Would Trump concede -- and what might his speech sound like?
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It had been purposefully slowed down to make the Democratic leader's speech sound slurred and garbled.
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But, then, how foolish does love make our speech sound to the ears of the unloving and the unloved.
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"Revolution 9", at over eight minutes and composed of singing, speech, sound effects and tape loops was musically revolutionary in its composition.
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Addressing the distorted video that made Ms. Pelosi's speech sound slurred, YouTube said the video violated its standards and had been removed.
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The video, which experts said had been slowed down, made the Speaker of the House's speech sound slurred as if she were drunk.
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One of the videos, which showed Ms. Pelosi speaking at a conference this week, appeared to be slowed down to make her speech sound continually garbled.
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When you understand the real reasons that people and corporations subsidize candidates, as O'Connor does, the Court's pious invocations of "freedom of speech" sound almost comically oblivious.
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She uses conservative-Twitter freedom-of-speech sound bytes to bait Beth Ann into wearing her Confederate bikini, doubling down after Beth Ann realizes the suitor's her football hero.
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The researchers found that the model, when it is still confused by a given phoneme (that's an individual speech sound like an "e" or "f"), has two kinds of errors.
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Other politicians like the late Daniel Patrick Moynihan (the Harvard professor who added an academic veneer to the Senate for four terms) could make a speech sound like an Ivy League seminar.
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Why it matters: The clip, which appears to have been slowed to make Pelosi's speech sound slurred, has found traction on Facebook, Twitter and YouTube, highlighting how easily even the simplest manipulated media can mushroom on social platforms.
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"Since the goal of this work is to restore speech communication in those who have lost the ability to talk, we aimed to learn the direct mapping from the brain signal to the speech sound itself," he told Gizmodo.
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The artificial intelligence start-up, bought by Google for £400 million ($532 million) in 2014, outlined in a blog post on Thursday how its new technology is able to make computer-generated speech sound more natural, and it performs better than Google's current solution.
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This study examined speech sound production of pre-lingually deaf children who had cochlear implants for a minimum of eight years. Tomblin's research team found that development in children's speech sound production leveled off after about eight years of experience with the device, with accuracy in speech sound production after four years predicting their long-term speech outcomes.
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Articulation: Behavioural treatments may include various speech sound strengthening or accuracy re-training exercises.
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Phonological process treatment, on the other hand, can involve making syntactical errors, such as omissions in words. In cases such as these, explicit teaching of the linguistic rules may be sufficient. Some cases of speech sound disorders, for example, may involve difficulties articulating speech sounds. Educating a child on the appropriate ways to produce a speech sound and encouraging the child to practice this articulation over time may produce natural speech, Speech sound disorder.
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During imitation the DIVA model organizes its speech sound map and tunes the synaptic projections between speech sound map and motor map - i.e. tuning of forward motor commands - as well as the synaptic projections between speech sound map and sensory target regions (see Fig. 4). Imitation training is done by exposing the model to an amount of acoustic speech signals representing realizations of language-specific speech units (e.g. isolated speech sounds, syllables, words, short phrases).
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Bowen, C. (2015). Children's Speech Sound Disorders (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Speech sound disorders of unknown cause that are not accompanied by other language problems are a relatively common reason for young children to be referred to speech-language therapy (speech-language pathology).
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Change and novelty detection in speech and non-speech sound streams. Brain Research, 1327, 77-90. .
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Speech sound disorders may be subdivided into two primary types, articulation disorders (also called phonetic disorders) and phonemic disorders (also called phonological disorders). However, some may have a mixed disorder in which both articulation and phonological problems exist. Though speech sound disorders are associated with childhood, some residual errors may persist into adulthood.
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According to Lof,Lof, G.L. (2006). Logic, theory, and evidence against the use of non-speech oral motor exercises to change speech sound production. ASHA Convention 2006, 1-11. non-speech oral motor exercises (NS-OME) includes "any technique that does not require the child to produce a speech sound but is used to influence the development of speaking abilities".
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Shabda, or ', is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance.
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The speech sound map - assumed to be located in the inferior and posterior portion of Broca's area (left frontal operculum) - represents (phonologically specified) language-specific speech units (sounds, syllables, words, short phrases). Each speech unit (mainly syllables; e.g. the syllable and word "palm" /pam/, the syllables /pa/, /ta/, /ka/, ...) is represented by a specific model cell within the speech sound map (i.e. punctual neural representations, see above).
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The source produces a number of harmonics of varying amplitudes, which travel through the vocal tract and are either amplified or attenuated to produce a speech sound.
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Different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme are called allophones. Specific allophonic variations, and the particular correspondences between allophones (realizations of speech sound) and phonemes (underlying perceptions of speech sound) can vary even within languages. For example, speakers of Quebec French often express voiceless alveolar stops (/t/) as an affricate. An affricate is a stop followed by a fricative and in this case sounds like the English 'ch' sound.
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Yimas has a limited speech sound inventory, with a total of 18 phonemes. Below are the vowel and consonant inventories, which are represented using International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols.
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On the one hand the articulatory model generates sensory information, i.e. an auditory state for each speech unit which is neurally represented within the auditory state map (distributed representation), and a somatosensory state for each speech unit which is neurally represented within the somatosensory state map (distributed representation as well). The auditory state map is assumed to be located in the superior temporal cortex while the somatosensory state map is assumed to be located in the inferior parietal cortex. On the other hand, the speech sound map, if activated for a specific speech unit (single neuron activation; punctual activation), activates sensory information by synaptic projections between speech sound map and auditory target region map and between speech sound map and somatosensory target region map.
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These include Language Disorder (Receptive and Expressive), Speech Sound Disorder, Fluency Disorder, Social Communication Disorder etc. f) Syndromes: These include Down Syndrome, Angelman’s Syndrome, Tourette’s Syndrome, Retts Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome etc.
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The game features patterned sounds to represent speech. This was somewhat revolutionary at the time as most other games used the same repeating tones to represent speech. Initially there were five sounds used that would play alternately depending on the letters in the dialogue, but this variation made the speech sound too much like music. The speed of the text was made different between characters after Yoshimiru spoke with a programmer who said it was possible to sync the text and speech sound.
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While the structure of a neuroscientific model of speech processing (given in Fig. 4 for the DIVA model) is mainly determined by evolutionary processes, the (language-specific) knowledge as well as the (language-specific) speaking skills are learned and trained during speech acquisition. In the case of the DIVA model it is assumed that the newborn has not available an already structured (language-specific) speech sound map; i.e. no neuron within the speech sound map is related to any speech unit.
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The term yod is often used to refer to the speech sound , a palatal approximant, even in discussions of languages not written in Semitic abjads, as in phonological phenomena such as English "yod- dropping".
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When a child fails to produce distinctions between speech sounds for no obvious reason, this is typically regarded as a language problem affecting the learning of phonological contrasts. The classification of and terminology for disorders of speech sound production is a subject of considerable debate. In practice, even for those with specialist skills, it is not always easy to distinguish between phonological disorders and other types of speech production problem. Speech sound disorder (SSD) is any problem with speech production arising from any cause.
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The frontal speech regions of the brain have been shown to participate in speech sound perception. Broca's Area is today still considered an important language center, playing a central role in processing syntax, grammar, and sentence structure.
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In phonetics and linguistics, a phone is any distinct speech sound or gesture, regardless of whether the exact sound is critical to the meanings of words. In contrast, a phoneme is a speech sound in a given language that, if swapped with another phoneme, could change one word to another. Phones are absolute and are not specific to any language, but phonemes can be discussed only in reference to specific languages. For example, the English words kid and kit end with two distinct phonemes, /d/ and /t/, and swapping one for the other would change one word into a different word.
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The tuning of the synaptic projections between speech sound map and auditory target region map is accomplished by assigning one neuron of the speech sound map to the phonemic representation of that speech item and by associating it with the auditory representation of that speech item, which is activated at the auditory target region map. Auditory regions (i.e. a specification of the auditory variability of a speech unit) occur, because one specific speech unit (i.e. one specific phonemic representation) can be realized by several (slightly) different acoustic (auditory) realizations (for the difference between speech item and speech unit see above: feedforward control) .
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"Phylogenetic inference for function-valued traits: speech sound evolution." Trends in ecology & evolution 27.3 (2012): 160-166.. and meaning. e.g. Hamilton, William L., Jure Leskovec, and Dan Jurafsky. "Diachronic word embeddings reveal statistical laws of semantic change." arXiv preprint arXiv:1605.09096 (2016).
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In an experiment, Richard M. Warren replaced one phoneme of a word with a cough-like sound. His subjects restored the missing speech sound perceptually without any difficulty. Moreover, they were not able to accurately identify which phoneme had even been disturbed.
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But, as with colors, it looks as if the effect is an innate one: Our sensory category detectors for both color and speech sounds are born already "biased" by evolution: Our perceived color and speech-sound spectrum is already "warped" with these compression/separations.
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In: Allport A, MacKay D G, Prinz W G, Scheerer E, eds. Language Perception and Production. London: Academic Press,: 85-106. Such complex auditory goals (which often link—though not always—to internal vocal gestures) are detectable from the speech sound which they create.
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An obstruent is a speech sound such as , , or that is formed by obstructing airflow. Obstruents contrast with sonorants, which have no such obstruction and so resonate.Gussenhoven, Carlos; Haike, Jacobs. Understanding Phonology, Fourth Edition, Routledge, 2017 All obstruents are consonants, but sonorants include both vowels and consonants.
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SSHL is diagnosed via pure tone audiometry. If the test shows a loss of at least 30 dB in three adjacent frequencies, the hearing loss is diagnosed as SSHL. For example, a hearing loss of 30 dB would make conversational speech sound more like a whisper.
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The International Phonetic Alphabet uses a breve to indicate a speech sound (usually a vowel) with extra-short duration. That is, is a very short vowel with the quality of . An example from English is the short schwa of the word police . This is typical of vowel reduction.
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Even though most speech sound disorders can be successfully treated in childhood, and a few may even outgrow them on their own, errors may sometimes persist into adulthood rather than only being not age appropriate. Such persisting errors are referred to as "residual errors" and may remain for life.
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In contrast, voiceless plosives like /t/ are more common in cooler climates. Producing this speech sound obstructs airflow out of the mouth due to the constriction of vocal articulators. Thus, reducing the transfer of heat out of the body, which is important for individuals residing in cooler climates.
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Integrational Phonology is a 'declarative' two- level phonology that postulates two distinct levels (or 'parts') in the sound system of any idiolect system, a less abstract phonetic and a more abstract phonological one. Phonetic and phonological sounds are both conceived as sets of auditory properties of speech-sound events, hence, as abstract real-world entities. (Speech-sound events are concrete entities, located in space-time.) Phonological sounds differ from phonetic ones by a higher degree of abstraction: While sounds on the phonetic level (i.e., part) of an idiolect system contain all properties that characterize normal utterances of entities of the idiolect system, phonological sounds contain only those properties that are functional in the idiolect system, i.e.
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In this way, AOS is a diagnosis of exclusion, and is generally recognized when all other similar speech sound production disorders are eliminated.Ziegler, W., Aichert, I, & Staiger, A. (2012). American Speech-Language-Hearing Association supplement: Apraxia of speech: Concepts and controversies. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55, 1485-1501.
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Caroline Bowen (born 4 December 1944) is a speech therapist who was born in New Zealand, and who has lived and worked in Australia most of her life. She specialises in children's speech sound disorders. Her clinical career as a speech-language pathologist spanned 42 years from 1970 to 2011.
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Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative. Trilled affricates are also known. Nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly found in nasal occlusives and nasal vowels, but nasalized fricatives, taps, and approximants are also found.
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In phonetics, the voiced labiodental flap is a speech sound found primarily in languages of Central Africa, such as Kera and Mangbetu. It has also been reported in the Austronesian language Sika. It is one of the few non-rhotic flaps. The sound begins with the lower lip placed behind the upper teeth.
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Boston, MA: Pearson. While grammatical and syntactic learning can be seen as a part of language acquisition, speech acquisition focuses on the development of speech perception and speech production over the first years of a child's lifetime. There are several models to explain the norms of speech sound or phoneme acquisition in children.
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What is considered a feminine or a masculine voice varies depending on age, region, and cultural norms. The changes with the greatest effects towards feminization, based on current evidence, are fundamental frequency and voice resonance. Other characteristics that have been explored include intonation patterns, loudness, speech rate, speech-sound articulation and duration.
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Thus, in total, the activation pattern of the motor map is not only influenced by a specific feedforward command learned for a speech unit (and generated by the synaptic projection from the speech sound map) but also by a feedback command generated at the level of the sensory error maps (see Fig. 4).
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Rather the organization of the speech sound map as well as the tuning of the projections to the motor map and to the sensory target region maps is learned or trained during speech acquisition. Two important phases of early speech acquisition are modeled in the DIVA approach: Learning by babbling and by imitation.
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Velopharyngeal insufficiency is a disorder of structure that causes a failure of the velum (soft palate) to close against the posterior pharyngeal wall (back wall of the throat) during speech in order to close off the nose (nasal cavity) during oral speech production. This is important because speech requires sound (from the vocal folds) and airflow (from the lungs) to be directed into the oral cavity (mouth) for the production of all speech sound with the exception of nasal sounds (m, n, and ng). If complete closure does not occur during speech, this can cause hypernasality (a resonance disorder) and/or audible nasal emission during speech (a speech sound disorder). In addition, there may be inadequate airflow to produce most consonants, making them sound weak or omitted.
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Sound change includes any processes of language change that affect pronunciation (phonetic change) or sound system structures (phonological change). Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature value) by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, or even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there had been none. Sound changes can be environmentally conditioned, meaning that the change only occurs in a defined sound environment, whereas in other environments the same speech sound is not affected by the change. The term "sound change" refers to diachronic changes—that is, changes in a language's sound system over time; "alternation", on the other hand, refers to changes that happen synchronically (i.e.
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If an abductory movement or adductory movement is strong enough, the vibrations of the vocal folds will stop (or not start). If the gesture is abductory and is part of a speech sound, the sound will be called voiceless. However, voiceless speech sounds are sometimes better identified as containing an abductory gesture, even if the gesture was not strong enough to stop the vocal folds from vibrating. This anomalous feature of voiceless speech sounds is better understood if it is realized that it is the change in the spectral qualities of the voice as abduction proceeds that is the primary acoustic attribute that the listener attends to when identifying a voiceless speech sound, and not simply the presence or absence of voice (periodic energy).
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If an ambiguous speech sound is spoken that is exactly in between and , the hearer may have difficulty deciding what it is. But, if that same ambiguous sound is heard at the end of a word like woo/?/ (where ? is the ambiguous sound), then the hearer will more likely perceive the sound as a .
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The possibility to observe low-level auditory processes independently from the higher-level ones makes it possible to address long-standing theoretical issues such as whether or not humans possess a specialized module for perceiving speech or whether or not some complex acoustic invariance (see lack of invariance above) underlies the recognition of a speech sound.
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A speech sound disorder (SSD) is a speech disorder in which some speech sounds (called phonemes) in a child's (or, sometimes, an adult's) language are not produced, are not produced correctly, or are not used correctly. The term "protracted phonological development" is sometimes preferred when describing children's speech, to emphasize the continuing development while acknowledging the delay.
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First, the linguistic term digraph is defined as, "A group of two letters expressing a simple sound of speech". This meaning applies to both two letters representing a single speech sound in orthography (e.g., English ng representing the velar nasal ) and a single grapheme with two letters in typographical ligature (e.g., the Old English Latin alphabet letter æ).
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A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (length). They are usually voiced, and are closely involved in prosodic variation such as tone, intonation and stress.
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Leppänen, P.H.T., U. Richardson, E. Pihko, K.M. Eklund, T.K. Guttorm, M. Aro, and H. Lyytinen, Brain responses to changes in speech sound durations differ between infants with and without familial risk for dyslexia. Developmental Neuropsychology, 2002. 22(1): p. 407-422.Serniclaes, W., L. Sprenger-Charolles, R. Carré, and J.F. Demonet, Perceptual discrimination of speech sounds in developmental dyslexia.
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The quantity of music and sound was greater than other games at the time, and required a larger than usual sound team. Because neither platform was capable of accurately synthesizing speech, sound effects were used to represent character dialogue. Snatcher was released for the PC-8801 on November 26, 1988, and the MSX2 in December that year.
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Current research demonstrates a unique profile of speech and language impairments is associated with 22q11.2DS. Children often perform lower on speech and language evaluations in comparison to their nonverbal IQ scores. Common problems include hypernasality, language delays, and speech sound errors. Hypernasality occurs when air escapes through the nose during the production of oral speech sounds, resulting in reduced intelligibility.
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Welsh was a radio soap opera actress and only appeared in three films, all uncredited. The only movie in which she was seen was the 1940 World War I film Waterloo Bridge. She was the voice of E.T. in the 1982 film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. As a chain smoker, she had a raspy voice that gave E.T. his trademark speech sound.
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At the end of grade two students are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between "speech sound and letter". In 2016, amongst 50 countries, Norway achieved the 8th highest score in Reading Literacy for fourth graders according to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)., and 20th out of 78 for 15 year-olds in PISA 2018.
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Speech acquisition focuses on the development of spoken language by a child. Speech consists of an organized set of sounds or phonemes that are used to convey meaning while language is an arbitrary association of symbols used according to prescribed rules to convey meaning.Bernthal, J.E., Bankson, N.W., & Flipsen, P. (2009) Articulation and Phonological Disorders: Speech Sound Disorders in Children. (6th edition).
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Other cues differentiate sounds that are produced at different places of articulation or manners of articulation. The speech system must also combine these cues to determine the category of a specific speech sound. This is often thought of in terms of abstract representations of phonemes. These representations can then be combined for use in word recognition and other language processes.
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In: Rumelhart DE, McClelland JL (eds.). Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 1: Foundations (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA)): Each neuron within the sensory or motor map is more or less activated, leading to a specific activation pattern. The neural representation for speech units occurring in the speech sound map (see below: DIVA model) is a punctual or local representation.
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For PNFA, The core criteria for diagnosis includes agrammatism and slow, and labored speech. Inconsistent speech sound errors are also very common, including distortions, deletions, and insertions. In terms of comprehension, there are deficits in syntax and sentence comprehension due to grammatical complexity, but single- word and object comprehension is relatively maintained. The second variant, SD, presents with deficits in single-word and object comprehension.
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A speech sound is influenced by the ones that precede and the ones that follow. This influence can even be exerted at a distance of two or more segments (and across syllable- and word-boundaries). Because the speech signal is not linear, there is a problem of segmentation. It is difficult to delimit a stretch of speech signal as belonging to a single perceptual unit.
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There are two types of Apraxia. Developmental (or Childhood Apraxia of speech) or acquired Apraxia. Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) is a neurological childhood speech sound disorder that involves impaired precision and consistency of movements required for speech production without any neuromuscular deficits (ASHA, 2007a, Definitions of CAS section, para. 1). Both are the inability to plan volitional motor movements for speech production in the absence of muscular weakness.
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The voiceless velar lateral fricative is a very rare speech sound. As one element of an affricate, it is found for example in Zulu and Xhosa (see velar lateral ejective affricate). However, a simple fricative has only been reported from a few languages in the Caucasus and New Guinea. Archi, a Northeast Caucasian language of Dagestan, has four voiceless velar lateral fricatives: plain , labialized , fortis , and labialized fortis .
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Clements' main research was in phonology with a special focus on African languages. He is best known for his research in syllable theory, tone and feature theory which have contributed to the modern theory of sound patterning in spoken language. At the time of his death, his work was concerned with the principles underlying speech sound inventories across languages (Clements & Ridouane 2011). He was married to French linguist, Annie Rialland.
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Human languages use many different sounds and in order to compare them linguists must be able to describe sounds in a way that is language independent. Speech sounds can be described in a number of ways. Most commonly speech sounds are referred to by the mouth movements needed to produce them. Consonants and vowels are two gross categories that phoneticians define by the movements in a speech sound.
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A speech sound made with the middle part of the tongue (dorsum) touching the soft palate is known as a velar consonant. It is possible for the soft palate to retract and elevate during speech to separate the oral cavity (mouth) from the nasal cavity in order to produce the oral speech sounds. If this separation is incomplete, air escapes through the nose, causing speech to be perceived as nasal.
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Human vocal tract Articulation visualized by real-time MRI. In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators (speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is stricture, that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another. Others include those involved in the r-like sounds (taps and trills), and the sibilancy of fricatives.
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In the case of innate CP, our categorically biased sensory detectors pick out their prepared color and speech-sound categories far more readily and reliably than if our perception had been continuous. Learning is a cognitive process that results in a relatively permanent change in behavior. Learning can influence perceptual processing. Learning influences perceptual processing by altering the way in which an individual perceives a given stimulus based on prior experience or knowledge.
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Originally published by William Morrow. In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and , pronounced by forcing air through a narrow channel (fricatives); and and , which have air flowing through the nose (nasals). Contrasting with consonants are vowels.
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Assessment for online speech therapy consists of an informal oral exam by a licensed trained professional through video conferencing or a web application. Patients are initially screened for communication disorders with diagnosis and consultation for provision counseling including cognitive aspects of communication, syntax, hypophonia and upper aerodigestive functions. The therapist and patient communicate via telecommunication technology where they can interact in real time. Therapy may cover speech sound production, fluency, language, cognition and written language.
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Local languages are used as the languages of instruction in elementary schools, with French only introduced after several years. In wealthier cities, however, French is usually taught at an earlier age. At the secondary school level, local language is generally forbidden and French is the sole language of instruction. Beninese languages are generally transcribed with a separate letter for each speech sound (phoneme), rather than using diacritics as in French or digraphs as in English.
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Articulatory suppression is the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember. Most research demonstrates articulatory suppression by requiring an individual to repeatedly say an irrelevant speech sound out loud while being presented with a list of words to recall shortly after. The individual experiences four stages when repeating the irrelevant sound: the intention to speak, programming the speech, articulating the sound or word, and receiving auditory feedback.
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In phonetics, a continuant is a speech sound produced without a complete closure in the oral cavity, namely fricatives, approximants and vowels."continuant" in Bussamann, Routledge dictionary of language and linguistics, 1996 While vowels are included in continuants, the term is often reserved for consonant sounds. Approximants were traditionally called "frictionless continuants"."approximant" in Crystal, A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics, 6th ed, 2008 Continuants contrast with occlusives, such as plosives, affricates and nasals.
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In phonetics and phonology, relative articulation is description of the manner and place of articulation of a speech sound relative to some reference point. Typically, the comparison is made with a default, unmarked articulation of the same phoneme in a neutral sound environment. For example, the English velar consonant is fronted before the vowel (as in keep) compared to articulation of before other vowels (as in cool). This fronting is called palatalization.
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The recording began as an extended ending to the album version of Lennon's song "Revolution". He, Harrison and Ono then combined the unused coda with numerous overdubbed vocals, speech, sound effects, and short tape loops of speech and musical performances, some of which were reversed. These were further manipulated with echo, distortion, stereo panning, and fading. At over eight minutes, it is the longest track that the Beatles officially released during their existence as a band.
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The Generalist Genes Hypothesis proposes that many of the same genes are implicated within different aspects of a learning disability as well as between different learning disabilities. Indeed, there also appear to be a large genetic influence on other learning abilities, such as language skills. The Generalist Genes Hypothesis supports the findings that many learning disabilities are comorbid, such as speech sound disorder, language impairment, and reading disability, although this is also influenced by diagnostic overlap.
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An articulation disorder may be diagnosed when a child has difficulty producing phonemes, or speech sounds, correctly. When classifying a sound, speech pathologists refer to the manner of articulation, the place of articulation, and voicing. A speech sound disorder may include one or more errors of place, manner, or voicing of the phoneme. Different types of articulation disorders include: ; omissions : certain sounds are deleted, often at the ends of words; entire syllables or classes of sounds may be deleted; e.g.
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Speech sound disorders may be of two varieties: articulation (the production of sounds) or phonological processes (sound patterns). An articulation disorder may take the form of substitution, omission, addition, or distortion of normal speech sounds. Phonological process disorders may involve more systematic difficulties with the production of particular types of sounds, such as those made in the back of the mouth, like "k" and "g". Naturally, abnormalities in speech mechanisms would need to be ruled out by a medical professional.
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Each neuron (model cell, artificial neuron) within the speech sound map can be activated and subsequently activates a forward motor command towards the motor map, called articulatory velocity and position map. The activated neural representation on the level of that motor map determines the articulation of a speech unit, i.e. controls all articulators (lips, tongue, velum, glottis) during the time interval for producing that speech unit. Forward control also involves subcortical structures like the cerebellum, not modelled in detail here.
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Rothenberg, M. The glottal volume velocity waveform during loose and tight voiced glottal adjustments, Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 22-28 August 1971 ed. by A. Rigault and R. Charbonneau, published in 1972 by Mouton, The Hague – Paris. An adductory gesture is also identified by the change in voice spectral energy it produces. Thus, a speech sound having an adductory gesture may be referred to as a "glottal stop" even if the vocal fold vibrations do not entirely stop.
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The first emic unit to be considered, in the late 19th century, was the phoneme. The word phoneme comes from the , phōnēma, meaning "that which is sounded", from the verb φωνέω, phōneō, "sound", which comes in turn from the noun φωνή, phōnē, "sound". Thus it was originally used (in its French form phonème) to refer simply to a speech sound. But it soon came to be used in its modern sense, to denote an abstract concept (for more details, see Phoneme: Background and related ideas).
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It is common for an individual with a fistula to compensate for a loss of pressure during speech sound production by attempting to regulate intraoral air pressure with increasing respiration effort and using compensatory articulation. Middorsum palatal stops (atypical place of articulation) often results from palatal fistulae causing sound distortions during speech. Occlusion for the fistula is attempted by speakers with deviant tongue placements during these palatal stops. The palatal obturation may be managed temporarily or may be sustained for longer periods of time.
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In a classic experiment, Richard M. Warren (1970) replaced one phoneme of a word with a cough-like sound. Perceptually, his subjects restored the missing speech sound without any difficulty and could not accurately identify which phoneme had been disturbed, a phenomenon known as the phonemic restoration effect. Therefore, the process of speech perception is not necessarily uni-directional. Another basic experiment compared recognition of naturally spoken words within a phrase versus the same words in isolation, finding that perception accuracy usually drops in the latter condition.
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A waveform (top), spectrogram (middle), and transcription (bottom) of a woman saying "Wikipedia" displayed using the Praat software for linguistic analysis. Speech sounds are created by the modification of an airstream which results in a sound wave. The modification is done by the articulators, with different places and manners of articulation producing different acoustic results. Because the posture of the vocal tract, not just the position of the tongue can affect the resulting sound, the manner of articulation is important for describing the speech sound.
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A speech unit represents an amount of speech items which can be assigned to the same phonemic category. Thus, each speech unit is represented by one specific neuron within the speech sound map, while the realization of a speech unit may exhibit some articulatory and acoustic variability. This phonetic variability is the motivation to define sensory target regions in the DIVA model (see Guenther et al. 1998Guenther, F.H., Hampson, M., and Johnson, D. (1998) A theoretical investigation of reference frames for the planning of speech movements.
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For the first six years of her life, Rousey struggled with speech and could not form an intelligible sentence due to apraxia, a neurological childhood speech sound disorder. This speech disorder was attributed to being born with her umbilical cord wrapped around her neck. When Rousey was three years old, her mother and father moved from Riverside, California, to Jamestown, North Dakota, to obtain intensive speech therapy with specialists at Minot State University. Rousey dropped out of high school and later earned her GED.
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The objective of The Champion Pub is to train and later to fight in the pub by making the right shots with the ball. Toys on the playfield include for example a punching bag, a boxer figure and a jump rope that consists of a rotating wire that the ball has to jump over by using a button-controlled solenoid. A mini-playfield contains plastic fists instead of flippers. Game features include 4 Multi-ball modes and 15 Jackpot levels, 10 different international opponents and over 300 speech sound effects.
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Benjamin Munson is a professor and chair of Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences University of Minnesota. His research relates to relationships among speech perception, speech production, and vocabulary growth in children. The bulk of his research has examined how speech perception, production, and word knowledge interact during development in typically developing children, in children with Speech Sound Disorder, in children with Developmental Language Disorder, in adult second-language learners, and in adults with age-related hearing impairment. He has also studied how people convey and perceive sexuality through phonetic variation.
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The voiceless velar lateral affricate is an uncommon speech sound found as a phoneme in the Caucasus and as an allophone in several languages of eastern and southern Africa. Archi, a Northeast Caucasian language of Dagestan, has two such affricates, plain and labialized , though they are further forward than velars in most languages, and might better be called prevelar. Archi also has ejective variants of its lateral affricates, several voiceless lateral fricatives, and a voiced lateral fricative at the same place of articulation, but no alveolar lateral fricatives or affricates.The Archi Language Tutorial.
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School-age children do make progress with expressive language as they mature, but many continue to have delays and demonstrate difficulty when presented with language tasks such as verbally recalling narratives and producing longer and more complex sentences. Receptive language, which is the ability to comprehend, retain, or process spoken language, can also be impaired, although not usually with the same severity as expressive language impairments. Articulation errors are commonly present in children with DiGeorge syndrome. These errors include a limited phonemic (speech sound) inventory and the use of compensatory articulation strategies resulting in reduced intelligibility.
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He had worked at the University for over thirty years, until he resigned in protest of the University's handling of a sexual harassment complaint about T. Florian Jaeger, a junior member of his department. His research covers many areas, but the bulk of it concerns statistical learning, visual perception, speech perception, language development, and visual development. A great deal of his work focuses on understanding how higher-level cognitive representations and structures are constructed from lower-level sensory input statistics, including how acoustic variation in speech to infants yields phonologically distinct speech sound categories in adults.
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He also creates installations. He regularly worked together with the members of the Vajda Lajos Studio of Szentendre, and with János Szirtes, with whom he was also a member of the New Modern Acrobatics performance group (1987-1991).Members of New Modern Acrobatics included István efZámbó, László feLugossy, Tibor Szemző, János Szirtes, László "Gazember" Waszlavik and on some occasions, Péter Magyar Szemző often worked with fine and oboe artist Gábor Roskó, as well as with fine artist Tamás Waliczky in the early 90s. In his creations, verbality, speech sound, multilingualism, and motion picture play an essential role in a close unity.
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In phonetics and linguistics the phonetic environment refers to the surrounding sounds of a target speech sound, or target phone, in a word. The phonetic environment of a phone can sometimes determine the allophonic or phonemic qualities of a sound in a given language. For example, the English vowel 'a' /æ/ in the word 'mat' /mæt/ has the consonants /m/ preceding it and /t/ following it. In linguistic notation it is written as /m__t, where the slash can be read as "in the environment", and the underscore represents the target phone's position relative to its neighbours.
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Data from this study were made available to the public through the EpiSLI database. Other research in Tomblin's lab has focused on language outcomes of deaf children who received cochlear implants. In one study, Tomblin and his colleagues examined growth in oral language, and found that children who received cochlear implants as infants had greater expressive language than children who received cochlear implants as toddlers. Another study examining "Long-term trajectories of the development of speech sound production in pediatric cochlear implant recipients" received the Editor's Award from the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research in 2009.
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Developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD) – in the child with DVD, comprehension is adequate; the onset of speech is very delayed and extremely limited with impaired production of speech sounds and short utterances. The poor speech production cannot be explained in terms of structural or neurological damage of the articulators. There is much disagreement about diagnostic criteria, but the label most often used for children whose intelligibility declines markedly when they attempt complex utterances, compared to when they are producing individual sounds or syllables. Another key feature is inconsistency of speech sound production from one occasion to another.
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The MLAT consists of five sections, each one testing separate abilities. ; Number Learning : This section is designed in part to measure the subject's memory as well as an "auditory alertness" factor which would affect the subject's auditory comprehension of a foreign language. ; Phonetic Script : This section is designed to measure the subject's sound-symbol association ability, which is the ability to learn correlations between a speech sound and written symbols. ; Spelling Clues/Hidden Words : This highly speeded section is designed to test the subject's vocabulary knowledge of English as well as his/her sound-symbol association ability.
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The most important[according to whom?] indirect methods are currently inverse filtering of either microphone or oral airflow recordings and electroglottography (EGG).[citation needed] In inverse filtering, the speech sound (the radiated acoustic pressure waveform, as obtained from a microphone) or the oral airflow waveform from a circumferentially vented (CV) mask is recorded outside the mouth and then filtered by a mathematical method to remove the effects of the vocal tract. This method estimates the glottal input of voice production by recording output and using a computational model to invert the effects of the vocal tract.
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Auditory and somatosensory target regions are assumed to be located in higher-order auditory cortical regions and in higher-order somatosensory cortical regions respectively. These target region sensory activation patterns - which exist for each speech unit - are learned during speech acquisition (by imitation training; see below: learning). Consequently, two types of sensory information are available if a speech unit is activated at the level of the speech sound map: (i) learned sensory target regions (i.e. intended sensory state for a speech unit) and (ii) sensory state activation patterns resulting from a possibly imperfect execution (articulation) of a specific speech unit (i.e.
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The tuning of the synaptic projections between speech sound map and motor map (i.e. tuning of forward motor commands) is accomplished with the aid of feedback commands, since the projections between sensory error maps and motor map were already tuned during babbling training (see above). Thus the DIVA model tries to "imitate" an auditory speech item by attempting to find a proper feedforward motor command. Subsequently, the model compares the resulting sensory output (current sensory state following the articulation of that attempt) with the already learned auditory target region (intended sensory state) for that speech item.
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A whistled tone is essentially a simple oscillation (or sine wave), and thus timbral variations are impossible. Normal articulation during an ordinary lip-whistle is relatively easy though the lips move little causing a constant of labialization and making labial and labiodental consonants (p, b, m, f, etc.) problematical. "Apart from the five vowel-phonemes [of Silbo Gomero]—and even these do not invariably have a fixed or steady pitch—all whistled speech-sound realizations are glides which are interpreted in terms of range, contour, and steepness." There are two different types of whistle tones - hole tones and edge tones.
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Impaired verbal comprehension can be the result a number of causes such as failure of speech sound discrimination, word recognition, auditory working memory, or syntactic structure building. When clinically examined, patients with TSA will exhibit poor comprehension of verbal commands. Based on the extent of the comprehension deficiency, patients will have difficulty following simple commands, e.g. “close your eyes.” Depending on the extent of affected brain area, patients are able to follow simple commands but may not be able to comprehend more difficult, multistep commands, e.g. “point to the ceiling, then touch your left ear with your right hand.
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The ten Galactica 1980 episodes were rolled into the television syndication package for Battlestar Galactica and were given the same title as its parent program. Following the program's cancellation, a feature film titled Conquest of the Earth was stitched together from sections of the three "Galactica Discovers Earth" episodes and the two "The Night the Cylons Landed" episodes. A scene of John Colicos as Baltar was also spliced into this release. The latter footage was actually taken from an episode of the original series (Baltar makes no appearances in any Galactica 1980 episodes) and is partially dubbed, so as to make the speech sound relevant to the Galactica's new situation.
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The role of subvocal rehearsal is also seen in short-term memory. Research has confirmed that this form of rehearsal benefits some cognitive functioning. Subvocal movements that occur when people listen to or rehearse a series of speech sounds will help the subject to maintain the phonemic representation of these sounds in their short-term memory, and this finding is supported by the fact that interfering with the overt production of speech sound did not disrupt the encoding of the sound's features in short term memory. This suggests a strong role played by subvocalization in the encoding of speech sounds into short-term memory.
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Unit selection provides the greatest naturalness, because it applies only a small amount of digital signal processing (DSP) to the recorded speech. DSP often makes recorded speech sound less natural, although some systems use a small amount of signal processing at the point of concatenation to smooth the waveform. The output from the best unit-selection systems is often indistinguishable from real human voices, especially in contexts for which the TTS system has been tuned. However, maximum naturalness typically require unit-selection speech databases to be very large, in some systems ranging into the gigabytes of recorded data, representing dozens of hours of speech.
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A study in the journal Speech Communication by Amy Drahota and colleagues at the University of Portsmouth, UK, reported that listeners to voice recordings could determine, at better than chance levels, whether or not the speaker was smiling. It was suggested that identification of the vocal features that signal emotional content may be used to help make synthesized speech sound more natural. One of the related issues is modification of the pitch contour of the sentence, depending upon whether it is an affirmative, interrogative or exclamatory sentence. One of the techniques for pitch modification uses discrete cosine transform in the source domain (linear prediction residual).
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Figure 1: Spectrograms of syllables "dee" (top), "dah" (middle), and "doo" (bottom) showing how the onset formant transitions that define perceptually the consonant differ depending on the identity of the following vowel. (Formants are highlighted by red dotted lines; transitions are the bending beginnings of the formant trajectories.) Acoustic cues are sensory cues contained in the speech sound signal which are used in speech perception to differentiate speech sounds belonging to different phonetic categories. For example, one of the most studied cues in speech is voice onset time or VOT. VOT is a primary cue signaling the difference between voiced and voiceless plosives, such as "b" and "p".
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It is not easy to identify what acoustic cues listeners are sensitive to when perceiving a particular speech sound: > At first glance, the solution to the problem of how we perceive speech seems > deceptively simple. If one could identify stretches of the acoustic waveform > that correspond to units of perception, then the path from sound to meaning > would be clear. However, this correspondence or mapping has proven extremely > difficult to find, even after some forty-five years of research on the > problem. If a specific aspect of the acoustic waveform indicated one linguistic unit, a series of tests using speech synthesizers would be sufficient to determine such a cue or cues.
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In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant or resonant is a speech sound that is produced with continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that are most often voiced in the world's languages. Vowels are sonorants, as are nasals like and , liquids like and , and semivowels like and . This set of sounds contrasts with the obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives).Keith Brown & Jim Miller (2013) The Cambridge Dictionary of Linguistics For some authors only the term resonant is used with this broader meaning, while sonorant is restricted to consonants, referring to nasals and liquids but not vocoids (vowels and semivowels).
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Tremblay et al. 2001 Central auditory plasticity: Changes in the N1-P2 complex after speech-sound training. Ear and Hearing 22,79–90 Enhanced P2 amplitudes have been reported in musicians with extensive listening experienceShahin et al. 2003, Enhancement of Neuroplastic P2 and N1c Auditory Evoked Potentials in Musicians, Journal of Neuroscience, 2 July 2003, 23(13):5545–5552 as well as laboratory based auditory training experiments.Tremblay et al. 2009, Auditory training alters the physiological detection of stimulus-specific cues in humans. Clinical Neurophysiology. 120,128–135 A significant finding is that P2 amplitude changes are sometimes seen independent of N1 amplitude changes,Ross and Tremblay 2009.
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Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby. Disturbances to the individual's natural ability to speak vary in their etiology based on the integrity and integration of cognitive, neuromuscular, and musculoskeletal activities. Speaking is an act dependent on thought and timed execution of airflow and oral motor / oral placement of the lips, tongue, and jaw that can be disrupted by weakness in oral musculature (dysarthria) or an inability to execute the motor movements needed for specific speech sound production (apraxia of speech or developmental verbal dyspraxia). Such deficits can be related to pathology of the nervous system (central and /or peripheral systems involved in motor planning) that affect the timing of respiration, phonation, prosody, and articulation in isolation or in conjunction.
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A phoneme of a language or dialect is an abstraction of a speech sound or of a group of different sounds which are all perceived to have the same function by speakers of that particular language or dialect. For example, the English word through consists of three phonemes: the initial "th" sound, the "r" sound, and a vowel sound. The phonemes in this and many other English words do not always correspond directly to the letters used to spell them (English orthography is not as strongly phonemic as that of many other languages). The number and distribution of phonemes in English vary from dialect to dialect, and also depend on the interpretation of the individual researcher.
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However, this can also have the effect of removing verbal "punctuation" from the speech, causing words and sentences to run together unnaturally, again reducing intelligibility. The current preferred method of time-compression is called "non-linear compression", which employs a combination of selectively removing silences; speeding up the speech to make the reduced silences sound normally-proportioned to the text; and finally applying various data algorithms to bring the speech back down to the proper pitch. This produces a more acceptable result than either of the two earlier techniques; however, if unrestrained, removing the silences and increasing the speed can make a selection of speech sound more insistent, possibly to the point of unpleasantness.
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The voiced velar lateral fricative is a very rare speech sound that can be found in Archi, a Northeast Caucasian language of Dagestan, in which it is clearly a fricative, although further forward than velars in most languages, and might better be called prevelar. Archi also has various voiceless fricatives and voiceless and ejective affricates at the same place of articulation. (The source uses the symbol for the voiced alveolar lateral fricative (), but also indicates the sound to be prevelar.) It occurs as an intervocalic allophone of in Nii and perhaps some related Wahgi languages of New Guinea. The IPA has no dedicated symbol for this sound, but it can be transcribed as a raised velar lateral approximant, .
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New York, Springer-Verlag. Children analyze the linguistic rules, pronunciation patterns, and conversational pragmatics of speech by making monologues (often in crib talk) in which they repeat and manipulate in word play phrases and sentences previously overheard.Kuczaj SA. (1983). Crib speech and language practice. New York, Springer-Verlag. Many proto-conversations involve children (and parents) repeating what each other has said in order to sustain social and linguistic interaction. It has been suggested that the conversion of speech sound into motor responses helps aid the vocal "alignment of interactions" by "coordinating the rhythm and melody of their speech". p. 201 Repetition enables immigrant monolingual children to learn a second language by allowing them to take part in 'conversations'.
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The evidence provided for the motor theory of speech perception is limited to tasks such as syllable discrimination that use speech units not full spoken words or spoken sentences. As a result, "speech perception is sometimes interpreted as referring to the perception of speech at the sublexical level. However, the ultimate goal of these studies is presumably to understand the neural processes supporting the ability to process speech sounds under ecologically valid conditions, that is, situations in which successful speech sound processing ultimately leads to contact with the mental lexicon and auditory comprehension." See page 394 This however creates the problem of " a tenuous connection to their implicit target of investigation, speech recognition".
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Originally released for DOS in 1992, Dune II was one of the first PC games to support the recently introduced General MIDI standard. The game audio was programmed with the middleware Miles audio library which handled the dynamic conversion of the game's MIDI musical score, originally composed on the Roland MT-32, to the selected soundcard. At initial release, the game's setup utility lacked the means to support separate output devices for the musical score and speech/sound-effects. This limitation was frustrating to owners of high-quality MIDI synthesisers (such as the Roland Sound Canvas), because users could not play the game with both digital sound effects (which MIDI synthesisers lacked) and high-quality MIDI score.
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A screen reader is a form of assistive technology (AT) that renders text and image content as speech or braille output. Screen readers are essential to people who are blind, and are useful to people who are visually impaired, illiterate, or have a learning disability. Screen readers are software applications that attempt to convey what people with normal eyesight see on a display to their users via non-visual means, like text-to-speech, sound icons, or a Braille device. They do this by applying a wide variety of techniques that include, for example, interacting with dedicated accessibility APIs, using various operating system features (like inter-process communication and querying user interface properties), and employing hooking techniques.
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Then the model updates the current feedforward motor command by the current feedback motor command generated from the auditory error map of the auditory feedback system. This process may be repeated several times (several attempts). The DIVA model is capable of producing the speech item with a decreasing auditory difference between current and intended auditory state from attempt to attempt. During imitation the DIVA model is also capable of tuning the synaptic projections from speech sound map to somatosensory target region map, since each new imitation attempt produces a new articulation of the speech item and thus produces a somatosensory state pattern which is associated with the phonemic representation of that speech item.
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The speech-sound script required several letters to convey a pronunciation, making some word spellings longer than others. Lu devised a streamlined system of 55 distinctly pronounced zimu (字母 "alphabet letters"), symbols largely derived from the Latin alphabet. Based on the traditional Chinese fanqie method of indicating pronunciation with one Chinese character for the initial consonant and another for the final sound, Lu's system spelled each syllable with two zimu signs denoting the initial and final (Kaske 2008: 97). Lu Zhuangzhang's Qieyin Xinzi system was designed for Southern Min varieties of Chinese, specifically the Xiamen, Zhangzhou, and Quanzhou varieties, but he said that it could also be adapted for the other languages of China (Chen 1999: 165).
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In historical linguistics, a chain shift is a set of sound changes in which the change in pronunciation of one speech sound (typically, a phoneme) is linked to, and presumably causes, a change in pronunciation of other sounds as well. The sounds involved in a chain shift can be ordered into a "chain" in such a way that after the change is complete, each phoneme ends up sounding like what the phoneme before it in the chain sounded like before the change. The changes making up a chain shift, interpreted as rules of phonology, are in what is termed counterfeeding order. A well-known example is the Great Vowel Shift, which was a chain shift that affected all of the long vowels in Middle English.
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The main antagonist of the story, Nitros Oxide, is the self-proclaimed fastest racer in the galaxy who threatens to turn Earth into a concrete parking lot and make its inhabitants his slaves. Oxide appears only as an opponent in the game's final race and time trials, and cannot be controlled by the player. Preceding Oxide are four boss characters: Ripper Roo, a deranged straitjacket- wearing kangaroo; Papu Papu, the morbidly obese leader of the island's native tribe; Komodo Joe, a Komodo dragon with a speech sound disorder; and Pinstripe Potoroo, a greedy pinstripe-clad potoroo. The four boss characters, along with an imperfect and morally ambiguous clone of Crash Bandicoot named Fake Crash, become accessible as playable characters if the Adventure Mode is fully completed.
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English-speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are phonetically different, the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated. Phonological rules can miss the point when it comes to loanwords, which are borrowings that move from a language with one set of well-formedness conditions to a language with a different set, with the result that adjustments have to be made to meet the new constraints (Yip 1993:262). Coming back to the Chinese unaspirated denti-alveolar stop in pinyin dào 道, this speech sound exists in English—but never as the stressed first syllable in a word. Unaspirated occurs instead in words such as "stop" or "pat" as a complementary /t/ allophone of the aspirated initial t in English, such as in "tap".
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An electrolarynx, sometimes referred to as a "throat back", is a medical device about the size of a small electric razor used to produce clearer speech by those people who have lost their voicebox, usually due to cancer of the larynx. The most common device is a handheld, battery-operated device pressed against the skin under the mandible which produces vibrations to allow speech; other variations include a device similar to the "talk box" electronic music device, which delivers the basis of the speech sound via a tube placed in the mouth. Earlier non-electric devices were called mechanical larynxes. Along with developing esophageal voice, using a speech synthesizer, or undergoing a surgical procedure, the electrolarynx serves as a mode of speech recovery for laryngectomy patients.
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In 1875, at the age of 21, Lu moved to Singapore where he intensively studied English. After returning to Xiamen in 1879, he worked as a language tutor and translator for Chinese and foreigners. John MacGowan of the London Missionary Society recruited Lu to help compile the English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect (1883), which used the romanization system from Carstairs Douglas' Chinese–English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy (1873) (Tsu and Elman 2014: 131). While assisting MacGowan, Lu extensively worked with the missionaries' system of huàyīn (話音 "speech-sound script") that used Latin alphabet letters to transcribe local varieties of Chinese, and came to believe that he could develop a better system.
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The problems were that (1) speech is extended in time, (2) the sounds of speech (phonemes) overlap with each other, (3) the articulation of a speech sound is affected by the sounds that come before and after it, and (4) there is natural variability in speech (e.g. foreign accent) as well as noise in the environment (e.g. busy restaurant). Each of these causes the speech signal to be complex and often ambiguous, making it difficult for the human mind/brain to decide what words it is really hearing. In very simple terms, an interactive activation model solves this problem by placing different kinds of processing units (phonemes, words) in isolated layers, allowing activated units to pass information between layers, and having units within layers compete with one another, until the “winner” is considered “recognized” by the model.
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The renowned contemporary linguist Mir Shamsuddin Adib-Soltani has proposed the use of a variation of the Latin alphabet. This variation, also sometimes called "Pârstin", has been commonly used by other linguists, such as David Neil MacKenzie for the transliteration of the Perso-Arabic scripture. The letters of this variation of the Latin alphabet are the basic Latin letters: Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz, plus the additional letters to support the native sounds: Ââ, Čč, Šš, Žž. Besides being one of the simplest variations proposed for the Latinization of the Persian alphabet, this variation is based on the Alphabetic principle. Based on this principle, each individual speech sound is represented by a single letter and there is a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and the letters that represent them.
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Traditionally, when reciting the alphabet in English-speaking schools, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself ("A", "I", and, at one point, "O") was repeated with the Latin expression per se ("by itself"), as in "A per se A". It was also common practice to add the sign at the end of the alphabet as if it were the 27th letter, pronounced as the Latin et or later in English as and. As a result, the recitation of the alphabet would end in "X, Y, Z, and per se and". This last phrase was routinely slurred to "ampersand" and the term had entered common English usage by 1837. However, in contrast to the 26 letters, the ampersand does not represent a speech sound—although other characters that were dropped from the English alphabet did, such as the Old English thorn, wynn, and eth.
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AY-3-8910 chip DIP 40 die The AY-3-8910 is a 3-voice programmable sound generator (PSG) designed by General Instrument in 1978, initially for use with their 16-bit CP1610 or one of the PIC1650 series of 8-bit microcomputers. The AY-3-8910 and its variants were used in many arcade games--Konami's Gyruss contains five--and pinball machines as well as being the sound chip in the Intellivision and Vectrex video game consoles, and the Amstrad CPC, Oric-1, Colour Genie, Elektor TV Games Computer, MSX, and later ZX Spectrum home computers. It was also used in the Mockingboard and Cricket sound cards for the Apple II and the Speech/Sound Cartridge for the TRS-80 Color Computer. After General Instrument's spinoff of Microchip Technology in 1987, the chip was sold for a few years under the Microchip brand.
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Bowen studied speech therapy in Melbourne, graduating from the Victorian School of Speech and Hearing Science with a LACST (Licentiate of the Australian College of Speech Therapists, a forerunner of the Australian Association of Speech and Hearing, later to become Speech Pathology Australia) in 1970, and received her PhD degree in 1996 from Macquarie University, Australia. She also has qualifications in Speech and Drama from Trinity College London (ATCL performer 1964; LTCL teaching 1966) and a diploma in Family Therapy (1989) from the now disbanded Family Therapy Institute of Australia. She has worked extensively across Australia, Ireland and the UK and is regarded as an international expert in both clinical fields of children's speech sound disorders and in the use of technology to improve speech pathology practice. She is a Senior Honorary Research Fellow in Linguistics at Macquarie University in Australia, and an Honorary Research Fellow in Speech- Language Pathology at the University of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.
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Fig. 3: Neural mapping between phonetic map (local activation pattern for a specific phonetic state), motor plan state map (distributed activation pattern) and auditory state map (distributed activation pattern) as part of the ACT model. Only neural connections with the winner neuron within the phonetic map are shown A neural mapping connects two cortical neural maps. Neural mappings (in contrast to neural pathways) store training information by adjusting their neural link weights (see artificial neuron, artificial neural networks). Neural mappings are capable of generating or activating a distributed representation (see above) of a sensory or motor state within a sensory or motor map from a punctual or local activation within the other map (see for example the synaptic projection from speech sound map to motor map, to auditory target region map, or to somatosensory target region map in the DIVA model, explained below; or see for example the neural mapping from phonetic map to auditory state map and motor plan state map in the ACT model, explained below and Fig. 3).
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