Algorithms that decode M.R.I.s put a whole medical subfield at risk.
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Overall, they concluded this emerging subfield of study is lacking rigor and specificity.
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It's one of the greatest entries in the emerging subfield of political absurdist smut.
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So it is a prime candidate, as a subfield of science, to be reproducible.
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Not so for brainless robots – in fact, calculating robotic movement is its own scientific subfield.
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This is a challenging but lively subfield of AI that's all about understanding and generating digital text.
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Deep Learning, also known as hierarchical learning, is a subfield of machine learning that utilizes large neural networks.
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It has been the subject of centuries of conjecture and, among feminist critics since the 1970s, a subfield of study.
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In the 1980s, the U.S. raced to match Japanese advances in a subfield of AI that petered out soon thereafter.
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His focus of study is computational perception, a relatively unknown subfield located at the intersection of psychology, neuroscience, and machine learning.
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Welcome to the next phase of AI. Machine intelligence is the newest subfield of AI, focused on learning and interpretation of data.
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However, it is classical economics — the theoretical subfield — that has been the dominant influence on U.S. public policy for a century or more.
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Egos The subfield of feminist scholarship devoted to narratives of what's commonly referred to as "the body" is having something of a heyday.
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And forecasting is a pretty heavily male subfield, so the people in it probably ought to sit down and think about why that is.
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An associate professor at the University of Virginia, Nosek had made a name for himself in a hot subfield of social psychology, studying people's unconscious biases.
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Robert Shiller, who helped create the subfield now known as behavioural finance (and won a Nobel prize), reckons that ideas about markets spread like an epidemic.
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Machine learning can be considered a subfield of artificial intelligence, but it has come to encompass so much that it's arguably a field of its own.
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Keep in mind that the subfield of political science that focuses on forecasting American presidential elections is very small, even if somewhat more visible than most.
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The three of them all work in a burgeoning subfield of political science, one that focuses on how people form political beliefs — false ones, in particular.
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But a recent spurt of progress in machine learning, a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI), has enabled computers to tackle many problems which were previously beyond them.
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According to Google Scholar, he has been cited more than 10,000 times in academic publications and is one of the 70 most cited researchers in his subfield.
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Advances in machine learning, a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI), would enable cars to teach themselves to drive by drawing on reams of data from the real world.
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Face recognition relies on machine learning, a subfield of AI in which computers teach themselves to do tasks that their programmers are unable to explain to them explicitly.
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The failure of democracy to provide a coherent ranking of political hopefuls is a central insight of the subfield of economics and political science known as social choice theory.
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The subfield of international relations has spent decades accumulating knowledge on what causes different countries to rise and fall, to succeed at getting what they want or to fail miserably.
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Their prototype system, which was presented last week at the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, is based on the machine learning subfield of natural language processing.
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Yet a crack Chomskyan teaching syntax in the department I was trained in cockily remarked to students that he had thought the whole subfield would have been abandoned years ago.
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Yoshua Bengio, Geoffrey Hinton, and Yann LeCun — sometimes called the 'godfathers of AI' — have been recognized with the $1 million annual prize for their work developing the AI subfield of deep learning.
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Machine intelligence is the subfield of artificial intelligence that enables people and companies to both profit and problem-solve for some of the most pressing business and societal issues of our time.
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But what you're really doing is contributing to a very small subfield where you'll work about three years on a paper that about 10 people in the world are going to read.
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The subfield of international relations has spent decades accumulating knowledge about how countries decide on policies of isolationism versus interventionism, why revolutionaries like Killmonger succeed and fail, and how racism shapes the way international politics operate.
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Within academic disability studies, the developing interdisciplinary subfield of critical autism studies puts into practice the disability activist commitment of "nothing about us without us" by forwarding language and ideas about neurodiversity originating from disability communities themselves.
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Superfund was a lucrative development for firms like Taft, creating an entire subfield within environmental law, one that required a deep understanding of the new regulations in order to guide negotiations among municipal agencies and numerous private parties.
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"If there is truly an exomoon around Kepler-1625b, a whole new subfield could open up, one we scientists—as well as sci-fi writers—have only speculated about, regarding the discovery and possible habitability of exomoons," said Hinkel.
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It's better, then, to talk about "machine learning" rather than AI. This is a subfield of artificial intelligence, and one that encompasses pretty much all the methods having the biggest impact on the world right now (including what's called deep learning).
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On standout "Extreme Love," a churning spoken word piece that features multimedia artist Sutela, Herndon's niece Lily Anna recites a poem about decentralized intelligence (a subfield of AI research in which collaborative solutions are reached through distributed intelligence—basically, socialist technology).
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So a lot has changed ... That is now an entire kind of subfield of trust and safety being invented right now at places like Google, Twitter, and Facebook, and there are people whose entire job it is to do that.
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Richard Thaler, of the University of Chicago, just won the Nobel Memorial Prize in economics for his contribution to behavioral economics — the subfield known for exploring how psychological biases cause people to act in ways that diverge from pure rational self-interest.
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One example comes in the subfield of software testing and debugging, where developers would like tools that can help detect energy issues and to determine if the amount of energy being consumed to complete a process is reasonable for the amount of work being done.
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Though the field of artificial intelligence is bent on creating robots that seem realistic — ones that can pass the Turing test by persuasively mimicking human beings in conversation — the subfield of fembot creation seems more fixated on creating something physically perfect but mentally deficient.
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Perhaps as a result, the mid-19803s saw the emergence of a new subfield of legal studies colloquially known as "art law" that sought to address these questions as well as other conundrums specific to visual art, including the appropriation of images in the name of creation.
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Notably, says Ford, researchers whose work was grounded in deep learning (the subfield of AI that's fueled this recent boom) tended to think that future progress would be made using neural networks, the workhorse of contemporary AI. Those with a background in other parts of artificial intelligence felt that additional approaches, like symbolic logic, would be needed to build AGI.
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Much of the book is composed of caricatures of academic types — the hopelessly insecure Ph.D. candidate laboring in a tiny subfield of early modern European history; the dreary, disillusioned associate professor who no longer believes that "sacrificing three years of evenings, weekends and summers to research a 9,000-word peer-reviewed article is livin' the dream"; the scholar of Joseph Conrad who goes on the warpath against those unsuspecting colleagues who have failed to cite him sufficiently, exacting his revenge by slapping down their conference proposals.
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More generally, for a subset , there is a minimal subfield of containing and , denoted by . The compositum of two subfields and of some field is the smallest subfield of containing both and The compositum can be used to construct the biggest subfield of satisfying a certain property, for example the biggest subfield of , which is, in the language introduced below, algebraic over .Further examples include the maximal unramified extension or the maximal abelian extension within .
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A subfield of a field L is a subset K of L that is a field with respect to the field operations inherited from L. Equivalently, a subfield is a subset that contains 1, and is closed under the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and taking the inverse of a nonzero element of L. As , the latter definition implies K and L have the same zero element. For example, the field of rational numbers is a subfield of the real numbers, which is itself a subfield of the complex numbers. More generally, the field of rational numbers is (or is isomorphic to) a subfield of any field of characteristic 0. The characteristic of a subfield is the same as the characteristic of the larger field.
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Fields can be constructed inside a given bigger container field. Suppose given a field , and a field containing as a subfield. For any element of , there is a smallest subfield of containing and , called the subfield of F generated by and denoted . The passage from to is referred to by adjoining an element to .
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Biohydrometallurgy is a subfield within hydrometallurgy which includes aspects of biotechnology.
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In geography zoogeography exists today as the vibrant subfield of biogeography.
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For the most part, systems ecology is a subfield of ecosystem ecology.
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The third subfield, to add to the evident Q() and Q(), is Q().
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More generally, any quadratically closed subfield of or will suffice for this purpose (e.g., algebraic numbers, constructible numbers). However, in the cases where it is a proper subfield (i.e., neither nor ), even finite- dimensional inner product spaces will fail to be metrically complete.
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This body of research has given rise to the emerging subfield of social sequence analysis.
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Ethnopoetics is considered a subfield of ethnology, anthropology, folkloristics, stylistics, linguistics, and literature and translation studies.
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So how can people erase the mistakes of the past? How can they bring old, outdated things new life through innovation? These questions can provide insight into the development of a subfield of anthropology called environmental anthropology. Environmental anthropology is a subfield of anthropology with roots in activism.
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The goal is to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I–O psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I–O psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.Myers (2004).
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The study and classification of strictly determined games is distinct from the study of Determinacy, which is a subfield of set theory.
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Hence, E is isomorphic to the subfield σ(E) of F. This justifies the name embedding for an arbitrary homomorphism of fields.
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In mathematics, the (field) norm is a particular mapping defined in field theory, which maps elements of a larger field into a subfield.
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A diagram illustrating the countability of the positive rationals The set Q of all rational numbers, together with the addition and multiplication operations shown above, forms a field. Q has no field automorphism other than the identity. With the order defined above, Q is an ordered field that has no subfield other than itself, and is the smallest ordered field, in the sense that every ordered field contains a unique subfield isomorphic to Q. Q is a prime field, which is a field that has no subfield other than itself. The rationals are the smallest field with characteristic zero.
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Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O) applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I-O psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I-O psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.Myers (2004).
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In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, a Hermite spline is a spline curve where each polynomial of the spline is in Hermite form.
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Design theory is a subfield of design research concerned with various theoretical approaches towards understanding and delineating design principles, design knowledge, and design practice.
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1984 The immune network theory has also inspired a subfield of optimization algorithms similar to artificial neural networks.e.g.
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Also within the province of the subfield are studies of human vision, properties of media, the relationship of visual form and function, and applied, collaborative uses of visual representations. Multimodal anthropology describes the latest turn in the subfield, which considers how emerging technologies like immersive virtual reality, augmented reality, mobile apps, social networking, gaming along with film, photography and art is reshaping anthropological research, practice and teaching.
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In the IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN protocols (such as Wi-Fi), a MAC frame is constructed of common fields (which present in all types of frames) and specific fields (present in certain cases, depending on the type and subtype specified in the first octet of the frame). Generic 802.11 Frame The very first two octets transmitted by a station is the Frame Control. The first three subfields within the frame control and the last field (FCS) are always present in all types of 802.11 frames. These three subfields consist of two bits Protocol Version subfield, two bits Type subfield, and four bits Subtype subfield.
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In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, an I-spline is a monotone spline function. An I-spline family of order three with four interior knots.
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In computer science, computational learning theory (or just learning theory) is a subfield of artificial intelligence devoted to studying the design and analysis of machine learning algorithms.
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Both the ASA and the BSA have sections devoted to the subfield of Science, Knowledge and Technology. The ISA maintains a Research Committee on Science and Technology.
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In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, an M-spline is a non- negative spline function. An M-spline family of order three with four interior knots.
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The field of social anthropology has expanded in ways not anticipated by the founders of the field, as for example in the subfield of structure and dynamics.
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Computational microscopy is a subfield of computational imaging, which combines algorithmic reconstruction with sensing to capture microscopic images of objects.Ikoma, Hayato. "Computational microscopy for sample analysis." PhD diss.
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The 260, for example, is further divided into subfield "a" for the place of publication, "b" for the name of the publisher, and "c" for the date of publication.
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This became a starting point for a new subfield in probability theory, decomposition theory for random variables as sums of independent variables (also known as arithmetic of probabilistic distributions).
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Dendropyrochronology is the science of using tree-ring dating to study and reconstruct the history of wild fires. It is a subfield of dendrochronology, along with dendroclimatology and dendroarchaeology.
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George F. Bass, 10-27. London: Thames & Hudson, 2005. The establishment of a department dedicated to the discipline allowed nautical archaeology to develop into an important subfield of archaeology.
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Sociomusicology (from Latin: socius, "companion"; from Old French musique; and the suffix -ology, "the study of", from Old Greek λόγος, lógos : "discourse"), also called music sociology or the sociology of music, refers to both an academic subfield of sociology that is concerned with music (often in combination with other arts), as well as a subfield of musicology that focuses on social aspects of musical behavior and the role of music in society.
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Feminist epistemology is a subfield of epistemology which applies feminist theory to epistemological questions. It began to emerge as a distinct subfield in the 20th century. Prominent feminist epistemologists include Miranda Fricker (who developed the concept of epistemic injustice), Donna Haraway (who first proposed the concept of situated knowledge), Sandra Harding, and Elizabeth Anderson. Harding proposes that feminist epistemology can be broken into three distinct categories: Feminist empiricism, standpoint epistemology, and postmodern epistemology.
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While the first two years of coursework are similar to the Ph.D. in History and Theory, the Ph.D. in Technology requires students to concentrate in a particular subfield of technology.
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A history journal is an academic serial publication designed to present new scholarship on a historical subject, usually a subfield of history, with articles generally being subjected to peer review.
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Wenliang Wang (2015). Pooling Game Theory and Public Pension Plan. . Chapter 4. The most common or simple example from the subfield of social psychology is the concept of "social traps".
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The theta phase separation model agrees generally with others on the significance of CA3 but is the first to attribute both the processes of encoding and retrieval to the subfield.
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In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis de Boor's algorithmC. de Boor [1971], "Subroutine package for calculating with B-splines", Techn.Rep. LA-4728-MS, Los Alamos Sci.Lab, Los Alamos NM; p.
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Organocatalysis is a subfield of catalysis that explores the potential of organic small molecules as catalysts, particularly for the enantioselective creation of chiral molecules. One strategy in this subfield is the use of chiral secondary amines to activate carbonyl compounds. In this case, amine condensation with the carbonyl compound generates a nucleophilic enamine. The chiral amine is designed so that one face of the enamine is sterically shielded and so that only the unshielded face is free to react.
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Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group – with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories – shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.
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In mathematics, an ordered field is a field together with a total ordering of its elements that is compatible with the field operations. The basic example of an ordered field is the field of real numbers, and every Dedekind-complete ordered field is isomorphic to the reals. Every subfield of an ordered field is also an ordered field in the inherited order. Every ordered field contains an ordered subfield that is isomorphic to the rational numbers.
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Others, however, stress that the subfield is a part of general comparative sociology.Zenner, Walter P. "American jewry in the light of middleman minority theories." Contemporary Jewry 5, no. 1 (1980): 11-30.
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A major subfield of environmental communication is climate communication, which is focused on the communicating about anthroprogenic climate change. Climate change communications has historically focused on news coverage and disseminating of information.
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In the mathematical subfield of graph theory a level structure of an undirected graph is a partition of the vertices into subsets that have the same distance from a given root vertex..
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Suppose is a vector space over , a subfield of the complex numbers (normally itself or ). A locally convex space is defined either in terms of convex sets, or equivalently in terms of seminorms.
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All values are little-endian; field and subfield numbers are per Version 2.0 of the specification. Version 2 added the extension area and footer. The developer area exists to store application-specific information.
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In mathematics, in particular the subfield of algebraic geometry, a rational map or rational mapping is a kind of partial function between algebraic varieties. This article uses the convention that varieties are irreducible.
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The uniqueness up to isomorphism of splitting fields implies thus that all fields of order are isomorphic. Also, if a field has a field of order as a subfield, its elements are the roots of , and cannot contain another subfield of order . In summary, we have the following classification theorem first proved in 1893 by E. H. Moore: ::The order of a finite field is a prime power. For every prime power there are fields of order , and they are all isomorphic.
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Every linearly ordered field contains (an isomorphic copy of) the rationals as an ordered subfield, namely the subfield generated by the multiplicative unit 1 of , which in turn contains the integers as an ordered subgroup, which contains the natural numbers as an ordered monoid. The embedding of the rationals then gives a way of speaking about the rationals, integers, and natural numbers in . The following are equivalent characterizations of Archimedean fields in terms of these substructures. 1\. The natural numbers are cofinal in .
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As mentioned above, the characteristic of any field is either 0 or a prime number. A field of non-zero characteristic is called a field of finite characteristic or positive characteristic or prime characteristic. For any field F, there is a minimal subfield, namely the ', the smallest subfield containing 1F. It is isomorphic either to the rational number field Q', or to a finite field of prime order, Fp; the structure of the prime field and the characteristic each determine the other.
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These efforts launched developmental psychopathology, a subfield of developmental science. In 1989, nine volumes of the Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology were published, as was the first issue of the journal Development and Psychopathology.
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Religion and environmentalism is an emerging interdisciplinary subfield in the academic disciplines of religious studies, religious ethics, the sociology of religion, and theology amongst others, with environmentalism and ecological principles as a primary focus.
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His work laid the foundations for Galois theory and group theory, two major branches of abstract algebra, and the subfield of Galois connections. He died at age 20 from wounds suffered in a duel.
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The subfield of operational health physics, also called applied health physics in older sources, focuses on field work and the practical application of health physics knowledge to real-world situations, rather than basic research.
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Because the algebraic numbers form a subfield of the real numbers, many irrational real numbers can be constructed by combining transcendental and algebraic numbers. For example, 3 + 2, + and e are irrational (and even transcendental).
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Die Erblichkeit im Mannesstamm und der vaterrechtliche Familienbegriff. In: Biologische Grenz- und Tagesfragen (Heft 1), Jena 1917. Pluripotenzerscheinungen. Synthetische Beiträge zur Vererbungs- und Abstammungslehre, Jena 1925. (where he established the subfield of phenogeneticsEntwicklungsgeschichtliche Eigenschaftsanalyse (Phänogenetik).
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In the academic realm, when combined with study of political economy, the study of economies as polities, it becomes political ecology, another academic subfield. It also helps interrogate historical events like the Easter Island Syndrome.
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The 2-bits Protocol Version subfield is currently always set to 0, regardless of 802.11 version being used. The revision level is incremented only when there is a fundamental incompatibility between two versions of WLAN standard.
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In mathematics, in the subfield of geometric topology, the mapping class group is an important algebraic invariant of a topological space. Briefly, the mapping class group is a certain discrete group corresponding to symmetries of the space.
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Polymer science or macromolecular science is a subfield of materials science concerned with polymers, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastics and elastomers. The field of polymer science includes researchers in multiple disciplines including chemistry, physics, and engineering.
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Computational informatics is a subfield of informatics that emphasizes issues in the design of computing solutions rather than its underlying infrastructure. Computational informatics can also be interpreted as the use of computational methods in the information sciences.
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In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis the symbolic Cholesky decomposition is an algorithm used to determine the non-zero pattern for the L factors of a symmetric sparse matrix when applying the Cholesky decomposition or variants.
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In library science, the number of pages in a book forms part of its physical description, coded in subfield $300a in MARC 21 and in subfield $215a in UNIMARC. This description consists of the number of pages (or a list of such numberings separated by commas, if the book contains separately-numbered sections), followed by the abbreviation "p." for "page(s)". The number of pages is written in the same style (Arabic or Roman numerals, uppercase or lowercase, etc.) as the numbering in each section. Unnumbered pages are not described.
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Economic geography is the subfield of human geography which studies economic activity. It can also be considered a subfield or method in economics. Scroll to chapter-preview links. Economic geography takes a variety of approaches to many different topics, including the location of industries, economies of agglomeration (also known as "linkages"), transportation, international trade, development, real estate, gentrification, ethnic economies, gendered economies, core-periphery theory, the economics of urban form, the relationship between the environment and the economy (tying into a long history of geographers studying culture-environment interaction), and globalization.
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Suppose that the Noetherian complete local ring R has a subfield k that maps onto a subfield of finite index of its residue field R/m. Then the Matlis dual of any R-module is just its dual as a topological vector space over k, if the module is given its m-adic topology. In particular the dual of R as a topological vector space over k is a Matlis module. This case is closely related to work of Macaulay on graded polynomial rings and is sometimes called Macaulay duality.
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Psychology of religion and spirituality is the psychological study of religious and spiritual experiences, beliefs, activities, and feelings. This subfield has existed since modern psychology's early days, and is the focus of Division 36 of the American Psychological Association. William James (1842–1910) is regarded by most psychologists of religion/spirituality as the founder of the field, and his Varieties of Religious Experience is considered to be a classic work in the field. Since 2008, the American Psychological Association has published a journal dedicated to this subfield, entitled the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality.
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He meant that the real numbers form the largest Archimedean field in the sense that every other Archimedean field is a subfield of R. Thus R is "complete" in the sense that nothing further can be added to it without making it no longer an Archimedean field. This sense of completeness is most closely related to the construction of the reals from surreal numbers, since that construction starts with a proper class that contains every ordered field (the surreals) and then selects from it the largest Archimedean subfield.
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Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group—with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories—shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes. Each school within psychological anthropology has its own approach.
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The Kronecker–Weber theorem can be stated in terms of fields and field extensions. Precisely, the Kronecker–Weber theorem states: every finite abelian extension of the rational numbers Q is a subfield of a cyclotomic field. That is, whenever an algebraic number field has a Galois group over Q that is an abelian group, the field is a subfield of a field obtained by adjoining a root of unity to the rational numbers. For a given abelian extension K of Q there is a minimal cyclotomic field that contains it.
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Conversely, every abelian extension of the rationals is such a subfield of a cyclotomic field – this is the content of a theorem of Kronecker, usually called the Kronecker–Weber theorem on the grounds that Weber completed the proof.
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Feminist HCI is a subfield of human-computer interaction (commonly called HCI) that focuses on helping the field of HCI build interactions that pay attention to gender, equity, and social justice in research and in the design process.
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Neighbourhood sociology is a subfield of urban sociology which studies local communitiesWellman, B. & Leighton, B. (1979, March). Networks, neighbourhoods and communities: Approaches to the study of the community question. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 14(3): 363-390.Warren, D. (1977).
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While the committee existed only five years, the subfield continues to grow in recognition and importance. Van Essen has contributed to mapping cortical convolutions; first by hand, then computerizing the process leading to the development of computerized cortical cartography.
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Philosophy of geography is the subfield of philosophy which deals with epistemological, metaphysical, and axiological issues in geography, with geographic methodology in general, and with more broadly related issues such as the perception and representation of space and place.
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Special cases include the Monge–Ampère equation. and Poisson's equation (the Laplacian being the trace of the Hessian matrix). These equations are of interest in geometric PDEs (a subfield at the interface between both geometric analysis and PDEs) and differential geometry.
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Political methodology is a subfield of political science that studies the quantitative and qualitative methods used to study politics. Quantitative methods combine statistics, mathematics, and formal theory. Political methodology is often used for positive research, in contrast to normative research.
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Thermoeconomics, also referred to as biophysical economics, is a school of heterodox economics that applies the laws of statistical mechanics to economic theory. Thermoeconomics can be thought of as the statistical physics of economic value and is a subfield of econophysics.
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In 2019 she won the Novozymes Prize for "almost single- handedly founding a subfield of mass spectrometry proteomics". Also in 2019 she received the Royal Medal.Royal Medal 2019 In 2020, she was chosen as the recipient of the Othmer Gold Medal.
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Waring's 1988 book If Women Counted is often regarded as the "founding document" of the discipline. By the 1990s feminist economics had become sufficiently recognised as an established subfield within economics to generate book and article publication opportunities for its practitioners.
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The Scale of Justice Comparative criminal justice is a subfield of the study of Criminal justice that compares justice systems worldwide. Such study can take a descriptive, historical, or political approach.Philip L. Reichel. (2005). Comparative Criminal Justice Systems (4th Ed.).
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Machine learning control (MLC) is a subfield of machine learning, intelligent control and control theory which solves optimal control problems with methods of machine learning. Key applications are complex nonlinear systems for which linear control theory methods are not applicable.
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For every algebraic number field and every finite field F there is a matroid M for which F is the minimal subfield of its algebraic closure over which M can be represented: M can be taken to be of rank 3.
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Quantum wells and quantum well devices are a subfield of solid- state physics that is still extensively studied and researched today. The theory used to describe such systems utilizes important results from the fields of quantum physics, statistical physics, and electrodynamics.
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741–43 note 3 The word "logology" provides grammatical variants not available with the earlier terms "science of science" and "sociology of science", such as "logologist", "logologize", "logological", and "logologically". The emerging field of metascience is a subfield of logology.
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Phonology is a British peer-reviewed journal of phonology published by Cambridge University Press, the only journal devoted exclusively to this subfield of linguistics. The current editors are Prof. Colin J. Ewen (Leiden University) and Prof. Ellen Kaisse (University of Washington).
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In mathematics, particularly in algebra, a field extension is a pair of fields E\subseteq F, such that the operations of E are those of F restricted to E. In this case, F is an extension field of E and E is a subfield of F. For example, under the usual notions of addition and multiplication, the complex numbers are an extension field of the real numbers; the real numbers are a subfield of the complex numbers. Field extensions are fundamental in algebraic number theory, and in the study of polynomial roots through Galois theory, and are widely used in algebraic geometry.
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The discriminant of a cubic field K can be written uniquely as df2 where d is a fundamental discriminant. Then, K is cyclic if, and only if, d = 1, in which case the only subfield of K is Q itself. If d ≠ 1, then the Galois closure N of K contains a unique quadratic field k whose discriminant is d (in the case d = 1, the subfield Q is sometimes considered as the "degenerate" quadratic field of discriminant 1). The conductor of N over k is f, and f2 is the relative discriminant of N over K. The discriminant of N is d3f4.
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In an important 2003 exchange published in Studies in American Political Development, John Gerring, Stephen Skowronek, Rogers Smith, and Bensel offered their thoughts on the state of APD as a subfield. Bensel controversially defined APD as "an insurgency." Its goal, he argued, "should be to destroy disciplinary boundaries, to sabotage reifying conventions, to identify and support intellectual rebellions wherever they appear, and to do our best to make sense of whatever space we may have cleared and claimed for ourselves."Bensel, "The Tension Between American Political Development as a Research Community and as a Disciplinary Subfield," Studies in American Political Development Spring 2003.
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There are numbers such as the cube root of 2 which are algebraic but not constructible. The real algebraic numbers form a subfield of the real numbers. This means that 0 and 1 are algebraic numbers and, moreover, if a and b are algebraic numbers, then so are a+b, a−b, ab and, if b is nonzero, a/b. The real algebraic numbers also have the property, which goes beyond being a subfield of the reals, that for each positive integer n and each real algebraic number a, all of the nth roots of a that are real numbers are also algebraic.
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American political development (often abbreviated as APD) is a subfield of political science that studies the historical development of politics in the United States. In American political science departments, it is considered a subfield within American politics and is closely linked to historical institutionalism. Scholarship in American political development focuses on "the causes, nature, and consequences of key transformative periods and central patterns in American political history." Karen Orren and Stephen Skowronek, co-founders of the subfield's flagship journal, define American political development as the study of "durable shifts in governing authority" in the United States.
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Algebraic enumeration is a subfield of enumeration that deals with finding exact formulas for the number of combinatorial objects of a given type, rather than estimating this number asymptotically. Methods of finding these formulas include generating functions and the solution of recurrence relations..
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Evolutionary musicology is a subfield of biomusicology that grounds the cognitive mechanisms of music appreciation and music creation in evolutionary theory. It covers vocal communication in other animals, theories of the evolution of human music, and holocultural universals in musical ability and processing.
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The proceedings of SGP appear in a special issue of the Computer Graphics Forum, the International Journal of the Eurographics Association. Since 2011, SGP has held a two-day "graduate school" preceding the conference, typically composed of workshop-style courses from subfield experts.
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Automated theorem proving (also known as ATP or automated deduction) is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs. Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major impetus for the development of computer science.
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The philosophy of geography is a subfield of the philosophy of science which deals with epistemological, metaphysical, and axiological issues in geography, with geographic methodology in general, and with more broadly related issues such as the perception and representation of space and place.
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The philosophy of movement is also a subfield of contemporary philosophy related to process philosophy and defined by the study of social, aesthetic, scientific, and ontological domains from the perspective of the primacy of movement. This includes philosophers such as Erin Manning and Thomas Nail.
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Microelectronics is a subfield of electronics. As the name suggests, microelectronics relates to the study and manufacture (or microfabrication) of very small electronic designs and components. Usually, but not always, this means micrometre-scale or smaller. These devices are typically made from semiconductor materials.
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American Politics Research is a peer-reviewed academic journal that covers the subfield of American politics in the discipline of political science. The journal's editor-in-chief is Costas Panagopolous (Northeastern University). It was established in 1973 and is currently published by SAGE Publications.
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A potential neural substrate for processing functional classes of complex acoustic signals. PLoS ONE 3:e2203. the auditory thalamo-recipient subfield (Field L: L1, L2a, L2b, L3),Grace, J., N. Amin, and N. Singh. 2003. Selectivity for conspecific song in the zebra finch auditory forebrain.
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Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. It refers to the description and classification of pragmatic impairments, their elucidation in terms of various pragmatic, linguistics, cognitive and neurological theories, and their assessment and treatment.
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A subfield of the sociology of health and illness that overlaps with cultural sociology is the study of death, dying and bereavement, sometimes referred to broadly as the sociology of death. This topic is exemplified by the work of Douglas Davies and Michael C. Kearl.
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David Parnas has said that software engineering is, in fact, a form of engineering., p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}.", p.
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This is a glossary for the terminology applied in the foundations of quantum mechanics and quantum metaphysics, collectively called quantum philosophy, a subfield of philosophy of physics. Note that this is a highly debated field, hence different researchers may have different definitions on the terms.
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In model theory, a subfield of mathematical logic, an atomic model is a model such that the complete type of every tuple is axiomatized by a single formula. Such types are called principal types, and the formulas that axiomatize them are called complete formulas.
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Let A be a finite-dimensional central simple algebra over a field F. Then A is said to be cyclic if it contains a strictly maximal subfield E such that E/F is a cyclic field extension (i.e., the Galois group is a cyclic group).
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The field of neuroeconomics examines brain activity in economic decision situations with methods of magnetic resonance imaging or electroencephalography, and so can be considered a subfield of physio-economics. As of 2011, these technologies are considerably more expensive than other techniques of physio-economics.
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In the case of the barrel field, the map is somatotopic - based on the arrangement of body parts. Areas corresponding to the nose and mouth are more rostral and lateral in the map, the forelimb, hindlimb and trunk are more medial, with the forelimb rostral of the hindlimb, and the whisker barrel subfields - the posteromedial barrel subfield, which corresponds to the major facial whiskers (the mystacial vibrissae), and the anteriolateral barrel subfield, which corresponds to the smaller whiskers of the face - are caudal and lateral. Although the whiskers make up a relatively small portion of the animal, they dominate the somatotopic map.Hoover et al.
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This subfield of sociology studies, broadly, the dynamics of war, conflict resolution, peace movements, war refugees, conflict resolution and military institutions. As a subset of this subfield, military sociology aims towards the systematic study of the military as a social group rather than as an organization. It is a highly specialized sub-field which examines issues related to service personnel as a distinct group with coerced collective action based on shared interests linked to survival in vocation and combat, with purposes and values that are more defined and narrow than within civil society. Military sociology also concerns civilian-military relations and interactions between other groups or governmental agencies.
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No more than five consecutive non-printed bars, or spaces, are permitted, and no more than six consecutive printed bars are allowed. The actual representation of the postal code is split into four subfields of the barcode, each with their own separate encoding table. The first and last subfields, which share a common encoding table, are always eight bars in width, and encode the first two characters and the last two characters of the postal code respectively. The second subfield, which encodes the third character of the postal code, is always five bars in width, and the third subfield, which encodes the fourth character, is always four bars wide.
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Mathematical sociology remains a small subfield within the discipline, but it has succeeded in spawning a number of other subfields which share its goals of formally modeling social life. The foremost of these fields is social network analysis, which has become among the fastest growing areas of sociology in the 21st century. The other major development in the field is the rise of computational sociology, which expands the mathematical toolkit with the use of computer simulations, artificial intelligence and advanced statistical methods. The latter subfield also makes use of the vast new data sets on social activity generated by social interaction on the internet.
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There is also a growing body of work dealing with technology and trans identity. Similar to the field of queer internet studies which recently had an issue of FirstMonday dedicated to it, digital trans studies is concerned with the many ways trans people use the internet and other technologies for their identity- and community-building practices. This interdisciplinary subfield contains work by scholars from technical fields such as HCI as well as more media-focused backgrounds. The subfield, like trans studies more broadly, appears to be growing with one list of digital trans works noting a jump from nine relevant works in 2016 to twenty- one in 2017.
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Telehomecare (THC) is a subfield within telehealth. It involves the delivery of healthcare services to patients at home through the use of telecommunications technologies, which enable the interaction of voice, video, and health-related data.Bowles KH, Baugh AC. Applying research evidence to optimize telehomecare. J Cardiovasc Nurs.
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Military sociology is a subfield within sociology. It corresponds closely to C. Wright Mills's summons to connect the individual world to broader social structures.Crabb, Tyler and Segal, David. 2015. "Military Sociology" in Encyclopedia of Public Administration and Public Policy, Third Edition, Taylor and Francis. pp. 2133-2138.
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Self and Identity is a subfield of psychology. As the name implies, it deals with topics pertaining to both self and identity. Key areas of investigation include self-concept, self-esteem, and self-control. What distinguishes self and identity as a discipline is its scientific character.
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The application of biomechanical principles to plants, plant organs and cells has developed into the subfield of plant biomechanics. Application of biomechanics for plants ranges from studying the resilience of crops to environmental stress to development and morphogenesis at cell and tissue scale, overlapping with mechanobiology.
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These sorts of operations are characterized by systems of differential equations. Neural computation can be studied for example by building models of neural computation. There is a scientific journal dedicated to this subject, Neural Computation. Artificial neural networks (ANN) is subfield of the research area machine learning.
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Latin American studies (LAS) is an academic and research field associated with the study of Latin America. The interdisciplinary study is a subfield of area studies, and can be composed of numerous disciplines such as economics, sociology, history, international relations, political science, geography, gender studies, and literature.
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Oxford University Press. Creolistics, or creology, is the study of creole languages and, as such, is a subfield of linguistics. Someone who engages in this study is called a creolist. The precise number of creole languages is not known, particularly as many are poorly attested or documented.
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Pragmatics is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering the field of pragmatics, a subfield of linguistics. It was established in 1991 and is published by John Benjamins Publishing Company on behalf of the International Pragmatics Association. The editor-in-chief is Helmut Gruber (University of Vienna).
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Thomas Edison built the world's first large-scale electrical supply network During the latter part of the 1800s, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics. It was not until the late 19th century that universities started to offer degrees in electrical engineering.
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The current chairman is professor Bo Wegge Laursen. A new undergraduate program (3 years ending with a B.Sc. in nanotechnology) admitted the first students in September 2002, currently admitting about 60 students per year. Graduates are expected to continue to get a M.Sc. within a subfield of nanotechnology.
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Computational materials science and engineering uses modeling, simulation, theory, and informatics to understand materials. Main goals include discovering new materials, determining material behavior and mechanisms, explaining experiments, and exploring materials theories. It is analogous to computational chemistry and computational biology as an increasingly important subfield of materials science.
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The subiculum (Latin for "support") is the most inferior component of the hippocampal formation. It lies between the entorhinal cortex and the CA1 subfield of the hippocampus proper. The subicular complex comprises a set of related structures including (as well as subiculum proper) prosubiculum, presubiculum, postsubiculum and parasubiculum.
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Forecast verification is a subfield of the climate, atmospheric and ocean sciences dealing with validating, verifying and determining the predictive power of prognostic model forecasts. Because of the complexity of these models, forecast verification goes a good deal beyond simple measures of statistical association or mean error calculations.
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Clinical epidemiology is a subfield of epidemiology specifically focused on issues relevant to clinical medicine. The term was first introduced by John R. Paul in his presidential address to the American Society for Clinical Investigation in 1938. It is sometimes referred to as "the basic science of clinical medicine".
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The subfield emerged within American political science in the 1980s, alongside a general renewal of work in historical institutionalism, as an "insurgent movement" that sought to refocus attention on the study of historical American politics and to use such historical study to recast the study of contemporary political phenomena. APD shares overlaps with the research agendas of comparative politics (particularly comparative historical analysis), historical sociology, and political history. However, scholarship in APD differs from political history in that the former's "primary concerns are analytical, conceptual, and theoretical rather than historical." Methodologically, the subfield tends to use within-case analysis and conduct causes-of-effects research (as opposed to effects-of-causes research).
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Convex minimization is a subfield of optimization that studies the problem of minimizing convex functions over convex sets. The branch of mathematics devoted to the study of properties of convex sets and convex functions is called convex analysis. The notion of a convex set can be generalized as described below.
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In mathematics, more specifically in topology, the equivariant stable homotopy theory is a subfield of equivariant topology that studies a spectrum with group action instead of a space with group action, as in stable homotopy theory. The field has become more active recently because of its connection to algebraic K-theory.
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Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology.Mey, Jacob L. (1993) Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).
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In 1955, sociologist Seymour Lipset noted that the discipline was underdeveloped, stating that there were far more "Jewish sociologists" than "sociologists of Jews".Lipset, Seymour. "Jewish Sociologists and Sociologists of the Jews." Jewish Social Studies (1955): 177-178. However, the subfield began to grow in the late 1960s and 1970s.
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This subfield is founded on the understanding that, in the words of Iranian- American philosopher Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "the environmental crisis is fundamentally a crisis of values," and that religions, being a primary source of values in any culture, are thus implicated in the decisions humans make regarding the environment.
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2008 Jan 15;174(1):68-70. Epub 2007 Mar 26. This species can be identified by its chaeotaxy, metallic blue color, club-shaped palp, and brown calypters. Compsomyiops callipes serves an important role in the field of medicocriminal entomology, a subfield of forensic entomology, by determining post mortem intervals (PMI).
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Suppose K is a subfield of F (cf. field extension). Then F can be regarded as a vector space over K by restricting scalar multiplication to elements in K (vector addition is defined as normal). The dimension of this vector space, if it exists, is called the degree of the extension.
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Conic optimization is a subfield of convex optimization that studies problems consisting of minimizing a convex function over the intersection of an affine subspace and a convex cone. The class of conic optimization problems includes some of the most well known classes of convex optimization problems, namely linear and semidefinite programming.
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Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics. Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other static structures.
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'Anthropology and the Problem of Audience Reception', in Marcus Banks & Jay Ruby. Made to be Seen: Perspectives on the History of Visual Anthropology Given such differences, anthropologists who take an interest in the media see themselves as forming a distinct subfield from ethnographic approaches to media studies and cultural studies.
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The motivating example comes from Galois theory: suppose is a field extension. Let be the set of all subfields of that contain , ordered by inclusion ⊆. If is such a subfield, write for the group of field automorphisms of that hold fixed. Let be the set of subgroups of , ordered by inclusion ⊆.
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Some contemporary philosophers specialize in studying one or more historical periods. The history of philosophy (study of a specific period, individual or school) should not be confused with the philosophy of history, a minor subfield most commonly associated with historicism as first defended in Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History.
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Mathematical logic is a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics. It bears close connections to metamathematics, the foundations of mathematics, and theoretical computer science.Undergraduate texts include Boolos, Burgess, and Jeffrey (2002), Enderton (2001), and Mendelson (1997). A classic graduate text by Shoenfield (2001) first appeared in 1967.
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The notion of a subfield can also be regarded from the opposite point of view, by referring to being a field extension (or just extension) of , denoted by :, and read " over ". A basic datum of a field extension is its degree , i.e., the dimension of as an -vector space. It satisfies the formula :.
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Pictomicrograph shows the posteromedial barrel subfield in layer IV of the rat somatosensory cortex. Barrels in the PMBSF are particularly large and distinct. The tissue in the image has been stained with cytochrome oxidase and is 50μm thick. The barrel field, like many regions of cortex, is organised into a topographic map.
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From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern linguistics. The Deutsche Grammatik of the Jacob Grimm was first published in the 1810s. The Comparative Grammar of Franz Bopp, the starting point of modern comparative linguistics, came out in 1833.
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In the computer science subfield of algorithmic information theory, a Chaitin constant (Chaitin omega number)mathworld.wolfram.com, Chaitin's Constant. Retrieved 28 May 2012 or halting probability is a real number that, informally speaking, represents the probability that a randomly constructed program will halt. These numbers are formed from a construction due to Gregory Chaitin.
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"Arithmetic circuits: A survey of recent results and open questions." Foundations and Trends in Theoretical Computer Science 5.3–4 (2010): 207-388. Determining the computational complexity required for polynomial identity testing is one of the most important open problems in the mathematical subfield known as "algebraic computing complexity".Dvir, Zeev, and Amir Shpilka.
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Perceptual psychology is a subfield of cognitive psychology that is concerned specifically with the conscious and unconscious innate aspects of the human cognitive system: perception. A pioneer of this field was James J. Gibson. A major study was that of affordances, i.e. the perceived utility of objects in, or features of, one's surroundings.
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Grakn is a distributed knowledge graph for knowledge oriented system, i.e. a knowledge base. Under the hood, Grakn has built an expressive knowledge representation system with a transactional query interface. Grakn’s knowledge representation system is based on hypergraph theory, a subfield in mathematics that generalises an edge to be a set of vertices.
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Around this time computational finance became recognized as a distinct academic subfield. The first degree program in computational finance was offered by Carnegie Mellon University in 1994. Over the last 20 years, the field of computational finance has expanded into virtually every area of finance, and the demand for practitioners has grown dramatically.
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Briefly, the base field has to contain an ordered subfield in order for non-negativity to make sense,. and therefore has to have characteristic equal to (since any ordered field has to have such characteristic). This immediately excludes finite fields. The basefield has to have additional structure, such as a distinguished automorphism.
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Given three fields arranged in a tower, say K a subfield of L which is in turn a subfield of M, there is a simple relation between the degrees of the three extensions L/K, M/L and M/K: : [M:K] = [M:L] \cdot [L:K]. In other words, the degree going from the "bottom" to the "top" field is just the product of the degrees going from the "bottom" to the "middle" and then from the "middle" to the "top". It is quite analogous to Lagrange's theorem in group theory, which relates the order of a group to the order and index of a subgroup -- indeed Galois theory shows that this analogy is more than just a coincidence. The formula holds for both finite and infinite degree extensions.
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Mobile Slotted Aloha (MS-Aloha) is a wireless network protocol proposed for applications such as vehicle networks. Frame structure of MS-Aloha: from top to bottom: (a) Slots 0…N-1 with Layer-1 and Layer-2 information, FI field, Guard Time Tg; (b) Subfields in each FI; (c) information contained in each subfield.
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Trahtman's solution to the road coloring problem was accepted in 2007 and published in 2009 by the Israel Journal of Mathematics.Avraham N. Trahtman: The Road Coloring Problem. Israel Journal of Mathematics, Vol. 172, 51-60, 2009 The problem arose in the subfield of symbolic dynamics, an abstract part of the field of dynamical systems.
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Eisner and colleagues investigating defensive spray in bombardier beetles. The paper is specially treated to have a color reaction with the spray, which is normally clear. The chemical ecology of plant- insect interaction is a significant subfield of chemical ecology. In particular, plants and insects are often involved in a chemical evolutionary arms race.
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A quadratic closure of a field F is a quadratically closed field containing F which embeds in any quadratically closed field containing F. A quadratic closure for any given F may be constructed as a subfield of the algebraic closure Falg of F, as the union of all iterated quadratic extensions of F in Falg.
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Generally, "prime" indicates minimality or indecomposability, in an appropriate sense. For example, the prime field of a given field is its smallest subfield that contains both 0 and 1. It is either the field of rational numbers or a finite field with a prime number of elements, whence the name., Section II.1, p.
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He was born in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. He originally worked towards a degree in chemistry but later changed his declared degree to business. He earned his bachelor's degree for business from the University of British Columbia in 1965. Later, he earned his master's and doctorate in business administration (finance subfield) from Stanford Business School.
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Electronics is a subfield within the wider electrical engineering academic subject. An academic degree with a major in electronics engineering can be acquired from some universities, while other universities use electrical engineering as the subject. The term electrical engineer is still used in the academic world to include electronic engineers.Allan R. Hambley Electrical Engineering, pp.
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Major journals in the subfield include the flagship journal Studies in American Political Development, founded in 1986, and The Journal of Political History, founded in 1989. As of 2005, the Politics and History section (founded in 1989) of the American Political Science Association was the eighth-largest in membership out of 35 total sections.
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Soft-Legged Wheel-Based Robot with Terrestrial Locomotion Abilities. Soft Robotics is the specific subfield of robotics dealing with constructing robots from highly compliant materials, similar to those found in living organisms.Trivedi, D., Rahn, C. D., Kier, W. M., & Walker, I. D. (2008). Soft robotics: Biological inspiration, state of the art, and future research.
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Liberman's main research interests lie in phonetics, prosody, and other aspects of speech communication. His early research established the linguistic subfield of metrical phonology. Much of his current research is conducted through computational analyses of linguistic corpora. In 2017, Liberman was the recipient of the IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award.
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Any finite extension is necessarily algebraic, as can be deduced from the above multiplicativity formula. The subfield generated by an element , as above, is an algebraic extension of if and only if is an algebraic element. That is to say, if is algebraic, all other elements of are necessarily algebraic as well. Moreover, the degree of the extension , i.e.
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The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics that studies articulation and ways that humans produce speech. Articulatory phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures. Generally, articulatory phonetics is concerned with the transformation of aerodynamic energy into acoustic energy. Aerodynamic energy refers to the airflow through the vocal tract.
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Multiplicative number theory is a subfield of analytic number theory that deals with prime numbers and with factorization and divisors. The focus is usually on developing approximate formulas for counting these objects in various contexts. The prime number theorem is a key result in this subject. The Mathematics Subject Classification for multiplicative number theory is 11Nxx.
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In mathematics, particularly in the subfield of real analytic geometry, a subanalytic set is a set of points (for example in Euclidean space) defined in a way broader than for semianalytic sets (roughly speaking, those satisfying conditions requiring certain real power series to be positive there). Subanalytic sets still have a reasonable local description in terms of submanifolds.
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In this respect questions of political opinion formation brought about some of the pioneering uses of statistical survey research by Paul Lazarsfeld. A major subfield of political sociology developed in relation to such questions, which draws on comparative history to analyse socio-political trends. The field developed from the work of Max Weber and Moisey Ostrogorsky.Lipset, Seymour Martin.
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Sociology of the family is a subfield of the subject of sociology, in which researchers and academics evaluate family structure as a social institution and unit of socialization from various sociological perspectives. It is usually included in the general education of tertiary curriculum, since it is usually an illustrative example of patterned social relations and group dynamics.
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Typically, one exam will question the student on theory while the other will show competency or expertise in their chosen subfield (or major field) within their program. This also allows students enrolled in the program who do not wish to continue to the completion of a doctoral degree to leave early and in good standing with a Master's.
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The sociology of literature is a subfield of the sociology of culture. It studies the social production of literature and its social implications. A notable example is Pierre Bourdieu's 1992 Les Règles de L'Art: Genèse et Structure du Champ Littéraire, translated by Susan Emanuel as Rules of Art: Genesis and Structure of the Literary Field (1996).
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Electronic Letters on Computer Vision and Image Analysis (usually abbreviated ELCVIA) is a peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal focusing on computer vision and image analysis (subfields of artificial intelligence) as well as image processing (a subfield of signal processing). It was established in 2002 and is published by the Computer Vision Center (Autonomous University of Barcelona).
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In mathematical logic, and particularly in its subfield model theory, a saturated model M is one that realizes as many complete types as may be "reasonably expected" given its size. For example, an ultrapower model of the hyperreals is \aleph_1-saturated, meaning that every descending nested sequence of internal sets has a nonempty intersection, see Goldblatt (1998).
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Evolutionary musicology is a subfield of biomusicology that grounds the psychological mechanisms of music perception and production in evolutionary theory. It covers vocal communication in non- human animal species, theories of the evolution of human music, and cross- cultural human universals in musical ability and processing. It also includes evolutionary explanations for what is considered aesthetically pleasing or not.
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The Association for Politics and the Life Sciences (APLS) was formed in 1981 and exists to study the field of biopolitics as a subfield of political science. APLS owns and publishes an academic peer-reviewed journal, called Politics and the Life Sciences (PLS), semi-annually in March and September. The journal is edited at Indiana University at Bloomington.
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Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, is a scientific discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings, their extinct hominin ancestors, and related non-human primates, particularly from an evolutionary perspective.Jurmain, R, et al (2015), Introduction to Physical Anthropology, Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. This subfield of anthropology systematically studies human beings from a biological perspective.
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Evolutionary linguistics or Darwinian linguistics is a sociobiological approach to the study of language. Evolutionary linguists consider linguistics as a subfield of evolutionary biology and evolutionary psychology. The approach is also closely linked with evolutionary anthropology, cognitive linguistics and biolinguistics. Studying languages as the products of nature, it is interested in the biological origin and development of language.
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Cultural Sociology (journal), published by the British Sociological Association and SAGE. Cultural criminology is a subfield in the study of crime that focuses on the ways in which the "dynamics of meaning underpin every process in criminal justice, including the definition of crime itself."Ilan, Jonathan. 2019. “Cultural Criminology: The Time Is Now.” Critical Criminology 27(1):5–20.
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It is represented as a four-bits number (0-7) identifying a QoS traffic within MAC data service. There are 16 (24) possible values for TID, out of it only 8 are practically usable to identify differentiated services. The values of TID is similar to values used in Differentiated services. The TID subfield sits in certain MAC frames.
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Illustrative example: Suppose M is an algebraically closed field. The theory has quantifier elimination . This allows us to show that a type is determined exactly by the polynomial equations it contains. Thus the space of n-types over a subfield A is bijective with the set of prime ideals of the polynomial ring A[x_1,\ldots,x_n].
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MAX-3SAT is a problem in the computational complexity subfield of computer science. It generalises the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) which is a decision problem considered in complexity theory. It is defined as: Given a 3-CNF formula Φ (i.e. with at most 3 variables per clause), find an assignment that satisfies the largest number of clauses.
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Human behaviour genetics is a subfield of the field of behaviour genetics that studies the role of genetic and environmental influences on human behaviour. Classically, human behavioural geneticists have studied the inheritance of behavioural traits. The field was originally focused on testing whether genetic influences were important in human behavior (e.g., do genes influence human behavior).
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Other designer drugs were prepared for the first time in clandestine laboratories. Full text. Because the efficacy and safety of these substances have not been thoroughly evaluated in animal and human trials, the use of some of these drugs may result in unexpected side effects. The development of designer drugs may be considered a subfield of drug design.
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Political communication, and as a subfield of it election campaign communication, is studied within several disciplines of social sciences including communication studies, political science, psychology as well as sociology. Research across disciplines leads to the development of a variety of different research methods. In the past scholars mainly examined single countries, i.e. conducting non-comparative, case studies.
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When feminist anthropology first developed, it was intended to be the subdiscipline of the anthropology of women. However, feminist cultural anthropology arose as a subfield itself when anthropologists started to realize that women's and gender studies weren’t published as frequently as other topics in anthropology. As feminist anthropology began being practiced by more people and cultural aspects such as race, values, and customs started being considered, focuses on personal identity and differences between people in varying cultures became the main idea surrounding feminist cultural anthropology. With this advance, female anthropologists started focusing on all aspects of gender and sex and how they vary culturally. With a focus on feminism through an anthropological lens, women’s role in society and their contributions to the social sciences formed itself a new subfield known as feminist cultural anthropology.
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Reviewer Christopher Hanusa writes that "the writing style is inviting, the subject material is contemporary and riveting", and he recommends the book to anyone "learning or working in combinatorics". Analytic Combinatorics won the Leroy P. Steele Prize for Mathematical Exposition of the American Mathematical Society in 2019 (posthumously for Flajolet). The award citation called the book "an authoritative and highly accessible compendium of its subject, which demonstrates the deep interface between combinatorial mathematics and classical analysis". Although the application of analytic methods in combinatorics goes back at least to the work of G. H. Hardy and Srinivasa Ramanujan on the partition function, the citation also quoted a review by Robin Pemantle stating that "This is one of those books that marks the emergence of a subfield," the subfield of analytic combinatorics.
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Domosh's research is primarily in the subfield of cultural/human geography, with a particular focus on late 19th- and early 20th- century United States-based globalization, as well as feminist geography. Her work is primarily archival-based, and examines historical and sociological phenomena from a geographer's background. In 1994, Domosh and Liz Bondi established Gender, Place & Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography.
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Retrieved on November 23, 2006. This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography, which is one of the Earth sciences. Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry. The main methods employed by climatologists are the analysis of observations and modelling the physical laws that determine the climate.
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The Acari are identified in Acarology as a taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks. It is an example of something an acarologist would study. Acarology (from Greek /, ', a type of mite; and , -logia) is the study of mites and ticks, the animals in the order Acarina. It is a subfield of arachnology, a subdiscipline of the field of zoology.
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Therefore, q has a field of definition generated by n elements. Technically, one always works over a (fixed) base field k and the fields K and L in consideration are supposed to contain k. The essential dimension of q is then defined as the least transcendence degree over k of a subfield L of K over which q is defined.
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Bioimage informatics is a subfield of bioinformatics and computational biology. It focuses on the use of computational techniques to analyze bioimages, especially cellular and molecular images, at large scale and high throughput. The goal is to obtain useful knowledge out of complicated and heterogeneous image and related metadata. Automated microscopes are able to collect large numbers of images with minimal intervention.
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This contrasts with the traditional backdoor that is symmetric, i.e., anyone that finds it can use it. Kleptography, a subfield of cryptovirology, is the study of asymmetric back doors in key generation algorithms, digital signature algorithms, key exchanges, pseudorandom number generators, encryption algorithms, and other cryptographic algorithms. The NIST Dual EC DRBG random bit generator has an asymmetric backdoor in it.
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Gender and Judaism is a radical, emerging subfield at the intersection of gender studies and Jewish studies. Gender studies centers on interdisciplinary research on the phenomenon of gender. It focuses on cultural representations of gender and people's lived experience. Jewish studies is a field that looks at Jews and Judaism, through such disciplines as history, anthropology, literary studies, linguistics, and sociology.
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Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses.
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Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method. Issues with entry into the field have evolved into a separate subfield. Clifford Geertz's famous essay on how to approach the multi-faceted arena of human action from an observational point of view, in Interpretation of Cultures uses the simple example of a human wink, perceived in a cultural context far from home.
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In field theory, a subfield of algebra, a separable extension is an algebraic field extension E\supseteq F such that for every \alpha\in E, the minimal polynomial of \alpha over F is a separable polynomial (i.e., its formal derivative is not zero; see below for other equivalent definitions).Isaacs, p. 281 Otherwise, the extension is said to be inseparable.
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Processor design is the design engineering task of creating a processor, a key component of computer hardware. It is a subfield of computer engineering (design, development and implementation) and electronics engineering (fabrication). The design process involves choosing an instruction set and a certain execution paradigm (e.g. VLIW or RISC) and results in a microarchitecture, which might be described in e.g.
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A minimum spanning tree of a weighted planar graph. Finding a minimum spanning tree is a common problem involving combinatorial optimization. Combinatorial optimization is a subfield of mathematical optimization that is related to operations research, algorithm theory, and computational complexity theory. It has important applications in several fields, including artificial intelligence, machine learning, auction theory, software engineering, applied mathematics and theoretical computer science.
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Quantum computing is the use of quantum phenomena such as superposition and entanglement to perform computation. Computers that perform quantum computations are known as quantum computers. Quantum computers are believed to be able to solve certain computational problems, such as integer factorization (which underlies RSA encryption), substantially faster than classical computers. The study of quantum computing is a subfield of quantum information science.
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The theorem states that given any field F, an algebraic extension field E of F and an isomorphism \phi mapping F onto a field F' then \phi can be extended to an isomorphism \tau mapping E onto an algebraic extension E' of F' (a subfield of the algebraic closure of F'). The proof of the isomorphism extension theorem depends on Zorn's lemma.
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The sociology of art is a subfield of sociology concerned with the social worlds of art and aesthetics. Studying the sociology of art throughout history is the study of the social history of art, how various societies contributed to the appearance of certain artists. Key scholars in the sociology of art include Howard S. Becker, Arnold Hauser, and Harrison White.
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This is why these sets are studied in the field of algorithmic randomness, which is a subfield of Computability theory and related to algorithmic information theory in computer science. At the same time, K-trivial sets are close to computable. For instance, they are all superlow, i.e. sets whose Turing jump is computable from the Halting problem, and form a Turing ideal, i.e.
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Linear prediction is a mathematical operation where future values of a discrete-time signal are estimated as a linear function of previous samples. In digital signal processing, linear prediction is often called linear predictive coding (LPC) and can thus be viewed as a subset of filter theory. In system analysis, a subfield of mathematics, linear prediction can be viewed as a part of mathematical modelling or optimization.
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The field of the rational numbers endowed with the p-adic metric and the p-adic number fields which are the completions, do not have the Archimedean property as fields with absolute values. All Archimedean valued fields are isometrically isomorphic to a subfield of the complex numbers with a power of the usual absolute value.Shell, Niel, Topological Fields and Near Valuations, Dekker, New York, 1990.
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It is possible to find a corresponding computational branch for every major field in physics, for example computational mechanics and computational electrodynamics. Computational mechanics consists of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), computational solid mechanics and computational contact mechanics. One subfield at the confluence between CFD and electromagnetic modelling is computational magnetohydrodynamics. The quantum many-body problem leads naturally to the large and rapidly growing field of computational chemistry.
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Feminist political theory is a diverse subfield of feminist theory working towards three main goals: # To understand and critique the role of gender in how political theory is conventionally construed. # To re-frame and re- articulate conventional political theory in light of feminist issues (especially gender equality). # To support political science presuming and pursuing gender equality. Feminist political theory encompasses a broad scope of approaches.
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While the name of the subfield suggests one methodological approach (the comparative method), political scientists in comparative politics use the same diversity of social scientific methods as scientists elsewhere in the field, including experiments, comparative historical analysis, case studies, survey methodology, ethnography, and others. Researchers choose a methodological approach in comparative politics driven by two concerns: ontological orientation and the type of question or phenomenon of interest.
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The ars dictaminis was the medieval description of the art of prose composition, and more specifically of the writing of letters (dictamen). It is closely linked to the ars dictandi, covering the composition of documents other than letters. The standing assumption was that these writings would be composed in Latin, and according to well worked-out models. This made the arts of composition a subfield of rhetoric.
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With such damage, we can compare how the healthy neural circuits are functioning, and possibly draw conclusions about the basis of the affected cognitive processes. Also, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of developmental cognitive neuroscience. This shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences. Theoretical approaches include computational neuroscience and cognitive psychology.
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Example of Computer animation produced using Motion capture Fractal landscape, an example of computer-generated imagery. Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs.
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In phonetics, the smallest perceptible segment is a phone. In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology that deals with the analysis of speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analysed speech. The segmental phonemes of sign language (formally called "cheremes") are visual movements of hands, face, and body. They occur in a distinct spatial and temporal order.
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This relatively new subfield of biocomplexity encompasses other domains such as biodiversity and ecology. Biocomplexity research aims to provide quantitative models of complex biological phenomena both to understand them in their own right and to interpret and guide quantitative biomedical experimentation. Kluwer planned to publish a journal called Biocomplexity. A disappointingly low number of submitted manuscripts resulted in the publisher cancelling the journal's launch issue.
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A formally real field with no formally real proper algebraic extension is a real closed field.Rajwade (1993) p.216 If K is formally real and Ω is an algebraically closed field containing K, then there is a real closed subfield of Ω containing K. A real closed field can be ordered in a unique way, and the non-negative elements are exactly the squares.
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A number of techniques allow to test for proteins produced during a particular disease, which helps to diagnose the disease quickly. Techniques include western blot, immunohistochemical staining, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or mass spectrometry. Secretomics, a subfield of proteomics that studies secreted proteins and secretion pathways using proteomic approaches, has recently emerged as an important tool for the discovery of biomarkers of disease.
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Research on the processes and effects of meditation is a subfield of neurological research. Modern scientific techniques, such as fMRI and EEG, were used to observe neurological responses during meditation. Concerns have been raised on the quality of meditation research, including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate. Since the 1970s, clinical psychology and psychiatry have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions.
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Audio signal processing is a subfield of signal processing that is concerned with the electronic manipulation of audio signals. Audio signals are electronic representations of sound waves—longitudinal waves which travel through air, consisting of compressions and rarefactions. The energy contained in audio signals is typically measured in decibels. As audio signals may be represented in either digital or analog format, processing may occur in either domain.
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This is similar to how a fraction of integers can always be written uniquely in lowest terms by canceling out common factors. The field of rational expressions is denoted F(X). This field is said to be generated (as a field) over F by (a transcendental element) X, because F(X) does not contain any proper subfield containing both F and the element X.
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Quantum complexity theory is the subfield of computational complexity theory that deals with complexity classes defined using quantum computers, a computational model based on quantum mechanics. It studies the hardness of computational problems in relation to these complexity classes, as well as the relationship between quantum complexity classes and classical (i.e., non- quantum) complexity classes. Two important quantum complexity classes are BQP and QMA.
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Forest pathology is the research of both biotic and abiotic maladies affecting the health of a forest ecosystem, primarily fungal pathogens and their insect vectors. It is a subfield of forestry and plant pathology. Forest pathology is part of the broader approach of forest protection. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million ha of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.
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Medical journals are published regularly to communicate new research to clinicians, medical scientists, and other healthcare workers. This article lists academic journals that focus on the practice of medicine or any medical specialty. Journals are listed alphabetically by journal name, and also grouped by the subfield of medicine they focus on. Journals for other fields of healthcare can be found at List of healthcare journals.
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Photoelectrochemistry is a subfield of study within physical chemistry concerned with the interaction of light with electrochemical systems.IUPAC Compendium of Chemical TerminologyElectrochemistry Encyclopedia It is an active domain of investigation. One of the pioneers of this field of electrochemistry was the German electrochemist Heinz Gerischer. The interest in this domain is high in the context of development of renewable energy conversion and storage technology.
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In family with the later Fayetteville, Pesyanoe's helium level is ~1 million x10−8 ccSTP/g. Reynolds' publication of a "general Xe anomaly", including 129I decay products and more, touched off the subfield of xenology, continuing to today. The first publication of presolar grains in the 1980s was precipitated by workers searching for noble gases; PSGs were not simply checked via their gas contents.
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The influence of these colonial reforms in the field of monastic education were somewhat neutralized by the increasing political struggles during the 1950s, and finally the socialist revolution in 1975. However, during the first years of independence until 1975, signs of secularization also became visible in the domain of monastic education: While a state school system was spreading, monastic education became an increasingly specialized subfield.
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A reviewer for the Canadian Journal of Archaeology praised Reitz and Wing's book, Zooarchaeology as "the best available introductory text on the subject for undergraduate students". She has been credited for having "done more than any other individual to advance the subfield of historical zooarchaeology". Lyman notes that she is a "vocal advocate for using bone weight allometry as a measure of taxonomic abundance".
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Positive adult development is a subfield of developmental psychology that studies positive development during adulthood. It is one of four major forms of adult developmental study that can be identified, according to Michael Commons; the other three forms are directionless change, stasis, and decline (Commons, 2002). Commons divided positive adult developmental processes into at least six areas of study: hierarchical complexity (i.e., orders or stages), knowledge, experience, expertise, wisdom, and spirituality.
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The term brain mapping is often used interchangeably with brain morphometry, although mapping in the narrower sense of projecting properties of the brain onto a template brain is, strictly speaking, only a subfield of brain morphometry. On the other hand, though much more rarely, neuromorphometry is also sometimes used as a synonym for brain morphometry (particularly in the earlier literature, e.g. Haug 1986), though technically is only one of its subfields.
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Finite fields (also called Galois fields) are fields with finitely many elements, whose number is also referred to as the order of the field. The above introductory example is a field with four elements. Its subfield is the smallest field, because by definition a field has at least two distinct elements . In modular arithmetic modulo 12, 9 + 4 = 1 since 9 + 4 = 13 in , which divided by 12 leaves remainder 1\.
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Conodonts are an extinct class of animals whose feeding apparatuses called teeth or elements are common microfossils found in strata dating from the Stage 10 of the Furongian, the fourth and final series of the Cambrian, to the Rhaetian stage of the Late Triassic. These elements can be used alternatively to or in correlation with other types of fossils (graptolites, trilobites, ammonites, ...) in the subfield of the stratigraphy named biostratigraphy.
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Dr Kalnina- Lukasevica holds a PhD in Management Sciences from the University of Latvia. After having obtained her first academic degree in social work, in 2004 she obtained her master's degree at the Faculty of Economics and Management of the University of Latvia, where in 2013 she also obtained Doctoral degree in Management science, subfield of public administration. Zanda Kalniņa- Lukaševica speaks Latvian, English, German and Russian languages.
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485–512 (1867). In his paper Helmholtz established his three "laws of vortex motion" in much the same way one finds them in any advanced textbook of fluid mechanics today. This work established the significance of vorticity to fluid mechanics and science in general. For the next century or so vortex dynamics matured as a subfield of fluid mechanics, always commanding at least a major chapter in treatises on the subject.
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The Journal of Pragmatics is a monthly peer-reviewed academic journal covering the linguistic subfield of pragmatics. It was established in 1977 by Jacob L. Mey (at that time Odense University) and Hartmut Haberland (Roskilde University). The editors-in-chief are Michael Haugh (The University of Queensland) and Marina Terkourafi (Leiden University). Previous editors-in- chief were Jonathan Culpeper (Lancaster University; 2009–2014) and Neal R. Norrick (Saarland University; 2010–2016).
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Psychoanalytic sociology is the research field that analyzes society using the same methods that psychoanalysis applied to analyze an individual.Wilhelm Reich (1933) The Mass Psychology of Fascism 'Psychoanalytic sociology embraces work from divergent sociological traditions and political perspectives': its common 'emphasis on unconscious mental processes and behavior renders psychoanalytic sociology a controversial subfield within the broader sociological discipline'K. V. Hansen/A. I. Garey, Families in the U. S. (1998) p.
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The development of ethnopoetics as a separate subfield of study was largely pioneered from the middle of the 20th century by anthropologists and linguists such as Dennis Tedlock and Dell Hymes. Both Tedlock and Hymes used ethnopoetic analysis to do justice to the artistic richness of Native American verbal art, and while they have disagreed on some analytic details, they agree on the fundamental issues and purposes of ethnopoetics.
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As editor, and in various institutional roles, she mentored and encouraged an entire generation of British geographers. She contributed numerous academic works, and unusually even for her time, her geographical interests were wide-ranging, covering essentially every subfield of geography. Her most prominent work was Animal Geography (1913) and others on animal geographies and other areas at the intersection of biology and geography. However she also wrote about political geography (e.g.
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Guided by this principle, Bloch was able to discover several important facts which were later proved by other mathematicians, for example, the five-island theorem. There is an intensive current research related to Bloch's principle. Bloch's ideas stimulated much of the research on holomorphic curves in the 20th century and remain central in this subfield. He stated a fundamental theorem on holomorphic curves in complex manifolds whose irregularity exceeds dimension.
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Wood processing is an engineering discipline comprising the production of forest products, such as pulp and paper, construction materials, and tall oil. Paper engineering is a subfield of wood processing. The major wood product categories are: sawn timber, wood-based panels, wood chips, paper and paper products and miscellaneous others including poles and railway sleepers. Forest product processing technologies have undergone extraordinary advances in some of the above categories.
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Detecting concept drift is a central issue to data stream mining. Other challenges that arise when applying machine learning to streaming data include: partially and delayed labeled data, recovery from concept drifts, and temporal dependencies. Examples of data streams include computer network traffic, phone conversations, ATM transactions, web searches, and sensor data. Data stream mining can be considered a subfield of data mining, machine learning, and knowledge discovery.
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Fig. 1: Illustration of the interdependent relationship among different infrastructures The study of interdependent networks is a subfield of network science dealing with phenomena caused by the interactions between complex networks. Though there may be a wide variety of interactions between networks, dependency focuses on the scenario in which the nodes in one network require support from nodes in another network. For an example of infrastructure dependency see Fig. 1.
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Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law.
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In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, numerical stability is a generally desirable property of numerical algorithms. The precise definition of stability depends on the context. One is numerical linear algebra and the other is algorithms for solving ordinary and partial differential equations by discrete approximation. In numerical linear algebra the principal concern is instabilities caused by proximity to singularities of various kinds, such as very small or nearly colliding eigenvalues.
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Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield, forensic toxicology, in a legal setting. A forensic chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a crime scene. Specialists in this field have a wide array of methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances. These include high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thin layer chromatography.
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Cultural studies have also had a substantial impact on sociology. For example, when Stuart Hall left CCCS at Birmingham, it was to accept a prestigious professorship in Sociology at the Open University in Britain. The subfield of cultural sociology, in particular, is disciplinary home to many cultural studies practitioners. Nevertheless, there are some differences between sociology as a discipline and the field of cultural studies as a whole.
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In 1975 distributed artificial intelligence emerged as a subfield of artificial intelligence that dealt with interactions of intelligent agents[2]. Distributed artificial intelligence systems were conceived as a group of intelligent entities, called agents, that interacted by cooperation, by coexistence or by competition. DAI is categorized into Multi-agent systems and distributed problem solving [1]. In Multi-agent systems the main focus is how agents coordinate their knowledge and activities.
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The glutamatergic pathways have been seen to be largely affected. The subfield CA1 is seen to be the least involved of the other subfields, and CA4 and the subiculum have been reported elsewhere as being the most implicated areas. The review concluded that the pathology could be due to genetics, faulty neurodevelopment or abnormal neural plasticity. It was further concluded that schizophrenia is not due to any known neurodegenerative disorder.
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Gunnell, John G. "Political Theory: The Evolution of a Subfield," p. 19. In: Political Science: The State of the Discipline, Ada W. Finifter, ed. Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983. Easton's book The Political System drove home the failure of 1950s political science to build anything resembling coherent theories of politics or to develop systematic techniques for gathering and analyzing data, with which such theories might be constructed.
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Connolly is one of the founders of this subfield of thought in political theory. He promotes the possibility of an "agonistic democracy", where he finds positive ways to engage certain aspects of political conflict. Connolly proposes a positive ethos of engagement, which could be used to debate political differences. Agonism is based on contestation, but in a political space where the discourse is one of respect, rather than violence.
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Homogeneous catalysis occurs in solution and heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids. Traditionally homogeneous catalysis is considered part of organometallic chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis is discussed in the context of surface science, a subfield of solid state chemistry. But the basic inorganic chemical principles are the same. Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such as CO, H2, O2, and C2H4.
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The graph of an octahedron is complete multipartite () and well-colored. In graph theory, a subfield of mathematics, a well-colored graph is an undirected graph for which greedy coloring uses the same number of colors regardless of the order in which colors are chosen for its vertices. That is, for these graphs, the chromatic number (minimum number of colors) and Grundy number (maximum number of greedily-chosen colors) are equal.
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Three subfields of the complex numbers C have been suggested as encoding the notion of a "closed-form number"; in increasing order of generality, these are the Liouville numbers (not to be confused with Liouville numbers in the sense of rational approximation), EL numbers and elementary numbers. The Liouville numbers, denoted L, form the smallest algebraically closed subfield of C closed under exponentiation and logarithm (formally, intersection of all such subfields)—that is, numbers which involve explicit exponentiation and logarithms, but allow explicit and implicit polynomials (roots of polynomials); this is defined in . L was originally referred to as elementary numbers, but this term is now used more broadly to refer to numbers defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of algebraic operations, exponentials, and logarithms. A narrower definition proposed in , denoted E, and referred to as EL numbers, is the smallest subfield of C closed under exponentiation and logarithm—this need not be algebraically closed, and correspond to explicit algebraic, exponential, and logarithmic operations.
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German Celtic studies (Keltologie) is seen by many as having been established by Johann Kaspar Zeuss (1806–1856) (see above). In 1847, he was appointed professor of linguistics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Until the middle of the 19th century, Celtic studies progressed largely as a subfield of linguistics. Franz Bopp (1791–1867) carried out further studies in comparative linguistics to link the Celtic languages to the Proto-Indo-European language.
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After the end of the Second World War, an emerging subfield of social history gradually became popular in history departments. Past & Present thus emerged in 1952 as an alternative to mainstream political history journals. It was founded by a combination of Marxist and non-Marxist historians, including John Morris. The Marxist historians included members of the Communist Party Historians Group, including E. P. Thompson, Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbawm, Raphael Samuel, Rodney Hilton, and Dona Torr.
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Ericson is known for her contributions to nuclear pion physics, which is a subfield of nuclear physics. She discovered the Lorentz- Lorenz-Ericson-Ericson effect of the pion-nuclear optical model within electroweak interactions, alongside her future husband, Torleif Ericson, a nuclear physicist from Sweden. She has also been one of the leading researchers on the interpretation of the EMC effect. Ericson continues her research to this day, although her husband has retired.
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Conservation genetics is an interdisciplinary subfield of population genetics that aims to understand the dynamics of genes in populations principally to avoid extinction. Therefore, it applies genetic methods to the conservation and restoration of biodiversity. Researchers involved in conservation genetics come from a variety of fields including population genetics, molecular ecology, biology, evolutionary biology, and systematics. Genetic diversity is one of the three fundamental levels of biodiversity, so it is directly important in conservation.
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Studies in American Political Development (SAPD) is a political science journal founded in 1986 and presently published by Cambridge University Press. It is the flagship journal of the American political development (APD) subfield in political science. SAPD publishes theoretical and empirical research on political development and institutional change in the United States. It features a diverse range of subject matters and methodologies, including comparative, interdisciplinary, and international studies that illuminate the American case.
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Thorstein Veblen was one of the first sociologists to study leisure Sociology of leisure is a fairly recent subfield of sociology, compared to more traditional subfields such as sociology of work, sociology of the family, and sociology of education: it saw most of its development in the second half of the 20th century.Stanley Parker, "The Sociology of Leisure: Progress and Problems," The British Journal of Sociology, vol. 26, no. 1, March 1975, pp. 91–101.
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A library and information scientist, also known as a library scholar, is a researcher or academic who specializes in the field of library and information science and often participates in scholarly writing about and related to library and information science. A library and information scientist is neither limited to any one subfield of library and information science nor any one particular type of library. These scientists come from all information- related sectors.
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In 1978, Zeldovich noted the monopole problem, which was an unambiguous quantitative version of the horizon problem, this time in a subfield of particle physics, which led to several speculative attempts to resolve it. In 1980 Alan Guth realized that false vacuum decay in the early universe would solve the problem, leading him to propose a scalar-driven inflation. Starobinsky's and Guth's scenarios both predicted an initial de Sitter phase, differing only in mechanistic details.
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Axiological ethics is concerned with the values which we hold our ethical standards and theories up to. It questions what, if any, basis exists for such values. Through doing so, it explores the justification for our values, and examines if there is any beyond arbitrary preference. While axiological ethics can be considered a subfield within the branch of ethics, it also draws in thought from other fields of philosophy, such as epistemology and value theory.
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Ochs's research in the study of religion has focused on Jewish feminism, material culture, and Jewish ritual.Hazard, Sonia. “The Material Turn in the Study of Religion.” Religion and Society 4/1 (2013): 59. An ongoing interest in the subfield of material culture is the question of what makes a home ‘Jewish.’Moskow, Michal Anne. “Possessions as Indicators of Culture Retention and Change among a High Status Group, American Jewish Women.” Anthropos (2003): 104.
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The conference has been held annually since 1988, which is the year that the CCCC Committee on Computers established a subcommittee to support the Computers and Writing Conference. While the journal Computers and Composition, founded by Cynthia Selfe and Kate Kiefer in 1983, is not officially connected to the Computers and Writing Conference, both began around the same time and explore the subfield within the larger fields of composition studies and rhetoric.
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One of the most important subfields impacted by the rise of Marxist geography was in urban geography. Harvey established himself as the leader of this subfield with the publication of Social Justice and the City (1973). Harvey argued in this book that geography could not remain 'objective' in the face of urban poverty and associated ills. It makes a significant contribution to Marxian theory by arguing that capitalism annihilates space to ensure its own reproduction.
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The term first language attrition (FLA) refers to the gradual decline in native language proficiency. As speakers use their L2 frequently and become proficient (or even dominant) in it, some aspects of the L1 can deteriorate or become subject to L2 influence. The study of language attrition became a subfield of linguistics with a 1980 conference at the University of Pennsylvania called "Loss of Language Skills".Lambert, Richard D., Freed, Barbara F.. 1982.
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The graph of a function, drawn in black, and a tangent line to that function, drawn in red. The slope of the tangent line equals the derivative of the function at the marked point. In mathematics, differential calculus is a subfield of calculus that studies the rates at which quantities change. It is one of the two traditional divisions of calculus, the other being integral calculus—the study of the area beneath a curve.
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Addressing the broad central concerns of the subfield and drawing from its core theories, many scholars focus on the intersections of language and the particularly salient social constructs of race (and ethnicity), class, and gender (and sexuality). These works generally consider the roles of social structures (e.g., ideologies and institutions) related to race, class, and gender (e.g., marriage, labor, pop culture, education) in terms of their constructions and in terms of individuals' lived experiences.
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Dualism has greatly influenced not only religion but science as well. By desacralizing the natural world, dualism has left it vulnerable to exploitation and damage. The field of secular theology, a subfield of liberal theology advocated by Anglican bishop John A. T. Robinson somewhat paradoxically combines secularism and theology. Recognized in the 1960s, it was influenced both by neo-orthodoxy, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Harvey Cox, and the existentialism of Søren Kierkegaard and Paul Tillich.
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There is a growing subfield in the study of gender and Judaism, which sees the binaries of male and female as crucial constructs in Jewish thought.Kosman, Miriam, Circle, Arrow, Spiral, Exploring Gender in Judaism, Menucha Publishers, 2014.Steven F. Friedell, “The ‘Different Voice’ in Jewish Law: Some Parallels to a Feminist Jurisprudence,” Indiana Law Journal, October 1992.Neusner, Jacob, 'Androgynous Judaism: Masculine and Feminine in the Dual Torah,' Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1993.
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This is the condition that it should be a subfield of where is a squarefree odd number. This result was introduced by in his Zahlbericht and by . In cases where the theorem states that a normal integral basis does exist, such a basis may be constructed by means of Gaussian periods. For example if we take a prime number , has a normal integral basis consisting of all the -th roots of unity other than .
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The second-order language of arithmetic is the same as the first-order language, except that variables and quantifiers are allowed to range over sets of naturals. A real that is second-order definable in the language of arithmetic is called analytical. Every computable real number is arithmetical, and the arithmetical numbers form a subfield of the reals, as do the analytical numbers. Every arithmetical number is analytical, but not every analytical number is arithmetical.
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Tap water is often culturally assumed to be drinking water, especially in developed countries. Usually it is potable, although water quality problems are not rare. Household water purification methods such as water filters, boiling, or distillation can be used when tap water's potability is doubted. The application of technologies (such as water treatment plants) involved in providing clean water to homes, businesses, and public buildings is a major subfield of sanitary engineering.
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Modern optics encompasses the areas of optical science and engineering that became popular in the 20th century. These areas of optical science typically relate to the electromagnetic or quantum properties of light but do include other topics. A major subfield of modern optics, quantum optics, deals with specifically quantum mechanical properties of light. Quantum optics is not just theoretical; some modern devices, such as lasers, have principles of operation that depend on quantum mechanics.
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Finally, within the field, some geographers believe that feminist practice has been fully integrated into the academy, making feminist geography obsolete. Challenges of feminist geography are also embedded in the subfield itself. The epistemology of feminist geography argues that the positionalities and lived experiences of the geographers are as central to scholarship as what is being researched. In this way, feminist geographers must maintain diverse identities to fully engage with the discipline.
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Historical musicology has played a critical role in renewed interest in Baroque music as well as medieval and Renaissance music. In particular, the authentic performance movement owes much to historical musicological scholarship. Towards the middle of the 20th century, musicology (and its largest subfield of historical musicology) expanded significantly as a field of study. Concurrently the number of musicological and music journals increased to create further outlets for the publication of research.
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Ontology-based information extraction is a subfield of information extraction, with which at least one ontology is used to guide the process of information extraction from natural language text. The OBIE system uses methods of traditional information extraction to identify concepts, instances and relations of the used ontologies in the text, which will be structured to an ontology after the process. Thus, the input ontologies constitute the model of information to be extracted.
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In contrast, the real line can be treated as a one-dimensional real linear space but not a complex linear space. See also field extensions. More generally, a vector space over a field also has the structure of a vector space over a subfield of that field. Linear operations, given in a linear space by definition, lead to such notions as straight lines (and planes, and other linear subspaces); parallel lines; ellipses (and ellipsoids).
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This subfield originated in 1999 by Martin Bojowald, and further developed in particular by Abhay Ashtekar and Jerzy Lewandowski, as well as Tomasz Pawłowski and Parampreet Singh, et al. In late 2012 LQC represents a very active field in physics, with about three hundred papers on the subject published in the literature. There has also recently been work by Carlo Rovelli, et al. on relating LQC to the spinfoam-based spinfoam cosmology.
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Geometric morphometrics is used to observe variation in numerous formats, especially those pertaining to evolutionary and biological processes, which can be used to help explore the answers to a lot of questions in physical anthropology. Geometric morphometrics is part of a larger subfield in anthropology, which has more recently been named virtual anthropology. Virtual anthropology looks at virtual morphology, the use of virtual copies of specimens to perform various quantitative analyses on shape (such as geometric morphometrics) and form...
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A subfield of a field is a subset of that is a field with respect to the field operations of . Equivalently is a subset of that contains , and is closed under addition, multiplication, additive inverse and multiplicative inverse of a nonzero element. This means that , that for all both and are in , and that for all in , both and are in . Field homomorphisms are maps between two fields such that , , and , where and are arbitrary elements of .
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A 'mobile robot' is a [robot] that is capable of moving in the surrounding (locomotion) . Mobile robotics is usually considered to be a subfield of robotics and information engineering. A spying robot is an example of a mobile robot capable of movement in a given environment.Optically Automated Spy Robot, 'OASR', Gaurav Mittal and Deepansh Sehgal, Punjab Engineering College Mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to one physical location.
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Control engineering is the engineering discipline that focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems (e.g. mechanical systems) and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. Although such controllers need not be electrical, many are and hence control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering. However, the falling price of microprocessors is making the actual implementation of a control system essentially trivial.
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Nationalism and gender studies is a subfield within the broader interdisciplinary study of nationalism, also referred to as nationalism studies. Nationalism and gender studies draw on feminism, queer theory, postcolonialism, and interdisciplinary methods to investigate the interplay between gender and nationalism. A shared evaluation among many scholars is that gender, sexuality, and nationalism are socially and culturally constructed. Scholars of gender and nationalism thus argue that gender configurations are always intimately related to and impact the development of nationalism.
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Since the 2000s, a new subfield, sociology of childhood has gained increasing attention and triggered numerous empirical studies as well as intensive theoretical disputes, starting in the Scandinavian and the English-speaking countries. A different approach was adopted in Europe and the United States, with European sociologists more interested in actively promoting children’s rights.ORMAN Türkan Firinci, “A History of the Sociology of Childhood: An Interview with Berry Mayall,” Child and Civilization, vol. 4, 2019, 247–252.
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This redundancy can help hidden terminal detection as well as counteract effects of fading on signaling. The same information can be used by each node as an acknowledgment of its transmission and/or reservation. # If a collision on a slot is notified (in the FI State subfield), the colliding nodes must choose a new free slot. # Each node has to refresh its memory by flushing the information on slot J when the frame has reached position J-1.
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In many English-speaking countries neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. In contrast, there are a number of independent university chairs in neuropathology and even institutes of neuropathology in German-speaking countries due to a different historical background. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist is a consultant for other physicians.
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Xenobiology (XB) is a subfield of synthetic biology, the study of synthesizing and manipulating biological devices and systems. The name "xenobiology" derives from the Greek word xenos, which means "stranger, alien". Xenobiology is a form of biology that is not (yet) familiar to science and is not found in nature. In practice, it describes novel biological systems and biochemistries that differ from the canonical DNA–RNA-20 amino acid system (see central dogma of molecular biology).
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In the past, it has been presented as the applied branch of the sociology of law and criticised for being empiricist and atheoretical.Campbell 1976. Max Travers, for example, regards socio-legal studies as a subfield of social policy, 'mainly concerned with influencing or serving government policy in the provision of legal services'Travers 2001 and adds that it "has given up any aspirations it once had to develop general theories about the policy process".Travers 2001: 26.
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Geometric graph theory in the broader sense is a large and amorphous subfield of graph theory, concerned with graphs defined by geometric means. In a stricter sense, geometric graph theory studies combinatorial and geometric properties of geometric graphs, meaning graphs drawn in the Euclidean plane with possibly intersecting straight-line edges, and topological graphs, where the edges are allowed to be arbitrary continuous curves connecting the vertices, thus it is "the theory of geometric and topological graphs" (Pach 2013).
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Machine learning is a scientific discipline that deals with the construction and study of algorithms that can learn from data. Such algorithms operate by building a model based on inputs and using that to make predictions or decisions, rather than following only explicitly programmed instructions. Machine learning can be considered a subfield of computer science and statistics. It has strong ties to artificial intelligence and optimization, which deliver methods, theory and application domains to the field.
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In the 1990s, Kahneman's research focus began to gradually shift in emphasis towards the field of "hedonic psychology". This subfield is closely related to the positive psychology movement, which was steadily gaining in popularity at the time. According to Kahneman and colleagues, > Hedonic psychology...is the study of what makes experiences and life > pleasant or unpleasant. It is concerned with feelings of pleasure and pain, > of interest and boredom, of joy and sorrow, and of satisfaction and > dissatisfaction.
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Quantum information science is an area of study about information science related to quantum effects in physics. It includes theoretical issues in computational models as well as more experimental topics in quantum physics including what can and cannot be done with quantum information. The term quantum information theory is also used, but it fails to encompass experimental research in the area and can be confused with a subfield of quantum information science that studies the processing of quantum information.
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Let E\supseteq F be a field extension. An element \alpha\in E is separable over if it is algebraic over , and its minimal polynomial is separable (the minimal polynomial of an element is necessarily irreducible). If \alpha,\beta\in E are separable over , then \alpha+\beta, \alpha\beta and 1/\alpha are separable over F. Thus the set of all elements in separable over forms a subfield of , called the separable closure of in .Isaacs, Lemma 19.15, p.
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TechCrunch has called Eureqa one of the first examples of Machine Intelligence – the subfield of A.I. that automates the discovery and explanation of answers from data. In early November 2009 the program was made available to download for free by anyone. Lipson described the machine's benefit in dealing with fields that are overwhelmed with data but lack theory to explain it. In the October 2011 edition of "Physical Biology", Lipson described a yeast experiment that predicted seven known equations.
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It is a subfield within geology, and is closely associated with geochronology. A typical thermochronological study will involve the dates of a number of rock samples from different areas in a region, often from a vertical transect along a steep canyon, cliff face, or slope. These samples are then dated. With some knowledge of the subsurface thermal structure, these dates are translated into depths and times at which that particular sample was at the mineral's closure temperature.
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An automated online assistant providing customer service on a web page, an example of an application where natural language processing is a major component. Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of linguistics, computer science, and artificial intelligence concerned with the interactions between computers and human language, in particular how to program computers to process and analyze large amounts of natural language data. Challenges in natural language processing frequently involve speech recognition, natural language understanding, and natural-language generation.
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The study of religion and video games is a subfield of digital religion, which the American scholar of communication, Heidi Campbell, defines as "Religion that is constituted in new ways through digital media and cultures." (Campbell, 2012, p. 3). Video games once struggled for legitimacy as a cultural product, today, however, they are both business and art. Video games increasingly turn to religion not just as ornament but as core elements of their video game design and play.
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Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and population structure. Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis. Its primary founders were Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher, who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics.
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Language documentation (also: documentary linguistics) is a subfield of linguistics which aims to describe the grammar and use of human languages. It aims to provide a comprehensive record of the linguistic practices characteristic of a given speech community. Language documentation seeks to create as thorough a record as possible of the speech community for both posterity and language revitalization. This record can be public or private depending on the needs of the community and the purpose of the documentation.
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In Topology, a subfield of mathematics, _filters_ are special families of subsets of a set that provide for notions of convergence distinct from, but related to, the notions of convergence for sequences and nets. Filters, and their generalizations called _prefilters_ or _filter bases_ , appear naturally in topology, such as the neighborhood filter at a point or in the definition of a uniformity. Filters were introduced by Henri Cartan in 1937H. Cartan, "Théorie des filtres", CR Acad.
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Vortex dynamics is a vibrant subfield of fluid dynamics, commanding attention at major scientific conferences and precipitating workshops and symposia that focus fully on the subject. A curious diversion in the history of vortex dynamics was the vortex atom theory of William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin. His basic idea was that atoms were to be represented as vortex motions in the ether. This theory predated the quantum theory by several decades and because of the scientific standing of its originator received considerable attention.
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Every subfield of a cyclotomic field is an abelian extension of the rationals. It follows that every nth root of unity may be expressed in term of k-roots, with various k not exceeding φ(n). In these cases Galois theory can be written out explicitly in terms of Gaussian periods: this theory from the Disquisitiones Arithmeticae of Gauss was published many years before Galois.The Disquisitiones was published in 1801, Galois was born in 1811, died in 1832, but wasn't published until 1846.
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Geodynamics is a subfield of geophysics dealing with dynamics of the Earth. It applies physics, chemistry and mathematics to the understanding of how mantle convection leads to plate tectonics and geologic phenomena such as seafloor spreading, mountain building, volcanoes, earthquakes, faulting and so on. It also attempts to probe the internal activity by measuring magnetic fields, gravity, and seismic waves, as well as the mineralogy of rocks and their isotopic composition. Methods of geodynamics are also applied to exploration of other planets.
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In computer science, evolutionary computation is a family of algorithms for global optimization inspired by biological evolution, and the subfield of artificial intelligence and soft computing studying these algorithms. In technical terms, they are a family of population-based trial and error problem solvers with a metaheuristic or stochastic optimization character. In evolutionary computation, an initial set of candidate solutions is generated and iteratively updated. Each new generation is produced by stochastically removing less desired solutions, and introducing small random changes.
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A historical geographic information system (also written as historical GIS or HGIS) is a geographic information system that may display, store and analyze data of past geographies and track changes in time. It can be regarded as a subfield of historical geography and geographic information science. GIS was originally developed for use in environmental sciences, military and for computer assisted cartography. It is the opinion of some that the tools developed for these uses are ill-suited for the features of historical data.
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Revision theory is a subfield of philosophical logic. It consists of a general theory of definitions, including (but not limited to) circular and interdependent concepts. A circular definition is one in which the concept being defined occurs in the statement defining it—for example, defining a G as being blue and to the left of a G. Revision theory provides formal semantics for defined expressions, and formal proof systems study the logic of circular expressions. Definitions are important in philosophy and logic.
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Geophotography (also geo-photography or geological photography) is a subfield of geology that involves the use of photography or other imaging techniques in the visible or near-visible (e.g. ultraviolet, infrared) spectrum to realistically record objects, features, and processes of geological significance. Ultimately geophotography is motivated by a scientific comprehension or question and serves to accomplish a specific, useful goal in furthering the understanding of the aspect of geology that it addresses. However, crossover does occur from documentary to more artistic styles.
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His involvement within the Department of Anthropology's Public Interest Anthropology project taught him the necessity of bridging the divide between academia and the wider public. Together with archaeologist Benjamin W. Porter, now professor at the Near Eastern Studies Department, UC Berkeley, he applied the public interest perspective to heritage tourism. Understanding the changing meaning and value of (intangible) cultural heritage is still high on his research agenda. It forms part of Salazar's broader work within the subfield of the anthropology of tourism.
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Generic-case complexity is a subfield of computational complexity theory that studies the complexity of computational problems on "most inputs". Generic- case complexity is a way of measuring the complexity of a computational problem by neglecting a small set of unrepresentative inputs and considering worst-case complexity on the rest. Small is defined in terms of asymptotic density. The apparent efficacy of generic case complexity is because for a wide variety of concrete computational problems, the most difficult instances seem to be rare.
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Ariès's Western Attitudes Toward Death has been applauded in both the field of history and the wider world of academia. Initial reviews celebrated this work as eye-opening, thought- provoking, and the first of its kind. Historian David Stannard, writing for the American Historical Review, noted the book was similar in structure, style and "panoramic vision" to Ariès's earlier works in the history of childhood. Like his earlier works, scholars predicted that Ariès would again ignite a new subfield in history.
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Shapiro laid the theoretical foundation for inductive logic programming and built its first implementation (Model Inference System): a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples. Inductive logic programming has nowadays bloomed as a subfield of artificial intelligence and machine learning which uses logic programming as a uniform representation for examples, background knowledge and hypotheses. Recent work in this area, combining logic programming, learning and probability, has given rise to the new field of statistical relational learning.
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The term is commonly used in phylogenetics (a subfield of biology) and in linguistics. The term was coined to apply to well-known taxa like Reptilia (reptiles) which, as commonly named and traditionally defined, is paraphyletic with respect to mammals and birds. Reptilia contains the last common ancestor of reptiles and all descendants of that ancestor, including all extant reptiles as well as the extinct synapsids, except for mammals and birds. Other commonly recognized paraphyletic groups include fish, monkeys, and lizards.
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Convex optimization is a subfield of mathematical optimization that studies the problem of minimizing convex functions over convex sets. Many classes of convex optimization problems admit polynomial-time algorithms, whereas mathematical optimization is in general NP-hard. Sahni, S. "Computationally related problems," in SIAM Journal on Computing, 3, 262--279, 1974.Quadratic programming with one negative eigenvalue is NP-hard, Panos M. Pardalos and Stephen A. Vavasis in Journal of Global Optimization, Volume 1, Number 1, 1991, pg.15-22.
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There is no commonly accepted such description. In fact there are many different "relevant properties", which involve almost every subfield of algebraic geometry. A natural example of such a question concerning positive-dimensional systems is the following: decide if a polynomial system over the rational numbers has a finite number of real solutions and compute them. A generalization of this question is find at least one solution in each connected component of the set of real solutions of a polynomial system.
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Global coordination games belong to a subfield of game theory which gained momentum with the article by Morris and Shin (1998). Stephen Morris and Hyun Song Shin considered a stylized currency crises model, in which traders observe the relevant fundamentals with small noise, and show that this leads to the selection of a unique equilibrium. This result is in stark contrast with models of complete information, which feature multiple equilibria. Morris has also made important contributions to the theory of mechanism design.
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Molecular nanotechnology is a speculative subfield of nanotechnology regarding the possibility of engineering molecular assemblers, machines which could re-order matter at a molecular or atomic scale. Nanomedicine would make use of these nanorobots, introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections. Molecular nanotechnology is highly theoretical, seeking to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield and to propose an agenda for future inquiry. The proposed elements of molecular nanotechnology, such as molecular assemblers and nanorobots are far beyond current capabilities.
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Body identification is a subfield of forensic science that uses a variety of scientific and non-scientific methods to identify a body. Forensic purposes are served by rigorous scientific forensic identification techniques, but these are generally preceded by formal identification.Burnt Beyond Recognition coronerstories This involves requesting a family member or friend of the victim to visually identify the body. If a body is not badly decomposed or damaged, one or more persons who knew the deceased well can visually confirm their identity.
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In mathematics, Hilbert's fourteenth problem, that is, number 14 of Hilbert's problems proposed in 1900, asks whether certain algebras are finitely generated. The setting is as follows: Assume that k is a field and let K be a subfield of the field of rational functions in n variables, :k(x1, ..., xn ) over k. Consider now the k-algebra R defined as the intersection : R:= K \cap k[x_1, \dots, x_n] \ . Hilbert conjectured that all such algebras are finitely generated over k.
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Constantin Carathéodory formulated thermodynamics on a purely mathematical axiomatic foundation. His statement of the second law is known as the Principle of Carathéodory, which may be formulated as follows:Carathéodory, C. (1909). > In every neighborhood of any state S of an adiabatically enclosed system > there are states inaccessible from S.Buchdahl, H.A. (1966), p. 68. With this formulation, he described the concept of adiabatic accessibility for the first time and provided the foundation for a new subfield of classical thermodynamics, often called geometrical thermodynamics.
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As a contributor to the subfield of Eco-evolution, he is one of the founders of the evolving metacommunity framework, which emphasizes the joint interaction between species-sorting and local adaptation across environmental patches linked by dispersal in determining patterns of diversity across natural landscapes. He has also contributed to the community monopolization hypothesis which states that evolution alters the assembly and eventual configuration of communities because initial colonists adapt to local conditions and affect the ability of future species to establish.
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A paraconsistent logic is an attempt at a logical system to deal with contradictions in a discriminating way. Alternatively, paraconsistent logic is the subfield of logic that is concerned with studying and developing paraconsistent (or "inconsistency-tolerant") systems of logic. Inconsistency- tolerant logics have been discussed since at least 1910 (and arguably much earlier, for example in the writings of Aristotle); however, the term paraconsistent ("beside the consistent") was not coined until 1976, by the Peruvian philosopher Francisco Miró Quesada Cantuarias.Priest (2002), p.
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Speech recognition is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science and computational linguistics that develops methodologies and technologies that enable the recognition and translation of spoken language into text by computers. It is also known as automatic speech recognition (ASR), computer speech recognition or speech to text (STT). It incorporates knowledge and research in the computer science, linguistics and computer engineering fields. Some speech recognition systems require "training" (also called "enrollment") where an individual speaker reads text or isolated vocabulary into the system.
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The Kyoto Prize consists of three different categories, each with 4 subfields. The subfields rotate every year to create a diverse group of Laureates. The categories and fields are: :Kyoto Prize in Advanced Technology ::With Fields: Electronics, Biotechnology and Medical Technology, Materials Science and Engineering, and Information Science. :Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences ::With Fields: Mathematical Sciences, Biological Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences (Astronomy and Astrophysics), and Life Sciences (With the fifth subfield of Cognitive Sciences with one Laureate, Noam Chomsky in 1988).
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SAR Tomography is a subfield of a concept named as multi-baseline interferometry. It has been developed to give a 3D exposure to the imaging, which uses the beam formation concept. It can be used when the use demands a focused phase concern between the magnitude and the phase components of the SAR data, during information retrieval. One of the major advantages of Tomo-SAR is that it can separate out the parameters which get scattered, irrespective of how different their motions are.
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Gamma phage, an example of a virus Virology is the study of viruses – submicroscopic, parasitic particles of genetic material contained in a protein coat – and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is a subfield of microbiology.
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Electronic engineering has many subfields. This section describes some of the most popular subfields in electronic engineering; although there are engineers who focus exclusively on one subfield, there are also many who focus on a combination of subfields. Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can be either analog, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information.
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In mathematics, Probabilistic number theory is a subfield of number theory, which explicitly uses probability to answer questions about the integers and integer-valued functions. One basic idea underlying it is that different prime numbers are, in some serious sense, like independent random variables. This however is not an idea that has a unique useful formal expression. The founders of the theory were Paul Erdős, Aurel Wintner and Mark Kac during the 1930s, one of the periods of investigation in analytic number theory.
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In model checking, a subfield of computer science, a signal or timed state sequence is an extension of the notion of words, in a formal language, in which letters are continuously emitted. While a word is traditionally defined as a function from a set of non-negative integers to letters, a signal is a functions from a set of real number to letters. This allow to use formalism similar to the ones of automata theory to deal with continuous signal.
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Semidefinite programming (SDP) is a subfield of convex optimization concerned with the optimization of a linear objective function (a user-specified function that the user wants to minimize or maximize) over the intersection of the cone of positive semidefinite matrices with an affine space, i.e., a spectrahedron. Semidefinite programming is a relatively new field of optimization which is of growing interest for several reasons. Many practical problems in operations research and combinatorial optimization can be modeled or approximated as semidefinite programming problems.
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Roger Wattenhofer: PODC 2007 Statistics . The following conferences are listed as other conferences where PODC authors have published most, during the last 5 years: DISC, OPODIS, SPAA, SIROCCO, ICDCS, SRDS, STOC, SODA, FOCS, ESA. or it has received a high rankingThe 2007 Australian Ranking of ICT Conferences . In this ranking, the tiers are A+ ("... one of the very best in its field or subfield..."), A ("... would add to the author's respect..."), B ("... some confidence that research was done..."), L ("... local conferences..."), and C (the rest).
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Mathematical logic emerged in the mid-19th century as a subfield of mathematics, reflecting the confluence of two traditions: formal philosophical logic and mathematics (Ferreirós 2001, p. 443). "Mathematical logic, also called 'logistic', 'symbolic logic', the 'algebra of logic', and, more recently, simply 'formal logic', is the set of logical theories elaborated in the course of the last [nineteenth] century with the aid of an artificial notation and a rigorously deductive method."Jozef Maria Bochenski, A Precis of Mathematical Logic (1959), rev. and trans.
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Geriatric psychology is a subfield of psychology that specializes in the mental and physical health of individuals in the later stages of life. These specialized psychologists study a variety of psychological abilities that deplete as aging occurs such as memory, learning capabilities, and coordination. Geriatric psychologists work with elderly clients to conduct the diagnosis, study, and treatment of certain mental illnesses in a variety of workplace settings. Common areas of practice include loneliness in old age, depression, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and Parkinson's disease.
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An Archimedean field is an ordered field such that for each element there exists a finite expression : whose value is greater than that element, that is, there are no infinite elements. Equivalently, the field contains no infinitesimals (elements smaller than all rational numbers); or, yet equivalent, the field is isomorphic to a subfield of . Each bounded real set has a least upper bound. An ordered field is Dedekind-complete if all upper bounds, lower bounds (see Dedekind cut) and limits, which should exist, do exist.
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More formally, each bounded subset of is required to have a least upper bound. Any complete field is necessarily Archimedean, since in any non-Archimedean field there is neither a greatest infinitesimal nor a least positive rational, whence the sequence , every element of which is greater than every infinitesimal, has no limit. Since every proper subfield of the reals also contains such gaps, is the unique complete ordered field, up to isomorphism. Several foundational results in calculus follow directly from this characterization of the reals.
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These sequencing technologies allow the production of potentially millions of sequences concurrently. The large amount of sequence data available has created the field of genomics, research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms. Genomics can also be considered a subfield of bioinformatics, which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of biological data. A common problem to these fields of research is how to manage and share data that deals with human subject and personally identifiable information.
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The Very Large Array, a radio interferometer in New Mexico, United States Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects at radio frequencies. The first detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was in 1932, when Karl Jansky at Bell Telephone Laboratories observed radiation coming from the Milky Way. Subsequent observations have identified a number of different sources of radio emission. These include stars and galaxies, as well as entirely new classes of objects, such as radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and masers.
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SAPD was founded by political scientists Karen Orren and Stephen Skowronek. Its current editors are Paul Frymer of Princeton University, Marie Gottschalk of the University of Pennsylvania, and Kimberley Johnson of New York University. It has been instrumental in fostering the growth of APD as a distinct and popular subfield within the discipline of political science. SAPD's editorial advisory board includes leading political scientists and historians including Joyce Appleby, Walter Dean Burnham, Victoria Hattam, Ira Katznelson, Theodore Lowi, Theda Skocpol, Rogers Smith, and Daniel Carpenter.
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Digital archaeology is the application of information technology and digital media to archaeology. It includes the use of digital photography, 3D reconstruction, virtual reality, and geographical information systems, among other techniques. Computational archaeology, which covers computer-based analytical methods, can be considered a subfield of digital archaeology, as can virtual archaeology. The use of digital technology to conduct archaeological research allows data to be collected without the invasion or destruction of archaeological sites and the cultural heritage they hold, aiding the preservation of archaeological data.
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The Kummer theory gives a complete description of the abelian extension case, and the Kronecker–Weber theorem tells us that if K is the field of rational numbers, an extension is abelian if and only if it is a subfield of a field obtained by adjoining a root of unity. There is an important analogy with the fundamental group in topology, which classifies all covering spaces of a space: abelian covers are classified by its abelianisation which relates directly to the first homology group.
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Ontology engineering or ontology building is a subfield of knowledge engineering that studies the methods and methodologies for building ontologies. In the domain of enterprise architecture, an ontology is an outline or a schema used to structure objects, their attributes and relationships in a consistent manner. As in enterprise modelling, an ontology can be composed of other ontologies. The purpose of ontologies in enterprise modelling is to formalize and establish the sharability, re-usability, assimilation and dissemination of information across all organizations and departments within an enterprise.
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The subfield is sometimes allied with critical theory in the vein of Theodor W. Adorno, Walter Benjamin, and other members of the Frankfurt School. Loosely distinct from the sociology of culture is the field of cultural studies. Birmingham School theorists such as Richard Hoggart and Stuart Hall questioned the division between "producers" and "consumers" evident in earlier theory, emphasizing the reciprocity in the production of texts. Cultural Studies aims to examine its subject matter in terms of cultural practices and their relation to power.
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Computational electromagnetics (CEM), computational electrodynamics or electromagnetic modeling is the process of modeling the interaction of electromagnetic fields with physical objects and the environment. It typically involves using computer programs to compute approximate solutions to Maxwell's equations to calculate antenna performance, electromagnetic compatibility, radar cross section and electromagnetic wave propagation when not in free space. A large subfield is antenna modeling computer programs, which calculate the radiation pattern and electrical properties of radio antennas, and are widely used to design antennas for specific applications.
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Molecular nanotechnology is a speculative subfield of nanotechnology regarding the possibility of engineering molecular assemblers, biological machines which could re-order matter at a molecular or atomic scale. Nanomedicine would make use of these nanorobots, introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections. Molecular nanotechnology is highly theoretical, seeking to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield and to propose an agenda for future inquiry. The proposed elements of molecular nanotechnology, such as molecular assemblers and nanorobots are far beyond current capabilities.
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Quantum photoelectrochemistry is the investigation of the quantum mechanical nature of photoelectrochemistry, the subfield of study within physical chemistry concerned with the interaction of light with electrochemical systems, typically through the application of quantum chemical calculations.Quantum Photoelectrochemistry - Theoretical Studies of Organic Adsorbates on Metal Oxide Surfaces, Petter Persson, Acta Univ. Upsaliensis., Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Science and Technology 544, 53 pp. Uppsala. . Quantum photoelectrochemistry provides an expansion of quantum electrochemistry to processes involving also the interaction with light (photons).
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Indian psychology refers to an emerging scholarly and scientific subfield of psychology. Psychologists working in this field are retrieving the psychological ideas embedded in indigenous Indian religious and spiritual traditions and philosophies, and expressing these ideas in psychological terms that permit further psychological research and application. 'Indian psychology' in this sense does not mean 'the psychology of the Indian people', or 'psychology as taught at Indian universities'. The Indian Psychology Movement refers to psychologists encouraging or carrying out the recently expanded activity in this field.
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Soft matter or soft condensed matter is a subfield of condensed matter comprising a variety of physical systems that are deformed or structurally altered by thermal or mechanical stress of the magnitude of thermal fluctuations. They include liquids, colloids, polymers, foams, gels, granular materials, liquid crystals, pillows, flesh, and a number of biological materials. These materials share an important common feature in that predominant physical behaviors occur at an energy scale comparable with room temperature thermal energy. At these temperatures, quantum aspects are generally unimportant.
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Military doctor Arsenin discovers that Major Krechetov didn’t serve at the Second Belorussian Front. This is confirmed by Gottsman's new driver, and appears as a serious argument against Krechetov. Along with other facts, this points to one conclusion – that Krechetov is the “Academic”, and Gottsman receives a warrant for his arrest, but Gottsman's conclusion turns out to be hasty. Krechetov reveals that he served as part of a group of commanding subfield personnel, together with the Secretary of the UWB and other equally important people.
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Molecular nanotechnology is a speculative subfield of nanotechnology regarding the possibility of engineering molecular assemblers, biological machines which could re-order matter at a molecular or atomic scale. Nanomedicine would make use of these nanorobots, introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections. Molecular nanotechnology is highly theoretical, seeking to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield and to propose an agenda for future inquiry. The proposed elements of molecular nanotechnology, such as molecular assemblers and nanorobots are far beyond current capabilities.
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Complex systems biology (CSB) is a branch or subfield of mathematical and theoretical biology concerned with complexity of both structure and function in biological organisms, as well as the emergence and evolution of organisms and species, with emphasis being placed on the complex interactions of, and within, bionetworks, and on the fundamental relations and relational patterns that are essential to life.Donald Snooks, Graeme, "A general theory of complex living systems: Exploring the demand side of dynamics", Complexity, vol. 13, no. 6, July/August 2008.
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In abstract algebra, the superreal numbers are a class of extensions of the real numbers, introduced by H. Garth Dales and W. Hugh Woodin as a generalization of the hyperreal numbers and primarily of interest in non- standard analysis, model theory, and the study of Banach algebras. The field of superreals is itself a subfield of the surreal numbers. Dales and Woodin's superreals are distinct from the super-real numbers of David O. Tall, which are lexicographically ordered fractions of formal power series over the reals.
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Energy diplomacy is a form of diplomacy, and a subfield of international relations. It is closely related to its principal, foreign policy, and to overall national security, specifically energy security. Energy diplomacy began in the first half of the twentieth century and emerged as a term during the second oil crisis as a means of describing OPEC's actions. It has since mainly focused on the securitization of energy supplies, primarily fossil fuels, but also nuclear energy and increasingly sustainable energy, on a country or bloc basis.
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The concept of human nature is a source of ongoing debate in contemporary philosophy, specifically within philosophy of biology, a subfield of the philosophy of science. Prominent critics of the concept – David L. Hull, Michael Ghiselin, and David Buller; see also – argue that human nature is incompatible with modern evolutionary biology. Conversely, defenders of the concept argue that when defined in certain ways, human nature is both scientifically respectable and meaningful. Therefore, the value and usefulness of the concept depends essentially on how one construes it.
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Fox devoted many years of her work to the sociology of science being one of the founders of the subfield of gender, science, and academia. Using Merton's (1961/1973) concept of "strategic research sites," she has argued that science and academia are "strategic research sites" for studies of gender and inequality. Both gender relations and science are hierarchically structured. Gender hierarchy is constituted by processes where men and women are "differentially ranked and evaluated" (Fox, 2004) and science "reflects and reinforces gender stratification" (Fox, 1999, 2001, 2007).
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In mathematics, a hyper-finite field is an uncountable field similar in many ways to finite fields. More precisely a field F is called hyper-finite if it is uncountable and quasi-finite, and for every subfield E, every absolutely entire E-algebra (regular field extension of E) of smaller cardinality than F can be embedded in F. They were introduced by . Every hyper-finite field is a pseudo-finite field, and is in particular a model for the first-order theory of finite fields.
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The terms "sinology" and "sinologist" were coined around 1838 and use "sino-", derived from Late Latin Sinae from the Greek Sinae, from the Arabic Sin which in turn may derive from Qin, as in the Qin dynasty.American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 3rd edition 1992): 1686. In the context of area studies, the European and the American usages may differ. In Europe, Sinology is usually known as Chinese Studies, whereas in the United States, Sinology is a subfield of Chinese Studies.
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The marine ecosystem is large, and thus there are many sub-fields of marine biology. Most involve studying specializations of particular animal groups, such as phycology, invertebrate zoology and ichthyology. Other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion in sea water and the ocean in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life, and global warming and environmental issues (such as carbon dioxide displacement).
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A real number is a computable number if there is an algorithm that, given a natural number n, produces a decimal expansion for the number accurate to n decimal places. This notion was introduced by Alan Turing in 1936. The computable numbers include the algebraic numbers along with many transcendental numbers including π and e. Like the algebraic numbers, the computable numbers also form a subfield of the real numbers, and the positive computable numbers are closed under taking nth roots for each positive n.
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The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics and probability theory. As of 2019, many sources continue to assert that machine learning remains a subfield of AI. Yet some practitioners, for example, Dr Daniel Hulme, who teaches AI and runs a company operating in the field, argues that machine learning and AI are separate.
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This prime number is called the characteristic of the field. Suppose that F is a field of characteristic p, and consider the function f(x) = x^p that raises each element of F to the power p. This is called the Frobenius automorphism of F. It is an automorphism of the field because of the Freshman's dream identity (x+y)^p = x^p+y^p. The Frobenius automorphism is important in number theory because it generates the Galois group of F over its prime subfield.
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B-spline with control points/control polygon, and marked component curves In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, a B-spline or basis spline is a spline function that has minimal support with respect to a given degree, smoothness, and domain partition. Any spline function of given degree can be expressed as a linear combination of B-splines of that degree. Cardinal B-splines have knots that are equidistant from each other. B-splines can be used for curve-fitting and numerical differentiation of experimental data.
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Mildred Z. Solomon is a global leader in bioethics. She is the president of The Hastings Center, an organization instrumental in the establishment of the field of bioethics. Solomon helped to develop the subfield of empirical ethicsEthics Education Library and has conducted numerous studies on a broad range of bioethics topics. She is also a professor at Harvard Medical School, where she directs the Fellowship Program at the Center for Bioethics at Harvard Medical School, which has prepared over 100 bioethicists from across the globe.
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For example, moral imagination is an important research subfield of artificial imagination, although classification of artificial imagination is difficult. Morals are an important part to human beings' logic, while artificial morals are important in artificial imagination and artificial intelligence. A common criticism of artificial intelligence is whether human beings should take responsibility for machines‘ mistakes or decisions and how to develop well-behaved machines. As nobody can give a clear description of the best moral rules, it is impossible to create machines with commonly accepted moral rules.
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Sports biomechanics is a quantitative based study and analysis of professional athletes and sports activities in general. It can simply be described as the physics of sports. In this subfield of biomechanics the laws of mechanics are applied in order to gain a greater understanding of athletic performance through mathematical modeling, computer simulation and measurement. Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of mechanics (the branch of physics involving analysis of the actions of forces).
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Personnel Psychology is a subfield of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Personnel psychology is the area of industrial/organizational psychology that primarily deals with the recruitment, selection and evaluation of personnel, and other job aspects such as morale, job satisfaction, and relationships between managers and workers in the workplace. It is the field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees; this area of psychology deals with job analysis and defines and measures job performance, performance appraisal, employment testing, employment interviews, personnel selection and employee training, and human factors and ergonomics.
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An important subfield of recursion theory studies algorithmic unsolvability; a decision problem or function problem is algorithmically unsolvable if there is no possible computable algorithm that returns the correct answer for all legal inputs to the problem. The first results about unsolvability, obtained independently by Church and Turing in 1936, showed that the Entscheidungsproblem is algorithmically unsolvable. Turing proved this by establishing the unsolvability of the halting problem, a result with far- ranging implications in both recursion theory and computer science. There are many known examples of undecidable problems from ordinary mathematics.
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Every field of characteristic zero contains a unique subfield isomorphic to Q. Q is the field of fractions of the integers Z. The algebraic closure of Q, i.e. the field of roots of rational polynomials, is the field of algebraic numbers. The set of all rational numbers is countable, while the set of all real numbers (as well as the set of irrational numbers) is uncountable. Being countable, the set of rational numbers is a null set, that is, almost all real numbers are irrational, in the sense of Lebesgue measure.
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Hamlet's Mill: An Essay Investigating the Origins of Human Knowledge and Its Transmission Through Myth (first published by Gambit, Boston, 1969) by Giorgio de Santillana (a professor of the history of science at MIT) and Hertha von Dechend (a scientist at Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität) is a nonfiction work of history and comparative mythology, particularly the subfield of archaeoastronomy. It is mostly about the claim of a Megalithic era discovery of axial precession, and the encoding of this knowledge in mythology. The book was severely criticized by academics upon its publication.
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Victoria Schuck (1909–1999) was an American political scientist who was the president of Mount Vernon College from 1977 to 1983. As an expert on the political participation of women and women as political candidates, she contributed to the development of the study of women and politics as a subfield of political science. She also specialized in the state politics of New England, and the politics of South Vietnam. As one of the first 80 women to earn a PhD in political science, Schuck published extensively on the status of women in the profession.
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Television studies is an academic discipline that deals with critical approaches to television. Usually, it is distinguished from mass communication research, which tends to approach the topic from a social sciences perspective. Defining the field is problematic; some institutions and syllabuses do not distinguish it from media studies or classify it as a subfield of popular culture studies. One form of television studies is roughly equivalent to the longer-standing discipline of film studies in that it is often concerned with textual analysis yet other approaches center more on the social functions of television.
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In differential geometry, a subfield of mathematics, the Margulis lemma (named after Grigory Margulis) is a result about discrete subgroups of isometries of a non-positively curved Riemannian manifolds (e.g. the hyperbolic n-space). Roughly, it states that within a fixed radius, usually called the Margulis constant, the structure of the orbits of such a group cannot be too complicated. More precisely, within this radius around a point all points in its orbit are in fact in the orbit of a nilpotent subgroup (in fact a bounded finite number of such).
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Yet another field related to computer vision is signal processing. Many methods for processing of one-variable signals, typically temporal signals, can be extended in a natural way to processing of two-variable signals or multi- variable signals in computer vision. However, because of the specific nature of images there are many methods developed within computer vision that have no counterpart in processing of one-variable signals. Together with the multi- dimensionality of the signal, this defines a subfield in signal processing as a part of computer vision.
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If K is a field and L is an algebraic extension of K, then there is some algebraic extension M of L such that M is a normal extension of K. Furthermore, up to isomorphism there is only one such extension which is minimal, i.e., the only subfield of M which contains L and which is a normal extension of K is M itself. This extension is called the normal closure of the extension L of K. If L is a finite extension of K, then its normal closure is also a finite extension.
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Robots can also be equipped with multiple vision sensors to be better able to compute the sense of depth in the environment. Like human eyes, robots' "eyes" must also be able to focus on a particular area of interest, and also adjust to variations in light intensities. There is a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behavior of biological system, at different levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning-based methods developed within computer vision have their background in biology.
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Integral Equations and Operator Theory is a journal dedicated to operator theory and its applications to engineering and other mathematical sciences. As some approaches to the study of integral equations (theoretically and numerically) constitute a subfield of operator theory, the journal also deals with the theory of integral equations and hence of differential equations. The journal consists of two sections: a main section consisting of refereed papers and a second consisting of short announcements of important results, open problems, information, etc. It has been published monthly by Springer-Verlag since 1978.
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Sensory neuroscience is a subfield of neuroscience which explores the anatomy and physiology of neurons that are part of sensory systems such as vision, hearing, and olfaction. Neurons in sensory regions of the brain respond to stimuli by firing one or more nerve impulses (action potentials) following stimulus presentation. How is information about the outside world encoded by the rate, timing, and pattern of action potentials? This so-called neural code is currently poorly understood and sensory neuroscience plays an important role in the attempt to decipher it.
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Viral evolution is a subfield of evolutionary biology and virology that is specifically concerned with the evolution of viruses. Viruses have short generation times, and many—in particular RNA viruses—have relatively high mutation rates (on the order of one point mutation or more per genome per round of replication). This elevated mutation rate, when combined with natural selection, allows viruses to quickly adapt to changes in their host environment. In addition, most viruses provide many offspring, so any mutated genes can be passed on to many offspring quickly.
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Within the subfield of international relations, and political science as a whole, the concept high politics covers all matters that are vital to the very survival of the state: namely national and international security concerns. It is often used in opposition to "low politics". Although the idea of high politics has been present in all cultures and epochs, Hobbes was the first to enunciate that survival (of trade, the laws, societal order, etc.) hinges upon a finite number of ingredients. For him, these ingredients were embodied and provided by the State.
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Nuclear electronics is a subfield of electronics concerned with the design and use of high-speed electronic systems for nuclear physics and elementary particle physics research, and for industrial and medical use. Essential elements of such systems include fast detectors for charged particles, discriminators for separating them by energy, counters for counting the pulses produced by individual particles, fast logic circuits (including coincidence and veto gates), for identification of particular types of complex particle events, and pulse height analyzers (PHAs) for sorting and counting gamma rays or particle interactions by energy, for spectral analysis.
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In the ray tracing method of computer graphics a surface can be represented as a set of pieces of planes. The intersection of a ray of light with each plane is used to produce an image of the surface. In vision-based 3D reconstruction, a subfield of computer vision, depth values are commonly measured by so-called triangulation method, which finds the intersection between light plane and ray reflected toward camera. The algorithm can be generalised to cover intersection with other planar figures, in particular, the intersection of a polyhedron with a line.
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Atomic physics is the subfield of AMO that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus, while molecular physics is the study of the physical properties of molecules. The term atomic physics is often associated with nuclear power and nuclear bombs, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard English. However, physicists distinguish between atomic physics — which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons — and nuclear physics, which considers atomic nuclei alone. The important experimental techniques are the various types of spectroscopy.
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Ontology engineering (also called ontology building) is a set of tasks related to the development of ontologies for a particular domain. It is a subfield of knowledge engineering that studies the ontology development process, the ontology life cycle, the methods and methodologies for building ontologies, and the tools and languages that support them. Ontology engineering aims to make explicit the knowledge contained in software applications, and organizational procedures for a particular domain. Ontology engineering offers a direction for overcoming semantic obstacles, such as those related to the definitions of business terms and software classes.
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Human reproductive ecology is a subfield in evolutionary biology that is concerned with human reproductive processes and responses to ecological variables. It is based in the natural and social sciences, and is based on theory and models deriving from human and animal biology, evolutionary theory, and ecology. It is associated with fields such as evolutionary anthropology and seeks to explain human reproductive variation and adaptations. The theoretical orientation of reproductive ecology applies the theory of natural selection to reproductive behaviors, and has also been referred to as the evolutionary ecology of human reproduction.
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The subfield of asset pricing (or valuation) is the financial evaluation of the value of such assets; the primary method used by today's financial analysts is the discounted cash flow method. With this method, an asset's future cash flows are either assumed to be known with certainty (as in a treasury bond which is risk free) or estimated. These future cash flows are discounting used present values. The Flow of Funds tables from the Federal Reserve System provide data about assets, which are tangible assets and financial assets, and liabilities.
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Special attention is given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities compare to each other. Another significant part of this subfield deals with the study of the social forms which are expressed in the physical layout of a city, and, conversely, how physical form produces or reproduces various social forms. The essence of the idea of morphology was initially expressed in the writings of the great poet and philosopher Goethe (1790). However, the term as such was first used in bioscience.
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Chinese Whispers is used in many subfield of network science. Most frequently it is mentioned in the context of natural language processing problems.Antonio Di Marco - Roberto Navigili,"Clustering and Diversifying Web Search Results with Graph Based Word Sense Induction", 2013Ioannis Korkontzelos - Suresh Manandhar,"Detecting Compositionality in Multi-Word Expressions", 2009 On the other hand the algorithm is applicable to any kind of community identification problem which is related to a network framework. Chinese Whispers is available for personal use as an extension package for Gephi which is an open source program designed for network analysis.
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In 2005 Jepsen joined the faculty of the MIT Media Lab as a professor with a tenure-track position. Here she started the Nomadic Displays Group, and co-created the first holographic video system in the world in 1989, where the interference structure of the hologram was computed at video rates, and shown on her hand-made display. This system inspired a new subfield of holographic video and received numerous awards. Working with Nicholas Negroponte, she simultaneously co-founded One Laptop per Child, a $100 computer, the lowest-power laptop ever made.
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Cross-cultural psychology as a discipline examines the way that human behavior is different and/or similar across different cultures. One important and widely studied area in this subfield of psychology is personality, particularly the study of Big Five. The Big Five personality traits are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. The Big Five model of personality (also known as the Five Factor Model) has become the most extensively studied model of personality and has broad support, starting in the United States and later in many different cultures.
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Neuro-Information-Systems (NeuroIS) is a subfield of the information systems (IS) discipline, which relies on neuroscience and neurophysiological knowledge and tools to better understand the development, use, and impact of information and communication technologies.Riedl, R., Banker, R.D., Benbasat, I., Davis, F.D., Dennis, A.R., Dimoka, A., Gefen, D., Gupta, A., Ischebeck, A., Kenning, P.H., Müller-Putz, G.R., Pavlou, P.A., Straub, D.W., Vom Brocke, J., and Weber, B. (2010). On the Foundations of NeuroIS: Reflections on the Gmunden Retreat 2009. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 27, pp. 243–264.
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Underwater computer vision is a subfield of computer vision. In recent years, with the development of underwater vehicles ( ROV, AUV, gliders), the need to be able to record and process huge amounts of information has become increasingly important. Applications range from inspection of underwater structures for the offshore industry to the identification and counting of fishes for biological research. However, no matter how big the impact of this technology can be to industry and research, it still is in a very early stage of development compared to traditional computer vision.
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The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, phonation is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Phoneticians in other subfields, such as linguistic phonetics, call this process voicing, and use the term phonation to refer to any oscillatory state of any part of the larynx that modifies the airstream, of which voicing is just one example.
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Georgescu-Roegen reintroduced the concept of entropy in relation to economics and energy from thermodynamics, as distinguished from what he viewed as the mechanistic foundation of neoclassical economics drawn from Newtonian physics. His work contributed significantly to thermoeconomics and to ecological economics. He also did foundational work which later developed into evolutionary economics.• • • • • The sociological subfield of economic sociology arose, primarily through the work of Émile Durkheim, Max Weber and Georg Simmel, as an approach to analysing the effects of economic phenomena in relation to the overarching social paradigm (i.e. modernity).
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Gender and Jewish studies intersect primarily through research on Jewish women and the role of women in Judaism and Jewish culture. Nonetheless, gender and Jewish studies also investigate the gender phenomena pertaining to men and masculinity. In addition, the subfield encompasses research on homosexuality and queer theory as these pertain to Jews and Judaism. In historical terms, gender and Jewish studies span a broad range, from Biblical exegesis, research on rabbinic literature, Medieval Jewish culture, the importance of gender in Jewish responses to modernity, and gender identity politics in the contemporary period.
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Dell Hathaway Hymes (June 7, 1927 in Portland, Oregon – November 13, 2009 in Charlottesville, Virginia) was a linguist, sociolinguist, anthropologist, and folklorist who established disciplinary foundations for the comparative, ethnographic study of language use. His research focused upon the languages of the Pacific Northwest. He was one of the first to call the fourth subfield of anthropology "linguistic anthropology" instead of "anthropological linguistics". The terminological shift draws attention to the field's grounding in anthropology rather than in what, by that time, had already become an autonomous discipline (linguistics).
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Proponents of evolutionary psychology in the 1990s made some explorations in historical events, but the response from historical experts was highly negative and there has been little effort to continue that line of research. Historian Lynn Hunt says that the historians complained that the researchers: Hunt states that, "the few attempts to build up a subfield of psychohistory collapsed under the weight of its presuppositions." She concludes that as of 2014 the "'iron curtain' between historians and psychology...remains standing."Hunt, "The Self and Its History." p. 1578.
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In 2013, researchers at Johns Hopkins, publishing in the Journal of the American Medical Association, identified 47 studies that qualify as well-designed and therefore reliable. Based on these studies, they concluded there is only a moderate evidence that mindfulness meditation programs can reduce anxiety, depression, and pain, but no evidence that it was more effective than active treatments, such as drugs or exercise. Others studies cautioned about possible misinformation and misinterpretation of data related to the subject. The process of meditation, as well as its effects, is a growing subfield of neurological research.
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The additional subtlety to contend with is that it is not logically permissible to use the completeness of the real numbers in their own construction. Nevertheless, equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences are defined as above, and the set of equivalence classes is easily shown to be a field that has the rational numbers as a subfield. This field is complete, admits a natural total ordering, and is the unique totally ordered complete field (up to isomorphism). It is defined as the field of real numbers (see also Construction of the real numbers for more details).
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Hellwig studied the effects of exogenous and endogenous public information in global coordination games and showed that multiplicity of equilibria is restored under fairly general conditions. Global coordination games belong to a subfield of game theory which started with the article by Morris and Shin (1998). Steven Morris and Hyun Song Shin considered a stylized currency crises model, in which traders observe the relevant fundamentals with small noise, and show that this leads to the selection of a unique equilibrium. This result is in stark contrast with models of complete information, which feature multiple equilibria.
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When David Thouless pointed out in 1977 that the size of a conductor, if made small enough, will affect the electronic properties of the conductor, a new subfield of condensed matter physics was started. The research that followed during the 1980s was known as the mesoscopic physics, based on the submicron-size systems investigated. This was the starting point of the research related to the single-electron transistor. The first single-electron transistor based on the Coulomb blockade was reported in 1986 by Soviet scientists and D. V. Averin.
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Global coordination games belong to a subfield of game theory that gained momentum in 1998 when he published an article with Stephen Morris. Shin and Morris considered a stylized currency crises model, in which traders observe the relevant fundamentals with small noise, and show that this leads to the selection of a unique equilibrium. This result is in stark contrast with models of complete information, which feature multiple equilibria. In 2011 he won the second Financial Times annual essay contest on banking regulation sponsored by the International Centre for Financial Regulation.
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Animal geography is a subfield of the nature-society/human-environment branch of geography as well as a part of the larger, interdisciplinary umbrella of Human-Animal Studies (HAS). Animal geography is defined as the study of “the complex entanglings of human-animal relations with space, place, location, environment and landscape”Philo, C., Wilbert, C., 2000. Animal Spaces, Beastly Places: New Geographies of Human-Animal Relations. Routledge, London and New York, p. 4. or “the study of where, when, why and how nonhuman animals intersect with human societies.”Urbanik, J. 2012.
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In October 2016, the group published The National Artificial Intelligence Research and Development Strategic Plan, outlining its proposed priorities for Federally-funded AI research and development (within government and academia). The report notes a strategic R&D; plan for the subfield of health information technology is in development stages. The only agency that has expressed concern is the FDA. Bakul Patel, the Associate Center Director for Digital Health of the FDA, is quoted saying in May 2017. > “We're trying to get people who have hands-on development experience with a > product's full life cycle.
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Isaacs, p. 299 Purely inseparable extensions do occur naturally; for example, they occur in algebraic geometry over fields of prime characteristic. If K is a field of characteristic p, and if V is an algebraic variety over K of dimension greater than zero, the function field K(V) is a purely inseparable extension over the subfield K(V)p of pth powers (this follows from condition 2 above). Such extensions occur in the context of multiplication by p on an elliptic curve over a finite field of characteristic p.
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Scientific and technical journal publications per million residents (2013) Academic publishing is the subfield of publishing which distributes academic research and scholarship. Most academic work is published in academic journal article, book or thesis form. The part of academic written output that is not formally published but merely printed up or posted on the Internet is often called "grey literature". Most scientific and scholarly journals, and many academic and scholarly books, though not all, are based on some form of peer review or editorial refereeing to qualify texts for publication.
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Based on the work of Robert E. Park, Blumer, in a 1939 article, called to attention a new subfield of sociology: collective behavior. This now developed area of inquiry is devoted to the exploration of collective action and behavior that is not yet organized under an institutional structure or formation. Blumer was particularly interested in the spontaneous collective coordination that occurs when something that is unpredicted disrupt standardized group behavior. He saw the combination of events that follows such phenomena as a key factor in society's ongoing transformation.
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Any function field K(V) of an algebraic variety V over K, other than a single point, has a subfield isomorphic with K(T). From the point of view of birational geometry, this means that there will be a rational map from V to P1(K), that is not constant. The image will omit only finitely many points of P1(K), and the inverse image of a typical point P will be of dimension . This is the beginning of methods in algebraic geometry that are inductive on dimension.
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Bill Maurer, 2014 William M. Maurer (born March 31, 1968) is an American academic scholar of legal and economic anthropology. He currently serves as the dean of the School of Social Sciences at the University of California, Irvine. He has conducted research on money, finance, economy, and law, including the off-shore financial services industry in the Caribbean, alternative currencies, Islamic finance, mobile money, and traditional and emerging payment technologies, as well as cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and related blockchain technologies. He has been called the “doyen” of the subfield of the anthropology of finance.
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Koksal Alver (Turkish: Köksal Alver) was born in Narman, a town and district of Erzurum, Turkey in 1970. He is well known among the Turkish sociologists, cultural theorists and short story writers in the country. Alver's works are primarily concerned with cultural dynamics, sociology of space, rural sociology and also a renowned expert in sociology of literature as a subfield of the sociology of culture. In addition, his works of literature show particular character of traditional styles from Ottoman poetry which is composed into narrative styles of his own.
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Placing ovarian tissue strips into the preserving solution Oncofertility is a subfield that bridges oncology and reproductive research to explore and expand options for the reproductive future of cancer survivors. The name was coined in 2006 by Teresa K. Woodruff at the Oncofertility Consortium. Cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery, may destroy a person's ability to have children later in life, and oncofertility research focuses on increasing fertility preservation options. With 10% of cancer patients being younger than age 40, this issue affects more than 135,000 people in the United States each year.
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Stratigraphic column of the Grand Canyon, Arizona, United States. A stratigraphic column is a representation used in geology and its subfield of stratigraphy to describe the vertical location of rock units in a particular area. A typical stratigraphic column shows a sequence of sedimentary rocks, with the oldest rocks on the bottom and the youngest on top. In areas that are more geologically complex, such as those that contain intrusive rocks, faults, and/or metamorphism, stratigraphic columns can still indicate the relative locations of these units with respect to one another.
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Most of the exhibition of was painted in William S. Burroughs Bunker in the Bowery in New York City.Mark Dagley, exhibition catalog, Minus Space, Abaton Book Company, 2008. p. 13. They curated a traveling exhibition Machine Learning which was shown at the Boyden Gallery of St. Mary's College of Maryland, The Painting Center in New York City, Gallery Sonja Roesch in Houston, TX in 2007 and 2008. The title of the exhibition was inspired by a subfield of artificial intelligence concerned with the design and development of algorithms that allow computers to learn.
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In the computing subfield only 21% of PhD graduates were women. In 2013 in the EU as an average men scientists and engineers made up 4.1% of total labour force, while women made up only 2.8%. In more than half of the countries women make up less than 45% of scientists and engineers. The situation has improved, as between 2008 and 2011 the number of women amongst employed scientists and engineers grew by an average of 11.1% per year, while the number of men grew only by 3.3% over the same period.
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Robust control is a subfield of control theory that addresses analysis and design processes and tools that can systematically and explicitly deal with modeling errors. Much of Dr. Khargonekar’s early work was on new methods drawn from advanced algebra for analysis of system mathematical models. Later, he focused on the field of robust control, where he contributed to the development of state space H-infinity control theory, a major achievement in the field of control. He has also contributed to digital control, system identification, and digital signal processing.
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The study of political demography is in its early stages and can be traced back to the works of figures such as Jack Goldstone, whom is often considered to be the father of Political Demography. Since 2000 the subject has drawn the attention of policymakers and journalists and is now emerging as an academic subfield. Panels on political demography appear at demography conferences such as the Population Association of America (PAA) and European Association for Population Studies (EAPS). There is now a political demography section at the International Studies Association.
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If the field K is perfect, then every nonsingular quadratic form over K is uniquely determined (up to equivalence) by its dimension and its Arf invariant. In particular, this holds over the field F2. In this case, the subgroup U above is zero, and hence the Arf invariant is an element of the base field F2; it is either 0 or 1. If the field K of characteristic 2 is not perfect (that is, K is different from its subfield K2 of squares), then the Clifford algebra is another important invariant of a quadratic form.
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The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945. The history of mathematics, history of technology, and history of philosophy are distinct areas of research and are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to but distinct from natural science (at least in the modern conception).
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In model checking, a subfield of computer science, a timed word is an extension of the notion of words, in a formal language, in which each letter is associated with a positive time tag. The sequence of time tag must be non- decreasing, which intuitively means that letters are received. For example, a system receiving a word over a network may associate to each letter the time at which the letter is received. The non-decreasing condition here means that the letters are received in the correct order.
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Molecular manufacturing is a potential future subfield of nanotechnology that would make it possible to build complex structures at atomic precision. Molecular manufacturing requires significant advances in nanotechnology, but once achieved could produce highly advanced products at low costs and in large quantities in nanofactories weighing a kilogram or more. When nanofactories gain the ability to produce other nanofactories production may only be limited by relatively abundant factors such as input materials, energy and software. The products of molecular manufacturing could range from cheaper, mass- produced versions of known high-tech products to novel products with added capabilities in many areas of application.
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The method of forcing is employed in set theory, model theory, and recursion theory, as well as in the study of intuitionistic mathematics. The mathematical field of category theory uses many formal axiomatic methods, and includes the study of categorical logic, but category theory is not ordinarily considered a subfield of mathematical logic. Because of its applicability in diverse fields of mathematics, mathematicians including Saunders Mac Lane have proposed category theory as a foundational system for mathematics, independent of set theory. These foundations use toposes, which resemble generalized models of set theory that may employ classical or nonclassical logic.
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The method of quantifier elimination can be used to show that definable sets in particular theories cannot be too complicated. Tarski (1948) established quantifier elimination for real-closed fields, a result which also shows the theory of the field of real numbers is decidable. (He also noted that his methods were equally applicable to algebraically closed fields of arbitrary characteristic.) A modern subfield developing from this is concerned with o-minimal structures. Morley's categoricity theorem, proved by Michael D. Morley (1965), states that if a first-order theory in a countable language is categorical in some uncountable cardinality, i.e.
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This is because language is also fluid in transition and does not shift from one state to another instantaneously. Language variation is a core concept in sociolinguistics. Sociolinguists investigate whether this linguistic variation can be attributed to differences in the social characteristics of the speakers using the language, but also investigate whether elements of the surrounding linguistic context promote or inhibit the usage of certain structures. Studies of language variation and its correlation with sociological categories, such as William Labov's 1963 paper "The social motivation of a sound change," led to the foundation of sociolinguistics as a subfield of linguistics.
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Brain morphometry is a subfield of both morphometry and the brain sciences, concerned with the measurement of brain structures and changes thereof during development, aging, learning, disease and evolution. Since autopsy-like dissection is generally impossible on living brains, brain morphometry starts with noninvasive neuroimaging data, typically obtained from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). These data are born digital, which allows researchers to analyze the brain images further by using advanced mathematical and statistical methods such as shape quantification or multivariate analysis. This allows researchers to quantify anatomical features of the brain in terms of shape, mass, volume (e.g.
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In model checking, a subfield of computer science, a clock is a mathematical object used to model time. More precisely, a clock measure how much time passed since a particular event occurs, in this sense, a clock is more precisely an abstraction of a stopwatch. In a model of some particular program, the value of the clock may either be the time since the program was started, or the time since a particular event occurred in the program. Those clocks are used in the definition of timed automaton, signal automaton, timed propositional temporal logic and clock temporal logic.
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Welfare economics is a branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to evaluate well-being (welfare) at the aggregate (economy-wide) level. Attempting to apply the principles of welfare economics gives rise to the field of public economics, the study of how government might intervene to improve social welfare. Welfare economics also provides the theoretical foundations for particular instruments of public economics, including cost–benefit analysis, while the combination of welfare economics and insights from behavioral economics has led to the creation of a new subfield, behavioral welfare economics. The field of welfare economics is associated with two fundamental theorems.
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Contemporary continental philosopher Gilles Deleuze has attempted to rework and strengthen classical materialist ideas. Contemporary theorists such as Manuel DeLanda, working with this reinvigorated materialism, have come to be classified as new materialist in persuasion. New materialism has now become its own specialized subfield of knowledge, with courses being offered on the topic at major universities, as well as numerous conferences, edited collections and monographs devoted to it. Jane Bennett's book Vibrant Matter (2010) has been particularly instrumental in bringing theories of monist ontology and vitalism back into a critical theoretical fold dominated by poststructuralist theories of language and discourse.
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This field examines how neural systems are involved in social processes, such as person perception. Fiske's own work has examined neural systems involved in stereotyping, intergroup hostility, and impression formation. She has authored over 300 publications and has written several books, including her 2010 work Social Beings: A Core Motives Approach to Social Psychology and Social Cognition, a graduate level text that defined the now-popular subfield of social cognition. She has edited the Annual Review of Psychology (with Daniel Schacter and Shelley Taylor) and the Handbook of Social Psychology (with Daniel Gilbert and the late Gardner Lindzey).
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One hallmark of the institutionalization of a new academic field or subfield is the development of "its own" literature. To be sure, there are countless publications in the academic disciplines of finance and gerontology that refer to money and aging. The four kinds of aging noted earlier—population aging, individual aging, family aging, and generational aging—each identify multiple linkages among aging processes, older men and women, money, and finance that are the focus of academic publications in their respective disciplines. The new field of Financial Gerontology emphasizes closer connections among the scholars, professionals, and writings of the separate fields.
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The historical approach in ethnomusicology is a trend that believes in understanding the past in order to understand the present. It has been long recognized as an important part of ethnomusicology, but is now an increasingly important subfield. Viewing music as data reveals that due to new technology, huge amounts of musical data are available through recordings on video phones, social media, and digital collections on the internet such as the International Library of African Music (ILAM). The ILAM is a repository of thousands of recordings made since 1929, recordings which are mostly open access online.
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Paul Smolensky (born May 5, 1955) is a professor of Cognitive Science at the Johns Hopkins University. Along with Alan Prince, he developed Optimality Theory, a representational model of linguistics. Optimality Theory is popularly used for phonology, the subfield to which it was originally applied, but has been extended to other areas of linguistics such as syntax and semantics. Smolensky is the recipient of the 2005 Rumelhart Prize for his pursuit of the ICS Architecture, a model of cognition that aims to unify Connectionism and symbolism, where the symbolic representations and operations are manifested as abstractions on the underlying connectionist networks.
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Environmental sociology is the study of interactions between societies and their natural environment. The field emphasizes the social factors that influence environmental resource management and cause environmental issues, the processes by which these environmental problems are socially constructed and defined as social issues, and societal responses to these problems. Environmental sociology emerged as a subfield of sociology in the late 1970s in response to the emergence of the environmental movement in the 1960s. It represents a relatively new area of inquiry focusing on an extension of earlier sociology through inclusion of physical context as related to social factors.
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In the mathematical subfield of 3-manifolds, the virtually fibered conjecture, formulated by American mathematician William Thurston, states that every closed, irreducible, atoroidal 3-manifold with infinite fundamental group has a finite cover which is a surface bundle over the circle. A 3-manifold which has such a finite cover is said to virtually fiber. If M is a Seifert fiber space, then M virtually fibers if and only if the rational Euler number of the Seifert fibration or the (orbifold) Euler characteristic of the base space is zero. The hypotheses of the conjecture are satisfied by hyperbolic 3-manifolds.
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Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or otherwise sensed. This is a fundamental concept studied in the field of developmental psychology, the subfield of psychology that addresses the development of young children's social and mental capacities. There is not yet scientific consensus on when the understanding of object permanence emerges in human development. Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist who first studied object permanence in infants, argued that it is one of an infant's most important accomplishments, as, without this concept, objects would have no separate, permanent existence.
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Suchman's early research was heavily influenced by ethnomethodology, a subfield of sociology that argued that people create meaningful action by improvising based on their social and environmental resources. Suchman's book, Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human- machine Communication (1987), provided intellectual foundations for the field of human-computer interaction (HCI). She challenged common assumptions behind the design of interactive systems with a cogent anthropological argument that human action is constantly constructed and reconstructed from dynamic interactions with the material and social worlds. The theory of situated cognition emphasises the importance of the environment as an integral part of the cognitive process.
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Automated reasoning is an area of computer science (involves knowledge representation and reasoning) and metalogic dedicated to understanding different aspects of reasoning. The study of automated reasoning helps produce computer programs that allow computers to reason completely, or nearly completely, automatically. Although automated reasoning is considered a sub- field of artificial intelligence, it also has connections with theoretical computer science, and even philosophy. The most developed subareas of automated reasoning are automated theorem proving (and the less automated but more pragmatic subfield of interactive theorem proving) and automated proof checking (viewed as guaranteed correct reasoning under fixed assumptions).
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Worster also questioned the scope of the discipline, asking: "We study humans and nature; therefore can anything human or natural be outside our enquiry?" Environmental history is generally treated as a subfield of history. But some environmental historians challenge this assumption, arguing that while traditional history is human history – the story of people and their institutions, "humans cannot place themselves outside the principles of nature". In this sense, they argue that environmental history is a version of human history within a larger context, one less dependent on anthropocentrism (even though anthropogenic change is at the center of its narrative).
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As a subfield in artificial intelligence, Diagnosis is concerned with the development of algorithms and techniques that are able to determine whether the behaviour of a system is correct. If the system is not functioning correctly, the algorithm should be able to determine, as accurately as possible, which part of the system is failing, and which kind of fault it is facing. The computation is based on observations, which provide information on the current behaviour. The expression diagnosis also refers to the answer of the question of whether the system is malfunctioning or not, and to the process of computing the answer.
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During this first stage, the terrain is steeper and more irregular. Over time, the currents can carve wider valleys ("maturity") and then start to wind, towering hills only ("senescence"). Finally, everything comes to what is a plain flat plain at the lowest elevation possible (called "baseline") This plain was called by Davis' "peneplain" meaning "almost plain" Then river rejuvenation occurs and there is another mountain lift and the cycle continues. Although Davis's theory is not entirely accurate, it was absolutely revolutionary and unique in its time and helped to modernize and create a geography subfield of geomorphology.
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In complex analysis, a subfield of mathematics, a lacunary value or gap of a complex-valued function defined on a subset of the complex plane is a complex number which is not in the image of the function.. More specifically, given a subset X of the complex plane C and a function f : X → C, a complex number z is called a lacunary value of f if z ∉ image(f). Note, for example, that 0 is the only lacunary value of the complex exponential function. The two Picard theorems limit the number of possible lacunary values of certain types of holomorphic functions.
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Computational biology involves the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, behavioral, and social systems. The field is broadly defined and includes foundations in computer science, applied mathematics, animation, statistics, biochemistry, chemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, genetics, genomics, ecology, evolution, anatomy, neuroscience, and visualization. Computational biology is different from biological computation, which is a subfield of computer science and computer engineering using bioengineering and biology to build computers, but is similar to bioinformatics, which is an interdisciplinary science using computers to store and process biological data.
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Atkins, Peter and Friedman, Ronald (2005). Molecular Quantum Mechanics, p. 249. Oxford University Press, New York. . Quantum chemistry, a subfield of physical chemistry especially concerned with the application of quantum mechanics to chemical problems, provides tools to determine how strong and what shape bonds are, how nuclei move, and how light can be absorbed or emitted by a chemical compound.Atkins, Peter and Friedman, Ronald (2005). Molecular Quantum Mechanics, p. 342. Oxford University Press, New York. . Spectroscopy is the related sub-discipline of physical chemistry which is specifically concerned with the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
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As a subfield of public economics, fiscal federalism is concerned with "understanding which functions and instruments are best centralized and which are best placed in the sphere of decentralized levels of government" (Oates, 1999). In other words, it is the study of how competencies (expenditure side) and fiscal instruments (revenue side) are allocated across different (vertical) layers of the administration. An important part of its subject matter is the system of transfer payments or grants by which a central government shares its revenues with lower levels of government. Federal governments use this power to enforce national rules and standards.
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Speech segmentation is the process of identifying the boundaries between words, syllables, or phonemes in spoken natural languages. The term applies both to the mental processes used by humans, and to artificial processes of natural language processing. Speech segmentation is a subfield of general speech perception and an important subproblem of the technologically focused field of speech recognition, and cannot be adequately solved in isolation. As in most natural language processing problems, one must take into account context, grammar, and semantics, and even so the result is often a probabilistic division (statistically based on likelihood) rather than a categorical one.
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Assessing tax incidence is a major economics subfield within the field of public finance. Most public finance economists acknowledge that nominal tax incidence (i.e. who writes the check to pay a tax) is not necessarily identical to actual economic burden of the tax, but disagree greatly among themselves on the extent to which market forces disturb the nominal tax incidence of various types of taxes in various circumstances. The effects of certain kinds of taxes, for example, the property tax, including their economic incidence, efficiency properties and distributional implications, have been the subject of a long and contentious debate among economists.
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A quaternion algebra over a field F is a four-dimensional central simple F-algebra. A quaternion algebra has a basis 1, i, j, ij where i^2, j^2 \in F^\times and ij = -ji. A quaternion algebra is said to be split over F if it is isomorphic as an F-algebra to the algebra of matrices M_2(F). If \sigma is an embedding of F into a field E we shall denote by A \otimes_\sigma E the algebra obtained by extending scalars from F to E where we view F as a subfield of E via \sigma.
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Acoustic phonetics is a subfield of phonetics, which deals with acoustic aspects of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics investigates time domain features such as the mean squared amplitude of a waveform, its duration, its fundamental frequency, or frequency domain features such as the frequency spectrum, or even combined spectrotemporal features and the relationship of these properties to other branches of phonetics (e.g. articulatory or auditory phonetics), and to abstract linguistic concepts such as phonemes, phrases, or utterances. The study of acoustic phonetics was greatly enhanced in the late 19th century by the invention of the Edison phonograph.
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The first wave of animal geography, known as zoogeography, came to prominence as a geographic subfield from the late 1800s through the early part of the 20th century. During this time the study of animals was seen as a key part of the discipline and the goal was “the scientific study of animal life with reference to the distribution of animals on the earth and the mutual influence of environment and animals upon each other.”Allee, W.C., Schmidt, K.P., 1951. Ecological Animal Geography: An Authorized, Rewritten edition, 2nd, based on Tiergeographie auf oekologischer Grundlage by Richard Hesse.
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Much of Lenski's earliest work dealt with the sociology of religion and culminated in the publication of The Religious Factor. He defines religion as "a system of beliefs about the nature of force(s) ultimately shaping man's destiny and the practices associated therewith, shared by the members of a group.Gerhard Lenski, The Religious Factor, p. 331 A reviewer in Commentary described the book as a "major achievement" in an often-neglected subfield, and Robert Wuthnow has referred to this volume as "arguably one of a handful of 'classics' among contributions by American sociologists to the social scientific study of religion.
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Kleptography is a subfield of cryptovirology and is a natural extension of the theory of subliminal channels that was pioneered by Gus Simmons while at Sandia National Laboratory.G. J. Simmons, "The Prisoners' Problem and the Subliminal Channel," In Proceedings of Crypto '83, D. Chaum (Ed.), pages 51–67, Plenum Press, 1984.G. J. Simmons, "The Subliminal Channel and Digital Signatures," In Proceedings of Eurocrypt '84, T. Beth, N. Cot, I. Ingemarsson (Eds.), pages 364-378, Springer-Verlag, 1985.G. J. Simmons, "Subliminal Communication is Easy Using the DSA," In proceedings of Eurocrypt '93, T. Helleseth (Ed.), pages 218-232, Springer-Verlag, 1993.
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For a prime number p, the following are equivalent: # The modular curve X0+(p) = X0(p) / wp, where wp is the Fricke involution of X0(p), has genus zero. # Every supersingular elliptic curve in characteristic p can be defined over the prime subfield Fp. # The order of the Monster group is divisible by p. The equivalence is due to Andrew Ogg. More precisely, in 1975 Ogg showed that the primes satisfying the first condition are exactly the 15 supersingular primes listed above and shortly thereafter learned of the (then conjectural) existence of a sporadic simple group having exactly these primes as prime divisors.
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The philosophy of biology is a subfield of philosophy of science, which deals with epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical issues in the biological and biomedical sciences. Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have long been interested in biology (e.g., Aristotle, Descartes, and even Kant), philosophy of biology only emerged as an independent field of philosophy in the 1960s and 1970s. Philosophers of science then began paying increasing attention to biology, from the rise of Neodarwinism in the 1930s and 1940s to the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953 to more recent advances in genetic engineering.
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Engineering studies is an interdisciplinary branch of social sciences and humanities devoted to the study of engineers and their activities, often considered a part of science and technology studies (STS), and intersecting with and drawing from engineering education research. Studying engineers refers among other to the history and the sociology of their profession, its institutionalization and organization, the social composition and structure of the population of engineers, their training, their trajectory, etc. A subfield is for instance Women in engineering. Studying engineering refers to the study of engineering activities and practices, their knowledge and ontologies, their role into the society, their engagement.
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The MODS record has been designed to carry key data elements from the MARC record but does not define all of the MARC fields and does not use the field and subfield tagging from the MARC standard. There are data elements in MODS that are not compatible with the MARC record so there is some loss translating from MARC to MODS and from MODS to MARC. There is no commitment on the part of the Library of Congress to maintain compatibility between the two metadata formats beyond what is convenient to the community of MODS users.
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A world map illustrating cultural areas. Cultural geography is a subfield within human geography. Though the first traces of the study of different nations and cultures on Earth can be dated back to ancient geographers such as Ptolemy or Strabo, cultural geography as academic study firstly emerged as an alternative to the environmental determinist theories of the early 20th century, which had believed that people and societies are controlled by the environment in which they develop.Peet, Richard; 1990; Modern Geographical Thought; Blackwell Rather than studying pre-determined regions based upon environmental classifications, cultural geography became interested in cultural landscapes.
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A particular example is when and are fields containing a common subfield . The tensor product of fields is closely related to Galois theory: if, say, , where is some irreducible polynomial with coefficients in , the tensor product can be calculated as :A \otimes_R B \cong B[x] / f(x) where now is interpreted as the same polynomial, but with its coefficients regarded as elements of . In the larger field , the polynomial may become reducible, which brings in Galois theory. For example, if is a Galois extension of , then :A \otimes_R A \cong A[x] / f(x) is isomorphic (as an -algebra) to the .
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A cache language model is a type of statistical language model. These occur in the natural language processing subfield of computer science and assign probabilities to given sequences of words by means of a probability distribution. Statistical language models are key components of speech recognition systems and of many machine translation systems: they tell such systems which possible output word sequences are probable and which are improbable. The particular characteristic of a cache language model is that it contains a cache component and assigns relatively high probabilities to words or word sequences that occur elsewhere in a given text.
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The lexical hypothesis (also known as the fundamental lexical hypothesis, lexical approach, or sedimentation hypothesis) is a thesis, current primarily in early personality psychology, and subsequently subsumed by many later efforts in that subfield. Despite some variation in its definition and application, the hypothesis is generally defined by two postulates. The first states that those personality characteristics that are important to a group of people will eventually become a part of that group's language. The second follows from the first, stating that more important personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single word.
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A subfield of LGBT studies, transgender studies provides an interdisciplinary approach to gender studies, gay and lesbian studies, and sexology by studying the intersections of sex and gender as related to cultural representations, lived experience, and political movements. Interdisciplinary subfields of transgender studies include transgender history, transgender literature and film, transgender anthropology and archaeology, transgender psychology, and transgender health. The researches theories within transgender studies focus on cultural presentations, political movements, social organizations and the lived experience of various forms of gender nonconformity. The discipline emerged in the early 1990s in close connection to queer theory.
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to evolution: A diagram showing the relationships between various groups of organisms Evolution – change in heritable traits of biological organisms over generations due to natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift. Also known as descent with modification. Over time these evolutionary processes lead to formation of new species (speciation), changes within lineages (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction). "Evolution" is also another name for evolutionary biology, the subfield of biology concerned with studying evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth.
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In ISO 8583, a bitmap is a field or subfield within a message, which indicates whether other data elements or data element subfields are present elsewhere in the message. A field is considered to be present only when the corresponding bit in the bitmap is set. For example, a hex with value (decimal 130) is binary , which means fields and are present in the message and fields 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8 are not. The bitmap may be represented as 8 bytes of binary data or as 16 hexadecimal characters (0–9, A–F) in the ASCII or EBCDIC character sets.
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Mettler co-edited the Oxford Handbook of American Political Development (2016). Mettler subscribes to the subfield of political science called American political development (APD), which recognizes the need for an analytic approach to researching and understanding U.S. politics. She feels there is a distinctiveness of the APD approach, which studies "the causes, nature, and consequences of key transformative periods and central patterns in American political history," as well the "durable shifts in governing authority" in the United States. Mettler has been described as a prominent Americanist scholar in this relatively new field, which blurs the border between political science and political history.
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The mainstream economic theory of regulation treats politicians and administrators as brokers among interest groups. Bootleggers and Baptists is a specific idea in the subfield of regulatory economics that attempts to predict which interest groups will succeed in obtaining rules they favor. It holds that coalitions of opposing interests that can agree on a common rule will be more successful than one- sided groups. Baptists do not merely agitate for legislation, they help monitor and enforce it (a law against Sunday alcohol sales without significant public support would likely be ignored, or be evaded through bribery of enforcement officers).
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Although all bounded piecewise continuous functions are Riemann-integrable on a bounded interval, subsequently more general functions were considered—particularly in the context of Fourier analysis—to which Riemann's definition does not apply, and Lebesgue formulated a different definition of integral, founded in measure theory (a subfield of real analysis). Other definitions of integral, extending Riemann's and Lebesgue's approaches, were proposed. These approaches based on the real number system are the ones most common today, but alternative approaches exist, such as a definition of integral as the standard part of an infinite Riemann sum, based on the hyperreal number system.
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Whether it is considered to be a subfield of paleontology, paleozoology, or paleobiology, this discipline is the scientific study of prehistoric invertebrates by analyzing invertebrate fossils in the geologic record. By invertebrates are meant the non-vertebrate creatures of the kingdom Animalia (or Metazoa) in the biotic domain of Eukaryota. By phyletic definition, these many-celled, sub- vertebrate animals lack a vertebral column, spinal column, vertebrae, backbone, or long, full-length notochord—in contrast to the vertebrates in the one phylum of Chordata. Relatedly, invertebrates have never had a cartilaginous or boney internal skeleton, with its skeletal supports, gill slits, ribs and jaws.
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For a description of the private key, an error-correcting code is selected for which an efficient decoding algorithm is known, and which is able to correct t errors. The original algorithm uses binary Goppa codes (subfield codes of geometric Goppa codes of a genus-0 curve over finite fields of characteristic 2); these codes can be efficiently decoded, thanks to an algorithm due to Patterson. The public key is derived from the private key by disguising the selected code as a general linear code. For this, the code's generator matrix G is perturbated by two randomly selected invertible matrices S and P (see below).
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Meta learning is a subfield of machine learning where automatic learning algorithms are applied to metadata about machine learning experiments. As of 2017 the term had not found a standard interpretation, however the main goal is to use such metadata to understand how automatic learning can become flexible in solving learning problems, hence to improve the performance of existing learning algorithms or to learn (induce) the learning algorithm itself, hence the alternative term learning to learn. Flexibility is important because each learning algorithm is based on a set of assumptions about the data, its inductive bias. This means that it will only learn well if the bias matches the learning problem.
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Epistemic modal logic is a subfield of modal logic that is concerned with reasoning about knowledge. While epistemology has a long philosophical tradition dating back to Ancient Greece, epistemic logic is a much more recent development with applications in many fields, including philosophy, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, economics and linguistics. While philosophers since Aristotle have discussed modal logic, and Medieval philosophers such as Avicenna, Ockham, and Duns Scotus developed many of their observations, it was C. I. Lewis who created the first symbolic and systematic approach to the topic, in 1912. It continued to mature as a field, reaching its modern form in 1963 with the work of Kripke.
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Data mining is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems. Data mining is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science and statistics with an overall goal to extract information (with intelligent methods) from a data set and transform the information into a comprehensible structure for further use. Data mining is the analysis step of the "knowledge discovery in databases" process, or KDD. Aside from the raw analysis step, it also involves database and data management aspects, data pre-processing, model and inference considerations, interestingness metrics, complexity considerations, post-processing of discovered structures, visualization, and online updating.
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Tolip Stadium (), commonly referred to as Borg El Arab Stadium subfield (), is a football stadium in Borg El Arab, Alexandria, Egypt. It is located near Borg El Arab Stadium, and is mostly used as a training ground for teams before matches at the main stadium. The stadium is also used by Pharco to host some of their home matches, and sometimes by the Egyptian national U-23 team to host their friendly matches. During the 2017–18 Egyptian Premier League season, El Raja, a club from Mersa Matruh, used Tolip Stadium as their home ground because there was no suitable stadium in Mersa Matruh to host Egyptian Premier League matches.
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Micro process engineering is the science of conducting chemical or physical processes (unit operations) inside small volumina, typically inside channels with diameters of less than 1 mm (microchannels) or other structures with sub- millimeter dimensions. These processes are usually carried out in continuous flow mode, as opposed to batch production, allowing a throughput high enough to make micro process engineering a tool for chemical production. Micro process engineering is therefore not to be confused with microchemistry, which deals with very small overall quantities of matter. The subfield of micro process engineering that deals with chemical reactions, carried out in microstructured reactors or "microreactors", is also known as microreaction technology.
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In algebraic number theory, a quadratic field is an algebraic number field K of degree two over Q, the rational numbers. The map d ↦ Q() is a bijection from the set of all square-free integers d ≠ 0,1 to the set of all quadratic fields. If d > 0, the corresponding quadratic field is called a real quadratic field, and for d < 0 an imaginary quadratic field or complex quadratic field, corresponding to whether or not it is a subfield of the field of the real numbers. Quadratic fields have been studied in great depth, initially as part of the theory of binary quadratic forms.
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Kimmel is considered a leading figure in the academic subfield of men's studies. He has written numerous books on gender and masculinities including Men's Lives (2010, 8th edition), The Gendered Society (2011, 4th edition), Manhood: a Cultural History (2012, 3rd edition), and Guyland: The Perilous World Where Boys Become Men (2008). He has co-edited The Handbook of Studies on Men and Masculinities (2005) and Men and Masculinities: a Social, Cultural and Historical Encyclopedia (2004) which was named "Best of Reference 2004" by the New York Public Library. Moreover, he is the editor of a series on genders and sexualities at New York University Press.
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The conference has a history of technological optimism, and often, scholarship presented is optimistic regarding technology's influence on writing. However, the conference also has a history of examining and voicing fears and concerns related to computer technology, and some of these fears are related to institutional policies and control as well as the fear of being overwhelmed by the constant march of technological innovation. The conference has also traditionally explored how computer-mediated writing can be used in socially responsible ways, as is evident by the feminist roots of the conference and subfield. The conference's feminist roots are evident in its support of minority scholars and scholarship.
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Macroecology is the subfield of ecology that deals with the study of relationships between organisms and their environment at large spatial scales to characterise and explain statistical patterns of abundance, distribution and diversity.. The term was coined by James Brown of the University of New Mexico and Brian Maurer of Michigan State University in a 1989 paper in Science. Macroecology approaches the idea of studying ecosystems using a "top down" approach. It seeks understanding through the study of the properties of the system as a whole; Kevin Gaston and Tim Blackburn make the analogy to seeing the forest for the trees.Gaston, K.J. and T.M. Blackburn. 2000.
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If A is unital, then ∂(1) = 0 since ∂(1) = ∂(1 × 1) = ∂(1) + ∂(1). For example, in a differential field of characteristic zero K, the rationals are always a subfield of the field of constants of K. Any ring is a differential ring with respect to the trivial derivation which maps any ring element to zero. The field Q(t) has a unique structure as a differential field, determined by setting ∂(t) = 1: the field axioms along with the axioms for derivations ensure that the derivation is differentiation with respect to t. For example, by commutativity of multiplication and the Leibniz law one has that ∂(u2) = u ∂(u) + ∂(u)u = 2u∂(u).
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Physical organic chemistry is the study of the relationship between structure and reactivity of organic molecules. More specifically, physical organic chemistry applies the experimental tools of physical chemistry to the study of the structure of organic molecules and provides a theoretical framework that interprets how structure influences both mechanisms and rates of organic reactions. It can be thought of as a subfield that bridges organic chemistry with physical chemistry. Physical organic chemists use both experimental and theoretical disciplines such as spectroscopy, spectrometry, crystallography, computational chemistry, and quantum theory to study both the rates of organic reactions and the relative chemical stability of the starting materials, transition states, and products.
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Geostrategy, a subfield of geopolitics, is a type of foreign policy guided principally by geographical factors as they inform, constrain, or affect political and military planning. As with all strategies, geostrategy is concerned with matching means to ends—in this case, a country's resources (whether they are limited or extensive) with its geopolitical objectives (which can be local, regional, or global). Strategy is as intertwined with geography as geography is with nationhood, or as Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan state it, "[geography is] the mother of strategy." Geostrategists, as distinct from geopoliticians, advocate aggressive strategies, and approach geopolitics from a nationalist point of view.
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Houck modified his method to what he described as an "easier" CAPTCHA to determine a valid response 31.8% of the time. Houck also mentioned security defenses in the system, including a high-security lockout if an invalid response is given 32 times in a row. On May 26, 2012, Adam, C-P and Jeffball of DC949 gave a presentation at the LayerOne hacker conference detailing how they were able to achieve an automated solution with an accuracy rate of 99.1%. Their tactic was to use techniques from machine learning, a subfield of artificial intelligence, to analyse the audio version of reCAPTCHA which is available for the visually impaired.
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In group theory, a subfield of abstract algebra, a group cycle graph illustrates the various cycles of a group and is particularly useful in visualizing the structure of small finite groups. A cycle is the set of powers of a given group element a, where an, the n-th power of an element a is defined as the product of a multiplied by itself n times. The element a is said to generate the cycle. In a finite group, some non-zero power of a must be the group identity, e; the lowest such power is the order of the cycle, the number of distinct elements in it.
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Informally, model theory can be divided into classical model theory, model theory applied to groups and fields, and geometric model theory. A missing subdivision is computable model theory, but this can arguably be viewed as an independent subfield of logic. Examples of early theorems from classical model theory include Gödel's completeness theorem, the upward and downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorems, Vaught's two-cardinal theorem, Scott's isomorphism theorem, the omitting types theorem, and the Ryll-Nardzewski theorem. Examples of early results from model theory applied to fields are Tarski's elimination of quantifiers for real closed fields, Ax's theorem on pseudo-finite fields, and Robinson's development of non-standard analysis.
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A system of polynomial equations (sometimes simply a polynomial system) is a set of simultaneous equations where the are polynomials in several variables, say , over some field . A solution of a polynomial system is a set of values for the s which belong to some algebraically closed field extension of , and make all equations true. When is the field of rational numbers, is generally assumed to be the field of complex numbers, because each solution belongs to a field extension of , which is isomorphic to a subfield of the complex numbers. This article is about the methods for solving, that is, finding all solutions or describing them.
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Medical anthropology studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation". It views humans from multidimensional and ecological perspectives. It is one of the most highly developed areas of anthropology and applied anthropology, and is a subfield of social and cultural anthropology that examines the ways in which culture and society are organized around or influenced by issues of health, health care and related issues. The term "medical anthropology" has been used since 1963 as a label for empirical research and theoretical production by anthropologists into the social processes and cultural representations of health, illness and the nursing/care practices associated with these.
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In the United States and Europe, solid state became a prominent field through its investigations into semiconductors, superconductivity, nuclear magnetic resonance, and diverse other phenomena. During the early Cold War, research in solid state physics was often not restricted to solids, which led some physicists in the 1970s and 1980s to found the field of condensed matter physics, which organized around common techniques used to investigate solids, liquids, plasmas, and other complex matter. Today, solid-state physics is broadly considered to be the subfield of condensed matter physics, often referred to as hard condensed matter, that focuses on the properties of solids with regular crystal lattices.
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Johnson set the agenda for 10 or 15 years in social science scholarship on China, with his book on peasant nationalism. His book MITI and the Japanese Miracle, on the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry, was the pre-eminent study of the country's development and it created the subfield of what could be called the political economy of development. He coined the term "developmental state." As a public intellectual, he first led the "Japan revisionists" who critiqued American neoliberal economics with Japan as a model, and their arguments faded from view as the Japanese economy stagnated in the mid-1990s and later.
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It comes from the phrase "singular values of the j-invariant" used for values of the j-invariant for which a complex elliptic curve has complex multiplication. The complex elliptic curves with complex multiplication are those for which the endomorphism ring has the maximal possible rank 2. In positive characteristic it is possible for the endomorphism ring to be even larger: it can be an order in a quaternion algebra of dimension 4, in which case the elliptic curve is supersingular. The primes p such that every supersingular elliptic curve in characteristic p can be defined over the prime subfield F_p rather than F_{p^m} are called supersingular primes.
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A subfield of Knowledge Acquisition within Artificial Intelligence, Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC) attempts to drive down the cost of acquiring the knowledge required to support automated reasoning by having the public enter knowledge in computer processable form over the internet. KCVC might be regarded as similar in spirit to Wikipedia, although the intended audience, Artificial Intelligence systems, differs. What may have been the first research meeting on this topic was The 2005 AAAI Spring Symposium on Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC05). The first large-scale KCVC project was probably the Open Mind Common Sense (OMCS) project, initiated by Push Singh and Marvin Minsky at the MIT Media Lab.
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He is widely recognized for his work in institutional theory, having been one of the founders of the subfield of Historical Institutionalism. His book with Kathleen Thelen, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism and Comparative Analysis (1992), is academically notable, and is a significant contribution within that domain of research. Steinmo recently held a position as “Research Professor” at the Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies (RSCAS) of the European University Institute (EUI) in Florence. While being hosted by the EUI, Steinmo was awarded the prestigious Frontier Grant (2.5 million Euro), also referred to as the European MacArthur Fellowship, by the European Research Council in September 2012.
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When he coined the term "clinical epidemiology" in 1938, John R. Paul defined it as "a marriage between quantitative concepts used by epidemiologists to study disease in populations and decision-making in the individual case which is the daily fare of clinical medicine". According to Stephenson & Babiker (2000), "Clinical epidemiology can be defined as the investigation and control of the distribution and determinants of disease." Walter O. Spitzer has highlighted the ways in which the field of clinical epidemiology is not clearly defined. However, he felt that, despite criticism of the term, it was a useful way to define a specific subfield of epidemiology.
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With this shift came a distinct de-emphasis of concern for establishing a general unified theory as the core of the discipline, and a retreat from any pointed confrontation with the history of political theory.Gunnell, John G. "Political Theory: The Evolution of a Subfield," p. 27. In: Political Science: The State of the Discipline, Ada W. Finifter, ed. Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983. Easton, David (1965). A Systems Analysis of Political Life, New York, S.32. Easton was renowned for his application of systems theory to political science, and for his definition of politics as the "authoritative allocation of value" in A Framework for Political AnalysisEaston, David. 1965.
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The concept of diffusion was first studied by the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde in late 19th century and by German and Austrian anthropologists and geographers such as Friedrich Ratzel and Leo Frobenius. The study of diffusion of innovations took off in the subfield of rural sociology in the midwestern United States in the 1920s and 1930s. Agriculture technology was advancing rapidly, and researchers started to examine how independent farmers were adopting hybrid seeds, equipment, and techniques. A study of the adoption of hybrid corn seed in Iowa by Ryan and Gross (1943) solidified the prior work on diffusion into a distinct paradigm that would be cited consistently in the future.
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In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music making. Many cultures, at least as far back as ancient Mesopotamia and ancient China, have also considered music theory in more formal ways such as written treatises and music notation. Practical and scholarly traditions overlap, as many practical treatises about music place themselves within a tradition of other treatises, which are cited regularly just as scholarly writing cites earlier research. In modern academia, music theory is a subfield of musicology, the wider study of musical cultures and history.
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Each year the associate editors of the Journal of Finance award five papers for excellence. The two best finance papers in the subfield of corporate finance and the three best other papers from among all those papers that appeared in the first five issues of that year and in the December issue from the previous year are awarded prizes at the annual American Finance Association in January of the following year. Currently the Smith Breeden prizes are $10,000 for first place and $5,000 for second, but these amounts may change from time to time. Although the prize is funded by Smith Breeden Associates Inc.
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In video games, artificial intelligence (AI) is used to generate responsive, adaptive or intelligent behaviors primarily in non-player characters (NPCs) similar to human-like intelligence. Artificial intelligence has been an integral part of video games since their inception in the 1950s. AI in video games is a distinct subfield and differs from academic AI. It serves to improve the game-player experience rather than machine learning or decision making. During the golden age of arcade video games the idea of AI opponents was largely popularized in the form of graduated difficulty levels, distinct movement patterns, and in-game events dependent on the player's input.
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In a framework first developed by Hasselmo and colleagues, theta phase separation implies that the theta rhythm of the hippocampus occurs in cycles and various phases of the rhythm entail encoding and retrieval as separate processes. An extra-hippocampal structure, the septum, initiates and regulates the theta rhythm and its associated memory processes. GABAergic activity within the septum inhibits certain classes of CA3 cells (a region of the hippocampus), the divide often drawn between basket cells, pyramidal cells, and interneurons, to distinguish encoding from retrieval mechanisms. The study emphasizes and models the CA3 subfield of the hippocampus as a primary inducement towards encoding and retrieval.
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Defeasibility is the property of something – such as a contract, a proposition or an understanding – that can be annulled, invalidated, or similarly "defeated". In law, it refers to the possibility of a contract or other legal agreement being terminated by circumstances that arise later, or of legal reasoning being overturned. In philosophy – especially in epistemology, ethics, or the philosophy of law – it refers to the possibility of a particular principle, rule or understanding being overridden in appropriate circumstances. In pragmatics, a subfield of linguistics, it refers to the fact that certain kinds of implicitly conveyed information such as conversational implicatures and presuppositions can be "defeated" without sounding contradictory.
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As a result, carbon nanotubes have been shown to be great materials for actuation-related applications. The subfield of carbon nanotube actuators have been quite successful and ready for scalable applications, considering there are quite a few conventional and scalable methods for the synthesis of large-scale carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotube sheets used as electrodes in electrolyte solutions enable low voltage operations at room-temperature with actuation strokes and rates comparable to the conducting polymer actuators, but with higher work densities per cycle and lifetimes. However, the actuation strokes are much smaller than those of the electrostrictive rubbers which operate at voltages three orders of magnitude higher.
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Gene F. Franklin (July 25, 1927 – August 9, 2012) was an American electrical engineer and control theorist known for his pioneering work towards the advancement of the control systems engineering – a subfield of electrical engineering. Most of his work on control theory was adapted immediately into NASA's U.S. space program, most famously in the control systems for the Apollo missions to the moon in 1960s–70s. He is also noted for his authorship of influential texts on the control system, most notably, Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, which has been translated into numerous of languages and has received literary prizes as the best book in the discipline of controls.
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In 1993, Belated Feudalism won the J. David Greenstone Prize for the best book in politics and history, awarded by the American Political Science Association (APSA). In 1998, Orren won the Franklin L. Burdette Award for the best paper presented at the previous year's APSA annual meeting. Orren has often collaborated with Stephen Skowronek, including founding the academic journal Studies in American Political Development in 1986, and co-authoring the books The Search for American Political Development (2004) and The Policy State: An American Predicament (2017). Through their work, Orren and Skowronek have significantly fostered the growth of American political development (or APD) as a distinct subfield within the discipline of political science.
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The barrels that correspond to the major facial whiskers (mystacial vibrissae) are contained within the posteromedial barrel subfield (PMBSF). The barrels here are the largest and most elliptical in shape and have a striking topographical organization that is identical to that of the whiskers; they are organized into 5 rows of 4-7 large whiskers that run close to parallel with the bridge of the nose.Woolsey & Van der Loos, 1970 The organisation of the mystacial vibrissae and corresponding barrels is so consistent that there is a naming convention to identify each whisker in rats and mice. Rows are designated A to E from top to bottom, and columns of whiskers within each row are numbered from back to front.
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If F is a subfield of R then we can consider it as a Hardy field by considering the elements of F as constant functions, that is by considering the number α in F as the constant function fα that maps every x in R to α. This is a field since F is, and since the derivative of every function in this field is 0 which must be in F it is a Hardy field. A less trivial example of a Hardy field is the field of rational functions on R, denoted R(x). This is the set of functions of the form P(x)/Q(x) where P and Q are polynomials with real coefficients.
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Until the end of 19th century, geometric spaces were defined by axioms relating points, lines and planes (synthetic geometry). Around this date, it appeared that one may also define geometric spaces by constructions involving vector spaces (see, for example, Projective space and Affine space) It has been shown that the two approaches are essentially equivalent.Emil Artin (1957) Geometric Algebra Interscience Publishers In classical geometry, the involved vector spaces are vector spaces over the reals, but the constructions may be extended to vector spaces over any field, allowing considering geometry over arbitrary fields, including finite fields. Presently, most textbooks, introduce geometric spaces from linear algebra, and geometry is often presented, at elementary level, as a subfield of linear algebra.
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Saffman started his academic career as a lecturer at the University of Cambridge, then joined King's College London as a Reader. Saffman joined the Caltech faculty in 1964 and was named the Theodore von Kármán Professor in 1995. According to Dan Meiron, Saffman "really was one of the leading figures in fluid mechanics," and he influenced almost every subfield of that discipline. He is known (with his co-author Geoffrey Ingram Taylor) for the Saffman–Taylor instability in viscous fingering of fluid boundaries, a phenomenon important for its applications in enhanced oil recovery, and for the Saffman–Delbrück model of protein diffusion in membranes which he published with his Caltech colleague and Pasadena neighbour Max Delbrück.
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Visual anthropology is a subfield of social anthropology that is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. More recently it has been used by historians of science and visual culture. Although sometimes wrongly conflated with ethnographic film, Visual Anthropology encompasses much more, including the anthropological study of all visual representations such as dance and other kinds of performance, museums and archiving, all visual arts, and the production and reception of mass media. Histories and analyses of representations from many cultures are part of Visual Anthropology: research topics include sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings and photographs.
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Image synthesis is the artificial production of visual media, especially through algorithmic means. In the emerging world of synthetic media, the work of digital-image creation—once the domain of highly skilled programmers and Hollywood special-effects artists—could be automated by expert systems capable of producing realism on a vast scale. One subfield of this includes human image synthesis, which is the use of neural networks to make believable and even photorealistic renditionsPhysics-based muscle model for mouth shape control on IEEE Explore (requires membership)Realistic 3D facial animation in virtual space teleconferencing on IEEE Explore (requires membership) of human-likenesses, moving or still. It has effectively existed since the early 2000s.
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Paleontologists at work at the dinosaur site of Lo Hueco (Cuenca, Spain) Vertebrate paleontology is the subfield of paleontology that seeks to discover, through the study of fossilized remains, the behavior, reproduction and appearance of extinct animals with vertebrae or a notochord. It also tries to connect, by using the evolutionary timeline, the animals of the past and their modern-day relatives. The fossil record shows aspects of the meandering evolutionary path from early aquatic vertebrates to mammals, with a host of transitional fossils, though there are still large blank areas. The earliest known fossil vertebrates were heavily armored fish discovered in rocks from the Ordovician Period about 500 to 430 Ma (megaannum, million years ago).
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Abstract algebraic logic has become a well established subfield of algebraic logic, with many deep and interesting results. These results explain many properties of different classes of logical systems previously explained only in a case by case basis or shrouded in mystery. Perhaps the most important achievement of abstract algebraic logic has been the classification of propositional logics in a hierarchy, called the abstract algebraic hierarchy or Leibniz hierarchy, whose different levels roughly reflect the strength of the ties between a logic at a particular level and its associated class of algebras. The position of a logic in this hierarchy determines the extent to which that logic may be studied using known algebraic methods and techniques.
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The subfield of organic computers and wetware is still largely hypothetical and in a preliminary stage. While there has yet to be major developments in the creation of an organic computer since the neuron based calculator developed by Ditto in the 1990s, research continues to push the field forward. Projects such as the modeling of chaotic pathways in silicon chips by Ditto have made new discoveries in ways of organizing traditional silicon chips, and structuring computer architecture to be more efficient and better structured. Ideas emerging from the field of cognitive biology also help to continue to push discoveries in ways of structuring systems for artificial intelligence, to better imitate preexisting systems in humans.
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In Germany Scandinavian studies (Skandinavistik) is defined as a subfield of Germanic languages, and covering Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Faroese and Icelandic languages as well as accompanying literature and culture. Universities offering education and performing research in Scandinavian studies are located throughout North America and in parts of Europe. Learned societies within the field include the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study (SASS) with its quarterly journal Scandinavian Studies, the International Association of Scandinavian Studies (IASS), and the Association for the Advancement of Scandinavian Studies in Canada (AASSC). Departments of Scandinavian studies in the United States are found at the University of California, Berkeley, the University of Washington, and the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
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A steam turbine used to provide electric power. Power engineering, also called power systems engineering, is a subfield of electrical engineering that deals with the generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization of electric power, and the electrical apparatus connected to such systems. Although much of the field is concerned with the problems of three-phase AC power – the standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution across the modern world – a significant fraction of the field is concerned with the conversion between AC and DC power and the development of specialized power systems such as those used in aircraft or for electric railway networks. Power engineering draws the majority of its theoretical base from electrical engineering.
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A quaternion algebra over a field F is a four-dimensional central simple F-algebra. A quaternion algebra has a basis 1, i, j, ij where i^2, j^2 \in F^\times and ij = -ji. A quaternion algebra is said to be split over F if it is isomorphic as an F-algebra to the algebra of matrices M_2(F); a quaternion algebra over an algebraically closed field is always split. If \sigma is an embedding of F into a field E we shall denote by A \otimes_\sigma E the algebra obtained by extending scalars from F to E where we view F as a subfield of E via \sigma.
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Everyday Aesthetics is a recent subfield of philosophical aesthetics focusing on everyday events, settings and activities in which the faculty of sensibility is saliently at stake. Alexander Baumgarten established Aesthetics as a discipline and defined it as scientia cognitionis sensitivae, the science of sensory knowledge, in his foundational work Aesthetica (1750). This field has been dedicated since then to the clarification of fine arts, beauty and taste only marginally referring to the aesthetics in design, crafts, urban environments and social practice until the emergence of everyday aesthetics during the ‘90s. As other subfields like environmental aesthetics or the aesthetics of nature, everyday aesthetics also attempts to countervail aesthetics' almost exclusive focus on the philosophy of art.
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Working under Pittard, Comas received much of his indoctrination into the discipline of anthropology, and more specifically, the subfield of physical anthropology. Pittard was a Swiss anthropologist who had performed numerous investigations and published work in topics covering the evolution and origin of humans, as well as the races of people. In an act of great affection to his mentor, Juan Comas translated Pittard's book, The Races and History, close to thirty years after being published. In 1899 Pittard received his Doctoral of Sciences, by presenting his dissertation titled "Recherche d’anatomie comparative sur diverses séries de crânes anciens de la vallée du Rhône (Valais)" (Comparative Anatomical Research on a diverse series of ancient crania in the Rhone Valley).
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Robin Tolmach Lakoff (; born November 27, 1942) is a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. Her 1975 book Language and Woman's Place is often credited for making language and gender a huge debate in linguistics and other disciplines.Mary Bucholz, "Editor's Introduction", Language and a Woman's Place: Text and Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2004, , p. 3. "The publication of Robin Tolmach Lakoff's groundbreaking book Language and Women's Place (LWP) by Harper & Row in 1975 has long been heralded as the beginning of the linguistic subfield of language and gender studies, as well as ushering in the study of language and gender in related disciplines such as anthropology, communications studies, education, psychology, and sociology."C.
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Fault detection, isolation, and recovery (FDIR) is a subfield of control engineering which concerns itself with monitoring a system, identifying when a fault has occurred, and pinpointing the type of fault and its location. Two approaches can be distinguished: A direct pattern recognition of sensor readings that indicate a fault and an analysis of the discrepancy between the sensor readings and expected values, derived from some model. In the latter case, it is typical that a fault is said to be detected if the discrepancy or residual goes above a certain threshold. It is then the task of fault isolation to categorize the type of fault and its location in the machinery.
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Correspondingly, it has been proposed that the immature, newborn granule cells are receptive to form new synaptic connections with the axons arriving from the layer II of the entorhinal cortex, this way a particular new constellation of events is remembered as an episodic memory by first associating the events in the young granule cells that have the appropriate, permissive age. This concept is reinforced by the fact that increased neurogenesis is associated with improved spatial memory in rodents, as seen through performance in a maze. The dentate gyrus is known to serve as a pre-processing unit. While the CA3 subfield is involved in encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory, the dentate gyrus is important in pattern separation.
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This image illustrates part of the Mandelbrot set fractal. Simply storing the 24-bit color of each pixel in this image would require 1.62 million bytes, but a small computer program can reproduce these 1.62 million bytes using the definition of the Mandelbrot set and the coordinates of the corners of the image. Thus, the Kolmogorov complexity of the raw file encoding this bitmap is much less than 1.62 million bytes in any pragmatic model of computation. In algorithmic information theory (a subfield of computer science and mathematics), the Kolmogorov complexity of an object, such as a piece of text, is the length of a shortest computer program (in a predetermined programming language) that produces the object as output.
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Public sociology is a subfield of the wider sociological discipline that emphasizes expanding the disciplinary boundaries of sociology in order to engage with non-academic audiences. It is perhaps best understood as a style of sociology rather than a particular method, theory, or set of political values. Since the twenty-first century, the term has been widely associated with University of California, Berkeley sociologist Michael Burawoy, who delivered an impassioned call for a disciplinary embrace of public sociology in his 2004 American Sociological Association (ASA) presidential address. In his address, Burawoy contrasts public sociology with what he terms "professional sociology", a form of sociology that is concerned primarily with addressing other academic sociologists.
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The preparation of host compounds able to selectively complex alkalai metal ions provides a foundation for explaining enzymatic catalysis, biological control systems, immunological response, processing of genetic information, ionophore transport and the reaction of drugs." # Jack Halpern 1986 "For major research contributions to chemistry which have advanced the understanding of chemical reactivity especially for systems that involve metal centers in the reaction steps. The central goal of his research has been to extend the knowledge of catalytic processes by providing a detailed description and fundamental understanding of the steps that make up a catalytic cycle and by devising new catalytic processes. He is the recognized leader in an important subfield of catalytic reaction in solution.
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For Schlosberg, the workshop, and the wide range of papers presented, illustrated the "coming-of-age of animal politics as a subfield of political theory". Speakers affiliated with the Dutch Party for the Animals (logo pictured) joined the workshop on its second day, and footage of the conference appeared in the film De Haas in de Marathon (The Pacer in the Marathon, 2012) about the party. The workshop featured a lecture by Michel Vandenbosch, of the Belgian organisation Global Action in the Interest of Animals. On the second day, those involved were joined by Niko Koffeman of the Dutch Party for the Animals and Karen Soeters of that party's Nicolaas G. Pierson Foundation think tank.
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DOI: 10.1177/13624806030073007. As such, one of the main tenets of cultural criminology is the role of affect in crime. Jeff Ferrell, cited by many scholars as a forerunner of the subfield as it is known today, describes the purpose of cultural criminology as being to investigate “the stylized frameworks and experiential dynamics of illicit subcultures; the symbolic criminalization of popular culture forms; and the mediated construction of crime and crime control issues.” Moreover, the approach has often been used to demonstrate the ways in which power affects the construction of crime, such as the creation and breaking of law, as well as the interplay of moral entrepreneurship, moral innovation, and transgression.
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Touraine completed his khâgne (preparatory school) at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, and entered the École Normale Supérieure in 1945. He left his studies at the ENS for a research trip in Hungary, and then worked at a mine in Valenciennes in 1947-1948 after his return to France. Touraine's work in the industrial milieu and his simultaneous discovery of the sociologist Georges Friedmann's Problèmes humains du machinisme industriel led him to return to studies in history at the ENS and to pass the agrégation in history in 1950. The same year, he became a researcher in sociology at the CNRS, working in the new subfield of sociology of work under Friedmann.
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In his view, conflict maintained the stability of political systems through the establishment and re-establishment of crosscutting ties among social actors. Gluckman even suggested that a certain degree of conflict was necessary to uphold society, and that conflict was constitutive of social and political order. By the 1960s this transition work developed into a full-fledged subdiscipline which was canonized in volumes such as Political Anthropology (1966) edited by Victor Turner and Marc Swartz. By the late 1960s, political anthropology was a flourishing subfield: in 1969 there were two hundred anthropologists listing the subdicipline as one of their areas of interests, and a quarter of all British anthropologists listed politics as a topic that they studied.
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Quantitative ecology is the application of advanced mathematical and statistical tools to any number of problems in the field of ecology. It is a small but growing subfield in ecology, reflecting the demand among practicing ecologists to interpret ever larger and more complex data sets using quantitative reasoning. Quantitative ecologists might apply some combination of deterministic or stochastic mathematical models to theoretical questions or they might use sophisticated methods in applied statistics for experimental design and hypothesis testing. Typical problems in quantitative ecology include estimating the dynamics and status of wild populations, modeling the impacts of anthropogenic or climatic change on ecological communities, and predicting the spread of invasive species or disease outbreaks.
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Nevertheless, significant differences between different application domains of AI mean that game AI can still be viewed as a distinct subfield of AI. In particular, the ability to legitimately solve some AI problems in games by cheating creates an important distinction. For example, inferring the position of an unseen object from past observations can be a difficult problem when AI is applied to robotics, but in a computer game a NPC can simply look up the position in the game's scene graph. Such cheating can lead to unrealistic behavior and so is not always desirable. But its possibility serves to distinguish game AI and leads to new problems to solve, such as when and how to use cheating.
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Due to the availability of dense 3D measurements via technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computational anatomy has emerged as a subfield of medical imaging and bioengineering for extracting anatomical coordinate systems at the morphome scale in 3D. The spirit of this discipline shares strong overlap with areas such as computer vision and kinematics of rigid bodies, where objects are studied by analysing the groups responsible for the movement in question. Computational anatomy departs from computer vision with its focus on rigid motions, as the infinite-dimensional diffeomorphism group is central to the analysis of Biological shapes. It is a branch of the image analysis and pattern theory school at Brown University pioneered by Ulf Grenander.
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The history of libraries began with the first efforts to organize collections of documents. Topics of interest include accessibility of the collection, acquisition of materials, arrangement and finding tools, the book trade, the influence of the physical properties of the different writing materials, language distribution, role in education, rates of literacy, budgets, staffing, libraries for specially targeted audiences, architectural merit, patterns of usage, and the role of libraries in a nation's cultural heritage, and the role of government, church or private sponsorship. Since the 1960s, issues of computerization and digitization have arisen. Library history is the academic discipline devoted to the study of the history of libraries; it is a subfield of library science and of history.
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Two other classical problems—trisecting the general angle and doubling the cube—were also proved impossible in the 19th century. A problem arising in the 16th century was that of creating a general formula using radicals expressing the solution of any polynomial equation of fixed degree k, where k ≥ 5. In the 1820s, the Abel–Ruffini theorem (also known as Abel's impossibility theorem) showed this to be impossible, using concepts such as solvable groups from Galois theory—a new subfield of abstract algebra. Among the most important proofs of impossibility of the 20th century were those related to undecidability, which showed that there are problems that cannot be solved in general by any algorithm at all, with the most famous one being the halting problem.
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For about a century after its isolation, molybdenum had no industrial use, owing to its relative scarcity, difficulty extracting the pure metal, and the immaturity of the metallurgical subfield. Early molybdenum steel alloys showed great promise in their increased hardness, but efforts were hampered by inconsistent results and a tendency toward brittleness and recrystallization. In 1906, William D. Coolidge filed a patent for rendering molybdenum ductile, leading to its use as a heating element for high-temperature furnaces and as a support for tungsten-filament light bulbs; oxide formation and degradation require that moly be physically sealed or held in an inert gas. In 1913, Frank E. Elmore developed a flotation process to recover molybdenite from ores; flotation remains the primary isolation process.
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If K is a subfield of L, then L is an extension field or simply extension of K, and this pair of fields is a field extension. Such a field extension is denoted L / K (read as "L over K"). If L is an extension of F, which is in turn an extension of K, then F is said to be an intermediate field (or intermediate extension or subextension) of L / K. Given a field extension , the larger field L is a K-vector space. The dimension of this vector space is called the degree of the extension and is denoted by [L : K]. The degree of an extension is 1 if and only if the two fields are equal.
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The Itoh–Tsujii inversion algorithm is used to invert elements in a finite field. It was introduced in 1988 and first used over GF(2m) using the normal basis representation of elements, however the algorithm is generic and can be used for other bases, such as the polynomial basis. It can also be used in any finite field, GF(pm). The algorithm is as follows: :Input: A ∈ GF(pm) :Output: A−1 :#r ← (pm − 1)/(p − 1) :#compute Ar − 1 in GF(pm) :#compute Ar = Ar − 1 · A :#compute (Ar)−1 in GF(p) :#compute A−1 = (Ar)−1 · Ar −1 :#return A−1 This algorithm is fast because steps 3 and 5 both involve operations in the subfield GF(p).
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Artificial intelligence and law (AI and law) is a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI) mainly concerned with applications of AI to legal informatics problems and original research on those problems. It is also concerned to contribute in the other direction: to export tools and techniques developed in the context of legal problems to AI in general. For example, theories of legal decision making, especially models of argumentation, have contributed to knowledge representation and reasoning; models of social organization based on norms have contributed to multi-agent systems; reasoning with legal cases has contributed to case-based reasoning; and the need to store and retrieve large amounts of textual data has resulted in contributions to conceptual information retrieval and intelligent databases.
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Kinematics is a subfield of physics, developed in classical mechanics, that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering the forces that cause them to move. Kinematics, as a field of study, is often referred to as the "geometry of motion" and is occasionally seen as a branch of mathematics.. A kinematics problem begins by describing the geometry of the system and declaring the initial conditions of any known values of position, velocity and/or acceleration of points within the system. Then, using arguments from geometry, the position, velocity and acceleration of any unknown parts of the system can be determined. The study of how forces act on bodies falls within kinetics, not kinematics.
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In mathematics, in the subfield of ring theory, a ring R is a polynomial identity ring if there is, for some N > 0, an element P other than 0 of the free algebra, Z, over the ring of integers in N variables X1, X2, ..., XN such that for all N-tuples r1, r2, ..., rN taken from R it happens that :P(r_1, r_2, \ldots, r_N) = 0.\ Strictly the Xi here are "non-commuting indeterminates", and so "polynomial identity" is a slight abuse of language, since "polynomial" here stands for what is usually called a "non-commutative polynomial". The abbreviation PI-ring is common. More generally, the free algebra over any ring S may be used, and gives the concept of PI-algebra.
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Asian American Studies, different than Asian Studies, is a subfield within ethnic studies, which focuses on the perspectives, history, culture, and traditions of the Asian peoples' in the United States. Asian American Studies originated in the late 1960s at the San Francisco State College (now San Francisco State University) where a student strike led to the development of the program at the school. The historical approach to representing Asia in the United States prior to the introduction of Asian American Studies has been Orientalism which portrays Asia as a polar opposite to anything western or American. To counter this historical representation of ideas, Asian American Studies became one of the interdisciplinary fields that emphasized teaching the perspective, voice, and experience of the minority community.
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Any newly defined point either arises as the result of the intersection of two such circles, as the intersection of a circle and a line, or as the intersection of two lines. An exercise of elementary analytic geometry shows that in all three cases, both the - and -coordinates of the newly defined point satisfy a polynomial of degree no higher than a quadratic, with coefficients that are additions, subtractions, multiplications, and divisions involving the coordinates of the previously defined points (and rational numbers). Restated in more abstract terminology, the new - and -coordinates have minimal polynomials of degree at most 2 over the subfield of generated by the previous coordinates. Therefore, the degree of the field extension corresponding to each new coordinate is 2 or 1.
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Since about 2002, scholars have analyzed the discourses surrounding global climate change and related policies using ideas from Foucault and from ecogovernmentality. This subfield or application of ecogovernmentality developed first by applying Foucauldean thought to analysis of national and international climate regimes, identifying categories and methodologies that work particularly well for climate change issues. As the application of ecogovernmentality to climate change has evolved, the principles of the theory have also been applied — in appropriately modified ways — to studies of state and local government as well as private and nonprofit organizations. Ecogovernmentality-grounded theories and methods of analysis have also begun to emerge as tools for examining climate change in fields outside political economy, such as communications and international relations.
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Pixel shading is often used for bump mapping, which adds texture, to make an object look shiny, dull, rough, or even round or extruded. With the introduction of the Nvidia GeForce 8 series, and then new generic stream processing unit GPUs became a more generalized computing devices. Today, parallel GPUs have begun making computational inroads against the CPU, and a subfield of research, dubbed GPU Computing or GPGPU for General Purpose Computing on GPU, has found its way into fields as diverse as machine learning, oil exploration, scientific image processing, linear algebra,"Linear algebra operators for GPU implementation of numerical algorithms", Kruger and Westermann, International Conf. on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, 2005 statistics,"ABC-SysBio—approximate Bayesian computation in Python with GPU support", Liepe et al.
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Forensic Psychology, a subfield of psychology, involves the application of psychological knowledge and methods to both civil and criminal legal questions. Traditionally, it has a broad definition as well as a narrow definition. The broader classification states that forensic psychology involves the application of all psychological areas of research to the legal field, while the narrower definition characterizes forensic psychology as “The application of clinical specialties to legal institutions and people who come into contact with the law.” While the American Psychological Association (APA) officially recognized forensic psychology as a specialty under the narrower definition in 2001, the Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists previously acknowledged by the APA in 1991 were revised in 2013 to include all subfields of psychology (e.g.
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As a result of this high incidence of neurological injuries, nerve regeneration and repair, a subfield of neural tissue engineering, is becoming a rapidly growing field dedicated to the discovery of new ways to recover nerve functionality after injury. The nervous system is divided into two parts: the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which consists of cranial and spinal nerves along with their associated ganglia. While the peripheral nervous system has an intrinsic ability for repair and regeneration, the central nervous system is, for the most part, incapable of self-repair and regeneration. There is currently no treatment for recovering human nerve function after injury to the central nervous system.
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As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. Also, no finite field F is algebraically closed, because if a1, a2, ..., an are the elements of F, then the polynomial (x − a1)(x − a2) ··· (x − an) + 1 has no zero in F. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers.
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It was a finalist for 2008 National Council on Public History (NCPH) Book Award, commended for "outstanding contribution in the subfield of public history and policy", and was listed for the 2008 Cundill International Prize for a book determined to have a profound literary, social and academic impact in the area of history. His book Forgetful Remembrance: Social Forgetting and Vernacular Historiography of a Rebellion in Ulster (Oxford University Press: Oxford and New York, 2018). Reviews : Irish Times (29 December 2018), Slugger O'Toole (22 Jan. 2019); Times Higher Education (March 2019), Irish Catholic (March 2019), European History Quarterly (April 2019), New Hibernia Review (Spring 2019), History Ireland (July–August 2019), Dublin Review of Books (October 2019); Irish Historical Studies (Nov.
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The nimber multiplicative inverse of the nonzero ordinal is given by , where is the smallest set of ordinals (nimbers) such that # 0 is an element of ; # if and is an element of , then is also an element of . For all natural numbers , the set of nimbers less than form the Galois field of order . In particular, this implies that the set of finite nimbers is isomorphic to the direct limit as of the fields . This subfield is not algebraically closed, since no other field (so with not a power of 2) is contained in any of those fields, and therefore not in their direct limit; for instance the polynomial , which has a root in , does not have a root in the set of finite nimbers.
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Linda McDowell and Joanne P. Sharp, both foundational feminist geographers and scholars, describe the struggle of gaining recognition in academia, saying that “[it has been] a long struggle to gain recognition within geography as a discipline that gender relations are a central organizing feature both of the material and symbolic worlds and of the theoretical basis of the discipline.’’ Feminist geographers struggle in academia in a variety of ways. Firstly, ideas that originate from feminist discourse are often seen as commonsense once the wider field accepts them, thereby rendering geography that is explicitly feminist invisible. Furthermore, feminist geography is understood to be the only subfield of geography where gender is explicitly addressed, permitting the wider discipline to disengage from feminist challenges.
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Hyperreal fields, non- Archimedean ordered fields containing the real numbers as a subfield, may be used to provide a mathematical foundation for nonstandard analysis. Max Dehn used the Dehn field, an example of a non-Archimedean ordered field, to construct non-Euclidean geometries in which the parallel postulate fails to be true but nevertheless triangles have angles summing to .. The field of rational functions over \R can be used to construct an ordered field which is complete (in the sense of convergence of Cauchy sequences) but is not the real numbers.Counterexamples in Analysis by Bernard R. Gelbaum and John M. H. Olmsted, Chapter 1, Example 7, page 17. This completion can be described as the field of formal Laurent series over \R.
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Amanita muscaria has a long and varied history of psychoactive use. Ethnomycology is the study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi and can be considered a subfield of ethnobotany or ethnobiology. Although in theory the term includes fungi used for such purposes as tinder, medicine (medicinal mushrooms) and food (including yeast), it is often used in the context of the study of psychoactive mushrooms such as psilocybin mushrooms, the Amanita muscaria mushroom, and the ergot fungus. American banker Robert Gordon Wasson pioneered interest in this field of study in the late 1950s, when he and his wife became the first Westerners on record allowed to participate in a mushroom velada, held by the Mazatec curandera María Sabina.
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In the affine case, this means the action of the absolute Galois group on the zero-locus is sufficient to recover the subset of k[x1, …, xn] consisting of vanishing polynomials. In general, this information is not sufficient to recover V. In the example of the zero-locus of x1p- t in (Fp(t))alg, the variety consists of a single point and so the action of the absolute Galois group cannot distinguish whether the ideal of vanishing polynomials was generated by x1 - t1/p, by x1p- t, or, indeed, by x1 - t1/p raised to some other power of p. For any subfield L of kalg and any L-variety V, an automorphism σ of kalg will map V isomorphically onto a σ(L)-variety.
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Economic Geography is a peer-reviewed academic journal published quarterly by Taylor & Francis on behalf of Clark University. The journal was established in 1925 and is currently edited by James T. Murphy (Clark University), Jane Pollard (Newcastle University), Andrés Rodríguez-Pose (London School of Economics), and Henry Wai-chung Yeung (National University of Singapore). Rooted in the subfield of economic geography, the journal covers topics such as uneven development, global trading and investment, economic governance, financialization, innovation studies, agglomeration, marketization, the social and cultural drivers of economic and industrial change, political economy, and labor market segmentation. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 two-year impact factor of 6.348, ranking it 3rd out of 84 journals in the category "Geography" and 4th out of 353 journals in the category "Economics".
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This number lies in the n-th cyclotomic field -- and in fact in its real subfield, which is a totally real field and a rational vector space of dimension :½φ(n), where φ(n) is Euler's totient function. Wantzel's result comes down to a calculation showing that φ(n) is a power of 2 precisely in the cases specified. As for the construction of Gauss, when the Galois group is 2-group it follows that it has a sequence of subgroups of orders :1, 2, 4, 8, ... that are nested, each in the next (a composition series, in group theory terms), something simple to prove by induction in this case of an abelian group. Therefore, there are subfields nested inside the cyclotomic field, each of degree 2 over the one before.
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An extension L which is a splitting field for a set of polynomials p(X) over K is called a normal extension of K. Given an algebraically closed field A containing K, there is a unique splitting field L of p between K and A, generated by the roots of p. If K is a subfield of the complex numbers, the existence is immediate. On the other hand, the existence of algebraic closures in general is often proved by 'passing to the limit' from the splitting field result, which therefore requires an independent proof to avoid circular reasoning. Given a separable extension K′ of K, a Galois closure L of K′ is a type of splitting field, and also a Galois extension of K containing K′ that is minimal, in an obvious sense.
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The AK model of economic growth is an endogenous growth model used in the theory of economic growth, a subfield of modern macroeconomics. In the 1980s it became progressively clearer that the standard neoclassical exogenous growth models were theoretically unsatisfactory as tools to explore long run growth, as these models predicted economies without technological change and thus they would eventually converge to a steady state, with zero per capita growth. A fundamental reason for this is the diminishing return of capital; the key property of AK endogenous-growth model is the absence of diminishing returns to capital. In lieu of the diminishing returns of capital implied by the usual parameterizations of a Cobb–Douglas production function, the AK model uses a linear model where output is a linear function of capital.
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Multimodal anthropology is an emerging subfield of social cultural anthropology that encompasses anthropological research and knowledge production across multiple traditional and new media platforms and practices including film, video, photography, theatre, design, podcast, mobile apps, interactive games, web-based social networking, immersive 360 video and augmented reality. As characterized in American Anthropologist, multimodal anthropology is an "anthropology that works across multiple media, but one that also engages in public anthropology and collaborative anthropology through a field of differentially linked media platforms" (Collins, Durington & Gill). A multimodal approach also encourages anthropologist to reconsider the ways in which they conduct their research, to pay close attention to the role various media technologies and digital devices plays in the lives of their interlocutors, and how they these technologies redefine what fieldwork looks like.
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In the regulation of algorithms, particularly artificial intelligence and its subfield of machine learning, a right to explanation (or right to an explanation) is a right to be given an explanation for an output of the algorithm. Such rights primarily refer to individual rights to be given an explanation for decisions that significantly affect an individual, particularly legally or financially. For example, a person who applies for a loan and is denied may ask for an explanation, which could be "Credit bureau X reports that you declared bankruptcy last year; this is the main factor in considering you too likely to default, and thus we will not give you the loan you applied for." Some such legal rights already exist, while the scope of a general "right to explanation" is a matter of ongoing debate.
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The roots of cognitive linguistics are in Noam Chomsky’s 1959 critical review of B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior. Chomsky's rejection of behavioural psychology and his subsequent anti- behaviourist activity helped bring about a shift of focus from empiricism to mentalism in psychology under the new concepts of cognitive psychology and cognitive science. Chomsky considered linguistics as a subfield of cognitive science in the 1970s but called his model transformational or generative grammar. Having been engaged with Chomsky in the linguistic wars, George Lakoff united in the early 1980s with Ronald Langacker and other advocates of neo-Darwinian linguistics in a so-called ”Lakoff—Langacker agreement”. It is suggested that they picked the name ”cognitive linguistics” for their new framework to undermine the reputation of generative grammar as a cognitive science.
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The economics of organic farming, a subfield of agricultural economics, encompasses the entire process and effects of organic farming in terms of human society, including social costs, opportunity costs, unintended consequences, information asymmetries, and economies of scale. Although the scope of economics is broad, agricultural economics tends to focus on maximizing yields and efficiency at the farm level. Economics takes an anthropocentric approach to the value of the natural world: biodiversity, for example, is considered beneficial only to the extent that it is valued by people and increases profits. Some entities such as the European Union subsidize organic farming, in large part because these countries want to account for the externalities of reduced water use, reduced water contamination, reduced soil erosion, reduced carbon emissions, increased biodiversity, and assorted other benefits that result from organic farming.
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Even so, the ratio of flux he reported for the two stars is consistent with the modern value, so George Rieke gives Nichols credit for the first detection of a star other than our own in the infrared. The field of infrared astronomy continued to develop slowly in the early 20th century, as Seth Barnes Nicholson and Edison Pettit developed thermopile detectors capable of accurate infrared photometry and sensitive to a few hundreds of stars. The field was mostly neglected by traditional astronomers though until the 1960s, with most scientists who practiced infrared astronomy having actually been trained physicists. The success of radio astronomy during the 1950s and 1960s, combined with the improvement of infrared detector technology, prompted more astronomers to take notice, and infrared astronomy became well established as a subfield of astronomy.
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In his earliest contribution to this subfield, Kedar analyzed the phenomenon of expulsion throughout history, and reached the conclusion that systematic corporate expulsion by governmental decree constitutes a characteristic of Western European civilization, where it recurred from the 12th century onward. He identified a persistent pattern: the ruler decides that a group is dangerous to society; he orders to remove its members beyond the borders; usually these members are given three months to liquidate their affairs. While expulsion aimed most frequently at Jews, other groups – Lombards and Cahorsins, Moriscos, Protestants, Jesuits and Mormons—were also expelled between the 13th and 19th centuries. With the expansion of European civilization to other continents, the practice struck roots there as well, with Idi Amin's expulsion of Asians from Uganda in 1972 being a recent example.
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Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth. In the 1930s, the discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as genetics and ecology, systematics and paleontology. The investigational range of current research widened to encompass the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution, such as sexual selection, genetic drift, and biogeography. Moreover, the newer field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how embryogenesis, the development of the embryo, is controlled, thus yielding a wider synthesis that integrates developmental biology with the fields of study covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis.
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One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater", because "for the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory". Kettl states that "public administration, as a subfield within political science...is struggling to define its role within the discipline". He notes two problems with public administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag behind" and "the field's theoretical work too often seems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field". Public administration theory is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments, budgets, governance, and public affairs takes place.
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A naturally occurring transition metal alkyl complex is methylcobalamin (a form of Vitamin B12), with a cobalt-methyl bond. This subset of complexes is often discussed within the subfield of bioorganometallic chemistry. Illustrative of the many functions of the B12-dependent enzymes, the MTR enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from a nitrogen on N5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate to the sulfur of homocysteine to produce methionine. The status of compounds in which the canonical anion has a delocalized structure in which the negative charge is shared with an atom more electronegative than carbon, as in enolates, may vary with the nature of the anionic moiety, the metal ion, and possibly the medium; in the absence of direct structural evidence for a carbon–metal bond, such compounds are not considered to be organometallic.
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Due to the subfield of military geography's perceived connection to traditional or classical geopolitics, a field which has since the end of the Cold War been largely rejected as a research focus by proponents of the popular schools of both critical geography and Marxist or radical geography, military geography has experienced a decline in popularity in academic circles. This is true particularly in institutions unaffiliated with or unconnected to military or governmental organizations. As a result, although there do exist some popular nonfiction writers of geography without academic credentials in the field who touch on military strategy or tactics, there are presently few practicing military geographers or students of military geography in academia. Similarly, there have been few major texts on military geography published specifically for a civilian academic audience since the early 2000s.
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Each year the associate editors of the Journal of Finance award five papers for excellence. The two best finance papers in the subfield of corporate finance and the three best other papers from among all those papers that appeared in the first five issues of that year and in the December issue from the previous year are awarded prizes at the annual American Finance Association in January of the following year. Currently the Brattle prizes are $10,000 for first place and $5,000 for second, but these amounts may change from time to time. Although the prize is awarded by the Brattle Group the administration of the Brattle Prize is the responsibility of the Editor of The Journal of Finance and is carried out in conjunction with the selection of the Smith Breeden Prizes.
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Printed circuit board Electronic engineering (also called electronics and communications engineering) is an electrical engineering discipline which utilizes nonlinear and active electrical components (such as semiconductor devices, especially transistors and diodes) to design electronic circuits, devices, integrated circuits and their systems. The discipline typically also designs passive electrical components, usually based on printed circuit boards. Electronics is a subfield within the wider electrical engineering academic subject but denotes a broad engineering field that covers subfields such as analog electronics, digital electronics, consumer electronics, embedded systems and power electronics. Electronics engineering deals with implementation of applications, principles and algorithms developed within many related fields, for example solid-state physics, radio engineering, telecommunications, control systems, signal processing, systems engineering, computer engineering, instrumentation engineering, electric power control, robotics, and many others.
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Consider a finite group G permuting those indeterminates over K. By standard Galois theory, the set of fixed points of this group action is a subfield of L, typically denoted L^G. The rationality question for K \subset L^G is called Noether's problem and asks if this field of fixed points is or is not a purely transcendental extension of K. In the paper on Galois theory she studied the problem of parameterizing the equations with given Galois group, which she reduced to "Noether's problem". (She first mentioned this problem in where she attributed the problem to E. Fischer.) She showed this was true for n = 2, 3, or 4. found a counter-example to the Noether's problem, with n = 47 and G a cyclic group of order 47.
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Laura Robinson praises the book's "intriguing theoretical insights", while expressing concern that MacKinnon "simplifies all sex acts as rape".Robinson, Laura M. "Re: Toward a Feminist Theory of the State", The Canadian Journal of Sociology 18.1 (1993): 103-105. Judith Baer writes that Toward a Feminist Theory of the State "establishes MacKinnon as the preeminent figure within the scholarly subfield of feminist jurisprudence", although she takes issue with MacKinnon's assertion that the First Amendment protects pornography that "teaches men to degrade and dehumanize women ... Of course, it does not; constitutional doctrine puts obscene material outside the scope of freedom of expression and explicitly includes the preservation of individual morality among the state's legitimate concerns."Baer, Judith A. "Re: Toward a Feminist Theory of the State", The Journal of Politics, 52.3 (1990): 1010-13.
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Region CA3 combines this input with signals from EC layer II and sends extensive connections within the region and also sends connections to strata radiatum and oriens of ipsilateral and contralateral CA1 regions through a set of fibers called the Schaffer collaterals, and commissural pathway, respectively. Region CA1 receives input from the CA3 subfield, EC layer III and the nucleus reuniens of the thalamus (which project only to the terminal apical dendritic tufts in the stratum lacunosum-moleculare). In turn, CA1 projects to the subiculum as well as sending information along the aforementioned output paths of the hippocampus. The subiculum is the final stage in the pathway, combining information from the CA1 projection and EC layer III to also send information along the output pathways of the hippocampus.
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Schuck was involved in the development of women and politics as a subfield of political science, including close involvement with the founding of the Women's Caucus of the American Political Science Association in 1969 and membership on the Association's 1971 Committee on the Status of Women. Schuck is the namesake of the American Political Science Association's Victoria Schuck Award, an annual award that is granted each year to the author or authors of the best book published in the previous year on the topic of women and politics. This award is one of the few awards that is granted directly by the American Political Science Association and not by one of its area-specific sections. The prize was established in 1986, after Schuck advocated for the establishment of a book prize for women and politics scholarship.
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Generalized expected utility is a decision-making metric based on any of a variety of theories that attempt to resolve some discrepancies between expected utility theory and empirical observations, concerning choice under risky (probabilistic) circumstances. Given its motivations and approach, generalized expected utility theory may properly be regarded as a subfield of behavioral economics, but it is more frequently located within mainstream economic theory. The expected utility model developed by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern dominated decision theory from its formulation in 1944 until the late 1970s, not only as a prescriptive, but also as a descriptive model, despite powerful criticism from Maurice Allais and Daniel Ellsberg who showed that, in certain choice problems, decisions were usually inconsistent with the axioms of expected utility theory. These problems are usually referred to as the Allais paradox and Ellsberg paradox.
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The relationship between Computer Science and Software Engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "Software Engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines., p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, […]" The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department is formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis.
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For Toulmin, audience is important because one speaks to a particular audience at a particular point in time, and thus an argument must be relevant to that audience. In this instance, Toulmin echoes Feyerabend, who in his preoccupation with suasive processes, makes clear the adaptive nature of persuasion. Toulmin's ideas pertaining to argument were a radical import to argumentation theory because, in part, he contributes a model, and because he contributes greatly to rhetoric and its subfield, rhetoric of science, by providing a model of analysis (data, warrants) to show that what is argued on a subject is in effect a structured arrangement of values that are purposive and lead to a certain line of thought. Toulmin showed in Human Understanding that the arguments that would support claims as different as the Copernican revolution and the Ptolemaic revolution would not require mediation.
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The techniques of sieve theory can be quite powerful, but they seem to be limited by an obstacle known as the parity problem, which roughly speaking asserts that sieve theory methods have extreme difficulty distinguishing between numbers with an odd number of prime factors and numbers with an even number of prime factors. This parity problem is still not very well understood. Compared with other methods in number theory, sieve theory is comparatively elementary, in the sense that it does not necessarily require sophisticated concepts from either algebraic number theory or analytic number theory. Nevertheless, the more advanced sieves can still get very intricate and delicate (especially when combined with other deep techniques in number theory), and entire textbooks have been devoted to this single subfield of number theory; a classic reference is and a more modern text is .
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The field can be said to originate with the 1968 manifesto of Albert Somit, Towards a more Biologically Oriented Political Science, which appeared in the Midwest Journal of Political Science. The term "biopolitics" was appropriated for this area of study by Thomas Thorton, who used it as the title of his 1970 book. The Association for Politics and the Life Sciences was formed in 1981 and exists to study the field of biopolitics as a subfield of political science. APLS owns and publishes an academic peer-reviewed journal called Politics and the Life Sciences (PLS). The journal is edited in the United States at the University of Maryland, College Park’s School of Public Policy, in Maryland. By the late 1990s and since, biopolitics research has expanded rapidly, especially in the areas of evolutionary theory,Sidanius, Jim, and Robert Kurzban. 2003.
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Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) is a behavior therapy discipline that often overlaps considerably with the clinical behavior analysis subfield of ABA, but differs in that it initially incorporates cognitive restructuring and emotional regulation to alter a person's cognition and emotions. A popularly noted counseling intervention known as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) includes the use of a chain analysis, as well as cognitive restructuring, emotional regulation, distress tolerance, counterconditioning (mindfulness), and contingency management (positive reinforcement). DBT is quite similar to acceptance and commitment therapy, but contrasts in that it derives from a CBT framework. Although DBT is most widely researched for and empirically validated to reduce the risk of suicide in psychiatric patients with borderline personality disorder, it can often be applied effectively to other mental health conditions, such as substance abuse, as well as mood and eating disorders.
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If G has genus g ≥ 1 then the ΣnC are closely related to the Jacobian variety J of C. More accurately for n taking values up to g they form a sequence of approximations to J from below: their images in J under addition on J (see theta-divisor) have dimension n and fill up J, with some identifications caused by special divisors. For g = n we have ΣgC actually birationally equivalent to J; the Jacobian is a blowing down of the symmetric product. That means that at the level of function fields it is possible to construct J by taking linearly disjoint copies of the function field of C, and within their compositum taking the fixed subfield of the symmetric group. This is the source of André Weil's technique of constructing J as an abstract variety from 'birational data'.
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However, he soon felt lost in the large body of students, and optrf to switch to the much less popular subject of crystallography, a subfield of mineralogy at the interface of chemistry and physics. In 1972, his teachers Wolfgang Hoffmann and Horst Böhm arranged for him to spend the summer at the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory as a visiting student. The experience here would shape his further career: not only did he meet his later collaborator K. Alex Müller, the head of the physics department, but he also experienced the atmosphere of creativity and freedom cultivated at the IBM lab, which he credits as a strong influence on his way of conducting science. After another visit in 1973, he came to Zurich in 1974 for six months to do the experimental part of his diploma work.
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A map for vector spaces and over fields and respectively is -semilinear, or simply semilinear, if there exists a field homomorphism such that for all , in and in it holds that # f(x+y)=f(x)+f(y), # f(\lambda x)=\sigma(\lambda) f(x). A given embedding of a field in allows us to identify with a subfield of , making a -semilinear map a K-linear map under this identification. However, a map that is -semilinear for a distinct embedding will not be K-linear with respect to the original identification , unless is identically zero. More generally, a map between a right -module and a left -module is -semilinear if there exists a ring antihomomorphism such that for all , in and in it holds that # \psi(x + y) = \psi(x) + \psi(y) , # \psi(x \lambda) = \sigma(\lambda) \psi(x) .
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A variety V is defined over k if every polynomial in kalg[x1, …, xn] that vanishes on V is the linear combination (over kalg) of polynomials in k[x1, …, xn] that vanish on V. A k-algebraic set is also an L-algebraic set for infinitely many subfields L of kalg. A field of definition of a variety V is a subfield L of kalg such that V is an L-variety defined over L. Equivalently, a k-variety V is a variety defined over k if and only if the function field k(V) of V is a regular extension of k, in the sense of Weil. That means every subset of k(V) that is linearly independent over k is also linearly independent over kalg. In other words those extensions of k are linearly disjoint.
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In orbital mechanics (subfield of celestial mechanics), Gauss's method is used for preliminary orbit determination from at least three observations (more observations increases the accuracy of the determined orbit) of the orbiting body of interest at three different times. The required information are the times of observations, the position vectors of the observation points (in Equatorial Coordinate System), the direction cosine vector of the orbiting body from the observation points (from Topocentric Equatorial Coordinate System) and general physical data. Carl Friedrich Gauss developed important mathematical techniques (summed up in Gauss's methods) which were specifically used to determine the orbit of Ceres. The method shown following is the orbit determination of an orbiting body about the focal body where the observations were taken from, whereas the method for determining Ceres' orbit requires a bit more effort because the observations were taken from Earth while Ceres orbits the Sun.
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Like the origin of language, the origin of music has been a topic for speculation and debate for centuries. Leading theories include Darwin’s theory of partner choice (women choose male partners based on musical displays), the idea that human musical behaviors are primarily based on behaviors of other animals (see zoomusicology), the idea that music emerged because it promotes social cohesion, the idea that music emerged because it helps children acquire verbal, social, and motor skills, and the idea that musical sound and movement patterns, and links between music, religion and spirituality, originated in prenatal psychology and mother-infant attachment. Two major topics for any subfield of evolutionary psychology are the adaptive function (if any) and phylogenetic history of the mechanism or behavior of interest including when music arose in human ancestry and from what ancestral traits it developed. Current debate addresses each of these.
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Fields of characteristic zero have the most familiar properties; for practical purposes they resemble subfields of the complex numbers (unless they have very large cardinality, that is; in fact, any field of characteristic zero and cardinality at most continuum is (ring-)isomorphic to a subfield of complex numbers).. Enderton states this result explicitly only for algebraically closed fields, but also describes a decomposition of any field as an algebraic extension of a transcendental extension of its prime field, from which the result follows immediately. The p-adic fields or any finite extension of them are characteristic zero fields, much applied in number theory, that are constructed from rings of characteristic pk, as k → ∞. For any ordered field, as the field of rational numbers Q or the field of real numbers R, the characteristic is 0. Thus, number fields and the field of complex numbers C are of characteristic zero.
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Just as the general field of internal medicine gradually gave rise to pediatric medicine as a specialized subfield, the specialized field of baby and infant gymnastics also gradually acquired full status as part of general physiotherapy. After a two-year training course at the state- accredited physiotherapy schools, an additional half-year special course in baby and infant gymnastics as per the Neumann-Neurode Method was now required of caregivers. Professor Dr. C. Mau, M.D., Director of the Orthopedic University Clinic in Hamburg Eppendorf, noted at that time that the field of orthopedic medicine had a considerable interest in the fact that the concept of baby and infant gymnastics is tied to the name Neumann-Neurode and is widely practiced, and deserves to be considered a valuable measure of preventive medicine. In 1926 these considerations were decisive in bringing about the state accreditation of the Neumann-Neurode School in Berlin.
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Ludomusicology (also called video game music studies or video game music research) is a field of academic research and scholarly analysis focusing on video game music, understood as the music found in video games and in related contexts. It is closely related to the fields of musicology and interactive and games audio research, and game music and audio are sometimes studied as a united phenomenon. Ludomusicology is also related to the field of game studies, as music is one element of the wider video game text and some theories on video game functions are directly relevant to music. Whereas the overarching areas of interactive and game audio research and game studies are highly interdisciplinary (ranging from interface research, neurological research, psychology and informatics to sound studies, cultural studies and media studies), ludomusicology as a subfield has been mainly driven by musicologists (albeit with an openness to interdisciplinary inquiry).
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Working for NASA on futuristic space projects, Volk built math models for the cycling of elements in what were called "closed ecological life support systems" (CELSS). From 1986-1998, he was active in this research subfield of advanced life support, helping NASA plan the systems that might someday keep astronauts alive on the Moon and Mars. With colleague John Rummel, he developed some of the first computer models to connect the flows and chemical transformations of crop production, human metabolism, and waste processing. Volk then turned attention to the modeling of crop growth and development for enhanced productivity, collaborating with experimentalists at Utah State University and at NASA centers in Florida, Texas, and California, in particular publishing with crop physiologists Bruce Bugbee of Utah State University and Raymond Wheeler of Kennedy Space Center, as well as with his Ph.D. students Francesco Tubiello and James Cavazonni.
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Furthermore, sociophysiology explores the "intimate relationship and mutual regulation between social and physiological systems that is especially vital in human groups" (Barchas 1986: 210). In other words, sociophysiology studies the "physio- and psycho-energetic phenomena at the basis of social groupings" (Solvay 1906: 25)."Phénomènes physic- et psycho-énergétiques à la base des groupements sociaux" (Rolvaag 1906: 25). Such phenomena are now known to involve neurotransmitters, hormones, pheromones, the immune system, etc. Along these lines, Zeliony (1912) noted that In addition, sociophysiology "describes structure-function relationships for body structures and interactive functions relevant to psychiatric illness" (Gardner 1997: 351), and also "assumes that psychiatric disorders are pathological variants of the motivation, emotions, and conflict involved in normal communicational processes" (Gardner and Price 1999: 247–248). Psychiatry, thus, involves the diagnosis and treatment of what Lilienfeld (1879: 280) termed "physiological social pathology", and may be classed as a subfield of sociophysiology, called "pathological sociophysiology" by Zeliony (1912: 405).
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Early developments in organometallic chemistry include Louis Claude Cadet's synthesis of methyl arsenic compounds related to cacodyl, William Christopher Zeise's platinum-ethylene complex, Edward Frankland's discovery of diethyl- and dimethylzinc, Ludwig Mond's discovery of Ni(CO)4, and Victor Grignard's organomagnesium compounds. (Though not always acknowledged as an organometallic compound, Prussian blue, a mixed- valence iron-cyanide complex, was first prepared in 1706 by paint maker Johann Jacob Diesbach as the first coordination polymer and synthetic material containing a metal-carbon bond.) The abundant and diverse products from coal and petroleum led to Ziegler–Natta, Fischer–Tropsch, hydroformylation catalysis which employ CO, H2, and alkenes as feedstocks and ligands. Recognition of organometallic chemistry as a distinct subfield culminated in the Nobel Prizes to Ernst Fischer and Geoffrey Wilkinson for work on metallocenes. In 2005, Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock shared the Nobel Prize for metal-catalyzed olefin metathesis.
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In the United States, most universities implement a course numbering system where each course is identified by the name of the major (or an abbreviation thereof) followed by a 3- or 4-digit number − for example, CS 123. This common numbering system was designed to make transfer between colleges easier. In theory, any numbered course in one academic institution should bring a student to the same standard as a similarly numbered course at other institutions.. The first digit of the course number is related to its level, or relative difficulty, of the course, and can roughly correspond the year of study in which the course is likely to be taken. It is common for the second digit to represent the subfield in the department within which the course is offered − for example, in a Physics department, all courses numbered PHYS 47xx may be about magnetism, while all PHYS 48xx courses may be about optics.
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Secure multi-party computation (also known as secure computation, multi-party computation (MPC), or privacy-preserving computation) is a subfield of cryptography with the goal of creating methods for parties to jointly compute a function over their inputs while keeping those inputs private. Unlike traditional cryptographic tasks, where cryptography assures security and integrity of communication or storage and the adversary is outside the system of participants (an eavesdropper on the sender and receiver), the cryptography in this model protects participants' privacy from each other. The foundation for secure multi-party computation started in the late 1970s with the work on mental poker, cryptographic work that simulates game playing/computational tasks over distances without requiring a trusted third party. Note that traditionally, cryptography was about concealing content, while this new type of computation and protocol is about concealing partial information about data while computing with the data from many sources, and correctly producing outputs.
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In the subfield of abstract algebra known as module theory, a right R module M is called a balanced module (or is said to have the double centralizer property) if every endomorphism of the abelian group M which commutes with all R-endomorphisms of M is given by multiplication by a ring element. Explicitly, for any additive endomorphism f, if fg = gf for every R endomorphism g, then there exists an r in R such that f(x) = xr for all x in M. In the case of non- balanced modules, there will be such an f that is not expressible this way. In the language of centralizers, a balanced module is one satisfying the conclusion of the double centralizer theorem, that is, the only endomorphisms of the group M commuting with all the R endomorphisms of M are the ones induced by right multiplication by ring elements. A ring is called balanced if every right R module is balanced.
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It is thus preferable to refer to a loose school of "'green economists"' who generally advocate shifts towards a green economy, biomimicry and a fuller accounting for biodiversity. (see The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity especially for current authoritative international work towards these goals and Bank of Natural Capital for a layperson's presentation of these.) Some economists view green economics as a branch or subfield of more established schools. For instance, it is regarded as classical economics where the traditional land is generalized to natural capital and has some attributes in common with labor and physical capital (since natural capital assets like rivers directly substitute for man-made ones such as canals). Or, it is viewed as Marxist economics with nature represented as a form of Lumpenproletariat, an exploited base of non-human workers providing surplus value to the human economy, or as a branch of neoclassical economics in which the price of life for developing vs.
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A finite- dimensional unital associative algebra (over any field) is a division algebra if and only if it has no zero divisors. Whenever A is an associative unital algebra over the field F and S is a simple module over A, then the endomorphism ring of S is a division algebra over F; every associative division algebra over F arises in this fashion. The center of an associative division algebra D over the field K is a field containing K. The dimension of such an algebra over its center, if finite, is a perfect square: it is equal to the square of the dimension of a maximal subfield of D over the center. Given a field F, the Brauer equivalence classes of simple (contains only trivial two-sided ideals) associative division algebras whose center is F and which are finite-dimensional over F can be turned into a group, the Brauer group of the field F. One way to construct finite-dimensional associative division algebras over arbitrary fields is given by the quaternion algebras (see also quaternions).
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Computer algebra, also called symbolic computation or algebraic computation is a scientific area that refers to the study and development of algorithms and software for manipulating mathematical expressions and other mathematical objects. Although, properly speaking, computer algebra should be a subfield of scientific computing, they are generally considered as distinct fields because scientific computing is usually based on numerical computation with approximate floating point numbers, while symbolic computation emphasizes exact computation with expressions containing variables that have not any given value and are thus manipulated as symbols (therefore the name of symbolic computation). Software applications that perform symbolic calculations are called computer algebra systems, with the term system alluding to the complexity of the main applications that include, at least, a method to represent mathematical data in a computer, a user programming language (usually different from the language used for the implementation), a dedicated memory manager, a user interface for the input/output of mathematical expressions, a large set of routines to perform usual operations, like simplification of expressions, differentiation using chain rule, polynomial factorization, indefinite integration, etc.
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"Interview with Richard Foltz on the history of Tajiks", Central Asian Analytical Network, 15 May 2019 Foltz's approach is syncretic, bringing together, in the words of Omid Safi, "many different bodies of scholarship which have rarely been placed side by side".Omid Safi, review of Spirituality in the Land of the Noble, MESA Bulletin 39/1, 2005, p. 92 Commenting on the broad sweep of Foltz's attention to Iranian civilization, a reviewer writes in The Muslim World that "No scholar, save perhaps such giants as Ehsan Yarshater and Richard Frye, can claim a depth of knowledge of traditions as diverse and covering such a wide historical span".Dale Bishop, review of Spirituality in the Land of the Noble, The Muslim World 94/3, 2004, p. 414 Apart from his work on Iranian history and civilization, Foltz has played a formative role in the emergence of a new subfield of religious studies known as religion and ecology, having edited three seminal works in this area, including two collections devoted to Islam.
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In astronomy, an epoch is a moment in time used as a reference point for some time-varying astronomical quantity, such as the celestial coordinates or elliptical orbital elements of a celestial body, because these are subject to perturbations and vary with time. These time-varying astronomical quantities might include, for example, the mean longitude or mean anomaly of a body, the node of its orbit relative to a reference plane, the direction of the apogee or aphelion of its orbit, or the size of the major axis of its orbit. The main use of astronomical quantities specified in this way is to calculate other relevant parameters of motion, in order to predict future positions and velocities. The applied tools of the disciplines of celestial mechanics or its subfield orbital mechanics (for predicting orbital paths and positions for bodies in motion under the gravitational effects of other bodies) can be used to generate an ephemeris, a table of values giving the positions and velocities of astronomical objects in the sky at a given time or times.
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Econophysics was started in the mid-1990s by several physicists working in the subfield of statistical mechanics. Unsatisfied with the traditional explanations and approaches of economists – which usually prioritized simplified approaches for the sake of soluble theoretical models over agreement with empirical data – they applied tools and methods from physics, first to try to match financial data sets, and then to explain more general economic phenomena. One driving force behind econophysics arising at this time was the sudden availability of large amounts of financial data, starting in the 1980s. It became apparent that traditional methods of analysis were insufficient – standard economic methods dealt with homogeneous agents and equilibrium, while many of the more interesting phenomena in financial markets fundamentally depended on heterogeneous agents and far-from- equilibrium situations. The term "econophysics" was coined by H. Eugene Stanley, to describe the large number of papers written by physicists in the problems of (stock and other) markets, in a conference on statistical physics in Kolkata (erstwhile Calcutta) in 1995 and first appeared in its proceedings publication in Physica A 1996.
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When is a composite number, there will exist isomorphisms from a binary field GF(2k) to an extension field of one of its subfields, that is, GF((2m)n) where . Utilizing one of these isomorphisms can simplify the mathematical considerations as the degree of the extension is smaller with the trade off that the elements are now represented over a larger subfield. To reduce gate count for hardware implementations, the process may involve multiple nesting, such as mapping from GF(28) to GF(((22)2)2).. There is an implementation constraint, the operations in the two representations must be compatible, so explicit use of the isomorphism is needed. More precisely, the isomorphism will be denoted by map(), it is a bijection that maps an element of GF(2k) to GF((2m)n), satisfying: map(a+b) = map(a) + map(b) and map(a b) = map(a) map(b), where the operations on the left side occur in GF(2k) before mapping and the operations on the right side occur in GF((2m)n) after mapping.
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Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics (2004), by Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, is a seminal study in the field of international comparative media system research. The study compares media systems of 18 Western democracies including nine Northern European countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland), five Southern European countries (France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain) and four Atlantic countries (Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, and the United States). The conceptual framework developed in this study turned out to be an important contributionQuotes for illustration: „[T]his work, which is being acknowledged as a central text in an emerging subfield.” (Jones, 2008, p. 128) “Comparing Media Systems is, indeed, a path- breaking volume that will serve as a model for today’s comparative communication analyses.” (Graber, 2006, p. 935) “What is not open to speculation is the significance of this work. Hallin and Mancini’s pio-neering effort will define comparative media research for years to come.” (Patterson, 2007, p. 331) “A major recent contribution to the comparative research tradition “ (Hardy, 2008, p.
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To every algebraic extension L of k, the L-algebraic set associated to a given k-algebraic set V is the fiber product of schemes V ×Spec(k) Spec(L). A k-variety is absolutely irreducible if the associated kalg-algebraic set is an irreducible scheme; in this case, the k-variety is called a variety. An absolutely irreducible k-variety is defined over k if the associated kalg-algebraic set is a reduced scheme. A field of definition of a variety V is a subfield L of kalg such that there exists a k∩L-variety W such that W ×Spec(k∩L) Spec(k) is isomorphic to V and the final object in the category of reduced schemes over W ×Spec(k∩L) Spec(L) is an L-variety defined over L. Analogously to the definitions for affine and projective varieties, a k-variety is a variety defined over k if the stalk of the structure sheaf at the generic point is a regular extension of k; furthermore, every variety has a minimal field of definition.
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First of all, anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Second of all, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz’s comparative work on the Balinese state is an early, famous example. There is today a rich canon of anthropological studies of the state (see for example Abeles 1990). Hastings Donnan, Thomas Wilson and others started in the early 1990s a productive subfield, an “anthropology of borders”, which addresses the ways in which state borders affect local populations, and how people from border areas shape and direct state discourse and state formation (see for example Alvarez, 1996; Thomassen, 1996; Vereni, 1996; Donnan and Wilson, 1994; 1999; 2003). From the 1980s a heavy focus on ethnicity and nationalism developed. ‘Identity’ and ‘identity politics’ soon became defining themes of the discipline, partially replacing earlier focus on kinship and social organization.
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In mathematics, in the field of algebraic number theory, a Bauerian extension is a field extension of an algebraic number field which is characterized by the prime ideals with inertial degree one in the extension. For a finite degree extension L/K of an algebraic number field K we define P(L/K) to be the set of primes p of K which have a factor P with inertial degree one (that is, the residue field of P has the same order as the residue field of p). Bauer's theorem states that if M/K is a finite degree Galois extension, then P(M/K) ⊇ P(L/K) if and only if M ⊆ L. In particular, finite degree Galois extensions N of K are characterised by set of prime ideals which split completely in N. An extension F/K is Bauerian if it obeys Bauer's theorem: that is, for every finite extension L of K, we have P(F/K) ⊇ P(L/K) if and only if L contains a subfield K-isomorphic to F. All field extensions of degree at most 4 over Q are Bauerian.Narkiewicz (1990) p.
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