The labarum, with minor variations in its form, was widely used by the Christian Roman emperors who followed Constantine. A miniature version of the labarum became part of the imperial regalia of Byzantine rulers, who were often depicted carrying it in their right hands. The term "labarum" can be generally applied to any ecclesiastical banner, such as those carried in religious processions. "The Holy Lavaro" were a set of early national Greek flags, blessed by the Greek Orthodox Church.
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Cantabrian labarum genesis The Cantabrian labarum (Cantabrian: lábaru cántabru or ) is a modern interpretation of the ancient military standard known by the Romans as Cantabrum. It consists of a purple cloth on which there is what would be called in heraldry a "saltire voided " made up of curved lines, with knobs at the end of each line. The name and design of the flag is in the theory advocated by several authorsDictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines - Daremberg et Saglio 1920. of a relationship between the genesis of labarum and the military standard called Cantabrum, thereby identifying both as a same thing; and the alleged relationship the Codex Theodosianus established between the Labarum and the Cantabrarii, the school of Roman soldiers in charge of carrying the Cantabrum.
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Coin of Vetranio, a soldier is holding two labara. Notably, they differ from the labarum of Constantine in having the Chi-Rho depicted on the cloth rather than above it, and in having their staves decorated with phalerae as were earlier Roman military unit standards. Honorius holding a variant of the labarum - the Latin phrase on the cloth means "In the name of Christ [rendered by the Greek letters XPI] be ever victorious." The labarum does not appear on any of several standards depicted on the Arch of Constantine, which was erected just three years after the battle.
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Odahl, p. 180 The religious aspect of the conflict was reflected in Licinius drawing up his battle lines with images of the pagan gods of Rome prominently displayed, whilst Constantine's army fought under his talismanic Christian standard, the labarum. Licinius had developed a superstitious dread of the labarum and forbade his troops from attacking it, or even looking directly at it.Odahl, p.
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Beyond its derivation from Latin labarum, the etymology of the word is unclear.H. Grégoire, "L'étymologie de 'Labarum'" Byzantion 4 (1929:477-82) The Oxford English Dictionary offers no further derivation from within Latin.Hoad, T. F. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (repr. 1996) Some derive it from Latin /labāre/ 'to totter, to waver' (in the sense of the "waving" of a flag in the breeze) or laureum [vexillum] ("laurel standard").
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The flag of Christiania is a red banner with three yellow discs representing the dots in each i in "Christiania". The flag of Christiania originates from the military standard of the Roman emperor Constantine. This standard is called a labarum. The labarum was a vexillum (military standard) that displayed the "Chi-Rho" symbol ☧, a christogram formed from the first two Greek letters of the word "Christ" (, or Χριστός) — Chi (χ) and Rho (ρ).
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Modern ecclesiastical labara (Southern Germany). The emperor Constantine IX Monomachos (centre panel of a Byzantine enamelled crown) holding a miniature labarum A later Byzantine manuscript indicates that a jewelled labarum standard believed to have been that of Constantine was preserved for centuries, as an object of great veneration, in the imperial treasury at Constantinople.Lieu and Montserrat p. 118. From a Byzantine life of Constantine (BHG 364) written in the mid to late ninth century.
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Constantine (c.337) showing a depiction of his labarum spearing a serpent. Alexander the Great silver tetradrachm. The Chi-Rho symbol The history of political warfare can be traced to antiquity.
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In Unicode, the Chi-Rho symbol is encoded at U+2627 (☧), and for Coptic at U+2CE9 (⳩). It was first used by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Ancient sources draw an unambiguous distinction between the two terms "labarum" and "Chi-Rho", even though later usage sometimes regards the two as synonyms. The name labarum was applied both to the original standard used by Constantine the Great and to the many standards produced in imitation of it in the Late Antique world, and subsequently.
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Additionally, and according to the definition of the Royal Academy of the Spanish language, labarum is the Roman standard (as in military ceremonial flag) on which, under Emperor Constantin's rule, the cross and the Monogram of Christ (XP: Chi-Rho) was drawn. By association of ideas, labarum can refer just to the monogram itself, or even just the cross. Etymologically, the word comes from (p)lab- which means to speak in a number of Celtic languages, many of which have derivatives. For example, in Welsh llafar means "speech", "language", "voice".
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The Parliament of Cantabria, in 2016, also recognized the Cantabrian labarum as a representative and identity symbol of the Cantabrian people and the values they represent, urging the institutions and civil society of Cantabria to actively promote and participate in their knowledge and dissemination. Keeping the official character of the flag of the Community of Cantabria.Boletín Oficial del Parlamento de Cantabria, page 2128, 15 March 2016, No. 85 Most townships have already accepted the proposition of using said flag placing it on the balcony of the Town Hall. Cantabrian labarum or lábaru cántabru.
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The Baptism of Kievans, a fresco by Viktor Vasnetsov The cross is currently the most common symbol of Christianity, and has been for many centuries, coming to prominence during the 4th century (301 to 400 AD). The predecessor of the cross as the main Christian symbol was the labarum, a symbol formed by overlaying the first two letters of the Greek word for Christ in the Greek alphabet. Constantine I is widely considered to have introduced the symbol into Christianity, but the symbol itself predates this. Although Christian tradition argues that Constantine chose the labarum because he had a vision that led him to convert to Christianity, Constantine's conversion is disputed by some historians, who see Constantine's motive for choosing the labarum as political, with him deliberately making his banner one which could be interpreted as supporting either of the two major religions of the Roman Empire at the time.
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104: "What little evidence exists suggests that in fact the labarum bearing the chi-rho symbol was not used before 317, when Crispus became Caesar..." In the course of Constantine's second war against Licinius in 324, the latter developed a superstitious dread of Constantine's standard. During the attack of Constantine's troops at the Battle of Adrianople the guard of the labarum standard were directed to move it to any part of the field where his soldiers seemed to be faltering. The appearance of this talismanic object appeared to embolden Constantine's troops and dismay those of Licinius.Odahl, p.
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Strictly speaking, the word draconarius denotes the bearer of the military standard on which a dragon was represented. The term passed into Christian usage, and was applied to the bearer of the labarum in battle, and also to cross-bearers in church processions.
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6Stephenson, p. 180 During the onslaught, Constantine directed the guard of his Christian standard, the labarum, to move it to any part of the field where his troops seemed to be faltering. The appearance of this talisman emboldened his own troops and dismayed those of Licinius.Odahl, p.
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Under these banners the Greeks united throughout the Greek Revolution (1821), a war of liberation waged against the Ottoman Empire. Labarum also gives its name (Labaro) to a suburb of Rome adjacent to Prima Porta, one of the sites where the 'Vision of Constantine' is placed by tradition.
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Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius.Curran, 80–83. At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand.
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A Companion to Roman Religion edited by Jörg Rüpke 2011 page 159 Eusebius stated that in addition to the singular labarum of Constantine, other similar standards (labara) were issued to the Roman army. This is confirmed by the two labara depicted being held by a soldier on a coin of Vetranio (illustrated) dating from 350.
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Catacombs of San Callisto, Rome The Chi Rho is formed by superimposing the first two (capital) letters chi and rho (ΧΡ) of the Greek word "ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ" =Christ in such a way to produce the monogram. Widespread in ancient Christianity, it was the symbol used by the Roman emperor Constantine I as vexillum (named Labarum).
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The Acropolis, with its ancient pagan temples, was left as it was. Labarum of Constantine the Great On 11 May 330, the dedication of the city was celebrated with the festival of Saint Mocius and the striking of commemorative medallions and coins.Ramskold, Lars, and Noel Lenski. Constantinople's dedication medallions and the maintenance of civic traditions.
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Gold tetarteron of Constantine IX Monomachos. Reverse. Bust of Constantine IX with a beard; on his head is a crown with a cross; labarum in his right hand, globe with a cross in his left. Constantinople. Coronation of Constantine IX Constantine continued the purge instituted by Zoë and Theodora, removing the relatives of Michael V from the court.Finlay, pg.
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Inscriptions date construction to the 5th century under a Flavio Costanzo. The layout is that of a decagon with an octagonal drum. The building still retains an octagonal baptismal font and 6th century mosaics with allegorical symbols of Christ such as the Labarum (Chi - Rho) and the Alpha and Omega. The walls have traces of 15th-century frescoes.
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306–337) as part of a military standard (vexillum). Constantine's standard was known as the Labarum. Early symbols similar to the Chi Rho were the Staurogram (20px) and the IX monogram (20px). In pre-Christian times, the Chi-Rho symbol was also to mark a particularly valuable or relevant passage in the margin of a page, abbreviating chrēston (good).
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Constantine also had the Christogram inscribed on the helmet. There were also a few religious symbols that were placed on the helmet. The Christogram was placed on the helmet, which usually represented the cross, but at times it was interpreted as Jesus Christ himself. Another one of these symbols was a labarum piercing a dragon, a serpent.
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X-ing for crossing, XREF for cross-reference), "Christ-" as shorthand for the labarum (e.g. Xmas for Christmas, Xian for Christian), the "crys-" in crystal (XTAL), or various words starting with "ex-" (e.g. XL for extra large, XOR for exclusive-or). X is the third least frequently used letter in English (after and ), with a frequency of about 0.15% in words.
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The Labarum of Constantine the Great In politics, integralism or integrism () is the principle that the Catholic faith should be the basis of public law and public policy within civil society, wherever the preponderance of Catholics within that society makes this possible. Integralists uphold the 1864 definition Newman, John Henry. A Letter Addressed to the Duke of Norfolk on Occasion of Mr. Gladstone's Recent Expostulation. Page 317.
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A coin of Constantine (c.337) depicting his labarum spearing a serpent. The Late Roman army in the late 3rd century continued to use the insignia usual to the Roman legions: the eagle-tipped aquila, the square vexillum, and the imago (the bust of the emperor on a pole). In addition, the use of the draco, adopted from the Dacians, was widespread among cavalry and auxiliary units.
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A coin of Constantine (c.337) showing a depiction of his Labarum standard spearing a serpent. Licinius and his son, depicted with haloes, on a gold coin The Battle of Chrysopolis was fought on 18 September 324 at Chrysopolis (modern Üsküdar), near Chalcedon (modern Kadıköy), between the two Roman emperors Constantine I and Licinius. The battle was the final encounter between the two emperors.
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This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient pagan faiths. Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople.
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Mosaic in the Archbishop's Chapel, Ravenna, 6th century Constantine (c.337) showing a depiction of his labarum spearing a serpent. Ivory from Genoels- Elderen, with four beasts; the basilisk was sometimes depicted as a bird with a long smooth tail.A clearer image of this depiction by Wenceslas Hollar is here Christ treading on the beasts is a subject found in Late Antique and Early Medieval art, though it is never common.
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Battle of the Milvian Bridge, Raphael, Vatican Rooms. The artist depicted the troops of Constantine bearing the labarum. Constantinian shift is used by some theologians and historians of antiquity to describe the political and theological aspects and outcomes of the 4th-century process of Constantine's integration of the imperial government with the Christian Church that began with the First Council of Nicaea. The term was popularized by the Mennonite theologian John H. Yoder.e.g.
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Few of them seem to have survived beyond the 4th century, however. The aquila fell out of use with the breaking up of the old legions, the imago was abandoned with the adoption of Christianity, and only the vexillum and the draco are still occasionally attested in the 5th century and beyond. Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) inserted the Chi-Rho emblem in Roman military standards, resulting in the so- called labarum.
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Palaiologos dynasty from the mid-13th century Crosses with firesteels have been used since Roman times, as symbols, but not as coats of arms or emblems. Some historians connect it with the labarum, the Imperial flag of Constantine the Great (r. 306–337). In the 6th century the cross with four fields (with either letters or heraldry) appear on Byzantine coins. The symbol was adopted by the First Crusaders since the first event, People's Crusade (1096).
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Müller, "Sterbende ud auferstehende Vegetationsgötter? Eine Skizze", TZ 53 (1997:374) Since the 1990s, Smith's scholarly rejection of the category has been widely embraced by Christian apologists wishing to defend the historicity of Jesus, while scholarly defenses of the concept (or its applicability to mystery religion) have been embraced by the new atheism movement wishing to argue the Christ myth theory. Albert McIlhenny, This Is the Sun?: Zeitgeist and Religion, Labarum Publishing (2011), chapter 14, "Dying and Rising Gods", 189-213.
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Late Roman sarcophagus with a combined cross and wreathed chi-rho. Follis issued by Constantine at Constantinople in 337, with a chi-rho on a labarum. It is unclear from these sources what Constantine saw and what was marked on his army's shields. Eusebius's description of the daytime vision suggests a cross-shaped (either Τ or †) symbol, whereas Lactantius's description suggests a staurogram (⳨), although the crux ansata (☥) or the Egyptian hieroglyph ankh (𓋹) have been proposed as interpretations as well.
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According to popular legend, the night before the battle of the Ponte Milvio, the crismón with the words in hoc signo vinces (In this sign, you conquer') appeared to Emperor Constantine the Great in his dreams. The next day the Emperor replaced the Imperial eagle with the crismón on the labarum, and he miraculously won the battle. Over time, the symbol was gradually included in varying forms on the Roman crowns. It had become the symbol of the victor and the victorious.
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The description of the actual symbol chosen by Emperor Constantine the next morning, as reported by Lactantius, is not very clear: it closely resembles a Tau-Rho or a staurogram (20px), a similar Christian symbol. That very day Constantine's army fought the forces of Maxentius and won the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312), outside Rome. Emperor Constantine the Great's labarum, a standard incorporating the wreathed Chi-Rho, from an antique silver medal. Eusebius of Caesarea (died in 339) gave two different accounts of the events.
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Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient Pagan faiths. Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople. Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martius Martinianus, the commander of his bodyguard, as Caesar, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont, and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324.
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178 At the final battle of the war, the Battle of Chrysopolis, Licinius, though prominently displaying the images of Rome's pagan pantheon on his own battle line, forbade his troops from actively attacking the labarum, or even looking at it directly.Odahl, p.180 Constantine felt that both Licinius and Arius were agents of Satan, and associated them with the serpent described in the Book of Revelation (12:9).Constantine and the Christian empire by Charles Matson Odahl 2004 page 315 Constantine represented Licinius as a snake on his coins.
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Silver missorium (heavily worn) believed to depict Valentinian I. The armoured and haloed emperor is flanked by infantry soldiers, he holds a labarum in one hand and an orb surmounted by a figure of Victory in the other, ca. 364-375 In 372, the rebellion of Firmus broke out in the still-devastated African provinces. This rebellion was driven by the corruption of the comes Romanus. Romanus took sides in the murderous disputes among the legitimate and illegitimate children of Nubel, a Moorish prince and leading Roman client in Africa.
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In iconographical evidence, this commonly takes the form of the Chi-Rho embroidered on the field of a vexillum, but literary evidence suggests also its use as a symbol at the head of a staff. The labarum, although common in the 4th and 5th centuries, vanishes entirely in the 6th, and reappears only much later in altered form as part of the imperial regalia. Scene of a battle from the 13th-century Madrid Skylitzes. Illuminated chronicles often depict flags conforming to the general bandon type in various colours and designs, but their accuracy is doubtful.
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Khorugv "Saint Nicholas with archangels", Russia, early 20th century. Easter Cross Procession, with khorugvi seen in the background, center (1880-83, Ilya Repin). Russian Orthodox Crucession with lantern, processional cross and banners. The first ensign used by the Christian Church was the labarum of the Roman Emperor Saint Constantine I. In the year 312, on the eve of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, he saw a vision of the Cross of Christ appear in the sky, and beneath it the words Ἐν τούτῳ νίκα (En touto nika, "In this, be victorious").
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Sometimes used as a symbol for Christian marriage: Two gold wedding rings interlinked with the Greek letters chi (X) and rho (P)—the first two letters in the Greek word for "Christ" (see Labarum) The Bible clearly addresses marriage and divorce. Those in troubled marriages are encouraged to seek counseling and restoration because most divorces are neither necessary nor unavoidable. In both Matthew and Mark, Jesus appealed to God's will in creation. He builds upon the narratives in where male and female are created together and for one another.
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In Plato's Timaeus, it is explained that the two bands that form the soul of the world cross each other like the letter Χ. Plato's analogy, along with several other examples of chi as a symbol occur in Thomas Browne's discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658). Chi or X is often used to abbreviate the name Christ, as in the holiday Christmas (Xmas). When fused within a single typespace with the Greek letter Rho, it is called the labarum and used to represent the person of Jesus Christ.
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Among the lower ranks within each tagma were two further classes of subaltern officers, the bandophoroi (βανδοφόροι, "banner-bearers") and the mandatores (μανδάτορες, "messengers"). Each tagma numbered forty of the bandophoroi, divided into four different classes of ten, with differing titles in each unit. For the Vigla in particular, these titles can be traced to the standard Roman cavalry ranks of the 5th–6th centuries. These were: the bandophoroi, the labourisioi (λαβουρίσιοι, a corruption of 6th-century labarēsioi, "carriers of the labarum"), the sēmeiophoroi (σημειοφόροι, "bearers of an insigne", cf.
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The first coins of the Visigoths, struck approximately between 420 and 440, imitate those minted in Ravenna by Honorius (393-423). The most common type has an obverse type with the legend D N HONORI – VS P F AVG and the bust of the emperor facing right, wearing a diadem and armour. On the reverse the legend reads VICTORI – A AVGGG and the emperor is depicted on foot, holding a labarum with his right hand, and a globe bearing a Victory in his left hand. His left foot rests on a prostrate captive.
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One of the first basilika issued, with a seated Christ and the standing figures of Andronikos II and Michael IX holding a labarum between them. The legend reads ΘΕΕ ΒΟΗΘΕΙ AYTOKPATOPEC PWMAIWN ("God aid the emperors of the Romans").. The basilikon (, "imperial [coin]"), commonly also referred to as the ' (Greek: δουκάτον), was a widely circulated Byzantine silver coin of the first half of the 14th century. Its introduction marked the return to a wide- scale use of silver coinage in the Byzantine Empire, and presaged the total abandonment of the gold coins around the middle of the century.
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A ceremonial miniature labarum, as it appears borne by a triumphant emperor in the 10th- century Gunthertuch From the 6th century until the end of the empire, the Byzantines also used a number of other insignia. They are mostly recorded in ceremonial processions, most notably in the 10th-century De Ceremoniis, but they may have been carried in battle as well. When not used, they were kept in various churches throughout Constantinople. Among them were the imperial phlamoula of gold and gold-embroidered silk, and the insignia collectively known as "sceptres" (, skēptra), which were usually symbolical objects on top of a staff.
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A number of them, the so-called "Roman sceptres" (, rhōmaïka skēptra) resembled to old vexilla, featuring a hanging cloth (, vēlon, from Latin velum). Further insignia of this type included the eutychia or ptychia (), which probably bore some representation of Victory. A further group, collectively known as skeuē (σκεύη), is mentioned in the De Ceremoniis, mostly old military standards handed down through the ages. They were the laboura (λάβουρα), probably a form of the labarum; the kampēdiktouria (καμπηδικτούρια), descendants of the batons of the late Roman drill-masters or campiductores; the signa (σίγνα, "insignia"); the drakontia (δρακόντια) and the banda.
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It was probably buried by an inhabitant of the nearby Roman fortified garrison town of Durobrivae. There are nine silver vessels, and the remainder of the items are votive tokens engraved and embossed with the labarum (the chi-rho cross), mostly of triangular shape. The larger items include jugs, bowls, dishes, a strainer, and an unengraved standing two- handled cup of the form (cantharus) later used as chalices. Due to the importance of this find, it is now in the British Museum, with part of the original hoard having been on display until January 2019 at Peterborough Museum.
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A Constantine coin (c.337) showing his labarum spearing a serpent. Constantine was the first Roman Emperor to become a Christian and in 313 AD along with his co-Emperor Licinius signed the Edict of Milan, allowing Christians to worship freely and build public churches, rather than worshiping in secret.The world of the early Christians by Joseph Francis Kelly 1997 page 158Catholic encyclopedia Constantine the Great However, Constantine and Licinius later fought each other and in 324 AD Constantine defeated Licinius at the Battle of Adrianople, not far from the Michaelion - attributing the victory to Archangel Michael.
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And although Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiae further reports that Constantine had a statue of himself "holding the sign of the Savior [the cross] in his right hand" erected after his victorious entry into Rome, there are no other reports to confirm such a monument. Historians still dispute whether Constantine was the first Christian Emperor to support a peaceful transition to Christianity during his rule, or an undecided pagan believer until middle age, and also how strongly influenced he was in his political-religious decisions by his Christian mother St. Helena. As for the labarum itself, there is little evidence for its use before 317.Smith, JH, p.
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Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle, as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable omens, especially as the day of battle would be his dies imperii, the day of his accession to the throne (which was 28 October 306). What else may have motivated him, is open to speculation. The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the Tiber river on the Via Flaminia. Christian tradition, especially Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea, claims that Constantine fought under the labarum in that battle, revealed to him in a dream.
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Each maniple and each centuria had an insignia of the same colour, on which the name of the legion and number of the centuria was embroidered in gold. Constantine's Christogram, the initials "IHS" stand for The labarum, a standard in which Constantine the Great placed a Christogram, differed from the vexillum in that it was flat and retained its square shape, as seen in the medals of Theodosius the Great and others. The vexillum, which appears often on Trajan's Column, was not protected but at the top. Vegetius records that in his time the banners in the form of dragons served as insignia to the barbarians.
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That night, Christ appeared to the Roman emperor in a dream and told him to make a replica of the sign he had seen in the sky, which would be a sure defence in battle. Eusebius wrote in the Vita that Constantine himself had told him this story "and confirmed it with oaths" late in life "when I was deemed worthy of his acquaintance and company." "Indeed", says Eusebius, "had anyone else told this story, it would not have been easy to accept it." Eusebius also left a description of the labarum, the military standard which incorporated the Chi- Rho sign, used by Emperor Constantine in his later wars against Licinius.
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Eusebius then continues to describe the Labarum,Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.31, p. 946. the military standard used by Constantine in his later wars against Licinius, showing the Chi-Rho sign. The accounts by Lactantius and Eusebius, though not entirely consistent, have been connected to the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 AD), having merged into a popular notion of Constantine seeing the Chi-Rho sign on the evening before the battle. The phrase appears prominently placed as a motto on a ribbon unfurled with a passion cross to its left, beneath a window over the Scala Regia, adjacent to the equestrian statue of Emperor Constantine, in the Vatican.
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At the centre of its simple design is carved a symbolic motif of a fish entwine around an anchored cross with the Koine Greek acronym ΙΧΘΥΣ inscribed vertically down the left side. High in the west window, the glass has been shaped in the centre panel so that the lead came forms the Labarum symbol of Chi (χ) and Rho (ρ). The aisles and each side are delineated by having pointed archways in each of the supporting piers. When standing at the end of either of these aisles from the well west end they each form a passage which passes through areas of increasing shadow along their length.
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Funerary stele with the inscription ("fish of the living"), early 3rd century, National Roman Museum. Early Christian art used symbolic and allegorical images mainly, partly no doubt to avoid drawing attention during the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire. In the Catacombs of Rome Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the Ichthys (fish), peacock, Lamb of God, or an anchor (the Labarum or Chi-Rho was a later development). Later, personified symbols were used, including Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale pre-figured the interval between Christ's death and Resurrection, Daniel in the lion's den, or Orpheus charming the animals.
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Constantine used the Chi Rho on his standard and his coins showed a labarum with the Chi Rho killing a serpent.Robin Margaret Jensen Understanding Early Christian Art (2000) ; p. 149 The use of a wreath around the Chi Rho symbolizes the victory of the Resurrection over death, and is an early visual representations of the connection between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his triumphal resurrection, as seen in the 4th-century sarcophagus of Domitilla in Rome.Sarcophagus of Domitilla Here, in the wreathed Chi Rho the death and resurrection of Christ are shown as inseparable, and the Resurrection is not merely a happy ending tucked at the end of the life of Christ on earth.
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Prior to the labarum, the main Christian symbol, and the earliest, was a fish-like symbol now known as Ichthys (the Greek word for fish); the Greek word ιχθυς is an acronym for the phrase transliterated as "Iesou Christos Theou Yios Sotiras", that is, "Jesus Christ, God's Son, the Savior". There are several other connections with Christian tradition relating to this choice of symbol: that it was a reference to the feeding of the multitude; that it referred to some of the apostles having previously been fishermen; or that the word Christ was pronounced by Jews in a similar way to the Hebrew word for fish (though Nuna is the normal Aramaic word for fish, making this seem unlikely).
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Good Shepherd from the Catacomb of Priscilla, 250–300 During the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily and deliberately furtive and ambiguous, using imagery that was shared with pagan culture but had a special meaning for Christians. The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there may well have been panel icons which, like almost all classical painting, have disappeared. Initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the Ichthys (fish), peacock, Lamb of God, or an anchor (the Labarum or Chi-Rho was a later development).
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The Healing of the Paralytic – one of the oldest possible depictions of Jesus, from the Syrian city of Dura Europos, dating from about 235 Initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the ichthys (fish), the peacock, or an anchor (the Labarum or Chi-Rho was a later development). The staurogram seems to have been a very early representation of the crucified Jesus within the sacred texts. Later personified symbols were used, including Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale pre-figured the interval between Christ's death and resurrection; Daniel in the lion's den; or Orpheus charming the animals.Orpheus as a symbol for David was already found in hellenized Jewish art.
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Constantine's labarum standard, from an antique silver medal Licinius encamped his army in a strong position near Adrianople (Hadrianopolis), the major city of inland Thrace. Constantine advanced eastward from Thessalonica until he came to the Hebrus River, on which Adrianople stands, and set up his own camp. Licinius arranged his defensive line, of 200 stades in length,Zosimus, II.22.3–7 in a strong position between a height overlooking the town and the confluence of the Hebrus with a tributary. The two armies remained in position for a number of days before battle was finally joined, when Constantine took the initiative by crossing the river against a well-prepared and positioned enemy having superior numbers.
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In this change of Imperial formula Constantine acknowledged his responsibility to an earthly realm whose discord and conflict might arouse the ira deorum; he also recognised the power of the new Christian priestly hierarchy in determining what was auspicious or orthodox. Though unbaptised, Constantine had triumphed under the signum of the Christ (probably some form of Labarum as an adapted or re-interpreted legionary standard). He may have officially ended – or attempted to end – blood sacrifices to the genius of living emperors but his Imperial iconography and court ceremonial elevated him to superhuman status. Constantine's permission for a new cult temple to himself and his family in Umbria is extant: the cult "should not be polluted by the deception of any contagious superstition".Momigliano, 104.
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The title page of this film shows the shadow of a cross, with "No war is holy" written across the transept. Constantine’s Sword is the story of James P. Carroll's journey to uncover the roots of war. Carroll, a former Catholic priest whose father (Joseph Carroll) was a famous Air Force general, implies that there has been a relationship between religiously inspired violence and war, beginning with the adoption of Christianity by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 312 AD. Constantine was convinced that he had won a battle because he had followed the instructions of a vision, to inscribe a sign of the cross (the Labarum) on the shields of his soldiers. In Carroll's view, this event marked the beginning of an unholy alliance between the military and the Church.
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Biertan Donarium The Biertan Donarium is a fourth-century Christian votive object found near the town of Biertan, in Transylvania, Romania. Made out of bronze in the shape of a Labarum, it has the Latin text EGO ZENOVIUS VOTUM POSVI, which can be approximatively translated as "I, Zenovius, offered this gift". It was found in 1775 in the Chinedru forest, about 5 km south of Biertan and it was part of the collections of Baron Samuel von Brukenthal, nowadays being part of the exhibits of the Brukenthal National Museum. This donarium was used as an argument for the existence of a Latin-speaking Christian population in DaciaConstantin C. Giurescu, Dinu C. Giurescu, Istoria românilor din cele mai vechi timpuri şi pînă azi, Editura Albatros, București, 1971, p. 155.
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He sees Jesus Christ seated in his majesty, surrounded by clouds and affirming: "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty".Revelation, 1.8. It is true that usage of the labarum was not restricted to Asturias, and dates back to the time of Constantine the Great, who used this symbol during the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. However, it was in Asturias where the Cruz de la Victoria attained a general use: in nearly every pre-Romanesque church this icon is engraved, often accompanied with the expression "Hoc signo tuetur pius, in hoc signo vincitur inimicus","With this sign thou shalt defend the pious, with this sign thou shalt defeat the enemy".
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He sent canon Gregorius Swiecicki to Rome with a letter from King Sigismund III Vasa requesting to add the feast of Casimir to the Roman Breviary and Roman Missal. The Sacred Congregation of Rites refused the request and on 7 November, 1602, Pope Clement VIII issued a papal brief Quae ad sanctorum which authorized his feast sub duplici ritu on 4 March but only in Poland and Lithuania. The brief also mentioned that Casimir was added to the ranks of saints by Pope Leo X. In the absence of any earlier known papal document explicitly mentioning Casimir as saint, the brief is often cited as Casimir's canonization. Swiecicki returned to Vilnius with the papal brief and red velvet labarum with the image of Saint Casimir. The city organized a large three-day festival on 10–12 May 1604 to properly accept the papal flag.
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An apse lined with mosaics and open to the air still preserves the memory of one of the most famous halls of the ancient palace, the "Triclinium" of Pope Leo III, which was the state banqueting hall. The existing structure is not ancient, but some portions of the original mosaics may have been preserved in the tripartite mosaic of its niche. In the center Christ gives to the Apostles their mission; on the left He gives the Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven to Pope Saint Sylvester I and the Labarum to Emperor Constantine I; and on the right Saint Peter gives the Papal stole to Pope Leo III and the standard to Charlemagne. Some few remains of the original buildings may still be traced in the city walls outside the Gate of Saint John, and a large wall decorated with paintings was uncovered in the 18th century within the archbasilica behind the Lancellotti Chapel.
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Gules, Praetorians insignia Or. The coat of arms is the labarum of the Praetorian Guard in gold on a red background.Note that the coat of arms of the rione was established by Council Resolution no. 20 of 20 August 1921, which describes it without showing its image. The image that is most frequently used, that is a "generic" sign of a legion with an aquila, is historically inaccurate for two reasons: first, the Resolution evidently referred to the "specific" insignia of the Praetorian guard (with reference to the Castra Praetoria), that is, the scorpio which appeared on the vexilla of the guard as a sign of gratitude towards the Emperor Tiberius (who was born under this zodiac sign); second, the aquila could only be carried by the Aquilifer of a legion, and certainly could not appear on the vexillum of the Praetorians, who could not form a legion since they resided within the city.
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In that period, as in all institutions of basic military training, Nunziatella cadets were made obliged to pursuing careers in the Military Academies, thus restoring the rule prior to the 1908 reform. On 25 April 1934 the Prince of Piedmont Umberto of Savoy gave the Nunziatella the labarum, equalized to war flag; a few months later, on November 18, it was celebrated the 150th anniversary of its foundation, during a solemn ceremony that saw the participation of the king and the heir to the throne. The military deployment, in addition to cadets Battalion, was formed by several former cadets (including many classmates of Vittorio Emanuele III) under the command of Lieutenant-General Carlo Perris, the highest-ranking among those present. Among the alumni of notice from this period worth mentioning Angelo Gatti, who was appointed a member of the Academy of Italy in 1937; Federico Baistrocchi was Chief of Staff of the Royal Army from 1 October 1934 to 7 October 1936, and Senator.
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The pope's palace at the Lateran in Rome was extensively added to in the late eighth century by Pope Hadrian I (772–95) and Pope Leo III (795–816), who built an enormous triclinium. It was one of the most famous halls of the ancient palace and was the state banqueting hall, lined with mosaics. Nothing remains of this, but in 1743 copies of the mosaics were made from drawings and placed in a specially built structure opposite the palace. The existing structure is not ancient, but a representation of the original mosaics is preserved in a three-part mosaic: In the centre Christ gives their mission to the Apostles; on the left he gives the keys to St. Peter and the Labarum to Constantine; while on the right St. Peter gives the stole to Leo III and the standard to Charlemagne, an image meant to represent the Frankish king's duty to protect the Church.
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In response to this, Corocotta turned himself into the Roman Emperor with the purpose of claiming the big financial reward himself and he willingly offering his life (head) in exchange. This decision by Corocotta is viewed by Cantabrians as an act of self-sacrifice and it is believed that his act was intended to avoid any problems that could be created by the reward acting as a temptation for fellow Cantabrians to betray him or turning him in. Instead, Corocotta would take that vast sum of money (or his people would do for him after being killed) and distribute it amongst the people of Cantabria, who had suffered from years of war against the Romans. Such an act of bravery would affect the Roman morale, and the Cantabrians were well known for coming up with very creative and efficient warfare techniques, like singing hymns of victory from the Roman crosses that crucified them or cavalry and infantry moves in which they used the Cantabrian labarum as a flag to signal army manoeuvres, a tactic later copied by the Romans themselves.
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For most of its history, the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire did not know or use heraldry in the West-European sense of permanent motifs transmitted through hereditary right. Various large aristocratic families did employ certain symbols to identify themselves; the use of the cross, and of icons of Christ, the Theotokos and various saints is also attested on seals of officials, but these were often personal rather than family emblems. . Likewise, various emblems (, sēmeia; σημεῖον, sēmeion) were used in official occasions and for military purposes, such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the cross or the labarum.. Despite the abundance of pre-heraldic symbols in Byzantine society from the 10th century, only through contact with the Crusaders in the 12th century (when heraldry was becoming systematized in Western Europe ), and particularly following the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) and the establishment of Frankish principalities on Byzantine soil from 1204 onwards, did heraldic uses penetrate in Byzantium. A native Byzantine heraldry began to appear in the middle and lower rungs of aristocratic families in the 14th century, coinciding with the decline of imperial authority and with the fragmentation of political power under the late Palaiologan emperors.
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