after a heart attack at his factory, seems to have won many fans in his lifetime, some of whom marveled at his parsimony.

Contrast this with the parsimony Republican lawmakers displayed in 21 when they refused to raise the federal debt limit until President Barack Obama agreed to deep cuts to government programs.

One principle of OCCAM's razor held that when one is confronted with a set of assumptions, one should always go with the simplest (also known as the theory of parsimony).

The zeal for parsimony, from cutting business travel to axing the office fruit bowl, has helped the bank regain some credibility by making its first net profit in four years.

Conceived in 2002 by Saturn, an electronics retailer, it captured the mood of the country's cash-strapped shoppers two years after the dotcom crash, while playing to their penchant for parsimony.

Consider, for example, the 1947 debut of Christian Dior's New Look, using yards and yards of fabric to create full calf-length skirts — utterly shocking after the necessary parsimony of wartime.

Of course, if Gtmhub kept a lid on its expenses by growing slowly, its parsimony might be more sin than virtue; after all, private companies backed with venture dollars are built for expansion.

If that parsimony was extreme, it was not out of character: Since Pochettino arrived in May 2014, Tottenham has spent barely half of the amount lavished on Manchester City and Manchester United's squads.

At times the austerity on Summertime '06 skates pretty close to parsimony, almost as if Staples were espousing a rather tedious sort of purism, reducing his music to the bare ugly bones because everything else is, sniff, excess.

She loved him for his parsimony of words, and for his gruffness, which was partly an act to see how she'd respond, and so did I. Not for the first time, I raised the idea of hospice care.

Applying the Law of Parsimony, I'd like to explain what the cloud is and highlight what I believe gives the cloud the catalytic potential to transform and boost our entire government — civilian and military — by taking advantage of this key component of the digital revolution.

You could get a bowl of schav made fresh at Ratner's on Delancey Street, where they kept half their overhead fluorescents turned off during the day, which made the restaurant feel cooler, though I never knew if this was from parsimony, ecological concern or shrugging neglect.

She dresses Charlotte in ditsy-print smocked dresses and Mary Janes that telegraph English heritage with a capital H. Her sons, George and Louis, occasionally wear hand-me-downs from William and Harry, a tack Maclaran says has as much to do with continuity as it does parsimony.

Kuchar's apology came at the end of a trying week for him, and after a challenging first round on Friday at the Riviera Country Club, where he heard the usual genial chants of "Kooooch" from some of his fans but also a number of barbs from others about his perceived parsimony.

" Dionysius of Halicarnassus, writing of Simonides, notes that one should "Watch very carefully Simonides's choice of words and the exactitude with which he puts things together"; the word exactitude here is akribeia, which likewise has a dual meaning: it can mean "precision, accuracy, exactness of language" or "parsimony, frugality, stinginess with money.

While criminal justice reform advocates may be inclined to quietly work toward change in their own jurisdictions and ignore the noise of the Trump administration, to counteract his messages, criminal justice reform advocates must create strong counter-narratives and messaging that stress ineffectiveness of current policies, the human right to dignity, and parsimony.

Inferring historical biogeographic patterns often requires reconstructing ancestral ranges of species on phylogenetic trees. For instance, a well- resolved phylogeny of plant species in the genus Cyrtandra was used together with information of their geographic ranges to compare four methods of ancestral range reconstruction. The team compared Fitch parsimony, (FP; parsimony) stochastic mapping (SM; maximum likelihood), dispersal-vicariance analysis (DIVA; parsimony), and dispersal-extinction-cladogenesis (DEC; maximum-likelihood). Results indicated that both parsimony methods performed poorly, which was likely due to the fact that parsimony methods do not consider branch lengths.

For a book-length treatment of cladistic parsimony, see Elliott Sober's Reconstructing the Past: Parsimony, Evolution, and Inference (1988). For a discussion of both uses of Occam's razor in biology, see Sober's article "Let's Razor Ockham's Razor" (1990). Other methods for inferring evolutionary relationships use parsimony in a more traditional way. Likelihood methods for phylogeny use parsimony as they do for all likelihood tests, with hypotheses requiring few differing parameters (i.e.

Parsimony plays a fundamental role in genetic saturation analysis. This principle gives preference to the simplest explanation that can explain the data. In regards to genetic saturation, parsimony means that the hypothesized relationship is one that has the smallest number of character changes. Using parsimony to analyze genetic saturation can lead to conflict when creating a phylogenetic tree.

His parsimony, for example, may have opened him to ridicule, though his biographers observe that parsimony is preferable to extravagance.Black, George II, p. 82; Trench, p. 300; Lord Waldegrave's Memoirs quoted in Trench, p. 270.

In other words, parsimony (of the output hypothesis) implies predictive power.

The tree from the parsimony-based analysis is reproduced above, at right.

Parsimony, known colloquially as "Occam's razor", refers to the principle of selecting the simplest of competing hypotheses. In the context of ancestral reconstruction, parsimony endeavours to find the distribution of ancestral states within a given tree which minimizes the total number of character state changes that would be necessary to explain the states observed at the tips of the tree. This method of maximum parsimony is one of the earliest formalized algorithms for reconstructing ancestral states, as well as one of the simplest. Maximum parsimony can be implemented by one of several algorithms.

When scientists use the idea of parsimony, it has meaning only in a very specific context of inquiry. Several background assumptions are required for parsimony to connect with plausibility in a particular research problem. The reasonableness of parsimony in one research context may have nothing to do with its reasonableness in another. It is a mistake to think that there is a single global principle that spans diverse subject matter.

Below is a cladogram of ground squirrels (tribe Marmotini) derived from maximum parsimony analysis.

PARANA performs parsimony based inference of ancestral biological networks that represent gene loss and duplication.

In addition, they are still quite computationally slow relative to parsimony methods, sometimes requiring weeks to run large datasets. Most of these methods have particularly avid proponents and detractors; parsimony especially has been advocated as philosophically superior (most notably by ardent cladists). One area where parsimony still holds much sway is in the analysis of morphological data, because—until recently—stochastic models of character change were not available for non-molecular data, and they are still not widely implemented. Parsimony has also recently been shown to be more likely to recover the true tree in the face of profound changes in evolutionary ("model") parameters (e.g.

Rule #1: Materials Parsimony The Materials Parsimony rule deals with constraining the number of types of materials used in product design and manufacturing. This is not to be confused with the sustainable business strategy of eco-efficiency which seeks to reduce the amount of materials used in production. The parsimony rule comes instead from applying a biomimicry perspective to materials in the biosphere. The Periodic Table of the Elements encompass the 88 naturally occurring elements from arsenic to xenon.

Ripe Howlers. London: Methuen. and 'Parsimony is money left by your father.Hunt, Cecil (1949) The Best Howlers.

This theory is a mathematical formalization of Occam's razor.Induction: From Kolmogorov and Solomonoff to De Finetti and Back to Kolmogorov JJ McCall – Metroeconomica, 2004 – Wiley Online Library. Another technical approach to Occam's razor is ontological parsimony. Parsimony means spareness and is also referred to as the Rule of Simplicity.

There are concerns that the network modal does not have enough parsimony and is too difficult to interpret.

Despite the success of parsimony reconstructions, research suggests they are often sensitive and can sometimes be prone to bias in complex models. This can cause problems for CST models that have to consider many variables. Alternatives methods, such as maximum likelihood, have been developed as an alternative to parsimony reconstruction.

There are many methods to help identify if genes have been deleted, two of which are maximum parsimony (MP) or maximum likelihood (ML) patterns are used to recreate the evolutionary tree of these species and their gene compositions of the ancient forms as well as the gene losses and gained along the tree branches which are then compared to each other. There are limitations, however, mostly due to using different models or adding new information which can skew results. Such as using Dollo Parsimony or Weighted Parsimony. Maximum parsimony (MP) Maximum likelihood (ML) Rickettsia prowazekii is an unrestricted microorganism which has been used to demonstrate genome degradation DNA and genome size is not linked to the complexity of an organism.

The cladists hold that genealogy alone should determine classification, pheneticists contend that overall similarity is the determining criterion, while evolutionary taxonomists say that both genealogy and similarity count in classification. It is among the cladists that Occam's razor is to be found, although their term for it is cladistic parsimony. Cladistic parsimony (or maximum parsimony) is a method of phylogenetic inference in the construction of types of phylogenetic trees (more specifically, cladograms). Cladograms are branching, tree-like structures used to represent hypotheses of relative degree of relationship, based on shared, derived character states.

In penal theory and the philosophy of punishment, parsimony refers specifically to taking care in the distribution of punishment in order to avoid excessive punishment. In the utilitarian approach to the philosophy of punishment, Jeremy Bentham's "parsimony principle" states that any punishment greater than is required to achieve its end is unjust. The concept is related but not identical to the legal concept of proportionality. Parsimony is a key consideration of the modern restorative justice, and is a component of utilitarian approaches to punishment, as well as the prison abolition movement.

When only sequence data is used, it is possible to come up with numerous phylogenetic trees with the same amount of parsimony.

Cladistic parsimony is used to select as the preferred hypothesis of relationships the cladogram that requires the fewest implied character state transformations. Critics of the cladistic approach often observe that for some types of tree, parsimony consistently produces the wrong results, regardless of how much data is collected (this is called statistical inconsistency, or long branch attraction). However, this criticism is also potentially true for any type of phylogenetic inference, unless the model used to estimate the tree reflects the way that evolution actually happened. Because this information is not empirically accessible, the criticism of statistical inconsistency against parsimony holds no force.

Homoplasy, especially the type that occurs in more closely related phylogenetic groups, can make phylogenetic analysis more challenging. Phylogenetic trees are often created by means of parsimony analysis. These analyses can be done with phenotypic, as well as genetic traits (DNA sequences). Using parsimony analysis, the hypothesis of relationships that requires the fewest evolutionary changes is preferred over alternative hypotheses.

While evolution is not an inherently parsimonious process, centuries of scientific experience lend support to the aforementioned principle of parsimony (Occam's razor). Namely, the supposition of a simpler, more parsimonious chain of events is preferable to the supposition of a more complicated, less parsimonious chain of events. Hence, parsimony (sensu lato) is typically sought in constructing phylogenetic trees, and in scientific explanation generally.

A test with empirical data. Cladistics 27, 331-334. showed that the vast majority of the time, parsimony and model-based phylogenetic analyses of the same data sets gave results that were not significantly different from one another, implying that if parsimony is producing false hypotheses of relationships due to homoplasy, then the Maximum Likelihood or Bayesian methods are doing so as well.

In phylogenetics, maximum parsimony is an optimality criterion under which the phylogenetic tree that minimizes the total number of character-state changes is to be preferred. Under the maximum-parsimony criterion, the optimal tree will minimize the amount of homoplasy (i.e., convergent evolution, parallel evolution, and evolutionary reversals). In other words, under this criterion, the shortest possible tree that explains the data is considered best.

Reconstruction Lund et al. (2016) tested the position of Machairoceratops within Centrosaurinae by performing maximum parsimony and Bayesian phylogenetic species level analyses. The maximum parsimony analysis yielded a large polytomy at the base of Centrosaurinae, with only Centrosaurini, most of Pachyrhinosaurini (Einiosaurus, Wendiceratops and Pachyrostra), and a clade formed by Avaceratops and Nasutoceratops being resolved. The Bayesian analysis yielded a fully resolved topology which is shown below.

Maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood yield a single most probable outcome, whereas Bayesian inference accounts for uncertainties in the data and yields a sample of possible trees.

There are several different methods to infer phylogenies. These include methods include tree building algorithms such as UPGMA, neighbor joining, maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian analysis.

Maximum-likelihood ancestral state reconstruction recovers broadly similar results, with one significant difference: the common ancestor of the tree finch (Camarhynchus) and ground finch (Geospiza) clades are most likely granivorous rather than insectivorous (as judged by parsimony). In this case, this difference between ancestral states returned by maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood likely occurs as a result of the fact that ML estimates consider branch lengths of the phylogenetic tree.

An example of long branch attraction. If branches A & C have a high number of substitutions in the "true tree" (assumed, never actually known except in simulations), then parsimony might interpret parallel changes as synapomorphies and group A and C together. Maximum parsimony is an epistemologically straightforward approach that makes few mechanistic assumptions, and is popular for this reason. However, it may not be statistically consistent under certain circumstances.

The Zoogeography of North American Freshwater Fishes. (pp. 325-362) New York, Wiley. 1986.Mayden, R. L. (1988). Vicariance biogeography, parsimony, and evolution in North American freshwater fishes.

However, it has been shown through simulation studies, testing with known in vitro viral phylogenies, and congruence with other methods, that the accuracy of parsimony is in most cases not compromised by this. Parsimony analysis uses the number of character changes on trees to choose the best tree, but it does not require that exactly that many changes, and no more, produced the tree. As long as the changes that have not been accounted for are randomly distributed over the tree (a reasonable null expectation), the result should not be biased. In practice, the technique is robust: maximum parsimony exhibits minimal bias as a result of choosing the tree with the fewest changes.

In maximum parsimony, Dollo parsimony refers to a model whereby a character is gained only one time and can never be regained if it is lost. For example, the evolution and repeated loss of teeth in vertebrates could be well-modeled under Dollo parsimony, whereby teeth made from hydroxyapatite evolved only once at the origin of vertebrates, and were then lost multiple times, in birds, turtles, and seahorses, among others. This also applies to molecular characters, such as losses or inactivation of individual genes themselves. The loss of gulonolactone oxidase, the final enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of vitamin C, is responsible for the dietary requirement of vitamin C in humans, as well as many other animals.

To test its relations to other early archosauriforms, Rugarhynchos was placed into a phylogenetic analysis derived from an earlier study by Ezcurra et al. (2017). This analysis was run under both maximum parsimony and bayesian search protocols. The parsimony analysis placed Rugarhynchos as a doswelliid and the sister taxon to Doswellia. Doswelliids were the sister taxa to a monophyletic Proterochampsidae, and the Doswelliidae+Proterochampsidae clade was itself sister to a clade comprising Vancleavea and Litorosuchus.

The main virtue of NJ is that it is fast as compared to least squares, maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood methods. This makes it practical for analyzing large data sets (hundreds or thousands of taxa) and for bootstrapping, for which purposes other means of analysis (e.g. maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood) may be computationally prohibitive. Neighbor joining has the property that if the input distance matrix is correct, then the output tree will be correct.

Still, the determination of the best-fitting tree—and thus which data do not fit the tree—is a complex process. Maximum parsimony is one method developed to do this.

Epstein, R. (1984). The principle of parsimony and some applications in psychology. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 5 Parentally investing individuals are not more vulnerable to being exploited by other adults.

William of Ockham (c. 1288 – c. 1348) was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher. He is perhaps most well known for his principle of parsimony, famously known as Occam's razor.

Parsimony is an important exception to this paradigm: though it has been shown that there are circumstances under which it is the maximum likelihood estimator, at its core, it is simply based on the heuristic that changes in character state are rare, without attempting to quantify that rarity. There are three different classes of method for ancestral reconstruction. In chronological order of discovery, these are maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian Inference. Maximum parsimony considers all evolutionary events equally likely; maximum likelihood accounts for the differing likelihood of certain classes of event; and Bayeisan inference relates the conditional probability of an event to the likelihood of the tree, as well as the amount of uncertainty that is associated with that tree.

Parsimony is the principle in which one chooses the simplest scientific explanation that fits the evidence. In terms of building phylogenetic trees, the best hypothesis is the one that requires the fewest evolutionary changes. Using parsimony to reconstruct ancestral character states on a phylogenetic tree is a method for testing ecological and evolutionary hypotheses. This method can be used in CST studies to estimate the number of character changes that exist between pathogens in relation to their host.

LBA was first recognized as problematic when analyzing discrete morphological character sets under parsimony criteria, however Maximum Likelihood analyses of DNA or protein sequences are also susceptible. A simple hypothetical example can be found in Felsenstein 1978 where it is demonstrated that for certain unknown "true" trees, some methods can show bias for grouping long branches, ultimately resulting in the inference of a false sister relationship.Felsenstein, J. (1978). Cases in which parsimony or compatibility methods will be positively misleading.

Finding the optimal least-squares tree with any correction factor is NP-complete, so heuristic search methods like those used in maximum-parsimony analysis are applied to the search through tree space.

This finding validates the use of model-based phylogenetics for molecular data, but suggests that for morphological data, parsimony remains advantageous, at least until more sophisticated models become available for phenotypic data.

Induction: From Kolmogorov and Solomonoff to De Finetti and Back to Kolmogorov – Metroeconomica, 2004 – Wiley Online Library.D Stork. Foundations of Occam's razor and parsimony in learning from ricoh.com – NIPS 2001 Workshop, 2001A.

For morphological data, recent simulation studies suggest that parsimony may be less accurate than trees built using Bayesian approaches, potentially due to overprecision, although this has been disputed. Studies using novel simulation methods have demonstrated that differences between inference methods result from the search strategy and consensus method employed, rather than the optimization used. As in maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood will evaluate alternative trees. However it considers the probability of each tree explaining the given data based on a model of evolution.

Some algorithms are useful only when the characteristic data are molecular (DNA, RNA); other algorithms are useful only when the characteristic data are morphological. Other algorithms can be used when the characteristic data includes both molecular and morphological data. Algorithms for cladograms or other types of phylogenetic trees include least squares, neighbor-joining, parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference. Biologists sometimes use the term parsimony for a specific kind of cladogram generation algorithm and sometimes as an umbrella term for all phylogenetic algorithms.

A phylogenetic analysis placed Asteriornis near the base of Galloanserae, an expansive superorder containing birds such as chickens, ducks, pheasants, and other types of fowl and gamebirds. The precise placement varied based on whether the analysis used parsimony or Bayesian protocol. Parsimony placed it as the sister taxon to Galloanserae, meaning that it was a distant relative of the last common ancestor of chickens and ducks. Bayesian protocol instead placed it within Galloanserae, specifically as the sister taxon to Galliformes.

The maximization of parsimony (preferring the simpler of two otherwise equally adequate theorizations) has proven useful in many fields. Occam's razor, a principle of theoretical parsimony suggested by William of Ockham in the 1320s, asserted that it is vain to give an explanation which involves more assumptions than necessary. Alternatively, phylogenetic parsimony can be characterized as favoring the trees that maximize explanatory power by minimizing the number of observed similarities that cannot be explained by inheritance and common descent. Minimization of required evolutionary change on the one hand and maximization of observed similarities that can be explained as homology on the other may result in different preferred trees when some observed features are not applicable in some groups that are included in the tree, and the latter can be seen as the more general approach.

The type was taken near Wallowa Lake in northeastern Oregon. They have also been referred to as the burrowing squirrel. Below is a cladogram of ground squirrels (tribe Marmotini) derived from maximum parsimony analysis.

Laurin, M. (1998, March). The importance of global parsimony and historical bias in understanding tetrapod evolution. Part I. Systematics, middle ear evolution and jaw suspension. In Annales des Sciences Naturelles- Zoologie et Biologie Animale (Vol.

It is worth noting here a subtle difference between the maximum- parsimony criterion and the ME criterion: while maximum-parsimony is based on an abductive heuristic, i.e., the plausibility of the simplest evolutionary hypothesis of taxa with respect to the more complex ones, the ME criterion is based on Kidd and Sgaramella-Zonta's conjectures that were proven true 22 years later by Rzhetsky and Nei. These mathematical results set the ME criterion free from the Occam's razor principle and confer it a solid theoretical and quantitative basis.

For a number of reasons, two organisms can possess a trait not present in their last common ancestor: If we naively took the presence of this trait as evidence of a relationship, we would reconstruct an incorrect tree. Real phylogenetic data include substantial homoplasy, with different parts of the data suggesting sometimes very different relationships. Methods used to estimate phylogenetic trees are explicitly intended to resolve the conflict within the data by picking the phylogenetic tree that is the best fit to all the data overall, accepting that some data simply will not fit. It is often mistakenly believed that parsimony assumes that convergence is rare; in fact, even convergently derived characters have some value in maximum- parsimony-based phylogenetic analyses, and the prevalence of convergence does not systematically affect the outcome of parsimony-based methods.

Hackett, S.J. et al. (2008) A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History. Science, 320, 1763.Yuri, T. (2013) Parsimony and model-based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals.

107–108 They stressed the traditional Franciscan themes of Divine Omnipotence and Divine Freedom, which formed part of Ockham's first thesis.Lindberg, p. 108 Ockham's second thesis was the principle of parsimony: also known as Ockham's razor.Lindberg, p.

The principle is akin to Occam's razor, which states that—all else being equal—the simplest hypothesis that explains the data should be selected. Some of the basic ideas behind maximum parsimony were presented by James S. Farris in 1970 and Walter M. Fitch in 1971. Maximum parsimony is an intuitive and simple criterion, and it is popular for this reason. However, although it is easy to score a phylogenetic tree (by counting the number of character-state changes), there is no algorithm to quickly generate the most-parsimonious tree.

For nine to twenty taxa, it will generally be preferable to use branch-and-bound, which is also guaranteed to return the best tree. For greater numbers of taxa, a heuristic search must be performed. Because the most-parsimonious tree is always the shortest possible tree, this means that—in comparison to the "true" tree that actually describes the evolutionary history of the organisms under study—the "best" tree according to the maximum-parsimony criterion will often underestimate the actual evolutionary change that has occurred. In addition, maximum parsimony is not statistically consistent.

Muller, J. and Reisz, R.R. (2006). "The phylogeny of early eureptiles: Comparing parsimony and Bayesian approaches in the investigation of a basal fossil clade." Systematic Biology, 55(3):503-511. The same results were obtained in later phylogenic analyses.

Cladistic analysis of DNA data has strongly supported Tabebuia by Bayesian inference and maximum parsimony. Such studies have so far revealed almost nothing about relationships within the genus, placing nearly all of the sampled species in a large polytomy.

However, he also reacted to and against Scotus in the areas of predestination, penance, his understanding of universals, his formal distinction (that is, "as applied to created things"), and his view of parsimony which became known as Occam's Razor.

Phylogenetic Systematics. University of Illinois Press, Urbana. This has been viewed as an application of the parsimony principle to the interpretation of characters, an important component of phylogenetic inference Farris, J. S. 1983. The logical basis of phylogenetic analysis.

Materials parsimony. Minimize the types of materials used in products with a focus on materials that are life-friendly and economically recyclable. 2\. Value cycle. Recover and reincarnate materials from end-of-use goods into new value-added products. 3\.

On the tour as a whole, Mann's parsimony had left him top of the South African Test bowling averages with 10 wickets at an average of 26.40, and in all first-class matches he had taken 44 wickets at 26.38.

Three-taxon analysis (3ia). Modified from Figure 1 from this paper:Grand A, Corvez A, Duque Velez LM, Laurin M. 2013. Phylogenetic inference using discrete characters: performance of ordered and unordered parsimony and of three-item statements. Biol J Linn Soc.

In chemistry, chemists might look for elegance in theory, method, technique and procedure. For example, elegance might comprise creative parsimony and versatility in the utilization of resources, in the manipulation of materials, and in the effectiveness in syntheses and analysis.

The Biosphere Rules is a framework for implementing closed-loop production processes. They derived from nature systems and translated for industrial production systems. The five principles are Materials Parsimony, Value Cycling, Power Autonomy, Sustainable Product Platforms and Function Over Form.

Its monophyly has been confirmed using parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. The species also differs from other Peromyscus in having the karyotype (FN = 54-56). Its closest relative appears to be Peromyscus levipes.

It is relatively easy to generate three-taxon statements (3is); that is, statements of the form "A and B are more closely related to one another than to C". Once each group of three taxa has been considered, the method constructs a tree that is consistent with as many three-item statements as possible. Computer program that implement three-taxon analysis is LisBeth (for systematic and biogeographic studies). LisBeth have been freely released. A recent simulation-based study found that Three-taxon analysis yields good power and an error rate intermediate between parsimony with ordered states and parsimony with unordered states.

Least squares is part of a broader class of regression-based methods lumped together here for simplicity. These regression formulae minimize the residual differences between path-distances along the tree and pairwise distances in the data matrix, effectively "fitting" the tree to the empirical distances. In contrast, ME accepts the tree with the shortest sum of branch lengths, and thus minimizes the total amount of evolution assumed. ME is closely akin to parsimony, and under certain conditions, ME analysis of distances based on a discrete character dataset will favor the same tree as conventional parsimony analysis of the same data.

Molecular phylogenetic analyses using rbcL sequence data showed that the Melastomataceae lineage consists of a subclade formed by Oliniaceae, Penaeaeae, Phynchocalycaceae and Alzateaceae sister to a subclade formed by Memecylaceae and Melastomataceae sensu stricto. Parsimony analysis showed distinct Myrtaceae and Melastomataceae clades. Subsequently, Bayesian analyses using chloroplast DNA sequences from the rbcL and ndhF genes, and parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses on rRNA, rbcL and atpB sequences, have shown that Memecylaceae is a sister group to Melastomataceae. Later studies using combined exon and intron sequences of the nuclear glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene (GapC) has supported the monophyly of Memecylon.

From among the distance methods, there exists a phylogenetic estimation criterion, known as Minimum Evolution (ME), that shares with maximum-parsimony the aspect of searching for the phylogeny that has the shortest total sum of branch lengths. A subtle difference distinguishes the maximum-parsimony criterion from the ME criterion: while maximum-parsimony is based on an abductive heuristic, i.e., the plausibility of the simplest evolutionary hypothesis of taxa with respect to the more complex ones, the ME criterion is based on Kidd and Sgaramella- Zonta's conjectures (proven true 22 years later by Rzhetsky and Nei) stating that if the evolutionary distances from taxa were unbiased estimates of the true evolutionary distances then the true phylogeny of taxa would have a length shorter than any other alternative phylogeny compatible with those distances. Rzhetsky and Nei's results set the ME criterion free from the Occam's razor principle and confer it a solid theoretical and quantitative basis.

In biogeography, parsimony is used to infer ancient migrations of species or populations by observing the geographic distribution and relationships of existing organisms. Given the phylogenetic tree, ancestral migrations are inferred to be those that require the minimum amount of total movement.

Nature's Investigator The Diary of Robert Brown in Australia, 1801-1805, Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra, (p.7) Vallance et al. comment that compared to the Baudin expedition this was a 'modest contingent of scientific gentlemen', which reflects 'British parsimony' in scientific endeavour.

Variance explained criteria: Some researchers simply use the rule of keeping enough factors to account for 90% (sometimes 80%) of the variation. Where the researcher's goal emphasizes parsimony (explaining variance with as few factors as possible), the criterion could be as low as 50%.

Brower, AVZ. 2017. Statistical consistency and phylogenetic inference: a brief review. Cladistics. (early view: DOI: 10.1111/cla.12216) Although often viewed as a failing of parsimony-based methodology, LBA could in principle result from a variety of scenarios and be inferred under multiple analytical paradigms.

Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden. printed by Allen Press: USA. This result had only weak maximum parsimony jackknife support, but in a phylogenomic study in 2015, it received strong maximum likelihood bootstrap support. Since 2006, phylogenies of two of the subfamilies, VanilloideaeKenneth M. Cameron. 2011.

Yet despite this diversity of options, the biosphere relies on four elements—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (CHON)—as the foundation of every living thing on earth. Adding trace amounts of sulfur, phosphorus and calcium we can account for the weight of 99 percent of every living thing on the planet. Parsimony in the biosphere makes it possible break down an organism like a rabbit locally and reassemble its constituent materials into a tree, mushroom or even another rabbit. The functional benefit of materials parsimony for circular economy is that it dramatically simplifies the logistics and transaction costs of recycling, while producing scale economies through supply concentration.

In practice, of course, unscrupulous business practices may bias this result; in phylogenetics, too, some particular phylogenetic problems (for example, long branch attraction, described above) may potentially bias results. In both cases, however, there is no way to tell if the result is going to be biased, or the degree to which it will be biased, based on the estimate itself. With parsimony too, there is no way to tell that the data are positively misleading, without comparison to other evidence. Parsimony is often characterized as implicitly adopting the position that evolutionary change is rare, or that homoplasy (convergence and reversal) is minimal in evolution.

It also can have the effect of dramatically reducing the number of materials in the product designer's pallet. Beyond green screening, the emerging strategy of uni- materialization or monomateriality takes the material parsimony approach to its logical extreme by seeking to design products from a single material.

Bucerotiformes is an order of birds that contains the hornbills, ground hornbills, hoopoes and wood hoopoes. These birds were previously classified as members of Coraciiformes.Yuri, T. et al. (2013) Parsimony and Model-Based Analyses of Indels in Avian Nuclear Genes Reveal Congruent and Incongruent Phylogenetic Signals.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00375.x)Dunn, K.A., McEachran, J.D., & Honeycutt, R.L. 2003. Molecular phylogenetics of myliobatiform fishes (Chondrichthyes: Myliobatiformes), with comments on the effects of missing data on parsimony and likelihood. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 27(2): 259-270. DOI: 10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00442-6Kearney, M. 2002.

1FC; 1-106; palaeo- electronica.org/content/fc-1 The cladogram here was modified after Muller and Reisz (2006):Muller, J. and Reisz, R.R. (2006). "The phylogeny of early eureptiles: Comparing parsimony and Bayesian approaches in the investigation of a basal fossil clade." Systematic Biology, 55(3):503-511.

Kai Müller, Thomas Borsch (2005). "Phylogenetics of Amaranthaceae using matK/trnK sequence data – evidence from parsimony, likelihood and Bayesian approaches". - Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 92: p.66-102. Romeiras, M.M., Vieira, A., Silva, D.N., Moura, M., Santos-Guerra, A., Batista, D., Duarte, M.C., & Paulo, O.S. (2016).

The quantity of proposed behavioural mechanisms appears to receive less attention than their position on a cognitive scale. Several studies have taken note of this and thus maintained skepticism of Morgan's Canon as a parsimony principle. Despite these shortcomings, several submitted alternatives, including evidentialism, aim to resolve its complications.

Parsimony is part of a class of character-based tree estimation methods which use a matrix of discrete phylogenetic characters to infer one or more optimal phylogenetic trees for a set of taxa, commonly a set of species or reproductively isolated populations of a single species. These methods operate by evaluating candidate phylogenetic trees according to an explicit optimality criterion; the tree with the most favorable score is taken as the best estimate of the phylogenetic relationships of the included taxa. Maximum parsimony is used with most kinds of phylogenetic data; until recently, it was the only widely used character-based tree estimation method used for morphological data. Estimating phylogenies is not a trivial problem.

In phylogenetics, informative site is a term used in the context of maximum parsimony, to refer to a characteristic that can usefully distinguish between samples at a genetic level (for example samples from different species or sub- species). The informative site is a position in the relevant set of sequences at which there are at least two different character states at that point in the sequences, and each of those states occurs in at least two of the sequences. Character states can take on multiple types of data, including morphological (such as the presence of wings, tentacles, etc.) or molecular information such as sequences of DNA or proteins. Example of parsimony informative sites.

While in Washington, he self-published the book Types Best Remembered/Types Best Forgotten on good and bad choices of font. He married Abigail Scully in the United States and had four children. After retiring from Microsoft in 1997, he ran his fine press brand, the Parsimony Press, in Huntspill, Somerset.

On July 31, 1941 the Philippine Department had 22,000 troops assigned, 12,000 of whom were Philippine Scouts. The main component was the Philippine Division, under the command of Major General Jonathan M. Wainwright. Between July and December 1941 the garrison received 8,500 reinforcements. After years of parsimony, much equipment was shipped.

Foundations of Occam's razor and parsimony in learning from ricoh.com D Stork – NIPS 2001 Workshop, 2001Occam's razor as a formal basis for a physical theory from arxiv.org AN Soklakov – Foundations of Physics Letters, 2002 – SpringerBeyond the Turing Test from uclm.es J HERNANDEZ-ORALLO – Journal of Logic, Language, and …, 2000 – dsi.uclm.

His particular interest was in population forecasting methodology. According to him, one must balance parsimony with efficiency, minimise the input and maximise the projection output, by selecting a limited numbers of parameters with inherent analytical capacity. The credibility of forecasting rests largely on the analytical quality of the assumptions underlying projections.Romaniuk A. 1990.

The parsimony, as well as complementary findings from other studies would indicate a general deficit in the SAS. When various statistical correlations were computed, schizophrenic patients were fundamentally related although not entirely paralleled with patients with frontal lobe dysfunction. In contrast to the general impairment imposed for schizophrenics, focal lesions assumed specific deficits.

One important contribution that he made to modern science and modern intellectual culture was efficient reasoning with the principle of parsimony in explanation and theory building that came to be known as Occam's Razor. This maxim, as interpreted by Bertrand Russell, states that if one can explain a phenomenon without assuming this or that hypothetical entity, there is no ground for assuming it, i.e. that one should always opt for an explanation in terms of the fewest possible causes, factors, or variables. He turned this into a concern for ontological parsimony; the principle says that one should not multiply entities beyond necessity – – although this well-known formulation of the principle is not to be found in any of William's extant writings.

It is often the case in the study of phylogenies that the vast majority of organisms of interest are long extinct. It is therefore a matter of speculation to reconstruct what ancestral organisms existed long before the present time, and how the evolutionary process led from one organism to another, and which present-day organisms are most closely related. Character evolution and the character state changes that drive this type of evolution are what help researchers construct these trees in a fashion referred to as maximum parsimony. When talking about phylogenetics, maximum parsimony refers to a method of inferring a phylogenetic tree in a way that minimizes the number of implied character state transformations in the observed data (hence maximally parsimonious).

Their cladogram is shown below. Sookias (2016) also performed another study on Euparkeriidae using both parsimony and Bayesian analysis. This study found Halazhaisuchus, Osmolskina, and "Turfanosuchus" shageduensis to all be valid members of a monophylectic (albeit poorly supported) Euparkeriidae, and more closely related to each other than to Euparkeria. Dorosuchus was placed outside Euparkeriidae.

However, different optimality criteria can select different hypotheses. In such circumstances caution should be exercised when making strong conclusions. Many other disciplines use similar criteria or have specific measures geared toward the objectives of the field. Optimality criteria include maximum likelihood, Bayesian, maximum parsimony, sum of squared residuals, least absolute deviations, and many others.

One possible phylogeny for the seven subfamilies recognised within the family is shown below. Although generally agreeing on the main division of the Asparagaceae into two clades, studies have produced slightly different relationships among the Agavoideae, Aphyllanthoideae, Brodiaeoideae and Scilloideae. For example, Seberg et al. (2012) present analyses based on parsimony and on maximum likelihood.

Merge advocates for modularity by arguing that the same class of perceptual phenomena that is accounted for in TRACE can be explained in a connectionist architecture that does not include feedback connections. Norris et al. point out that when two theories can explain the same phenomenon, parsimony dictates that the simpler theory is preferable.

In 1929, Pauling published five rules which help to predict and explain crystal structures of ionic compounds. These rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius to anion radius, (2) the electrostatic bond strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) the rule of parsimony.

Italian was the official language, used by the public administration, while Sardinian was the language spoken at home and among friends. The characteristic expressions of the dialect are usually inspired by the peasant and pastoral world. Many proverbs refer to the values of honesty, friendship, fidelity (of the woman), loyalty, parsimony and obedience to the divine will.

"His economy of the public money was the severest, sharpest, most stringent and constant refusal of almost any grant that could be proposed." With him, "not only was ... parsimony the best subsidy—but ... the only one".C. J. Ingersoll, quoted Hamilton 1933. He supported all of the foreign policies of Jefferson and Madison from 1801 to 1817.

However, minimality (or parsimony) is not the only logical virtue. A common misapprehension of Occam's razor has it that the simpler theory is always the best. In fact, the principle is that the simpler of two theories of equal explanatory power is to be preferred. In other words: additional "entities" can pay their way with enhanced explanatory power.

Moreover, another genetic group was created: coastal species. However, no evidence were shown for more environment implication in driving speciation, which may be the result of both adaptation and allopatry. The concept of cryptic species, rare among such an iconic group, is mentioned, regarding several divergent populations. In the meantime, Escapa and Catalano published a phylogenetic analysis using parsimony.

Ji, Y., Wang, X., Liu, Y., and Ji, Q. (2011). "Systematics, behavior and living environment of Shantungosaurus giganteus (Dinosauria: Hadrosauridae)." Acta Geologica Sinica (English Edition), 85(1): 58-65. Sacrum once classified as Huaxiaosaurus Recent maximum parsimony-based phylogenetic analyses of Hadrosauroidea from Xing and colleagues recovered a stable sister group relationship between Edmontosaurus and Shantungosaurus.

It is cumbersome to use because the number of event pair characters increases with the square of the number of events compared. Event pairing can however be automated, for instance with the PARSIMOV script. A recent method, continuous analysis, rests on a simple standardization of ontogenetic time or sequences, on squared change parsimony and phylogenetic independent contrasts.

He was noted as arrogant, despising things he did not understand and condemning any opinions he disagreed with regardless of his knowledge of them. He never attempted to reform the judicial system, and "his habits of sordid parsimony brought discredit on the high station which he filled".Campbell (2006), p. 18. Campbell, however, has been criticized as a biographer.

Epstein R. 1984. The principle of parsimony and some applications in psychology. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 5 119–130 The Romanes grave, Greyfriars Kirkyard in Edinburgh As a young man, Romanes was a Christian, and some, including his religious wife, later said that he regained some of that belief during his final illness.'Physicus' [Romanes G.J.] 1878.

This bears a small pseudobranch that resembles a gill in structure, but only receives blood already oxygenated by the true gills. The spiracle is thought to be homologous to the ear opening in higher vertebrates.Laurin M. (1998): The importance of global parsimony and historical bias in understanding tetrapod evolution. Part I-systematics, middle ear evolution, and jaw suspension.

Furnham became an Eysenckian after reading his books and papers, and started using his psychometric tests during his PhD. In 2008, Furnham wrote a paper suggesting five reasons why Eysenck's tests have remained popular for a long time. He suggested that these reasons are: parsimony, explanation of process, experimentation, wide application, and continuous improvement and development.

Sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene revealed phylogenetic relatives within 95.0 to 96.1 percent similarity. Those relatives are as follows: Hydrogena, Acidovorax, Comamonas, and Xylophilus. Xenophilus azovorans can be set apart from these other genera based on its unique fatty acid composition. A phylogenetic tree was built using the maximum-parsimony method, and close branches are listed below.

Jackknifing and bootstrapping, well-known statistical resampling procedures, have been employed with parsimony analysis. The jackknife, which involves resampling without replacement ("leave-one-out") can be employed on characters or taxa; interpretation may become complicated in the latter case, because the variable of interest is the tree, and comparison of trees with different taxa is not straightforward. The bootstrap, resampling with replacement (sample x items randomly out of a sample of size x, but items can be picked multiple times), is only used on characters, because adding duplicate taxa does not change the result of a parsimony analysis. The bootstrap is much more commonly employed in phylogenetics (as elsewhere); both methods involve an arbitrary but large number of repeated iterations involving perturbation of the original data followed by analysis.

The argument supporting accessibility as the psychological process underlying framing has also been cited as support in the debate over whether framing should be subsumed by agenda-setting theory as part of the second level of agenda setting. McCombs and other agenda-setting scholars generally agree that framing should be incorporated, along with priming, under the umbrella of agenda setting as a complex model of media effects linking media production, content, and audience effects. Indeed, McCombs, Llamas, Lopez- Escobar, and Rey justified their attempt to combine framing and agenda-setting research on the assumption of parsimony. Scheufele, however, argues that, unlike agenda setting and priming, framing does not rely primarily on accessibility, making it inappropriate to combine framing with agenda setting and priming for the sake of parsimony.

The accumulation of saving and parsimony of capitalists leads to greater increases in capital which leads to a more productive state. Smith advocates this parsimony of profit as a virtue. Smith provides the example of the colonial United States for the positive relationship between the wage fund and investment in capital. He says that England is a much more wealthy economy than anywhere in America; however, he believes that the true wealth lies within the market for wage funds and the growth rate of the population. The colonies have a much higher wage rate than England due to a lower cost of provisions and necessities to survive, which result in a higher competition for human capital among the “masters” of the economy, which in turn raises the wage rate and increases the wage fund.

There she learns of the discovery of a note from her brother, Jack, urging the woman to accept the money. Misunderstanding the note Kathryn takes it to her father, upon whom dawns the true state of things. Through parsimony he has made himself a virtual instigator of his son's evil intentions. Whereupon an immediate raise of wages is given all employees.

Despite a fortune estimated at 14.1 million Swiss francs in the late 1980s, Buchheim became known for parsimony. He used a camping table in his dining room, and according to his son, did not pay taxes and reused print blocks made by Otto Müller, forging the artist's initials. He died of heart failure in Starnberg, survived by his wife, Diethild, and two children.

The Bayesian analysis of Cau (2018) placed scansoriopterygids in Oviraptorosauria again, while the parsimony analysis placed them in the base of Avialae, and included Xiaotingia in Scansoriopterygidae as sister to the rest of the group. Pittman et al. (2020) again found scansoriopterygids to be basal oviraptorosaurs. The cladogram below follows the results of a phylogenetic study by Lefèvre et al.

An additional improvement that corrects for correlations between distances that arise from many closely related sequences in the data set can also be applied at increased computational cost. Finding the optimal least-squares tree with any correction factor is NP-complete, so heuristic search methods like those used in maximum-parsimony analysis are applied to the search through tree space.

The maximum parsimony tree is the simplest tree that has the minimum number of steps possible. Phylogenies confer important historical processes that shape current distributions of genes and species. When two species become isolated from each other they retain some of the same ancestral alleles also known as allele sharing. Alleles can be shared because of lineage sorting and hybridization.

In phylogenetics, parsimony informative sites are those with at least two states. Here, this is sites 2 and 4. Site 2 indicates a grouping of Species A and C, while site 4 indicates a grouping of Species A and B. Because these two sites conflict, other analyses (such as maximum likelihood) are needed to resolve the phylogenetic tree of these four species.

A smaller opening, the spiracle, lies in the back of the first gill slit. This bears a small pseudobranch that resembles a gill in structure, but only receives blood already oxygenated by the true gills. The spiracle is thought to be homologous to the ear opening in higher vertebrates.Laurin M. (1998): The importance of global parsimony and historical bias in understanding tetrapod evolution.

Chonocentrum(Phyllanthaceae, incertae sedis), and three members of the tribe Scepeae (Ashtonia, Distichirrhops, and Nothobaccaurea) have not yet been sampled for DNA. Chonocentrum is known from only a single specimen collected in the 1850s. In the phylogeny shown below, statistical support for the clades was measured by bootstrap percentage. All branches shown below have maximum parsimony bootstrap support of at least 70%.

Existence is its entire being and its only quality. Essentially, this critique rests on the idea of Quantitative Ontological Parsimony, meaning that because the theory that there exists something simpler than monads is more basic in nature and postulates fewer entities, it ought to be preferred Fitzpatrick, Simon. “Simplicity in the Philosophy of Science.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, John Carroll University, www.iep.utm.

William of Ockham emphasised the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving objectEdward Grant, A Source Book in Medieval Science, (Harvard Univ. Press, 1974), p. 232 and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye.

A smaller opening, the spiracle, lies in the back of the first gill slit. This bears a small pseudobranch that resembles a gill in structure, but only receives blood already oxygenated by the true gills. The spiracle is thought to be homologous to the ear opening in higher vertebrates.Laurin M. (1998): The importance of global parsimony and historical bias in understanding tetrapod evolution.

They used Sequencher data analysis tools to accumulate 23S rRNA gene sequences from bacteria in all of the families within Chlamydiales. Sequence information for the 16S rRNA genes of these bacteria was collected from GenBank. They used the Clustal W program to align all of the 16S and 23S data that was collected. PAUP version 4.0 was used to create maximum parsimony and neighbor-joining phylogenetic trees.

For example, her associative sequence learning model of imitation and mirror neurons suggests they are based on associative learning. However, she is not a fan of parsimony. She argues that, when a simple and a complex explanation both fit current data, scientists need to devise new experiments to test the theories against one another. We can't assume that the simple explanation is more likely to be right.

Jonathan I. Israel, Race, Class, and Politics in Colonial Mexico, 1610–1670. London 1975. The early Caribbean has been the focus of a few important works, but compared to the central areas, is much less studied. Worth noting are a study of sixteenth-century crown efforts at defensePaul E. Hoffman, The Spanish Crown and the Defense of the Caribbean, 1535–1585: Patrimonialism and Royal Parsimony.

The Argasidae contain about 200 species; the genera accepted are Antricola, Argas, Nothoaspis, Ornithodoros, and Otobius. They have no scutum, and the capitulum (mouth and feeding parts) is concealed beneath the body. The phylogeny of the Ixodida within the Acari is shown in the cladogram, based on a 2014 maximum parsimony study of amino acid sequences of 12 mitochondrial proteins. The Argasidae appear monophyletic in this study.

The expanded edition begins with debates over definitions of science. Next, possible precursors to science are treated in the forms of knowledge prehistoric societies and theories about the notions of truth that would apply in such cultures. The section about Egyptian and Babylonian science starts with the differences in their types of arithmetic. Lindberg states that the Babylonian notation is superior because of its greater parsimony.

Eusthenodon belongs to the family Tristichopteridae, a subdivision of the order Osteolepiformes within the greater class of Sarcopterygii. Sarcopterygii is the major clade that diverted from the ray-finned teleosts with the evolution of lobed-fins. The phylogeny of Tristichopteridae was described by Gael Clement, Daniel Snitting, and P.E. Ahlberg (2008) after performing a maximum parsimony analysis of the interrelationships of within the clade.

Without a statistical model underlying the method, its estimates do not have well- defined uncertainties. # Convergent evolution. When considering a single character state, parsimony will automatically assume that two organisms that share that characteristic will be more closely related than those who do not. For example, just because dogs and apes have fur does not mean that they are more closely related than apes are to humans.

Phrynosomatid lizards show remarkable morphological diversity, including in the relative muscle fiber type composition in their hindlimb muscles. Ancestor reconstruction based on squared-change parsimony (equivalent to maximum likelihood under Brownian motion character evolution) indicates that horned lizards, one of the three main subclades of the lineage, have undergone a major evolutionary increase in the proportion of fast-oxidative glycolytic fibers in their iliofibularis muscles.

MEGA is a modular system, too, but places greater emphasis on ease-of-use than customization of analyses. As of version 5, MEGA allows the user to reconstruct ancestral states using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and empirical Bayes methods. The Bayesian analysis of genetic sequences may confer greater robustness to model misspecification. MrBayes allows inference of ancestral states at ancestral nodes using the full hierarchical Bayesian approach.

Although the bayesian analysis placed this clade in a large polytomy with various other rhynchocephalian groups and genera, the parsimony analysis actually placed it among the eupropalinal sphenodonts. If this phylogeny is accurate, this would mean that an ancestor of this clade lost front-to-back chewing which was present in an even earlier ancestor, rather than never having it in the first place.

This branch is then taken to be outside all the other branches of the tree, which together form a monophyletic group. This imparts a sense of relative time to the tree. Incorrect choice of a root can result in incorrect relationships on the tree, even if the tree is itself correct in its unrooted form. Parsimony analysis often returns a number of equally most- parsimonious trees (MPTs).

Azerbaijani khash Khash is a purist meal with great parsimony in ingredients. The feet are depilated, cleaned, kept in cold water in order to get rid of bad smell, and boiled in water all night long, until the water has become a thick broth and the meat has separated from the bones. No salt or spices are added during the boiling process. The dish is served hot.

So, platonic versions of neutral monism argue that information is realised both physically and phenomenologically. Some may also find Platonism appealing thanks to its parsimony: logical truths may necessarily exist, and the mental and physical are mere consequences of this necessary existence. These theories also have the advantage of having coherently defined the neutral variable, thus having overcome what's long been a major challenge for neutral monism.

An alternative was presented by William of Ockham, following the manner of the earlier Franciscan John Duns Scotus, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or Occam's razor – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one, and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.Grant, p. 142; Nicholas, p. 134.

The resulting cladistic tree of their analysis was resolved using Maximum-Parsimony. 61 hadrosauroid species were included, characterized for 273 morphological features: 189 for cranial features and 84 for postcranial features. When characters had multiple states that formed an evolutionary scheme, they were ordered to account for the evolution of one state into the next. The final tree was run through TNT version 1.0.

Bentham believed that true parsimony would require punishment to be individualised to take account of the sensibility of the individual—an individual more sensitive to punishment should be given a proportionately lesser one, since otherwise needless pain would be inflicted. Later utilitarian writers have tended to abandon this idea, in large part due to the impracticality of determining each alleged criminal's relative sensitivity to specific punishments.

William wrote a great deal on natural philosophy, including a long commentary on Aristotle's Physics.André Goddu, The Physics of William of Ockham, , , Brill Academic Pub., 1984. According to the principle of ontological parsimony, he holds that we do not need to allow entities in all ten of Aristotle's categories; we thus do not need the category of quantity, as the mathematical entities are not "real".

Applying the Materials Parsimony rule to industry requires simplifying of the number and types of materials used in products. While expecting business to use the same four elements as nature is currently impractical, businesses can dramatically reduce the number of materials employed in manufacture, with a small number doing the yeoman's work. For special isolated applications, a smaller set of select materials could be reserved and designed to be easily separated from the bulk of the product. By making these choices, business could absorb a large percent of production within a circular materials economy. A first step towards materials parsimony that some companies are using is the materials sourcing strategy known as “green screening,” which seeks to exclude potentially hazardous materials from products. Limiting the “materials palette” to environmentally benign inputs at the design stage makes dealing with product and process waste much easier.

Regarded by contemporaries as very able, Wilkie impressed and shocked them. Meeting him at Alexander Carlyle's in 1759, Charles Townshend considered that no man of his acquaintance "approached so near the two extremes of a god and a brute". Credited with parsimony, Wilkie said he had learned economy through his having "shaken hands with poverty up to the very elbow." At his death he left property worth £3,000.

Tree rearrangements are used in heuristic algorithms devoted to searching for an optimal tree structure. They can be applied to any set of data that are naturally arranged into a tree, but have most applications in computational phylogenetics, especially in maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood searches of phylogenetic trees, which seek to identify one among many possible trees that best explains the evolutionary history of a particular gene or species.

Moje wspomnienia, p. 499. Witos also illustrated Ptak's parsimony with an episode that took place in the first months after the establishment of the Polish state, around 1919, when a Polish military detachment commandeered Ptak some oats. Poland was at the time in a war with the Soviet Union to the eastern border. “Mr. Ptak defended himself against giving away oats so much that they had to be overtaken by force.

The genus Hubera was resolved to be sister to Miliusa, with certain species previously under Polyalthia being additionally reclassified. This reclassification was highly supported by maximum parsimony, Bayesian analysis, and morphological characters. Hubera is characterized by reticulate tertiary venation, axillary inflorescences, 1 ovule per ovary, seeds with flat to slightly raised raphes, and other characters. Hubera's phylogenetic distance and morphological difference from Monoon and Polyalthia, distinguish Hubera on the generic level.

Trees are generated using heuristic parsimony methods, and are based on protein domain architecture data for all genomes in SUPERFAMILY. Genome combinations, or specific clades, can be displayed as individual trees. Similar Domain Architectures This feature allows the user to find the 10 domain architectures which are most similar to the domain architecture of interest. Hidden Markov Models Produce SCOP domain assignments for a sequence using the SUPERFAMILY hidden Markov models.

One benefit of a Promise Theory approach is that it does not require special structural elements (e.g. Ostrom's institutional "Positions") to describe different roles in a collaborate network—these may also be viewed as promises in Promise Theory; thus there is a parsimony that helps to avoid an explosion of concepts, and perhaps more importantly admits mathematical formalization. The algebra and calculus of promises allows simple reasoning in a mathematical framework.

Research from 1996 revolves around the evolutionary origin of the parasitic nature of genus Lucilia. This was analyzed using mitochondrial DNA and parsimony analyses by construction of phylogenetic trees. These tests were used to consider the relationships between the numerous species within the genus Lucilia and when each species developed a myiasis habit. The results show timelines of myiasis development within several of the Lucilia species (Stevens 1997).

On his three-year-old debut, Sharpen Up ran in the Greenham Stakes over seven furlongs at Newbury Racecourse and finished second to Martinmas. Sharpen Up missed the 2000 Guineas and did not appear again for three months. He was brought back to sprint distances for the July Cup over six furlongs at Newmarket. He sweated up before the race but ran well to finish second to the filly Parsimony.

Mr. Raj K. Saxena (Kader Khan) is known for his parsimony. Everything he does and thinks is valued with money, and ways he can accumulate it. His daughter, Kiran (Ameesha Patel), is the opposite, a spendthrift. Mr. Saxena borrows money from elderly people, assuring them of returning the loan with a handsome rate of interest after about 20 years, knowing fully well that none of them will survive 20 years.

These methods employ hill-climbing algorithms to progressively approach the best tree. However, it has been shown that there can be "tree islands" of suboptimal solutions, and the analysis can become trapped in these local optima. Thus, complex, flexible heuristics are required to ensure that tree space has been adequately explored. Several heuristics are available, including nearest neighbor interchange (NNI), tree bisection reconnection (TBR), and the parsimony ratchet.

Phylogenetics may be applied to cells in tumors to reveal the evolutionary relationships between cells, just as it is used to reveal evolutionary relationships between organisms and species. Shibata, Tavare and colleagues have exploited this to estimate the time between the initiation of a tumor and its detection in the clinic. Louhelainen et al. have used parsimony to reconstruct the relationships between biopsy samples based on loss of heterozygosity.

These methods distinguish which allele is present at which chromosome by separating the chromosomes before genotyping. They can be very time-consuming and expensive, so statistical inference methods have been developed as a less expensive and automated option. These statistical-inference software packages utilize parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian algorithms to determine haplotypes. Disadvantage of statistical-inference is that a proportion of the inferred haplotypes could be wrong.

The central hypothesis of generative anthropology is that the origin of language was a singular event. Human language is radically different from animal communication systems. It possesses syntax, allowing for unlimited new combinations and content; it is symbolic, and it possesses a capacity for history. Thus it is hypothesized that the origin of language must have been a singular event, and the principle of parsimony requires that it originated only once.

British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray first described the genus in his 1821 work "A Natural Arrangement of British Plants". Parsimony analysis of internal transcribed spacer sequences of various Albatrellus species show that the genus is not monophyletic, and that the species may be divided into two clades. This corroborates prior phylogenetic analysis that suggested that Albatrellus consists of two separate groups with affinity to the Russuloid and Polyporoid clades.

Stellasaurus is placed within the Ceratopsidae in the Centrosaurinae. The descriptors view the species as an intermediate between Styracosaurus albertensis and Einiosaurus, and not closely related to Rubeosaurus ovatus (which the describers consider to be a species of Styracosaurus). The authors dismiss an interpretation of the evolution of ceratopsids in these formations as a succession of divisions. They see this as a violation of the requirement of parsimony.

The generation of networks required two phases. In the first phase, the researchers devised a number of phylogenies, called candidate trees, to be tested for compatibility. A character is compatible when its origin is explained by the phylogeny generated.. In a perfect phylogeny, all the characters are compatible and the compatibility of the tree is 100%. By the principle of parsimony, or Occam's razor, no networks are warranted.

Ockham defended the principle of parsimony, which could already be seen in the works of his mentor Duns Scotus. His principle later became known as Occam's Razor and states that if there are various equally valid explanations for a fact, then the simplest one should be chosen. This became a foundation of what would come to be known as the scientific method and one of the pillars of reductionism in science.

Yuri, T. (2013) Parsimony and model-based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals. Biology, 2:419–44. Recently it has been determined that the elephant birds of the extinct order Aepyornithiformes were the closest relatives of the kiwis, and therefore are part of this group. The implication is that ratites had lost flight independently in each group, as the elephant birds are the only novaeratites found outside Oceania.

For example, transitions tend to occur more often than transversions in the evolution of nucleic acids. This assumption can be relaxed by assigning differential costs to specific character state changes, resulting in a weighted parsimony algorithm. # Rapid evolution. The upshot of the "minimum evolution" heuristic underlying such methods is that such methods assume that changes are rare, and thus are inappropriate in cases where change is the norm rather than the exception.

Tiger phylogenetic relationships, bootstrap values shown in branches.Example of long branch attraction. Longer branches (A & C) appear to be more closely related. There are many approaches to reconstructing phylogenetic trees, each with advantages and disadvantages, and there is no straightforward answer to “what is the best method?”. Maximum parsimony (MP) and maximum likelihood (ML) are traditional methods widely used for the estimation of phylogenies and both use character information directly, as Bayesian methods do.

In 1991, Schmutz and Moker first reported the karyotype of the northern hawk-owl and found it to resemble considerably that of the genus Athene. Maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood phylogenetic trees created from nucleotide sequencing of the cytochrome b gene demonstrated that Surnia and Glaucidium form a paraphyletic group.Nieuwenhuyse Dv, Génot J-C, Johnson DH. (2008) The little owl : Conservation, ecology, and behavior of Athene noctua. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press .

Critiques such as those based on the distinction between theory and fact are often leveled against unifying concepts within scientific disciplines. Principles such as uniformitarianism, Occam's razor or parsimony, and the Copernican principle are claimed to be the result of a bias within science toward philosophical naturalism, which is equated by many creationists with atheism.; ; ; . Peters and Hewlett argue that the atheism of many evolutionary supporters must be removed from the debate.

That is, it is not guaranteed to produce the true tree with high probability, given sufficient data. As demonstrated in 1978 by Joe Felsenstein, maximum parsimony can be inconsistent under certain conditions, such as long-branch attraction. Of course, any phylogenetic algorithm could also be statistically inconsistent if the model it employs to estimate the preferred tree does not accurately match the way that evolution occurred in that clade. This is unknowable.

A maximum parsimony analysis runs in a very straightforward fashion. Trees are scored according to the degree to which they imply a parsimonious distribution of the character data. The most parsimonious tree for the dataset represents the preferred hypothesis of relationships among the taxa in the analysis. Trees are scored (evaluated) by using a simple algorithm to determine how many "steps" (evolutionary transitions) are required to explain the distribution of each character.

These ideas lead to the following particular formulation of Occam's razor: 'Other things being equal, if T1 is more ontologically parsimonious than T2 then it is rational to prefer T1 to T2.' While a common formulation stipulates only that entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity, this version by contrast, states that entities should not be multiplied other things being equal, and this is compatible with parsimony being a comparatively weak theoretical virtue.

The monophyly of Euphorbiaceae had long been held in doubt by some, but the first strong evidence of its polyphyly came in 1993 with the first maximum parsimony analysis of DNA sequences of the gene rbcL from a large number of seed plants.Mark W. Chase et alii (42 authors). 1993. "Phylogenetics of seed plants: an analysis of nucleotide sequences from the plastid gene rbcL." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 80(3):528-580.

The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a cladogram – a tree-shaped diagram (dendrogram) that is interpreted to represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characteristics calculated by hand, genetic sequencing data and computational phylogenetics are now commonly used and the parsimony criterion has been abandoned by many phylogeneticists in favor of more "sophisticated" (but less parsimonious) evolutionary models of character state transformation.

Minimum evolution is a distance method employed in phylogenetics modeling. It shares with maximum parsimony the aspect of searching for the phylogeny that has the shortest total sum of branch lengths. The theoretical foundations of the minimum evolution (ME) criterion lay in the seminal works of both Kidd and Sgaramella-Zonta and Rzhetsky and Nei . In these frameworks, the molecular sequences from taxa are replaced by a set of measures of their dissimilarity (i.e.

Accipitrimorphae is a clade of birds of prey that include the orders Cathartiformes (New World vultures) and Accipitriformes (diurnal birds of prey such as eagles, hawks, osprey and secretarybird).Yuri, T. (2013) Parsimony and model-based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals. Biology, 2:419–44.Kimball, R.T. et al. (2013) Identifying localized biases in large datasets: A case study using the Avian Tree of Life.

Kingoria was defined early on as a close relative to Kombuisia and Hotton describes the two groups as sister taxa. Kingoria and K. frerensis were relatively close geographically during their time of existence. Kingoria fossils are found in the mid to southern region of Africa. In a re-evaluation of the cranial anatomy of K. frerensis using the rule of parsimony the most recent conclusion is that Kingoria and Kombuisia are sister taxa of the Kingoriidae clade.

The ARB Project and the FastDNAml tool were used to perform maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses. The maximum likelihood analysis was performed by comparing the rRNA sequence from Parachlamydia acanthamoebae to rRNA sequences from the entire ARB Project database. The maximum likelihood analysis compared the P. acanthamoebae rRNA sequences with the same bacteria used in the distance matrix. Their analyses showed that P. acanthamoebae has an 86 to 87% sequence similarity with bacteria in the Chlamydia genus.

These two methods are similar but the maximum parsimony method's objective is to find the tree (or network) in which the minimum number of evolutionary changes occurs. In some implementations the characters can be given weights and then the objective is to minimise the total weighted sum of the changes. The analysis produces unrooted trees unless an outgroup is used or directed characters. Heuristics are used to find the best tree but optimisation is not guaranteed.

Ross and al. 2013Tehrani 2013 Literature: Cladistic methods have been used in the classification of the surviving manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales, and the manuscripts of the Sanskrit Charaka Samhita. Historical linguistics: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of languages using linguistic features. This is similar to the traditional comparative method of historical linguistics, but is more explicit in its use of parsimony and allows much faster analysis of large datasets (computational phylogenetics).

Simple genetic distance calculations will thus undercount the number of mutation events that have occurred in evolutionary history. The extent of this undercount increases with increasing time since divergence, which can lead to the phenomenon of long branch attraction, or the misassignment of two distantly related but convergently evolving sequences as closely related. The maximum parsimony method is particularly susceptible to this problem due to its explicit search for a tree representing a minimum number of distinct evolutionary events.

The family Pettalidae is monophyletic, although it is at the moment (2007) unclear what the nearest relatives are. It probably originated in the southern part of Gondwana. Parsimony analysis suggests it could be a sister group to the remaining Cyphophthalmi, though this could also be the case for the Stylocellidae, or it could be related to the Sironidae, or specifically to the sironid genus Suzukielus. It is unrelated to the Troglosironidae that are endemic to New Caledonia.

For instance, some consider M. amanthonte a subspecies of Morpho melanus, but this is not supported by morphology. Some older studies have identified 75 Morpho species, and newer studies recognize about 30 species. Despite the many species of the Morpho butterfly displayed in collections, they usually have mismatched or missing abdomens which make it difficult for research. Using combined studies of parsimony and Bayesian analyses, Morpho melanus is associated with the M. helenor, M. sulkowskyi and M. amonthonte clades.

In addition, it is possible that some branches of the tree could be experiencing higher selection and change rates than others, perhaps due to changing environmental factors. Some periods of time may represent more rapid evolution than others, when this happens parsimony becomes inaccurate. This shortcoming is addressed by model-based methods (both maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods) that infer the stochastic process of evolution as it unfolds along each branch of a tree. # Statistical justification.

25, 41–42 Somerset lost three sites for a proposed new drill hall because the War Office took so long to approve plans, and Essex had to wait five years before it received approval for the construction of new rifle ranges.Mitchinson 2008 pp. 34–35, 110 Good facilities were regarded by the associations as important for efficiency, unit esprit de corps and recruitment, and the authorities' parsimony and apparent obstruction were seen as undermining these.Mitchinson 2008 pp.

Sinsheimer graduated from Brown University in 1979, majoring in chemistry. She earned a master's degree in biochemistry in 1985 from Brandeis University, a second master's degree in biomathematics in 1988 from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), and a Ph.D. in biomathematics in 1994 from UCLA. Her dissertation, Extensions to Evolutionary Parsimony, concerned phylogeny (the inference of evolutionary trees), and was jointly supervised by evolutionary biologist James A. Lake and biostatistician Roderick J. A. Little.

A group of phylogenetic analyses recovered Coeruleodraco as one of the earliest diverging members of a group of small-bodied Eurasian choristoderes. This group was likely a clade according to the parsimony analysis, in which case it was the sister taxon of the gharial-like neochoristoderes, although its monophyly is more uncertain under the bootstrap analysis. The only known genus of choristodere which diverged earlier than Coeruleodraco was Cteniogenys, which acquired a few specialized features independently of other choristoders.

Parsimony of the East India Company, non-availability of trained engineers and use of local materials and artisans resulted in the simple design and construction initially. The vulnerability of these earlier forts, hostilities with the French and the growing might of the Company resulted in stronger and more complex designs for the second round of construction, the design of Fort St George reflecting the influences of the French engineer Vauban.Sandes, E.W.C. The Military Engineer in India, Vol I.

The winning time was a new course record. At York Racecourse in August, Deep Diver faced a field which included Stilvi, Rose Dubarry and the July Cup winner Parsimony in the Nunthorpe Stakes. Ridden by Williamson, he started at odds of 100/30 and won by two lengths from Stilvi in a new course record time of 57.7 seconds. In October he ended his career in the Group One Prix de l'Abbaye over 1000m at Longchamp.

The parsimony-based and implied-weights analyses for the Carballido dataset found Klamelisaurus close to the Phu Kradung and Shishugou specimens, as well as M. youngi; the Bayesian analysis found M. constructus and M. hochuanensis closer than the latter two. The parsimony-based analysis for the Gonzàlez Riga dataset found Klamelisaurus close to M. youngi, M. hochuanensis, and Qijianglong; and the implied-weights and Bayesian analyses found it close to the Phu Kradung and Shishugou specimens, with the latter also including Chuanjiesaurus, M. constructus, and Euhelopus. Nearly all of their analyses found the "core Mamenchisaurus-like taxa" to be closely related to Euhelopus, Daxiatitan, and Dongbeititan, traditionally considered part of the more derived Macronaria. They recovered this wider group — which they termed the Euhelopodidae — outside of the Neosauropoda; the implied-weights analysis on the Carballido dataset placed it as an early-diverging macronarian lineage, also including Bellusaurus, while the implied-weights analysis on the Gonzàlez Riga dataset found Euhelopus among macronarians as a somphospondyl (in which case they called the group Mamenchisauridae).

Graham, pp. 45,50 Walker eventually wrote a detailed and frank account of the expedition, based on his memory as well as surviving journals and papers; it is reprinted in Graham. Walker was stripped of his rank in 1715 (amid a larger change of power including the accession of King George I), and died in 1728.Graham, pp. 51–52 Popular sentiment in England tended to fault the colonies for failing to properly support the expedition, citing parsimony and stubbornness as reasons.

More on medieval philosophy and metaphysics: Medieval Philosophy Between about 1100 and 1500, philosophy as a discipline took place as part of the Catholic church's teaching system, known as scholasticism. Scholastic philosophy took place within an established framework blending Christian theology with Aristotelian teachings. Although fundamental orthodoxies were not commonly challenged, there were nonetheless deep metaphysical disagreements, particularly over the problem of universals, which engaged Duns Scotus and Pierre Abelard. William of Ockham is remembered for his principle of ontological parsimony.

Using the Ezcurra et al. (2014) data set, Sobral, Sues and Müller (2015) found Elachistosuchus with Coelurosauravus just outside Sauria using parsimony, or alternatively as the basalmost archosauromorph (out of the included taxa), using the Bayesian approach. Although still uncertain, the phylogenetic position as broadly recovered by these analyses, rejects pseudosuchian and rhynchocephalian affinities for Elachistosuchus, suggested by earlier studies. The two cladograms below shows simplified topologies recovered by Sobral, Sues and Müller (2015) when using the Bayesian approach for Chen et al.

Under these models, the tree is estimated unrooted; rooting, and consequently determination of polarity, is performed after the analysis. The primary difference between these methods and distances is that parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian methods fit individual characters to the tree, whereas distance methods fit all the characters at once. There is nothing inherently less phylogenetic about this approach. More practically, distance methods are avoided because the relationship between individual characters and the tree is lost in the process of reducing characters to distances.

Among his achievements are the first major paper on distance matrix methods, which introduced the Fitch–Margoliash method (with Emanuel Margoliash) which seeks the tree that best predicts a set of pairwise distances among species. He also developed the Fitch maximum parsimony algorithm, which evaluates rapidly and exactly the minimum number of changes of state of a sequence on a given phylogeny. His definition of orthologous sequences has been frequently cited and is used as a reference in many research publications.

In the latter case, it is implied that a character state change has occurred between the ancestor and one of its two immediate descendants. Each such event counts towards the algorithm's cost function, which may be used to discriminate among alternative trees on the basis of maximum parsimony. Next, a pre-order traversal of the tree is performed, proceeding from the root towards the tips. Character states are then assigned to each descendant based on which character states it shares with its parent.

Hall gives an example of an SD: :The language used between pilots and the control-tower personnel is an excellent example of a very high-context SD, developed in response to the need for a language of great parsimony and low ambiguity. (...) Situational dialects of these types frequently make use of restricted codes–and remember, restricted codes are for the insider. Everything is condensed: grammar, vocabulary, intonation. All the rules that are so carefully learned in the classroom go right out the window.

One of the early and central criticisms to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model was the inclusion of the sensory registers as part of memory. Specifically, the original model seemed to describe the sensory registers as both a structure and a control process. Parsimony would suggest that if the sensory registers are actually control processes, there is no need for a tri-partite system. Later revisions to the model addressed these claims and incorporated the sensory registers with the short-term store.

Mandated to be fire-proof, the custom houses, post offices, courthouses and hospitals he built featured masonry foundations, walls and vaulting, with cast iron interior structural and decorative elements, including columns, stairways and railings. Heavy iron shutters were mounted on the inside of windows. Floors and treads were marble, and roofs were galvanized metal. Column capitols, fascia and pediments on the exterior, when not stone, were cast iron painted to look like stone—which drew criticism of parsimony by the federal architect.

The input data used in a maximum parsimony analysis is in the form of "characters" for a range of taxa. There is no generally agreed-upon definition of a phylogenetic character, but operationally a character can be thought of as an attribute, an axis along which taxa are observed to vary. These attributes can be physical (morphological), molecular, genetic, physiological, or behavioral. The only widespread agreement on characters seems to be that variation used for character analysis should reflect heritable variation.

On the role of intellectuals in the education of aristocratic youth at Rome, see Beryl Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 153–154 online. Although his poor remuneration is noted as evidence of Crassus's parsimony,Plutarch, Crassus 3.3; Elizabeth Rawson, Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), p. 81. it has been suggested that in failing to enrich himself at Crassus's expense Alexander asserted a positive philosophical stance disregarding material possessions.

The purpose of the patrocladogram in biological classification is to form a hypothesis about which evolutionary processes are actually involved before making a taxonomic decision. Patrocladograms are based on biostatistics that include but are not limited to: parsimony, distance matrix, likelihood methods, and Bayesian probability. Some examples of genomically related data that can be used as inputs for these methods are: molecular sequences, whole genome sequences, gene frequencies, restriction sites, distance matrices, unique characters, mutations such as SNPs, and mitochondrial genome data.

In this case, as it turned out, neither the wave—nor the particle—explanation alone suffices, as light behaves like waves and like particles. Three axioms presupposed by the scientific method are realism (the existence of objective reality), the existence of natural laws, and the constancy of natural law. Rather than depend on provability of these axioms, science depends on the fact that they have not been objectively falsified. Occam's razor and parsimony support, but do not prove, these axioms of science.

Manuscript illustration of William of Ockham Occam's razor, Ockham's razor, Ocham's razor () or law of parsimony () is the problem-solving principle that "entities should not be multiplied without necessity."Who sharpened Occam’s Razor? The idea is attributed to English Franciscan friar William of Ockham ( 1287–1347), a scholastic philosopher and theologian who used a preference for simplicity to defend the idea of divine miracles. It is variously paraphrased by statements like "the simplest explanation is most likely the right one".

Ventastega curonica belongs to Tetrapoda in accordance with the traditional definition. According to a strict parsimony phylogeny that ranked 319 characters of tetrapods (defined less inclusively as a crown group) and other tetrapodomorphs, Ventastega is part of the stem- tetrapod group, with 96% bootstrapping consensus at its node (shown below). The group of stem-tetrapods contains any extinct taxon that, according to morphological analysis, is more closely related to lissamphibians (living amphibians) and amniotes than to any other crown group.

The First Lord of the Admiralty believed Canada could not be defended from a serious attack by the U.S. and winning it back later would be difficult and costly. Bourne noted, "After 1815 the ambiguity of Anglo-American relations, the parsimony of the house of commons [sic] and the enormous practical difficulties involved always seemed to have prevented adequate preparations being made for an Anglo- American war."Bourne, p. 600. Somerset suggested a naval war as opposed to a ground war.

For purpose of parsimony, the theory assumes that the critical drivers of social activity—in all contexts and at all levels of development—can be traced to three interactive master variables—population, resources, and technology. Population involves changes in the size, distribution, and composition of people. Each of these variables can be differentiated along a number of sub- factors or variables—depending on the issues at hand or the interest of the analyst. The same can be said about resources and technology.

Full documentation is written for all the programs in the package and is included therein. The author of the package is Professor Joseph Felsenstein, of the Department of Genome Sciences and the Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle. Methods (implemented by each program) that are available in the package include parsimony, distance matrix, and likelihood methods, including bootstrapping and consensus trees. Data types that can be handled include molecular sequences, gene frequencies, restriction sites and fragments, distance matrices, and discrete characters.

209-11 However, measures against the rebels were soon hampered by the regime's habitual parsimony. On 10 March Crown wrote to Cromwell, reporting that Harris still denied involvement in any plot, but that many local people wanted the conspirators pursued, something he was keen to do if he only had the money and manpower.Thurloe Papers, Volume 3, p. 215-16 Half of Cromwell's promised reinforcements had arrived on the day of the uprising, but too late to act: the other half had not yet arrived from Derby.

A running joke has been that during the winter the house has been cold enough to freeze breath. This is contrasted with the spendthrift attitude of the kids and their locking horns with Andy over this. Arguably because Roger's money pays the bills, he is also careful with expenses, but shows nowhere near the parsimony of his wife. Andy has also been shown to obsess over certain other fads, such as "Bitty Babies" (a parody of Beanie Babies), the movie Titanic, and the Nintendo DS game Nintendogs.

Robert Christgau of The Village Voice panned the album, writing, "The musical parsimony, cultural insularity, moral certitude, and histrionic affectations of these lo-fi artier-than-thous promise indie ideologues whole lifetimes of egoistic irrelevance." Stylus Magazines Akiva Gottlieb wrote, "Obviously, Stewart has a penchant for self- examination—some of it brilliant and incisive—but his work is also obnoxiously self-indulgent." Fabulous Muscles has appeared on a few end of year lists. The Morning News named it the 7th best album of 2004.

One time, after yells from a drunkard outside, Caesar convinced himself that there was a fire and rang the alarm bell, causing minor panic amongst the other guests. 1852 saw a split, with many cricketers in the All-England Eleven leaving to form a rival United England XI under John Wisden. The split was most likely because of William Clarke's parsimony and unwillingness to increase the wages he paid his players. Caesar, the youngest of Clarke's professionals, chose to remain with the All-England Eleven.

Parapurcellia from eastern South Africa is sister to all other Pettalidae, while Purcellia from western South Africa is sister to the Chilean Chileogovea. Western South Africa and southern South America were last connected during the Late Jurassic, about 150 mya. Likewise, the monotypic Neopurcellia from New Zealand appears as the sister group to all Pettalidae except for Parapurcellia, instead of being monophyletic with the other two New Zealand genera, which themselves appear as sister groups in Bayesian analysis, but not in direct optimization parsimony analyses.

Researchers have collected and analyzed molecular data from 13 prasinophyte taxa to better construct the phylogenetic relationship of early branching green alga.Nakayama, T., Marin, B., Kranz, H.D., Surek, B., Huss, V.A., Inouye, I. and Melkonian, M. 1998: The Basal Position of Scaly Green Flagellates among the Green Algae (Chlorophyta) is Revealed by Analyses of Nuclear-Encoded SSU rRNA Sequences. Protistology. 149: 367-380. 10.1016/S1434-4610(98)70043-4 Phylogenetic analysis of the small subunit ribosomal-RNA sequence was performed using distance, parsimony, and likelihood statistical tests.

Halictus sexcinctus is part of the family Halictidae, which are commonly referred to as the sweat bees. Species in the genus Halictus are the most recently evolved in the Halictid family, and H. sexcinctus falls into the most recently evolved clade of the family, which is a eusocial taxa.Danforth, B. N., Sauquet, H., & Packer, L. (1999). Phylogeny of the bee genus Halictus (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) based on parsimony and likelihood analyses of nuclear EF-1alpha sequence data. Mol Phylogenet Evol, 13(3), 605–618. doi:10.1006/mpev.

Other software packages are more oriented towards the analysis of qualitative and quantitative traits (phenotypes). For example, the ape package in the statistical computing environment R also provides methods for ancestral state reconstruction for both discrete and continuous characters through the 'ace' function, including maximum likelihood. Phyrex implements a maximum parsimony- based algorithm to reconstruct ancestral gene expression profiles, in addition to a maximum likelihood method for reconstructing ancestral genetic sequences (by wrapping around the baseml function in PAML). Several software packages also reconstruct phylogeography.

Maximum Parsimony recovers one or more optimal trees based on a matrix of discrete characters for a certain group of taxa and it does not require a model of evolutionary change. MP gives the most simple explanation for a given set of data, reconstructing a phylogenetic tree that includes as few changes across the sequences as possible, this is the one that exhibits the smallest number of evolutionary steps to explain the relationship between taxa. The support of the tree branches is represented by bootstrap percentage.

After years of parsimony, much equipment was shipped. By November, a backlog of 1,100,000 shipping tons of equipment intended for the Philippines had accumulated in U.S. ports and depots awaiting vessels. In addition, the Navy intercept station in the islands, known as Station CAST, had an ultra secret Purple cipher machine, which decrypted Japanese diplomatic messages, and partial codebooks for the latest JN-25 naval code. Station CAST sent MacArthur its entire output, via Sutherland, the only officer on his staff authorized to see it.

Briggs (1954) study modeled McGeoch’s work on interference by setting the stage for a classic design of retroactive interference. In his study participants were asked to learn 12 paired associates to a criterion of 100%. To ensure parsimony, these pairs can be labeled as A1-B1-, A2-B2-…Ai-Bi (also called AB/AC paradigm). Briggs used a "modified free recall" technique by asking participants to recall an item when cued with Bi. Over multiple anticipation trials, participants learned Bi items through the prompt of Bi items.

Provided that the statistical properties of the system are consistent over time (stationary), frequency and severity statistics may be constructed based on past observations, simulations, and/or assumptions. If not, one may only construct scenarios. However, in any case, given the uncertainty present, a range of scenarios should be considered. Due to the shortage of data for extreme events, the principle of parsimony, and theoretical results from extreme value theory about universal tail models, one typically relies on a generalized Pareto distribution (GPD) tail model.

For example, the character "eye color" might have the states "blue" and "brown." Characters can have two or more states (they can have only one, but these characters lend nothing to a maximum parsimony analysis, and are often excluded). Coding characters for phylogenetic analysis is not an exact science, and there are numerous complicating issues. Typically, taxa are scored with the same state if they are more similar to one another in that particular attribute than each is to taxa scored with a different state.

A number of algorithms are therefore used to search among the possible trees. Many of these involve taking an initial tree (usually the favored tree from the last iteration of the algorithm), and perturbing it to see if the change produces a higher score. The trees resulting from parsimony search are unrooted: They show all the possible relationships of the included taxa, but they lack any statement on relative times of divergence. A particular branch is chosen to root the tree by the user.

Reduced consensus takes this one step further, by showing all subtrees (and therefore all relationships) supported by the input trees. Even if multiple MPTs are returned, parsimony analysis still basically produces a point-estimate, lacking confidence intervals of any sort. This has often been levelled as a criticism, since there is certainly error in estimating the most-parsimonious tree, and the method does not inherently include any means of establishing how sensitive its conclusions are to this error. Several methods have been used to assess support.

An evolutionary tree of mammals In the end, the sequences generated are used to build evolutionary trees. Methods to match data sets include: maximum probability, minimum evolution (also known as neighbor-joining) which searches for the tree with shortest overall length, and the maximum parsimony method which finds the tree requiring the fewest character-state changes. The groups of species defined within a tree can also be later evaluated by statistical tests, such as the bootstrap method, to see if they are indeed significant.

Parsimony-based cladistic analysis and Bayesian inference analysis were utilized to analyze 20 taxa and 51 characters to classify Doleserpeton. Finite classification of Doleserpeton still remain dubious because of the uncertainty of the phylogenetic classification of the family Amphibamidae and the subclass Lissamphibia. The classification of the family Amphibamidae is based on the notion that the origin of Lissamphibia is derived from three hypotheses, which conflicts with the evolutionary position of Doleserpeton in relation to its primitive ancestors and descendants.Ruta, Marcello, and Michael I. Coates.

In science, Occam's razor is used as a heuristic to guide scientists in developing theoretical models rather than as an arbiter between published models. In physics, parsimony was an important heuristic in Albert Einstein's formulation of special relativity,L. Nash, The Nature of the Natural Sciences, Boston: Little, Brown (1963). in the development and application of the principle of least action by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and Leonhard Euler, and in the development of quantum mechanics by Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg and Louis de Broglie.

For William of Ockham, the only truly necessary entity is God; everything else is contingent. He thus does not accept the principle of sufficient reason, rejects the distinction between essence and existence, and opposes the Thomistic doctrine of active and passive intellect. His scepticism to which his ontological parsimony request leads appears in his doctrine that human reason can prove neither the immortality of the soul; nor the existence, unity, and infinity of God. These truths, he teaches, are known to us by revelation alone.

The makeshift stands were finished in time for a game on August 18. During the 1894–95 off-season, the park was fully rebuilt of mostly fireproof materials and an innovative cantilevered upper deck. It also contained a banked bicycle track for a while, exploiting the cycling craze of the late 19th century. In terms of pure design, the ballpark was well ahead of its time, but subsequent problems and the parsimony of the team's owners undermined any apparent positives, as the ballpark soon became rundown and unsafe.

Bezos at a naturalization ceremony on June 14, 2016 Journalist Nellie Bowles of The New York Times has described the public persona and personality of Bezos as that of "a brilliant but mysterious and coldblooded corporate titan". During the 1990s, Bezos earned a reputation for relentlessly pushing Amazon forward, often at the expense of public charity and social welfare. His business practices projected a public image of prudence and parsimony with his own wealth and that of Amazon. Bezos was a multi-billionaire who drove a 1996 Honda Accord.

The holders of this office—first Sir Auckland Colvin, and later Sir Edgar VincentMilner p. 86—were instructed to exercise the greatest possible parsimony in Egypt's financial affairs. Maintaining the garrisons in the Sudan was costing the Egyptian government over 100,000 Egyptian pounds a year, an unmaintainable expense. Charles Gordon as Governor of the Sudan It was therefore decided by the Egyptian government, under some coercion by their British controllers, that the Egyptian presence in the Sudan should be withdrawn and the country left to some form of self-government, likely headed by the Mahdi.

In statistics, an inference is drawn from a statistical model, which has been selected via some procedure. Burnham & Anderson, in their much-cited text on model selection, argue that to avoid overfitting, we should adhere to the "Principle of Parsimony".. The authors also state the following. Overfitting is more likely to be a serious concern when there is little theory available to guide the analysis, in part because then there tend to be a large number of models to select from. The book Model Selection and Model Averaging (2008) puts it this way..

Hayes and his wife Lucy were known for their policy of keeping an alcohol-free White House, giving rise to her nickname "Lemonade Lucy." The first reception at the Hayes White House included wine, but Hayes was dismayed at drunken behavior at receptions hosted by ambassadors around Washington. After the first reception, alcohol was not served again in the Hayes White House. Critics charged Hayes with parsimony, but Hayes spent more money (which came out of his personal budget) after the ban, ordering that any savings from eliminating alcohol be used on more lavish entertainment.

In June 1971, an anonymous document was published with the title "Bathurst Batterings – October 1970. The case for a Royal Commission into the Department of Corrective Services of New South Wales." It included the statutory declarations, the psychologists' letter, and the statements from inmates made to the Quin, as well as other material. The document began: > The record of events given here, if true, suggests that the administration > of the Department of Corrective Services of New South Wales is founded on > parsimony, incompetence, treachery, violence, intimidation and deceit.

Parsimony suggests that the sequestering of PAs in the larval stage evolved in the subfamily Arctiinae common ancestor. The loss of ability to sequester and utilize PAs has occurred in a number of species, along with the switch from larval uptake to adult uptake of PAs occurring multiple times within the Arctiinae taxon. Members of Arctiidae typically sequester PAs from their diets, but sometimes must specifically ingest fluids excreted by plants that are not a part of their diets. Sequestered PAs are kept in various tissues and varying concentration which is dependent upon the species.

The first molecular phylogeny of the aquatic genus of 50 species discerned three clades: Clade A (three species, widespread); Clade C (10 species, New World); Clade D (six species, Europe).Les, D. H., Philbrick, C. T. (2000) Phylogenetic studies in Callitriche: implications for interpretation of ecological, karyological and pollination system evolution Aquatic Botany 68: 123-141 The parsimony analyses revealed that aneuploid reduction (n=5 to 4) and polyploidy (n=5 to 10) have evolved at least twice in the genus, whereas the obligately submersed growth habit and hypohydrophily have evolved once.

Trombetta et al. 2011, suggest an origin in eastern Africa: > The new topology here reported has important implications as to the origins > of the haplogroup E-P2. Using the principle of the phylogeographic > parsimony, the resolution of the E-M215 trifurcation in favor of a common > ancestor of E-M2 and E-M329 strongly supports the hypothesis that haplogroup > E-P2 originated in eastern Africa, as previously suggested, and that > chromosomes E-M2, so frequently observed in sub-Saharan Africa, trace their > descent to a common ancestor present in eastern Africa.

Following Sanger sequencing of the 16s rRNA, both parsimony and distance matrix analyses were performed to determine the position of T. celer on the tree of life. T. celer was found to be more closely related to the methanogenic archaebacteria than the thermophilic archaebacteria. This discovery resulted in a rerooting of the archaebacterial tree and subsequently placed T. celer in a clade with the methanogens based upon their close phylogenetic relationship. This placement was further supported following analysis of the organizational genome structure of the both species’ rRNA genes.

In addition to statistical evidence presented by the creators of this scale which indicates that a two- aspect solution is appropriate for each Big Five trait, there is genetic evidence for the existence of two aspects within each of the Big Five domains including separate biological correlates. This evidence supports the idea that each trait can be broken down into exactly two distinct subcomponents, and it is this evidence that the authors cite to show that a two aspect sub-level for each trait "may represent more than mere coincidence or desire for parsimony".

There are still many hypotheses in this area of study that are being tested, but the relative rate test is proving crucial in order to overcome the fossil record bias. Although these are specific instances of the relative rate test, it may also be used to compare species for phylogenetic purposes. For example, Easteal wanted to compare nucleotide substitution rates in four genes of four eutherian mammals. He did this via the relative rate test and then, using this data, he was able to construct a phylogeny using various methods, including parsimony and maximum likelihood.

Israel, pp. 1007, 1016–1017 Unlike in other nation states in financial difficulty, defaulting on the debt, or diluting its value by inflation, would be unthinkable; the Dutch state fought for its public credit to the bitter end. At the same time, anything that would threaten that credit was anathema to this elite. Hence the wish of the government to avoid policies that would threaten its ability to service the debt, and its extreme parsimony in public expenditures after 1713 (which probably had a negative Keynesian effect on the economy also).

When Charles William inherited his country in 1709, it was still heavily indebted and its economic activity was at a miserable level. The aims of his economic policies included securing the revenue required to finance a reliable state apparatus (bureaucracy and military) and avoiding a loss of territory by pledges. He followed the mercantilist theories of his time. The first two decades of his government were marked by opposition to his general parsimony (buildings, officials pay), which contrasted with special luxuries for himself (mistresses, zoological and botanical gardens).

The construction of a supertree scales exponentially with the number of taxa included; therefore for a tree of any reasonable size, it is not possible to examine every possible supertree and weigh its success at combining the input information. Heuristic methods are thus essential, although these methods may be unreliable; the result extracted is often biased or affected by irrelevant characteristics of the input data. The most well known method for supertree construction is Matrix Representation with Parsimony (MRP), in which the input source trees are represented by matrices with 0s, 1s, and ?s (i.e.

At the most basic level, the presence of geographic population structure can be revealed by comparing the genetic relatedness of viral isolates to geographic relatedness. A basic question is whether geographic character labels are more clustered on a phylogeny than expected under a simple nonstructured model. This question can be answered by counting the number of geographic transitions on the phylogeny via parsimony, maximum likelihood or through Bayesian inference. If population structure exists, then there will be fewer geographic transitions on the phylogeny than expected in a panmictic model.

Taleb wrote when describing why most new models that attempted to correct the inadequacies of the Black–Scholes model failed to become accepted: "Traders are not fooled by the Black–Scholes–Merton model. The existence of a 'volatility surface' is one such adaptation. But they find it preferable to fudge one parameter, namely volatility, and make it a function of time to expiry and strike price, rather than have to precisely estimate another." However, Cherubini and Della Lunga describe the disadvantages of parsimony in the context of volatility and correlation modelling.

Resolution of the root to "hummingbird" would yield the pattern of ancestral state reconstruction depicted by the symbols at the nodes with the state requiring the fewest changes circled. Parsimony methods are intuitively appealing and highly efficient, such that they are still used in some cases to seed maximum likelihood optimization algorithms with an initial phylogeny. However, the underlying assumption that evolution attained a certain end result as fast as possible is inaccurate. Natural selection and evolution do not work towards a goal, they simply select for or against randomly occurring genetic changes.

20) Catholics may work on days of obligation owing to the circumstances of place, but they must hear Mass if possible. (No. 23) The rich are to be warned that they sin grievously if, through their parsimony, pastors cannot be sustained and multiplied. (No. 24) When there is question of refusing Christian burial, the bishop must be consulted beforehand when possible. The second series of enactments of the First Council referred to are the articles concerning ecclesiastical discipline sanctioned by the common consent of the Archbishop of Baltimore and the other American bishops in 1810.

They conducted three variants of each analysis: a parsimony-based analysis, an implied-weights analysis to optimize for homologous (i.e., derived from a shared ancestor) features, and a Bayesian (likelihood-based) analysis to account for the age of each specimen. All of their analyses recovered Klamelisaurus as part of a group of Middle-to-Late Jurassic sauropods that also included Mamenchisaurus, Chuanjiesaurus, Wamweracaudia, Qijianglong, a specimen from Thailand (the Phu Kradung taxon), and a specimen from Xinjiang (the Shishugou cervicodorsal vertebrae). They termed these the "core Mamenchisaurus-like taxa".

However, at the time the parsimony of separate memory stores was a contested notion. A summary of the evidence given for the distinction between long-term and short-term stores is given below. Additionally, Atkinson and Shiffrin included a sensory register alongside the previously theorized primary and secondary memory, as well as a variety of control processes which regulate the transfer of memory. Following its first publication, multiple extensions of the model have been put forth such as a precategorical acoustic store, the search of associative memory model, the perturbation model, and permastore.

Any method could be inconsistent, and there is no way to know for certain whether it is, or not. It is for this reason that many systematists characterize their phylogenetic results as hypotheses of relationship. Another complication with maximum parsimony, and other optimaltiy-criterion based phylogenetic methods, is that finding the shortest tree is an NP-hard problem. The only currently available, efficient way of obtaining a solution, given an arbitrarily large set of taxa, is by using heuristic methods which do not guarantee that the shortest tree will be recovered.

In 1973, Gerald Weiss reviewed various definitions of culture and debates as to their parsimony and power, and proposed as the most scientifically useful definition that "culture" be defined "as our generic term for all human nongenetic, or metabiological, phenomena" (italics in the original).Gerald Weiss 1973 "A Scientific Concept of Culture" in American Anthropologist 75(5): 1382 Ruth Benedict was instrumental in establishing the modern conception of distinct cultures being patterned. 1937 Franz Boas founded modern American anthropology with the establishment of the first graduate program in anthropology at Columbia University in 1896.

The old format was re-adopted by the restored Church of England when the Monarchy was restored in May 1660. Centuries later, this parsimony and neglect was belatedly remedied by depositing the surviving registers in county record offices where they were better safeguarded, conserved, and made accessible mostly on microfilm as that technology became available. On the other hand, the accurate parish registers of New France were rarely damaged by external events such as war, revolution, and fire. Thus, 300,00 entries were available for the time period 1621 to 1760.

Usual methods of phylogenetic inference involve computational approaches implementing the optimality criteria and methods of parsimony, maximum likelihood (ML), and MCMC-based Bayesian inference. All these depend upon an implicit or explicit mathematical model describing the evolution of characters observed. Phenetics, popular in the mid-20th century but now largely obsolete, used distance matrix-based methods to construct trees based on overall similarity in morphology or similar observable traits (i.e. in the phenotype or the overall similarity of DNA, not the DNA sequence), which was often assumed to approximate phylogenetic relationships.

This approach used cladistic phylogeny instead of the previous Linnaean classification. The results concluded the original four tribes could not be recovered by parsimony analysis because many of the synapomorphies of the saber toothed cats are based on other bones that the prominent, upper canines. Workers now recognize a clade for true saber toothed cats called Eumachairodontia that includes species from all of the previously proposed tribes: Megantereon, Smilodon, Amphimachairodus, Homotherium and Xenosmilus. The synapomorphy for the "true saber-toothed" clade Eumachairodontia is the hypertrophied, greatly flattened upper canines.

He then goes on to engage with a Platonic rendition of neutral monism that holds information as fundamental. Though Chalmers believes neutral monism and panpsychism ought to be taken seriously, he considers the combination problem to be point of concern. He considers Russell's solution of "protophenominal properties" to be ad hoc, and thinks such speculation undercuts the parsimony that made neutral monism initially appealing. According to Stephen Stich and Ted Warfield, neutral monism has not been a popular view in philosophy as it is difficult to develop or understand the nature of the neutral elements.

Among its numerous buildings was a semicircular tower, known as the "Cupola of the Ass" (Hubbat al-Himar). The caliph could ride to its top mounted on a donkey, and from there gaze on the surrounding countryside. On the site of his father's palace prisons, he also added a Friday mosque to the palace, the Jami al-Qasr ("Palace Mosque"), now known as the Jami al-Khulafa. He also emulated his father in avarice and parsimony, which allowed him to leave, despite a short reign with almost continuous warfare, a considerable surplus.

The classification of these groups are further supported with a combination of floral characters, reproductive strategies, geographic distribution, and molecular evidence. The phylogenies of Amaranthus of maximum parsimony and Bayesian analysis of nuclear and chloroplast genes suggest five clades within the genus: Diecious / Pumilus, Hybris, Galapagos, Eurasian/ South African, Australian (ESA), ESA + South American. Amaranthus includes three recognised subgenera and 75 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridisation and species concepts. Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.

A single instance of Occam's razor favoring a wrong theory falsifies the razor as a general principle. Michael Lee and others provide cases in which a parsimonious approach does not guarantee a correct conclusion and, if based on incorrect working hypotheses or interpretations of incomplete data, may even strongly support a false conclusion. If multiple models of natural law make exactly the same testable predictions, they are equivalent and there is no need for parsimony to choose a preferred one. For example, Newtonian, Hamiltonian and Lagrangian classical mechanics are equivalent.

The philosopher of science Elliott Sober once argued along the same lines as Popper, tying simplicity with "informativeness": The simplest theory is the more informative, in the sense that it requires less information to a question. He has since rejected this account of simplicity, purportedly because it fails to provide an epistemic justification for simplicity. He now believes that simplicity considerations (and considerations of parsimony in particular) do not count unless they reflect something more fundamental. Philosophers, he suggests, may have made the error of hypostatizing simplicity (i.e.

Hedera Pastuchovii Woronow, commonly known as the "Russian Ivy", is part of the family of Araliaceae due to the area in which it is found and used. Hedera Pastuchovii G Woronow has a chromosome number of 2n= 144 (6x), making it a hexaploid. The distribution of the plant varies around the content of Asia, but it is native to the Caucasus, Elburz Mountains of Iran. In a recent study of phylogenetics, H. Pastuchovii, has been found to be related to other species of parsimony through a test of cpDNA restriction site variation analysis.

Barnabas was known to have done pioneering research on haemoglobins of mammals, with respect to the sequence of amino acids in them, and his studies helped in a wider understanding of the subject. He proposed novel methods by which the molecular structure is utilized in the measurement of evolutionary distance and the rate of change. His methods, based on parsimony analysis, assisted in developing phylogenetic trees and helped to understand the evolutionary history of different eukaryotic lineages. His research findings have been documented by way of a book, Phylogenetic Perspectives of Protists, and several articles.

However, finding such an optimal alignment for a large number of sequences has been determined to be an NP-complete problem. Phylo uses human-based computation to create an interactive genetic algorithm to solve the multiple sequence alignment problem instead. Generation of the ancestral sequences and parsimony scoring is still computed using a variation of the Fitch–Margoliash method, but Phylo abstracts the genetic sequences obtained from the UCSC Genome Browser into a pattern-matching game, allowing human players to suggest the most likely alignment rather than algorithmically considering all possible trees.

The generic name Vulpicida is derived from the Latin words vulpes ("fox") and -cida ("who kills"); according to Swedish peasant folklore, the lichen, when consumed, kills foxes but not dogs or wolves. According to a 2009 molecular analysis using internal transcribed spacer data from five of the six known species, Vulpicida is supported as monophyletic (descended from a common evolutionary ancestor) when using Bayesian analysis. Using a different method for phylogenetic inference, PAUP (phylogenetic analysis using parsimony), the genus is paraphyletic, as Allocetraria nests within the same clade.

As discussed in the previous section, it is not always clear what is meant by the "best explanation." Ockham's razor, which counsels choosing the simplest available explanation, thus plays an important role in some versions of this approach. To return to the example of the chicken, would it be simpler to suppose that the farmer cares about it and will continue taking care of it indefinitely or that the farmer is fattening it up for slaughter? Philosophers have tried to make this heuristic principle more precise in terms of theoretical parsimony or other measures.

In this office, which he held till 1885, he proved a most efficient guardian of the public purse, and he was a tower of strength to successive chancellors of the exchequer. It used to be said that the best recommendation for a secretary of the treasury was to be able to say "No" so disagreeably that nobody would court a repetition. Lingen was at all events a most successful resister of importunate claims, and his undoubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed in the direction of parsimony. In 1885 he retired.

James S. Donnelly, Jr., wrote, "while genocide was not in fact committed, what happened ... had the look of genocide to a great many Irish." Cecil Woodham-Smith claimed that while the export policy embittered the Irish, this did not implicate the policy in genocide, but rather in excessive parsimony obtuseness, short- sightedness, and ignorance. Irish historian Cormac O' Grada rejects the term, stating that the English exhibited no desire to exterminate the Irish and that the challenges for providing relief were enormous. W. D. Rubinstein also rejected the genocide claim.

Implementing the Biosphere Rules at an established company require longterm strategic commitments and investment and there are many organizational and other barriers to adopting circular economy practices. The Biosphere Rules, however, were designed in a modular fashion that allows for stepwise implementation. A company can take action to review its input sourcing decisions and move towards greater materials parsimony without having to implement all the other rules simultaneously. Other rules can be implemented in a similar sequential manner which eases the disruption to existing systems and helps facilitate a smooth transition towards a circular business model.

Further complicating matters is molecular and morphological data suggesting that the genus of thoracosaurs emerged within the lineage of gharials, despite the fact that the now extinct thoracosaurs actually emerged much sooner than gharials. Lee and Yates conducted a study aiming to combine molecular and morphological methods in order to address this anomaly and distinguish which traits were due to homology, and which were due to homoplasy. They checked living and fossilized crocodiles for a comprehensive list of known traits, and created a supermatrix made up of 10 nuclear genes. The resulting data were analyzed by parsimony and tip dating methods.

Hayes and his wife Lucy were known for their policy of keeping an alcohol-free White House, giving rise to her nickname "Lemonade Lucy." The first reception at the Hayes White House included wine, but Hayes was dismayed at drunken behavior at receptions hosted by ambassadors around Washington, leading him to follow his wife's temperance leanings. Alcohol was not served again in the Hayes White House. Critics charged Hayes with parsimony, but Hayes spent more money (which came out of his personal budget) after the ban, ordering that any savings from eliminating alcohol be used on more lavish entertainment.

Datasets were drawn from two national sources, several sub-national jurisdictions, and from individual Chinese hospitals. The researchers found compelling evidence of "human-directed data manufacture and manipulation" in the national datasets, as well as "contradictory, implausible, or anomalous data artefacts" in the provincial datasets, which suggests that the data "may have been manipulated to enforce conformity with central quotas." Among the findings was that the purported rate of growth in voluntary donations was derived from a simple quadratic equation, with nearly perfect model parsimony. These findings appear to undermine official claims about the extent of voluntary organ donations in China.

In a response published by the state-run Global Times news agency, Chinese health officials countered that every nation's organ transplant data can be fit to a model. Wang Haibo, head of China Organ Transplant Response System which is responsible for the allocation of organs, defended the fidelity of China's transplant data by saying that "Every countries' data can fit into an equation." However, the authors of the BMC Medical Ethics article note that China's model parsimony is one to two orders of magnitude smoother than any other nation's, even those that have experienced rapid growth in their organ transplantation sector.

For example, in an aligned DNA sequence matrix, all of the A, G, C, T or implied gaps at a given nucleotide site are homologous in this way. Character state identity is the hypothesis that the particular condition in two or more taxa is "the same" as far as our character coding scheme is concerned. Thus, two Adenines at the same aligned nucleotide site are hypothesized to be homologous unless that hypothesis is subsequently contradicted by other evidence. Secondary homology is implied by parsimony analysis, where a character state that arises only once on a tree is taken to be homologous.

Marjanovic & Laurin (2019) utilized Saharastega as part of their many reanalyses of Ruta & Coates (2007)'s tetrapod study. The original 2007 study did not include Saharastega, so it was added along with Nigerpeton and many other taxa in some of the reanalyses. Although Marjanovic & Laurin (2019) did not place Saharastega close to cochleosaurids or other edopoids (at least in their parsimony analyses), the study consistently placed it as the sister taxon to Nigerpeton. The clade containing these two unusual temnospondyls had an inconsistent placement, with a connection to Eryops, stereospondylomorphs, or the very base of Temnospondyli each considered equally likely.

Textual criticism or stemmatics: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of manuscripts of the same work (and reconstruct the lost original) using distinctive copying errors as apomorphies. This differs from traditional historical-comparative linguistics in enabling the editor to evaluate and place in genetic relationship large groups of manuscripts with large numbers of variants that would be impossible to handle manually. It also enables parsimony analysis of contaminated traditions of transmission that would be impossible to evaluate manually in a reasonable period of time. Astrophysics infers the history of relationships between galaxies to create branching diagram hypotheses of galaxy diversification.

The family were well established in Bath and Linley worked as a music teacher; when Elizabeth was born in 1754 they were living in a house on Abbey Green. In the mid-1760s they rented a house with eleven rooms on Orchard Street to accommodate the ever-increasing number of children. Linley is likely to have received some financial assistance from his father whose business was flourishing but the family still encountered monetary difficulties. Linley's wife was frugal but "her parsimony grew legendary" when she was employed as a wardrobe mistress at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, after the family fortunes had prospered.

Joel Best, a professor of criminal justice and sociology, described Cult and Ritual Abuse as having the "trappings" of a scholarly book, but as ultimately incoherent. He pointed out that even Noblitt and Perskin state their evidence is not compelling. Despite acknowledging the need for parsimony as in Occam's razor (i.e., favoring the simplest explanation that accounts for the evidence), Best notes the authors accept the less parsimonious proposition: that multigenerational, multinational abusive entities exist and have existed for centuries without discovery, rather than the more parsimonious idea that the patients are disturbed, malingering or mistaken.

A number of pamphlets and broadsides condemning Abell's action in the matter of the wine duty appeared in 1640 and 1641. Soon after his first imprisonment by the Commons Thomas Heywood published (18 December 1640) a tract dealing with 'a priest, a judge, and a patentee,' in which Abell was severely attacked as the patentee. In 1641 appeared An Exact Legendary, compendiously containing the whole life of Alderman Abel, the maine Proiector and Patentee for the raising of Wines. He is here described as springing from the lowest class of society, and thriving through his extreme parsimony.

A more appropriate analytical procedure would be to use NJ to produce a starting tree, then employ a tree search using an optimality criterion, to ensure that the best tree is recovered. Many scientists eschew distance methods, for various reasons. A commonly cited reason is that distances are inherently phenetic rather than phylogenetic, in that they do not distinguish between ancestral similarity (symplesiomorphy) and derived similarity (synapomorphy). This criticism is not entirely fair: most currently implementations of parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian phylogenetic inference use time-reversible character models, and thus accord no special status to derived or ancestral character states.

The power of expert systems came from the expert knowledge they contained. They were part of a new direction in AI research that had been gaining ground throughout the 70s. "AI researchers were beginning to suspect—reluctantly, for it violated the scientific canon of parsimony—that intelligence might very well be based on the ability to use large amounts of diverse knowledge in different ways," writes Pamela McCorduck. "[T]he great lesson from the 1970s was that intelligent behavior depended very much on dealing with knowledge, sometimes quite detailed knowledge, of a domain where a given task lay".

The maximum likelihood method uses standard statistical techniques for inferring probability distributions to assign probabilities to particular possible phylogenetic trees. The method requires a substitution model to assess the probability of particular mutations; roughly, a tree that requires more mutations at interior nodes to explain the observed phylogeny will be assessed as having a lower probability. This is broadly similar to the maximum- parsimony method, but maximum likelihood allows additional statistical flexibility by permitting varying rates of evolution across both lineages and sites. In fact, the method requires that evolution at different sites and along different lineages must be statistically independent.

Chalmers believes the tentative variant of panpsychism outlined in The Conscious Mind (1996) does just that. Leaning toward the many-worlds interpretation due to its mathematical parsimony, he believes his variety of panpsychist property dualism may be the theory Penrose is seeking. Chalmers believes that information will play an integral role in any theory of consciousness because the mind and brain have corresponding informational structures. He considers the computational nature of physics further evidence of information's central role, and suggests that information that is physically realised is simultaneously phenomenally realised; both regularities in nature and conscious experience are expressions of information's underlying character.

One of the earliest examples is Fitch's method, which assigns ancestral character states by parsimony via two traversals of a rooted binary tree. The first stage is a post-order traversal that proceeds from the tips toward the root of a tree by visiting descendant (child) nodes before their parents. Initially, we are determining the set of possible character states Si for the i-th ancestor based on the observed character states of its descendants. Each assignment is the set intersection of the character states of the ancestor's descendants; if the intersection is the empty set, then it is the set union.

Software packages such as MEGA, HyPhy, and Mesquite also perform phylogenetic analysis of sequence data, but are designed to be more modular and customizable. HyPhy implements a joint maximum likelihood method of ancestral sequence reconstruction that can be readily adapted to reconstructing a more generalized range of discrete ancestral character states such as geographic locations by specifying a customized model in its batch language. Mesquite provides ancestral state reconstruction methods for both discrete and continuous characters using both maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood methods. It also provides several visualization tools for interpreting the results of ancestral reconstruction.

In this case, the tree with the highest probability of explaining the data is chosen over the other ones. In other words, it compares how different trees predict the observed data. The introduction of a model of evolution in ML analyses presents an advantage over MP as the probability of nucleotide substitutions and rates of these substitutions are taken into account, explaining the phylogenetic relationships of taxa in a more realistic way. An important consideration of this method is the branch length, which parsimony ignores, with changes being more likely to happen along long branches than short ones.

This statistic is converted to a calibrated E-value for the similarity of the proteins. Mammoth makes no attempt to re-iterate the initial alignment or extend the high quality sub-subset. Therefore the seed alignment it displays can't be fairly compared to DALI or TM align as its was formed simply as a heuristic to prune the search space. (It can be used if one wants an alignment based solely on local structure-motif similarity agnostic of long range rigid body atomic alignment.) Because of that same parsimony, it is well over ten times faster than DALI, CE and TM-align.

Using a parsimony criterion is only one of several methods to infer a phylogeny from molecular data. Approaches such as maximum likelihood, which incorporate explicit models of sequence evolution, are non-Hennigian ways to evaluate sequence data. Another powerful method of reconstructing phylogenies is the use of genomic retrotransposon markers, which are thought to be less prone to the problem of reversion that plagues sequence data. They are also generally assumed to have a low incidence of homoplasies because it was once thought that their integration into the genome was entirely random; this seems at least sometimes not to be the case, however.

Datasets were drawn from two national sources, several sub-national jurisdictions, and from individual Chinese hospitals. The researchers found compelling evidence of "human-directed data manufacture and manipulation" in the national datasets, as well as "contradictory, implausible, or anomalous data artefacts" in the provincial datasets, which suggests that the data "may have been manipulated to enforce conformity with central quotas." Among the findings was that the purported rate of growth in voluntary donations was derived from a simple quadratic equation, with nearly perfect model parsimony. These findings appear to undermine official claims about the extent of voluntary organ donations in China.

In a response published by the state-run Global Times news agency, Chinese health officials countered that every nation's organ transplant data can be fit to a model. Wang Haibo, head of China Organ Transplant Response System which is responsible for the allocation of organs, defended the fidelity of China's transplant data by saying that "Every countries' data can fit into an equation." However, the authors of the BMC Medical Ethics article note that China's model parsimony is one to two orders of magnitude smoother than any other nation's, even those that have experienced rapid growth in their organ transplantation sector.

For phylogenetic character data, raw distance values can be calculated by simply counting the number of pairwise differences in character states (Manhattan distance) or by applying a model of evolution. Notably, distance methods also allow use of data that may not be easily converted to character data, such as DNA-DNA hybridization assays. Today, distance-based methods are often frowned upon because phylogenetically-informative data can be lost when converting characters to distances. There are a number of distance-matrix methods and optimality criteria, of which the minimum evolution criterion is most closely related to maximum parsimony.

The objective is to be able to choose one theory as preferable to another without introducing cognitive bias. Several often proposed criteria were summarized by Colyvan. A good theory: # Is elegant (Formal elegance; no ad hoc modifications) # Contains few arbitrary or adjustable elements (simplicity/parsimony) # Agrees with and explains all existing observations (unificatory/explanatory power) # Makes detailed predictions about future observations that can disprove or falsify the model if they are not borne out. # Is fruitful: the emphasis by Colyvan is not only upon prediction and falsification, but also upon a theory's seminality in suggesting future work.

The indeterminacy problem is posed as a kind of paradox in the study of the sociology and history of science. It is often used as an argument against the rational value of scientific thought. The argument is as follows: #There are an infinite number of possible theories, #There can only be a finite amount of experimental evidence, #Therefore, it is impossible to disambiguate between all viable theories. While this is true in this abstract form, in practice, parsimony is used to limit the number of theories which are considered useful, and likewise, to limit the number of directions to take experimental research.

However, the depletion of the Montmorency fortune meant that Ledoux was required to execute the project with some parsimony. Ledoux was interested in the work of the Royal Administrations Department and at times considered working for them, even though the positions they offered were often on the borderline between architect and engineer. Through this interest in civic and municipal architecture and due, in no small part, to the notorious influence of Madame du Barry, Ledoux was commissioned with the modernization of the Salines de l'Est (Eastern Saltworks). The modernization was initiated following the construction of the Burgundy Canal.

Due to the great number of derived characteristics in hupehsuchians that are a result of convergence, computational phylogenetic analyses using computer programs based on the method of maximum parsimony do not produce cladograms that can accurately establish a relationship between hupehsuchians and other diapsids. However, such techniques can be used to study interrelationships within Hupehsuchia. A 2014 phylogenetic analysis found a sister group relationship between Parahupehsuchus and IVPP V4070, with Hupehsuchus and Nanchangosaurus as successively more basal taxa within Hupehsuchia. The authors of this analysis chose to name the Hupehsuchus+(Parahupehsuchus+IVPP V4070) clade Hupehsuchidae, excluding Nanchangosaurus from the group.

People with psychotic depression, bipolar disorder with a history of psychosis, and schizophrenia with mood symptoms also have symptoms that bridge psychosis and mood disorders. The categorical diagnostic manuals don't reflect reality in their separation of psychosis (via the schizophrenia diagnosis) from mood disorder, nor do they currently emphasize the actual overlap found in real-life patients. Thus, they are likely to continue to introduce either-or conceptual and diagnostic error, by way of confirmation bias into clinicians' mindsets, hindering accurate assessment and treatment. The new definition continues the lack of parsimony of the old definition.

Stratocladistics is a technique in Phylogenetics of making phylogenetic inferences using both geological and morphobiological data. It follows many of the same rules as cladistics, using Bayesian logic to quantify how good a phylogenetic hypothesis is in terms of debt and parsimony. However, in addition to the morphological debt that is used to determine phylogenetic dissimilarities in cladistics, there is also stratigraphic debt which adds the dimension of time to the equation. Although stratocladistics has been viewed with suspicion by some workers, it represents a total evidence approach that has some advantages over traditional cladistic approaches.

Use of the lumped parameter approach facilitates rapid specification of model parameters to develop planning-level estimates with available data. The approach allows for parsimony in the required inputs to and outputs from the model and flexibility in the use of the model. For example, SELDM can be used to model runoff from various land covers or land uses by using the highway-site definition as long as representative water quality and impervious-fraction data are available. SELDM is easy to use because it has a simple graphical user interface and because much of the information and data needed to run SELDM are embedded in the model.

This convergence may have been facilitated by the fact that many potential evolutionary pathways to a phenotype exist, many of which involve initial evolutionary steps not directly related to photosynthesis. plants arose around during the Oligocene (precisely when is difficult to determine) and did not become ecologically significan until around , in the Miocene. metabolism in grasses originated when their habitat migrated from the shady forest undercanopy to more open environments, where the high sunlight gave it an advantage over the pathway. Drought was not necessary for its innovation; rather, the increased parsimony in water use was a byproduct of the pathway and allowed plants to more readily colonize arid environments.

Williams emigrated to Australia and joined the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) Science Unit in 1972 where, after several years in background production and interviewing, in 1975 he began hosting the Science Show, a one-hour science- based radio interview show. Ockham's Razor (15-minute format) followed in 1984, with Williams introducing a leading scientist or personality who then expounds from a prepared text on a topic of their choice, with a view to making a subject simple and accessible to the public, hence the title relating to the famous statement on parsimony by William of Ockham. In Conversation (15-minute format) commenced in 1997, with Williams interviewing the personality.

"Building blocks of morality" can be already observed in other primates, and by the principle of parsimony, it is quite possible that some sort of morality is evolutionarily ancient and shared with our ancestors. De Waal assumes that the evolutionary origins lie in emotions we share with other animals, e.g. empathy. Human morality is according to him a product of social evolution, and instead of Huxley's theory, this point of view a continuity between human morality and animal social tendencies—is unitary and thus more compatible with the evolutionary theory. Other critics of the veneer theory are Edward Westermarck and E. O. Wilson and Rutger Bregman.

A Weight Watchers sliding ruler to track food points to ease calories restriction targets. Contrary to several other diets, Weight Watchers does not focus on the calories but simplify food selection with a points-based system named "SmartPoints", where each food type is assigned a point value calculated according to their nutrient and energy density. A point equals 50kcal. The point values system define both a quality scale and a quantity limit: a food with low point values, such as high fiber carbohydrates, lean proteins, legumes, can be consumed more freely and in higher quantities, whereas food items with higher point values must be eaten with parsimony or avoided.

The main purpose of Marjanovic & Laurin (2019)'s study was to analyze different origins for modern lissamphibians. When the study restrained its results so that some or all modern lissamphibians were members of Temnospondyli, the results shifted the internal structure of the temnospondyl family tree. In these restrained reanalyses, Saharastega and Nigerpeton could additionally be within Stereospondylomorpha or close to Dvinosauria, meaning that there were five equally likely positions under certain parsimony methodologies, which relied on the principal that the simplest family tree is the most likely. On the other hand, the single bootstrap analysis of Marjanovic & Laurin (2019) which included Saharastega and Nigerpeton concluded that they were cochleosaurids.

However, based on a cladistic study of 14 characters Fleck et al. (2004) again suggested that Tarsophlebiidae might rather be the sister group of the clade Epiprocta that includes Epiophlebiidae and Anisoptera. Nevertheless, this result has a very low statistical support and might as well be an artefact of the parsimony computer algorithm, because none of the 14 characters represents an unambiguous synapomorphy for Tarsophlebiidae and Epiprocta. Huang & Nel (2009) presented convincing evidence from a new fossil Tarsophlebiidae from China that the number of tarsomeres is only three as in modern odonates, but that the first tarsomere is about twice as long as the others.

The first half of the 14th century saw the scientific work of great thinkers. The logic studies by William of Occam led him to postulate a specific formulation of the principle of parsimony, known today as Occam's razor. This principle is one of the main heuristics used by modern science to select between two or more underdetermined theories, though it is only fair to point out that this principle was employed explicitly by both Aquinas and Aristotle before him. As Western scholars became more aware (and more accepting) of controversial scientific treatises of the Byzantine and Islamic Empires these readings sparked new insights and speculation.

After this unhappy dénouement to Charles Louis's participation in English politics, he at last returned to the now devastated Electorate of the Palatinate in the autumn of 1649. Over the more than thirty years of his reign there, he strove with some success to rebuild his shattered territory. In foreign affairs, he pursued a pro-French course, marrying his daughter Elizabeth Charlotte to Philip I, Duke of Orléans, Louis XIV's brother, in 1671. After his restoration, his relations with his relatives continued to deteriorate – his British relations never forgave him for his course in the Civil War, while his mother and siblings resented his parsimony.

Both phylogenetic and character data are available for the radiation of finches inhabiting the Galapagos Islands. These data allow testing of hypotheses concerning the timing and ordering of character state changes through time via ancestral state reconstruction. During the dry season, the diets of the 13 species of Galapagos finches may be assorted into three broad diet categories, first those that consume grain-like foods are considered "granivores", those that ingest arthropods are termed "insectivores" and those that consume vegetation are classified as "folivores". Dietary ancestral state reconstruction using maximum parsimony recover 2 major shifts from an insectivorous state: one to granivory, and one to folivory.

Phylogenetic comparative methods (inferences drawn through comparison of related taxa) are often used to identify biological characteristics that do not evolve independently, which can reveal an underlying dependence. For example, the evolution of the shape of a finch's beak may be associated with its foraging behaviour. However, it is not advisable to search for these associations by the direct comparison of measurements or genetic sequences because these observations are not independent because of their descent from common ancestors. For discrete characters, this problem was first addressed in the framework of maximum parsimony by evaluating whether two characters tended to undergo a change on the same branches of the tree.

Indeed, as a general rule, most character datasets are so "noisy" that no truly "simple" solution is possible. Recent simulation studies suggest that parsimony may be less accurate than trees built using Bayesian approaches for morphological data, potentially due to overprecision, although this has been disputed . Studies using novel simulation methods have demonstrated that differences between inference methods result from the search strategy and consensus method employed, rather than the optimization used. Also, analyses of 38 molecular and 86 morphological empirical datasets have shown that the common mechanism assumed by the evolutionary models used in model-based phylogenetics apply to most molecular, but few morphological datasets.

There are several other methods for inferring phylogenies based on discrete character data, including maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. Each offers potential advantages and disadvantages. In practice, these methods tend to favor trees that are very similar to the most parsimonious tree(s) for the same dataset; however, they allow for complex modelling of evolutionary processes, and as classes of methods are statistically consistent and are not susceptible to long-branch attraction. Note, however, that the performance of likelihood and Bayesian methods are dependent on the quality of the particular model of evolution employed; an incorrect model can produce a biased result - just like parsimony.

Genetic data are particularly amenable to character-based phylogenetic methods such as maximum parsimony because protein and nucleotide sequences are naturally discrete: A particular position in a nucleotide sequence can be either adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine / uracil, or a sequence gap; a position (residue) in a protein sequence will be one of the basic amino acids or a sequence gap. Thus, character scoring is rarely ambiguous, except in cases where sequencing methods fail to produce a definitive assignment for a particular sequence position. Sequence gaps are sometimes treated as characters, although there is no consensus on how they should be coded. Characters can be treated as unordered or ordered.

The time required for a parsimony analysis (or any phylogenetic analysis) is proportional to the number of taxa (and characters) included in the analysis. Also, because more taxa require more branches to be estimated, more uncertainty may be expected in large analyses. Because data collection costs in time and money often scale directly with the number of taxa included, most analyses include only a fraction of the taxa that could have been sampled. Indeed, some authors have contended that four taxa (the minimum required to produce a meaningful unrooted tree) are all that is necessary for accurate phylogenetic analysis, and that more characters are more valuable than more taxa in phylogenetics.

Each taxon represents a new sample for every character, but, more importantly, it (usually) represents a new combination of character states. These character states can not only determine where that taxon is placed on the tree, they can inform the entire analysis, possibly causing different relationships among the remaining taxa to be favored by changing estimates of the pattern of character changes. The most disturbing weakness of parsimony analysis, that of long-branch attraction (see below) is particularly pronounced with poor taxon sampling, especially in the four-taxon case. This is a well-understood case in which additional character sampling may not improve the quality of the estimate.

This statement is much less close to the empirical basis than are the original statements, but is often regarded as conceptually parsimonious in that it rests only on the concepts of adiabatic work and of non-adiabatic processes, not on the concepts of transfer of energy as heat and of empirical temperature that are presupposed by the original statements. Largely through the influence of Max Born, it is often regarded as theoretically preferable because of this conceptual parsimony. Born particularly observes that the revised approach avoids thinking in terms of what he calls the "imported engineering" concept of heat engines.Born, M. (1949), Lecture , pp. 31–45.

A phylogenetic analysis performed by Zheng et al. showed Tianyuraptor to be a basal member of a group containing Laurasian dromaeosaurids. Tianyuraptor seems to possess several features that are unknown in other Laurasian dromaeosaurids, but which are seen in basal avialans and Gondwanan dromaeosaurids, including Austroraptor, Buitreraptor, Neuquenraptor, Rahonavis, and Unenlagia. Zheng and colleagues also noted that Tianyuraptor shares some features with the monophyletic subfamily Microraptorinae, though they went on to say that this mixture of features suggests a basal placement for Tianyuraptor within Microraptorinae, as evidenced by their phylogenetic analysis which indicated maximum parsimony in six of the 30 results recovered by the analysis.

An analysis by Müller (2004) has even considered thalattosaurs to belong just outside of Sauria. Unusually, thalattosaurs have an affinity to shift near ichthyosaurs (in the group Ichthyosauromorpha) when certain basal saurians or near-saurians are excluded from the data set. Some analyses derived from Müller (2004) group thalattosaurs in a "marine superclade" with ichthyosauromorphs and sauropterygians, and sometimes with turtles, archosauromorphs, or lepidosauromorphs as well. However, cladograms generated by these analyses change in unpredictable ways through alterations to their methodology (such as including or excluding aquatic adaptations or switching between parsimony and bayesian inference), leading some to have concerns over the validity of the "marine superclade".

The term "autohyponym" was coined by linguist Laurence R. Horn in a 1984 paper, Ambiguity, negation, and the London School of Parsimony. Linguist Ruth Kempson had already observed that if there are hyponyms for one part of a set but not another, the hypernym can complement the existing hyponym by being used for the remaining part. For example, fingers describe all digits on a hand, but the existence of the word thumb for the first finger means that fingers can also be used for "non-thumb digits on a hand". Horn called this "licensed polysemy", but found that autohyponyms also formed even when there is no other hyponym.

John Millar Carroll, in his book Minimalism Beyond the Nürnberg Funnel pointed out that the use of minimalism results in "instant-use" devices such as video games, ATMs, voting machines, and mall kiosks with little-or-no learning curve that do not require the user to read manuals. User Interface researchers have performed experiments suggesting that minimalism, as illustrated by the design principles of parsimony and transparency, bolsters efficiency and learnability. Minimalism is implicit in the Unix philosophies of "everything is a text stream" and "do one thing and do it well", although modern Unix/Linux distributions do not hold so rigorously to this philosophy.

At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion. Ultimately, whole genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and endosymbiosis, often leading to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectrum of algorithmic, statistical and mathematical techniques, ranging from exact, heuristics, fixed parameter and approximation algorithms for problems based on parsimony models to Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms for Bayesian analysis of problems based on probabilistic models. Many of these studies are based on the detection of sequence homology to assign sequences to protein families.

The distinction which he acquired was so great, that he flattered himself with the expectation of obtaining a cardinal's hat, on the accession of Sixtus IV to the pontifical throne; and when it was refused him, the pope though it necessary to accompany the refusal with this complimentary apology: "I would gladly have granted you the honor, had I not feared, that your preferment, by removing you from your school, would have hindered the progress of science." The reputation of Accolti was tarnished by the parsimony with which he amassed vast treasures. He wrote several treatises on law, and translated some of the writings of Chrysostom.

His material had popular appeal, though critics weren't always as appreciative of his work. Brian Friel's 1979 Faith Healer, one of the few exceptions to his middlebrow standards, ran for only 20 performances. He was known, even considered "notorious" for what The New York Times described as his "professional parsimony", which extended to having staff reuse envelopes. Gottlieb's concern for his investors was such that he was careful to pay his investors back as quickly as possible, extending to his production of the 1978 play Tribute starring Jack Lemmon, for which he was able to distribute checks to investors at the party celebrating opening night, using the proceeds generated from tryouts before opening on Broadway.

However, the existence of the anomalous gene trees also means that simple methods for combining gene trees, like the majority rule extended ("greedy") consensus method or the matrix representation with parsimony (MRP) supertree approach, will not be consistent estimators of the species tree (i.e., they will be misleading). Simply generating the majority- rule consensus tree for the gene trees, where groups that are present in at least 50% of gene trees are retained, will not be misleading as long as a sufficient number of gene trees are used. However, this ability of the majority-rule consensus tree for a set of gene trees to avoid incorrect clades comes at the cost of having unresolved groups.

The cladistic method interprets each character state transformation implied by the distribution of shared character states among taxa (or other terminals) as a potential piece of evidence for grouping. The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a cladogram – a tree-shaped diagram (dendrogram) that is interpreted to represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters and originally calculated by hand, genetic sequencing data and computational phylogenetics are now commonly used in phylogenetic analyses, and the parsimony criterion has been abandoned by many phylogeneticists in favor of more "sophisticated" but less parsimonious evolutionary models of character state transformation. Cladists contend that these models are unjustified.

The most commonly given answer is that we attribute consciousness to other people because we see that they resemble us in appearance and behavior; we reason that if they look like us and act like us, they must be like us in other ways, including having experiences of the sort that we do. There are, however, a variety of problems with that explanation. For one thing, it seems to violate the principle of parsimony, by postulating an invisible entity that is not necessary to explain what we observe. Some philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett in an essay titled The Unimagined Preposterousness of Zombies, argue that people who give this explanation do not really understand what they are saying.

They occupied a variety of niches despite relatively low species diversity, including both demersal (bottom-dwelling) species like hupehsuchians and nasorostrans, and pelagic (open-water) species like ichthyopterygians. Taxonomic diversity of Triassic marine reptiles; note the two peaks in diversity and the bottleneck between Many ichthyosauriforms from the Early and Middle Triassic had molariform teeth (shown in the phylogenetic tree above), including Cartorhynchus; such teeth indicate a diet at least partially based on hard-shelled animals. In 2020, Huang and colleagues performed an ancestral state reconstruction of teeth among ichthyosauromorphs. Probabilistic methods suggested that rounded or flat teeth most likely evolved independently five times, while methods based on parsimony suggested that they evolved independently three to five times.

The BAS package for R supports the use of the priors implied by Akaike information criterion (AIC) and other criteria over the alternative models as well as priors over the coefficients.. The difference between BIC and AIC is the strength of preference for parsimony. The penalty for model complexity is \ln(n) k for the BIC and 2k for the AIC. Large sample asymptotic theory has established that if there is a best model then with increasing sample sizes, BIC is strongly consistent, i.e., will almost certainly find it, while AIC may not, because AIC may continue to place excessive posterior probability on models that are more complicated than they need to be.

Maximum parsimony (MP) is a method of identifying the potential phylogenetic tree that requires the smallest total number of evolutionary events to explain the observed sequence data. Some ways of scoring trees also include a "cost" associated with particular types of evolutionary events and attempt to locate the tree with the smallest total cost. This is a useful approach in cases where not every possible type of event is equally likely - for example, when particular nucleotides or amino acids are known to be more mutable than others. The most naive way of identifying the most parsimonious tree is simple enumeration - considering each possible tree in succession and searching for the tree with the smallest score.

More recent phylogenetic tree/MSA methods use heuristics to isolate high-scoring, but not necessarily optimal, trees. The MALIGN method uses a maximum-parsimony technique to compute a multiple alignment by maximizing a cladogram score, and its companion POY uses an iterative method that couples the optimization of the phylogenetic tree with improvements in the corresponding MSA. However, the use of these methods in constructing evolutionary hypotheses has been criticized as biased due to the deliberate construction of trees reflecting minimal evolutionary events. This, in turn, has been countered by the view that such methods should be seen as heuristic approaches to find the trees that maximize the amount of sequence similarity that can be interpreted as homology.

The use of Bayesian methods in phylogenetics has been controversial, largely due to incomplete specification of the choice of move set, acceptance criterion, and prior distribution in published work. Bayesian methods are generally held to be superior to parsimony-based methods; they can be more prone to long-branch attraction than maximum likelihood techniques, although they are better able to accommodate missing data. Whereas likelihood methods find the tree that maximizes the probability of the data, a Bayesian approach recovers a tree that represents the most likely clades, by drawing on the posterior distribution. However, estimates of the posterior probability of clades (measuring their 'support') can be quite wide of the mark, especially in clades that aren't overwhelmingly likely.

According to simple forms of the theory of evolution, the history of life can be summarized as a phylogenetic tree in which each node describes a species, the leaves represent the species that exist today, and the edges represent ancestor-descendant relationships between species. This tree has a natural orientation from ancestors to descendants, and a root at the common ancestor of the species, so it is a rooted tree. However, some methods of reconstructing binary trees can reconstruct only the nodes and the edges of this tree, but not their orientations. For instance, cladistic methods such as maximum parsimony use as data a set of binary attributes describing features of the species.

Parsimony methods impose six general assumptions: that the phylogenetic tree you are using is correct, that you have all of the relevant data, in which no mistakes were made in coding, that all branches of the phylogenetic tree are equally likely to change, that the rate of evolution is slow, and that the chance of losing or gaining a characteristic is the same. In reality, assumptions are often violated, leading to several issues: # Variation in rates of evolution. Fitch's method assumes that changes between all character states are equally likely to occur; thus, any change incurs the same cost for a given tree. This assumption is often unrealistic and can limit the accuracy of such methods.

On a molecular level, amino acid residues at different locations of a protein may evolve non-independently because they have a direct physicochemical interaction, or indirectly by their interactions with a common substrate or through long-range interactions in the protein structure. Conversely, the folded structure of a protein could potentially be inferred from the distribution of residue interactions. One of the earliest applications of ancestral reconstruction, to predict the three- dimensional structure of a protein through residue contacts, was published by Shindyalov and colleagues. Phylogenies relating 67 different protein families were generated by a distance-based clustering method (unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean, UPGMA), and ancestral sequences were reconstructed by parsimony.

A generalization of this problem applicable to ancestral reconstruction is the "multiple genome rearrangement problem": given a set of genomes and a set of allowable operations, find (i) a binary tree with the given genomes as its leaves, and (ii) an assignment of genomes to the internal nodes of the tree, such that the total number of operations across the whole tree is minimized. This approach is similar to parsimony, except that the tree is inferred along with the ancestral sequences. Unfortunately, even the single genome rearrangement problem is NP-hard, although it has received much attention in mathematics and computer science (for a review, see Fertin and colleagues). The reconstruction of ancestral genomes is also called karyotype reconstruction.

His 1984 paper on animal language (Herman, Richards, and Wolz, 1984) was published in the human psychology journal Cognition, during the anti-animal language backlash generated by the skeptical critique of primate animal language programs by Herbert Terrace in 1979. The key difference with previous primate work was that the dolphin work focused on language comprehension only. The problem with researching language production was the issue of scientific parsimony: it is essentially impossible to verify that an animal truly understands its own artificial language production. This problem is eliminated with language comprehension studies, because the researchers control the form of the artificial language, and need only observe the behavior of the animal in response to the symbol sequence.

This excludes them from the clade of sphenodonts which are capable of such movement, the so-called "eupropalinal sphenodonts" such as the tuatara, (formally known as Sphenodon), its close relatives, and the herbivorous opisthodonts. They are also generally considered to be more derived (as in closer to Sphenodon) than clevosaurs and basal genera such as Godavarisaurus and Sphenocondor. The in-group relations of sphenodonts are inconsistent between analyses, so although sapheosaurs may be the sister group of eupropalinal sphenodonts under some methodologies, other potentially more derived taxon include Homoeosaurus, Pamizinsaurus, Ankylosphenodon, the Sphenovipera+Theretairus clade, and pleurosaurs. A 2017 study utilizing both parsimony and bayesian analyses found some support for a clade including sapheosaurs, Vadasaurus, and pleurosaurs.

In morphology-based parsimony and compatibility analyses Arnold (1989) recognized a clade called the "Equatorial African group" including Adolfus, Gastropholis, and Holaspis. In all lacertids of this clade the parietal foramen is consistently absent, the parietal scale extends to the edge of the parietal table, and the postnasal scale is single. In Holaspis the head and body are very depressed, frontoparietal and occipital scales are all fused to shields, the tail is depressed with lateral fringes of scales, and the third and fourth toes of the forefoot are fused for nearly their entire joint. There are two longitudinal rows of smooth broad band-like scales down the vertebral line of the back and on the tail.

WHO has the broadest health mandate under the UN system, including setting priorities, coordinating global health surveillance, and emergency assistance in the event of disease outbreaks. Health experts give WHO credit for major successes, such as the eradication of smallpox, near eradication of polio, and substantial progress in controlling childhood diseases, and in expanding primary health care in developing countries. WHO defenders blame continued member state parsimony that has kept WHO's regular biennial budget to roughly $850 million for several years and forced it to rely more on voluntary contributions that often come with strings attached as the cause of its shortcomings. This situation led to lack of focus at the top level as well as overly optimistic forecasts.

Aquifer tests are typically interpreted by using an analytical model of aquifer flow (the most fundamental being the Theis solution) to match the data observed in the real world, then assuming that the parameters from the idealized model apply to the real-world aquifer. In more complex cases, a numerical model may be used to analyze the results of an aquifer test, but adding complexity does not ensure better results (see parsimony). Aquifer testing differs from well testing in that the behaviour of the well is primarily of concern in the latter, while the characteristics of the aquifer are quantified in the former. Aquifer testing also often utilizes one or more monitoring wells, or piezometers ("point" observation wells).

They criticized the analysis of Rieppel and colleagues as having unnecessarily repeated several characters in their data, thus imbuing the repeated characters with undue weight in the analysis. In their own analysis, Liu and colleagues used the same source datasets, but deleted repeated characters, added two new characters from an analysis by Sean Modesto and Hans-Dieter Sues (2004), and removed poorly preserved or potentially chimeric taxa such as Cosesaurus, Kadimakara, Trachelosaurus, and Malerisaurus. Analyses based on parsimony-based and Bayesian methods found that Dinocephalosaurus was a member of the Tanystropheidae, being the sister group to a clade containing Tanystropheus, Macrocnemus, Langobardisaurus, and Tanytrachelos. The analyses also recovered a monophyletic Protorosauria, albeit to the exclusion of Prolacerta.

The phrase Occam's razor did not appear until a few centuries after William of Ockham's death in 1347. Libert Froidmont, in his On Christian Philosophy of the Soul, takes credit for the phrase, speaking of "novacula occami". Ockham did not invent this principle, but the "razor"—and its association with him—may be due to the frequency and effectiveness with which he used it.Roger Ariew, Ockham's Razor: A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Ockham's Principle of Parsimony, 1976 Ockham stated the principle in various ways, but the most popular version, "Entities are not to be multiplied without necessity" () was formulated by the Irish Franciscan philosopher John Punch in his 1639 commentary on the works of Duns Scotus.

The space of DTL reconciliations and their parsimony costs—which can be extremely vast for large multi-copy gene family trees—can be efficiently explored through dynamic programming algorithms. In some programs, the gene tree topology can be refined where it was uncertain to fit a better evolutionary scenario as well as the initial sequence alignment. More refined models account for the biased frequency of HGT between closely related lineages, reflecting the loss of efficiency of HR with phylogenetic distance, for ILS, or for the fact that the actual donor of most HGT belong to extinct or unsampled lineages. Further extensions of DTL models are being developed towards an integrated description of the genome evolution processes.

To understand why Ricardo’s view of the saving-investment identity differed from Smith’s, one must first examine Ricardo’s definition of rent. This rent adds no new value to society, but since land-owners are profit seeking, and since population is increasing in this time of growth, land that yields beyond the value of sustenance for workers is sought out and the return on those pieces of land suffers and lower rent. This is the basis for what Ricardo believed about the saving-investment identity. He agreed with Smith that parsimony and saving was a virtue, and that saving and investment were equal, but he introduced the notion that returns diminish as population decreases.

The miser Daniel Dancer was born in Pinner, then a rural area in the county of Middlesex, in 1716. His grandfather and father were both noted in their time as misers, and are only less famous because their accumulation of wealth was less. Daniel was the eldest of four children and inherited the family estate, eighty acres of rich meadow land and an adjoining farm, when his father died in 1736. Hitherto Dancer had given no manifestation of his miserly instincts, but now, in company with his only sister, who shared his tastes and lived with him as his housekeeper, he commenced a life of the utmost seclusion and most rigid parsimony.

Insects use the same signal for many different uses depending on the situation this is called chemical parsimony. Situations that may change how an insect behaves in reaction to a scent are things like the concentration of the compound, the life stage of the insect, its mating status, other olfactory cues, the insects feeding state (hungry or full), the time of day, or even the insects body position. For example, Drosophila are very attracted to apple cider vinegar but in very high concentrations an additional olfactory receptor (that has low affinity for the vinegar, Or85a) is activated which changes the fly’s behavior from attraction to aversion. These different behaviors to the same cue is called behavioral plasticity.

The following season, after Smith complained to Shankly at being left out of the team for a game, he had the big disappointment of losing the captaincy to Emlyn Hughes. Earlier, Hughes had told Shankly to remove the captaincy from Smith and give it to a younger man. When he returned, he was also moved from his favoured central defensive role to full back. Although Smith ultimately settled his differences with Shankly satisfactorily, a long-running feud developed between Smith and Hughes which led to some tension in the Liverpool dressing room, where the older players remained loyal to Smith and voiced their dislike of Hughes's chattiness (and parsimony in the pub).

Hagen argues that hypotheses compete to provide the best explanation of a phenomenon, where "best" is measured via criteria like predicting new and surprising observations, parsimony, coherence and so on. Abduction does not require scientist to provide direct evidence for ever single prediction. Evolutionary psychology hypotheses make predictions and thus compete with other hypotheses to explain traits. Hagen further argues that while some critics conclude that evolutionary psychology explanations for mental traits cannot be true because they can't be tested for the above reasons, this is a false conclusion to draw; even if evolutionary psychology hypotheses could not be tested, this does not mean they are false, it just means the evidence for them could not acquired, not that traits don't exist because of evolutionary reasons.

McDowell stated "species diversity is greatest in Africa, but the Asiatic Bungarus and Ophiophagus are each so peculiar in anatomy as to suggest an ancient divergence". Others, including Slowinski, believed that the kraits (Bungarus), are part of a clade that clusters with a group including the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) and oddly enough, with the African mambas (Dendroaspis) on the most-parsimonious tree or with Elapsoidea on the maximum- likelihood tree. This result calls into question the monophyly of cobras and underscores the uncertainty of the homology of the hood spreading behavior in cobras and mambas. The relationships of Dendroaspis, Ophiophagus, and Bungarus differed between the parsimony and likelihood analyses, suggesting that more work is necessary to resolve the relationships of these problematic taxa.

Israel (1995), pp. 739–748 After the conflict with William II over the size of the army, which ended at his premature death, the now victorious regents lost little time in further reducing the size of the army. Unfortunately, they displayed the same parsimony to the navy, allowing the independent admiralties to sell off a large part of the fleet that had defeated the second Spanish Armada so resoundingly in neutral English waters in the Battle of the Downs of 1639. The foolishness of this policy was amply demonstrated in the First Anglo-Dutch War, when at least initially the Dutch navy did not stand a chance against the English fleet, at least in home waters, due to its qualitative and quantitative inferiority.

Walker developed a specific steering cognition test used with more than 11,000 candidates between the ages of eight and 60 between 2002 and 2015. Using principle component analysis, Walker was able to identify 7 latent largely independent 'heuristic substitution' factors which he labelled S, L, X, P, M, O, T. He labelled this data model 'the Human Ecology model of Cognitive Affective Social state' or CAS for short. In the most recent and largest ever study, involving 8,000 secondary pupils in the UK, exploratory factor analysis confirmed a largely orthogonal factor analysis structure in which Eigen values revealed the CAS model 7 latent factors explained 50% of the overall variance. For the sake of parsimony, a 7 factor solution has been regarded as acceptable.

The median of three vertices in a median graph In graph theory, a division of mathematics, a median graph is an undirected graph in which every three vertices a, b, and c have a unique median: a vertex m(a,b,c) that belongs to shortest paths between each pair of a, b, and c. The concept of median graphs has long been studied, for instance by or (more explicitly) by , but the first paper to call them "median graphs" appears to be . As Chung, Graham, and Saks write, "median graphs arise naturally in the study of ordered sets and discrete distributive lattices, and have an extensive literature".. In phylogenetics, the Buneman graph representing all maximum parsimony evolutionary trees is a median graph.; ; .

In an initial preprocessing phase, PICRUSt constructs confidence intervals and point predictions for the number of copies of each gene family in each bacterial and archaeal strain in a reference tree, using organisms with sequenced genomes as a reference. More specifically, for each gene family, PICRUSt maps known gene copy numbers (from complete sequenced genomes) onto a reference tree of life. These gene family copy numbers are treated as continuous traits, and an evolutionary model constructed under the assumption of Brownian Motion. These evolutionary models can be constructed with either Maximum Likelihood, Relaxed Maximum Likelihood or Wagner Parsimony This evolutionary model is then used to predict both a point estimate and a confidence interval for the copy number of microorganisms without sequenced genomes.

For example, consider a phylogeny recovered for a genus of plants containing 6 species A - F, where each plant is pollinated by either a "bee", "hummingbird" or "wind". One obvious question is what the pollinators at deeper nodes were in the phylogeny of this genus of plants. Under maximum parsimony, an ancestral state reconstruction for this clade reveals that "hummingbird" is the most parsimonious ancestral state for the lower clade (plants D, E, F), that the ancestral states for the nodes in the top clade (plants A, B, C) are equivocal and that both "hummingbird" or "bee" pollinators are equally plausible for the pollination state at the root of the phylogeny. Supposing we have strong evidence from the fossil record that the root state is "hummingbird".

Ancestral reconstruction can be informed by the observed states in historical samples of known age, such as fossils or archival specimens. Since the accuracy of ancestral reconstruction generally decays with increasing time, the use of such specimens provides data that are closer to the ancestors being reconstructed and will most likely improve the analysis, especially when rates of character change vary through time. This concept has been validated by an experimental evolutionary study in which replicate populations of bacteriophage T7 were propagated to generate an artificial phylogeny. In revisiting these experimental data, Oakley and Cunningham found that maximum parsimony methods were unable to accurately reconstruct the known ancestral state of a continuous character (plaque size); these results were verified by computer simulation.

After he reduced the area between the River Iberus and the Pyrenees to a resentful and, as it turned out, temporary obedience, Cato turned his attention to administrative reforms, and increased the revenues of the province by improvements in the working of the iron and silver mines. For his achievements in Hispania, the senate decreed a thanksgiving ceremony of three days. In the course of the year 194 BC, he returned to Rome and was rewarded with the honor of a Roman triumph, at which he exhibited an extraordinary quantity of captured brass, silver, and gold, both coin and ingots. Cato distributed the monetary prize to his soldiery, and was more liberal than might have been expected from his vigorous parsimony.

Construction of these trees may become a challenge when clouded by the occurrence of homoplasy in the traits used for the analysis. The most important approach to overcoming these challenges is to increase the number of independent (non-pleiotropic, non-linked) characteristics used in the phylogenetic analysis. Along with parsimony analysis, one could perform a likelihood analysis, where the most likely tree, given a particular model of evolution, is selected and branch lengths are measured. According to cladistic interpretation, homoplasy can be identified when the distribution of a trait cannot be explained by descent from a common ancestor on a preferred phylogenetic hypothesis - that is, the feature in question arises (or disappears) at more than one point on the tree.

To him, wealth enabled him to "indulgence in quieter pursuits, including his family, his involvement in his agricultural interests and the running of his convalescent home for sick servants. Yet, despite his acts of benevolence, his apparent parsimony and reticence did not endear him to the people of Penrith who saw him as a hard- headed Scottish merchant whose main interests lay in the commercial life of Sydney rather than at home in Penrith - a reputation that lives on today, immortalised in the bricks and mortar of Glenleigh." 'Glenleigh' was sold in 1917 to Messrs Morris and Ransley, who let it to an ostrich farmer. The house continued as a gentleman's residence until 1933, when it was purchased to Charles Smith.

Morgan's Canon, also known as Lloyd Morgan's Canon, Morgan's Canon of Interpretation or the principle of parsimony, is a fundamental precept of comparative (animal) psychology, coined by 19th-century British psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan. In its developed form it states that: > In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher > psychological processes if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of > processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and > development. Morgan's explanation illustrates the supposed fallacy in anthropomorphic approaches to animal behaviour. He believed that people should only equate the actions of animals to human states, such as emotions, intents, or conscious awareness, if a less advanced description of the behaviour cannot be posed.

As an example of the classification problems, KullanderPhylogeny of major groups of cichlids placed the African genus Heterochromis phylogenetically within Neotropical cichlids, although later papers concluded otherwise. Other problems center upon the identity of the putative common ancestor for the Lake Victoria superflock (many closely related species sharing a single habitat), and the ancestral lineages of Tanganyikan cichlids. ComparisonsMultilocus Phylogeny of Cichlid Fishes (Pisces: Perciformes): Evolutionary Comparison of Microsatellite and Single-Copy Nuclear Loci by Streelman, Zardoya, Meyer and Karl (1998) (Mol. Biol. Evol. 15(7):798–808. 1998, paper available as PDF here between a morphologically based phylogenyStiassny, 1991 and analyses of gene locimaximum-parsimony bootstrap consensus trees and majority-rule trees and other similar phylogenetic trees produce differences at the genus level.

To perform this work, she created the single-letter amino acid code to minimize the data file size for each sequence. This work, co-authored with Richard Eck, was the first application of computers to infer phylogenies from molecular sequences. It was the first reconstruction of a phylogeny (evolutionary tree) by computers from molecular sequences using a maximum parsimony method. In later years, she applied these methods to study a number of molecular relationships, such as the catalytic chain and bovine cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and the src gene product of Rous avian and Moloney murine sarcoma viruses; antithrombin-III, alpha-antitrypsin, and ovalbumin; epidermal growth factor and the light chain of coagulation factor X; and apolipoproteins A-I, A-II, C-I and C-III.

It has been surmised that Benfey's conversion was not sincere, and that was made mainly for social advantages. From this time Benfey's attention was principally given to Sanskrit. In 1848 he became an assistant professor, and published his edition of the Samaveda; in 1852–1854 his Handbuch der Sanskritsprache ("Manual of Sanskrit"), comprising a grammar and chrestomathy; in 1858 his practical Sanskrit grammar, afterwards translated into English; and in 1859 his edition of the Panchatantra, with an extensive dissertation on the fables and mythologies of primitive nations. All these works had been produced under the pressure of poverty, the government, whether from parsimony or from prejudice against a Jew, refusing to make any substantial addition to his small salary as an assistant professor at the university.

The goal of multiple sequence alignments in phylogenetics is to determine the most likely nucleotide sequence of each species by comparing the sequences of children species with those of a most recent common ancestor. Producing such an optimal multiple sequence alignment is usually determined with a dynamic programming algorithm that finds the most probable evolutionary outcome by minimizing the number of mutations required. These algorithms generate phylogenetic trees for each nucleotide in a sequence for each species, and determine the genetic sequence for a common ancestor by comparing the trees of the child species. The algorithms then score and sort the completed phylogenetic tree, and the alignment with the maximum parsimony score is determined to be the optimal, and thus most evolutionarily likely, multiple sequence alignment.

An analysis of its contents reveals some influence from Rinuccini's libretto for Arianna, such as use of identical metre and length in the prologues of each work, and several common characters in the respective cast lists. The document remains in private hands and has not been published. Monteverdi recorded no apparent interest in the performance of Andromeda after the 1620 Carnival; the long letter that he wrote to Striggio on 13 March 1620 makes no reference to the event and is chiefly concerned with financial matters. The letter implies that the Gonzaga court was trying to persuade Monteverdi to return to Mantua; in courtly language Monteverdi evades the issue, while comparing the relative generosity of his Venetian employers with the parsimony of the Gonzaga court.

Ten years after his previous expedition, with his high-minded enthusiasm once again enabling him to overcome the indifference and parsimony of Government authorities and employees, he sailed down the Marañón River to Iquitos in record time to show how it was possible to defend the region. As if that was not enough, he set off to make the return journey upriver through the Pongo de Manseriche gorge in a motorboat. Back in Lima, he embarked on a vain campaign to challenge the lack of strategic vision that resulted in wasteful expenditure on small-scale projects. The only result of his efforts to gain official support for his way of seeing things was that Government employees took to referring to him as "el loco Marañon" (the Marañon madman).

While the model has greatly aided soil science, and spatially explains generalized soil- environmental relationships on landscapes, the device—supremely attractive in its parsimony—has constrained pedologic interpretation because its genetic- interpretive domain is constrained by its broad factorial (landscape context) tenets. The model allows for a wide-ranging generalized assessment of soilscapes, and is useful in soil chronosequence work (Birkeland 1974, 1984) but the biodynamic soil processes that are largely responsible in producing stonelayers are absent at a highest theoretical (five factors) level. Once mapped and classified, soils become static elements, which—while societally useful, scientifically misrepresents their true biodynamic nature. In a proposal to heal such Occam's razor wounds, process biodynamics supported with appropriate genetic language has been advanced to augment the traditional five factors genetic principles in pedology and soil-geomorphology.

Every maximum parsimony evolutionary tree embeds into the Buneman graph, in the sense that tree edges follow paths in the graph and the number of characteristic value changes on the tree edge is the same as the number in the corresponding path. The Buneman graph will be a tree if and only if a perfect phylogeny exists; this happens when there are no two incompatible characteristics for which all four combinations of characteristic values are observed. To form the Buneman graph for a set of species and characteristics, first, eliminate redundant species that are indistinguishable from some other species and redundant characteristics that are always the same as some other characteristic. Then, form a latent vertex for every combination of characteristic values such that every two of the values exist in some known species.

The Sankoff-Morel-Cedergren algorithm was among the first published methods to simultaneously produce an MSA and a phylogenetic tree for nucleotide sequences. The method uses a maximum parsimony calculation in conjunction with a scoring function that penalizes gaps and mismatches, thereby favoring the tree that introduces a minimal number of such events (an alternative view holds that the trees to be favored are those that maximize the amount of sequence similarity that can be interpreted as homology, a point of view that may lead to different optimal trees ). The imputed sequences at the interior nodes of the tree are scored and summed over all the nodes in each possible tree. The lowest-scoring tree sum provides both an optimal tree and an optimal MSA given the scoring function.

One such an example is the resurrection of the bovine seminal RNase gene. From the laboratory reconstructions of ancient RNases, it is shown that each of these traits was absent in the most recent common ancestor of seminal and pancreatic RNase and a bit later arose in the seminal lineage after the divergence of the above two protein families. The RNase genes from all taxa in a true ruminant phylogenetic tree that was constructed by parsimony analysis were analyzed by the researchers, and they revealed that early after the gene duplication, pancreatic RNases and seminal RNases separated at about 35 million years ago (MYA). Several marker substitutions, including Pro 19, Cys 32 and Lys 62, have been introduced in seminal RNase genes which made them to be recognized as different from their pancreatic cousins.

Consistency, here meaning the monotonic convergence on the correct answer with the addition of more data, is a desirable property of statistical methods. As demonstrated in 1978 by Joe Felsenstein, maximum parsimony can be inconsistent under certain conditions. The category of situations in which this is known to occur is called long branch attraction, and occurs, for example, where there are long branches (a high level of substitutions) for two characters (A & C), but short branches for another two (B & D). A and B diverged from a common ancestor, as did C and D. Assume for simplicity that we are considering a single binary character (it can either be + or -). Because the distance from B to D is small, in the vast majority of all cases, B and D will be the same.

Parsimony analysis, bootstrapping and the minimum evolution principle led to groups of species, further described by conidial and colony morphology. The species were re-inoculated into apples grown at an Iowa State University research station in Gilbert, Iowa, re-isolated, sequenced, and morphology compared. Thirty isolates fulfilled Koch’s postulates as new species, all Dothideomycetes, 27 were within Dothideales, one was within Pleosporales and two with undetermined ordinal level. Only 2 species (Peltaster fructicola and Zygophiala jamaicensis) had previously been associated with SBFS A 2008 publication of the same sample plus a 2005 sample of 30 more orchards in 10 eastern U.S. states, (39 US apple orchards in 14 states) speciated by DNA- and phylogenetic analyses reported 58 putative species belonging to the Dothideomycetes, 52 of which were Capnodiales, and 36 were part of the Mycosphaerellaceae.

In 1930, Edmonds proposed a volume on the occupation in the Rhine Province by British Army on the Rhine (BAOR), to counter a recent German book but the Treasury refused to pay. Edmonds hoped that the War Office would find the money, began to collect information from former commanders and staffs of the BAOR and ensured the storage of BAOR records. By 1939, poor offices, lack of promotions and government parsimony, led him to complain that the official history, a national memorial, was being neglected. When Daniel retired in late 1939, Edmonds took on the duties of Secretary as well as Director and on 15 November, the Historical Section was evacuated to St. Anne's on Sea, Lancashire and thence to the National Library of Wales at Aberystwyth in April 1942.

Although it is useful as a heuristic in developing models of reaction mechanisms, it has been shown to fail as a criterion for selecting among some selected published models. In this context, Einstein himself expressed caution when he formulated Einstein's Constraint: "It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience". An often-quoted version of this constraint (which cannot be verified as posited by Einstein himself) says "Everything should be kept as simple as possible, but not simpler." In the scientific method, parsimony is an epistemological, metaphysical or heuristic preference, not an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result.

The aquatic ape hypothesis (AAH), also referred to as aquatic ape theory (AAT) is the idea that ancestors of modern humans were more aquatic than those of other great apes. The hypothesis was initially proposed by the marine biologist Alister Hardy in 1960, who argued that a branch of apes was forced by competition over terrestrial habitats to hunt for food such as shellfish on the sea shore and sea bed leading to adaptations that explained distinctive characteristics of modern humans such as functional hairlessness and bipedalism. Elaine Morgan's 1990 book on the hypothesis, Scars of Evolution, received some favorable reviews but was subject to criticism from the anthropologist John Langdon in 1997, who characterized it as an "umbrella hypothesis" with inconsistencies that were unresolved and a claim to parsimony that was false. The hypothesis has been deprecated as pseudoscience.

Thomas Picketty, Capital in the twenty-first century, Harvard, 2014 Throughout this sequence we are treated to details of Felix Grandet's parsimony; this may have developed initially through sheer lack of funds but by now is total vice. He counts out slices of bread in the morning though actually never parting with cash for it since one of his tenants pays part of his rent in kind; most other consumables are supplied in a similar way. Mme Grandet is given no more than six francs at a time for pocket money.average annual income at the time was about 450 francs: see Picketty p106 Though his house is impressive externally it is old and run- down, and he is too miserly to repair it; their servant Nanon puts her foot through a rotten stair but faith fully saves the bottle she carries.

Henry's parsimony drives the married couple into an increasingly wretched existence. He is aghast, for example, when Violet spends fourteen pounds vacuuming his dusty shop as a wedding present. He begins eating less and less, even forgoing meat for cheese, and refuses to go to the hospital to treat his undernourishment when the doctor and his wife insist that he does. All the while Elsie stands devoted to the couple, despite having problems of her own—she pines secretly for Joe, and pilfers food to binge eat at night. Their lives—in which Henry’s passion for money and his obstinacy finally consume himself and his wife—are contrasted to that of their loyal maid servant Elsie Sprickett, and it is the latter, despite her extreme poverty, who brings life and a future to the bittersweet tale.

Alternate methods include maximum parsimony (MP) that construct a sequence based on a model of sequence evolution – usually the idea that the minimum number of nucleotidal sequence changes represents the most efficient route for evolution to take and by Occam's razor is the most likely. MP is often considered the least reliable method for reconstruction as it arguably oversimplifies evolution to a degree that is not applicable on the billion year scale. Another method involves the consideration of residue uncertainty – so-called Bayesian methods – this form of ASR is sometimes used to complement ML methods but typically produces more ambiguous sequences. In ASR, the term 'ambiguity' refers to residue positions where no clear substitution can be predicted – often in these cases, several ASR sequences are produced, encompassing most of the ambiguities and compared to one-another.

The parish church, dedicated to St Nicholas was built in 1070 and despite restoration in the 19th century still contains many Norman parts. The chancel and south wall of the nave including the fine south doorway are Norman, the north doorway is also of this date but the north wall is later, the width of the nave having been reduced from its original width, as it cuts into the Norman chancel arch.Old Warwickshire Churches, W Hobart Bird 1936 The tower, of the 15th century, again is smaller than may be expected and not centred on either the original nor revised axis of the nave. This may be due to parsimony or the instability of the ground, this instability may be the reason for moving the north wall, all of which leave a number of unsolved architectural issues.

49: "But if other possible worlds are causally disconnected from us, how do we know anything about them?" A related objection is that, while people are concerned with what they could have done, they are not concerned with what people in other worlds, no matter how similar to them, do. As Saul Kripke once put it, a presidential candidate could not care less whether someone else, in another world, wins an election, but does care whether he himself could have won it (Kripke 1980, p. 45). Another criticism of the realist approach to possible worlds is that it has an inflated ontology—by extending the property of concreteness to more than the singular actual world it multiplies theoretical entities beyond what should be necessary to its explanatory aims, thereby violating the principle of parsimony, Occam's razor.

The Buneman graph for five types of mouse. Phylogeny is the inference of evolutionary trees from observed characteristics of species; such a tree must place the species at distinct vertices, and may have additional latent vertices, but the latent vertices are required to have three or more incident edges and must also be labeled with characteristics. A characteristic is binary when it has only two possible values, and a set of species and their characteristics exhibit perfect phylogeny when there exists an evolutionary tree in which the vertices (species and latent vertices) labeled with any particular characteristic value form a contiguous subtree. If a tree with perfect phylogeny is not possible, it is often desired to find one exhibiting maximum parsimony, or equivalently, minimizing the number of times the endpoints of a tree edge have different values for one of the characteristics, summed over all edges and all characteristics.

These methods seek a tree with the given species as leaves in which the internal nodes are also labeled with features, and attempt to minimize the number of times some feature is present at only one of the two endpoints of an edge in the tree. Ideally, each feature should only have one edge for which this is the case. Changing the root of a tree does not change this number of edge differences, so methods based on parsimony are not capable of determining the location of the tree root and will produce an unrooted tree, often an unrooted binary tree.. Unrooted binary trees also are produced by methods for inferring evolutionary trees based on quartet data specifying, for each four leaf species, the unrooted binary tree describing the evolution of those four species, and by methods that use quartet distance to measure the distance between trees..

Since the root has no parent node, one may be required to select a character state arbitrarily, specifically when more than one possible state has been reconstructed at the root. Phylogeny of a hypothetical genus of plants with pollination states of either "bees", "hummingbirds" or "wind" denoted by pictures at the tips. Pollination state nodes in the phylogenetic tree inferred under maximum parsimony are coloured on the branches leading into them (yellow represents "bee" pollination, red representing "hummingbird" pollination, and black representing "wind" pollination, dual coloured branches are equally parsimonious for the two states coloured). Assignment of "hummingbird" as the root state (because of prior knowledge from the fossil record) leads to the pattern of ancestral states represented by symbols at the nodes of the phylogeny, the state requiring the fewest changes to give rise to the pattern observed at the tips is circled at each node.

If the rate of evolution for a specific character accelerates on a branch of the phylogeny, then the amount of evolution that has occurred on that branch will be underestimated for a given length of the branch and assuming a constant rate of evolution for that character. In addition to that, it is difficult to distinguish heterotachy from variation among characters in rates of evolution. Since ML (unlike maximum parsimony) requires the investigator to specify a model of evolution, its accuracy may be affected by the use of a grossly incorrect model (model misspecification). Furthermore, ML can only provide a single reconstruction of character states (what is often referred to as a "point estimate") -- when the likelihood surface is highly non-convex, comprising multiple peaks (local optima), then a single point estimate cannot provide an adequate representation, and a Bayesian approach may be more suitable.

Based on whole genome sequence similarity, a pangolin coronavirus candidate strain was found to be less similar than RaTG13, but more similar than other bat coronaviruses to SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, based on maximum parsimony and current sample data, a specific population of bats is more likely to have directly transmitted SARS-CoV-2 to humans than a pangolin, while an evolutionary ancestor to bats was the source of general coronaviruses. A metagenomics study published in 2019 had previously revealed that SARS-CoV, the strain of the virus that causes SARS, was the most widely distributed coronavirus among a sample of Sunda pangolins. On 7February 2020, South China Agricultural University in Guangzhou announced that researchers discovered a pangolin sample with a particular coronavirus – a single nucleic acid sequence of the virus was "99% similar" to that of a protein-coding RNA of SARS-CoV-2.

Francis Mason criticised Allen's Who Won the Battle of Britain for displaying 'a bland ignorance of aircraft design' regarding the problems of fitting heavy calibre 0.5' machine guns to a Spitfire and 'ignoring the atmosphere of national parsimony in which successive air ministers and air staff members fought to provide any air defence at all.' Mason implied that Allen's criticism of the recently deceased Fighter Command chief, Air Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, who could no longer defend himself, was distasteful. Allen did indeed criticise Dowding's conduct of the battle, particularly for allowing the brunt of the fighting to fall upon the embattled 11 Group, but had also argued that Dowding's earlier achievements had been ignored in the failure to make him a Marshal of the Royal Air Force upon retirement. Dowding was sympathetically portrayed in the 1969 blockbuster feature film, Battle of Britain, and died in 1970.

The decree XVI ordered that all the Syriac MSS should be handed over to the Archbishop or his deputy on a visit to the Churches. Due to the lack of printed books, the Qurbana MSS were excluded from this. Some of the other books which are said to have been burnt at the Synod of Diamper are: # The book of the infancy of the savior (history of our Lord) # Book of John Brandon # The Pearl of Faith # The Book of the Fathers # The Life of the Abbot Isaias # The Book of Sunday # Maclamatas # Uganda or the Rose # Comiz # The Epistle of Mernaceal # Menra # Of orders # Homilies (in which the Eucharist is said to be the image of Christ) # Exposition of Gospels # The Book of Rubban Hormisda # The Flowers of the Saints # The Book of Lots # The Parsimony or Persian Medicines. There are only very few Syriac manuscripts that withstood the destruction.

The presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is thus plausibly explained, that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned. Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once – it becomes a question of explanatory parsimony; moreover, early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed. A pre-Indo-European linguistic substratum in the Indian subcontinent would be a good reason to exclude India as a potential Indo-European homeland. However, several linguists, all of whom accept the external origin of the Aryan languages on other grounds, are still open to considering the evidence as internal developments rather than the result of substrate influences,Hamp 1996 and Jamison 1989, as cited in or as adstratum effects.

The argument from inconsistent revelations contests the existence of the deity called God as described in scriptures—such as the Hindu Vedas, the Jewish Tanakh, the Christian Bible, the Muslim Qur'an, the Book of Mormon or the Baha'i Aqdas—by identifying apparent contradictions between different scriptures, within a single scripture, or between scripture and known facts. Relatedly, the argument from parsimony (using Occam's razor) contends that since natural (non-supernatural) theories adequately explain the development of religion and belief in gods,Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought, Pascal Boyer, Basic Books (2001) the actual existence of such supernatural agents is superfluous and may be dismissed unless otherwise proven to be required to explain the phenomenon. The argument from "historical induction" concludes that since most theistic religions throughout history (e.g. ancient Egyptian religion, ancient Greek religion) and their gods ultimately come to be regarded as untrue or incorrect, all theistic religions, including contemporary ones, are therefore most likely untrue/incorrect by induction.

Because Justice Anthony Kennedy did not join Stevens' opinion as to several parts, largely on the grounds of judicial parsimony (that is, having decided that the military commissions had no foundation, the core question of the case was decided and the Court did not need to go further), those sections were without a majority in support. In one of these sections, Stevens addressed the issue of whether military commissions can try conspiracy charges. He argued that military commissions are not courts of general jurisdiction, which are able to try any crime; that the court has traditionally held that offenses against the law of war are triable by military commission only when they are clearly defined as war crimes by statute or strong common law precedent (cf. Quirin). Finally, he found that there was no support in statute or court precedent for law-of-war military commissions trying charges of "conspiracy", either in the Geneva Conventions, in the earlier Hague Conventions or at the Nuremberg Trials.

Occam's razor might fall under the heading of "elegance", the first item on the list, but too zealous an application was cautioned by Albert Einstein: "Everything should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler." It is arguable that parsimony and elegance "typically pull in different directions". The falsifiability item on the list is related to the criterion proposed by Popper as demarcating a scientific theory from a theory like astrology: both "explain" observations, but the scientific theory takes the risk of making predictions that decide whether it is right or wrong: Thomas Kuhn argued that changes in scientists' views of reality not only contain subjective elements, but result from group dynamics, "revolutions" in scientific practice which result in paradigm shifts. As an example, Kuhn suggested that the heliocentric "Copernican Revolution" replaced the geocentric views of Ptolemy not because of empirical failures, but because of a new "paradigm" that exerted control over what scientists felt to be the more fruitful way to pursue their goals.

The hypothesis is supported by three points: sympathy is so "very powerful" that mere observation of an emotion's causes or effects can communicate the emotion to us, the beauty we find in anything useful stems from sympathy with the pleasure it might bring its users, and likewise the moral beauty we find in the artificial virtues stems from sympathy with the public interest that these virtues serve. Given these three points, and given that natural virtues and social utility often go together, parsimony dictates that we also explain the natural virtues in terms of sympathy. Hume finds the connection between virtue and utility fairly obvious: it inspired Mandeville's erroneous account of virtue as a fraudulent invention of conniving politicians, and indeed the connection is even stronger with natural virtues than with artificial virtues. For though artificial virtues may harm society in particular cases (promoting the public interest only when mediated by a "general scheme"), natural virtues help society in every case, which makes it even more probable that sympathy explains moral evaluation of the natural virtues.

By the 1730s Lowther was reputed to be the richest commoner in England, enjoying an income of about £25,000 a year at his death. He was a Governor of St Thomas' Hospital and a founding Governor of the Foundling Hospital, and the principal contributor to the construction and endowment of two new churches in Whitehaven. His own lifestyle was frugal, which earned him a reputation for parsimony and the soubriquet of "Farthing Jemmy", After his death, anecdotes appeared suggesting him to be both penny-wise: > Sir James Lowther, after changing a piece of silver in George's Coffee > House, and paying twopence for his dish of coffee, was helped into his > chariot (for he was then very old and infirm), and went home; some little > time after he returned to the same coffee house on purpose to acquaint the > woman who kept it that she had given him a bad halfpenny, and demanded > another in exchange for it. Sir James had about forty thousand pounds per > annum, and was at a loss whom to appoint his heir.

Claude Flament (1979) "Independent generalizations of balance", in Perspectives on Social Network Research Then balanced graphs are recovered by assuming the : Parsimony axiom: The subgraph of positive edges has at most two components. The significance of balance theory for social dynamics was expressed by Anatol Rapoport: :The hypothesis implies roughly that attitudes of the group members will tend to change in such a way that one's friends' friends will tend to become one's friends and one's enemies' enemies also one's friends, and one's enemies' friends and one's friends' enemies will tend to become one's enemies, and moreover, that these changes tend to operate even across several removes (one's friends' friends' enemies' enemies tend to become friends by an iterative process).Anatol Rapoport (1963) "Mathematical models of social interaction", in Handbook of Mathematical Psychology, v. 2, pp 493 to 580, especially 541, editors: R.A. Galanter, R.R. Lace, E. Bush, John Wiley & Sons Note that a triangle of three mutual enemies makes a clusterable graph but not a balanced one.

Several volumes were financed by interested departments but Edmonds retained supervision and maintained the same editorial control as for the other volumes. Parsimony affected the organisation of the Historical Section and the speed it could publish the History.... Premises, visits to battlefields and the number of historians and administrators were limited and in 1922, Edmonds threatened to resign if denied more help. Along with Daniel and Edmonds, the section had only three or four full-time officers, who had to write the volumes, prepare them for publication, maintain the library, study prisoner of war (POW) records and foreign official and non-official publications (in their native language) and provide help for the War Office, War Graves Commission, Staff College, educational establishments and government departments. The section had about a year to its cramped offices in Cavendish Square, until it moved to the Audit Office in 1922. By 1924, Edmonds had five administrators and eight writers, when the French and German equivalents had about the British staff were also underpaid, A. F. Becke being refused a salary increase from £500 per annum.

A 75 kV reed switch based interface relay (gerkotrone) 1 – HV part of main insulator formed as dielectric glass; 2 – flange; 3 – main separation part between HV and LV; 4 – LV part of main insulator; 5, 6 – internal and external thread; 7 – control winding; 8 – ferromagnetic core; 9 – reed switch; 10 – capsule for reed switch rotation; 11 – conducting coating of external surface of capsule 10 and internal surface of LV part of main insulator 4; 12 – LV bushing; 13 – reed switch mounting plate; 14 – HV bushing; 15 – reed switch position fixation element; 16 – dielectric nut; 17 – lower layer of epoxy compound with cooper powder (60-70%); 18 – dielectric epoxy resin.A special kind of high voltage (HV) interface relays (which do not fall under the existing classification discussed above) are called gerkotrones — see the figure on the right. They were designed and developed by Vladimir Gurevich and offer a number of benefits over other types of interface relays. These include: design parsimony; mechanical, environmental and operational robustness; reliability and relatively low cost.

Vasubandhu then goes on to use the dream argument to argue that mental impressions do not require external objects to (1) seem to be spatio-temporally located, (2) to seem to have an inter-subjective quality, and (3) to seem to operate by causal laws. The fact that purely mental events can have causal efficacy and be intersubjective is proved by the event of a wet dream and by the mass or shared hallucinations created by the karma of certain types of beings.Siderits, Mark; Buddhism as philosophy, pp 156 After having argued that impressions-only is a theory which can explain our everyday experience, Vasubandhu then appeals to parsimony - since we do not need the concept of external objects to explain reality, then we can do away with those superfluous concepts altogether as they are most likely just mentally superimposed on our concepts of reality by the mind.Siderits, Mark; Buddhism as philosophy, pp 158 Inter-subjective reality for Vasubandhu is then the causal interaction between various mental streams and their karma, and does not include any external physical objects.

It is a satire in which the narrator, with intentionally grotesque arguments, recommends that Ireland's poor escape their poverty by selling their children as food to the rich: "I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food..." Following the satirical form, he introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by deriding them: > Therefore let no man talk to me of other expedients...taxing our > absentees...using [nothing] except what is of our own growth and > manufacture...rejecting...foreign luxury...introducing a vein of parsimony, > prudence and temperance...learning to love our country...quitting our > animosities and factions...teaching landlords to have at least one degree of > mercy towards their tenants....Therefore I repeat, let no man talk to me of > these and the like expedients, till he hath at least some glympse of hope, > that there will ever be some hearty and sincere attempt to put them into > practice.

Ueberreuter, Wien 1993, The king was known for his parsimony and dislike of idleness to such a degree that he would beat people in the street as well as in the palace if he viewed them as lazy. The queen complained about the "horrible avarice" he pressed upon the household and as a result, according to Pollnitz, the queen's table was often so sparingly supplied that he had often given her money so that she could be able to have an omelette for supper. Frederick William viewed her interests in theater, dancing, jewelry and music as frivolous and resented any sign of her living a life independently from his authority: he particularly disliked her interest in gambling, and it is reported that she and her partners would have coffee beans ready on the table during gambling, so that if the king appeared, they could pretend to be playing with them rather than money. On one occasion, the queen took the opportunity of the king being ill to host a ball at Monbijou with dancing and music, and where she herself gambled while wearing her diamond set.