735 Sentences With "fricative" | Random Sentence Generator

Luckily, dialect coach Erik Singer is here to help you distinguish a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative from a uvular plosive.

The reMarkable screen isn't made out of glass, but rather a more durable and fricative material that really does feel like writing on paper with a pen or pencil.

If much of what he has done since feels like theme and variation, it is because he is the grammarian of fashion, in love with the grammar he helped create, content to ring regular changes on the fricative.

V was used as both a consonant and a vowel in Latin, and so does not fit the pattern above either: it is a fricative (a consonant in which noise is produced by disrupting the airflow), named like a stop.

" To get technical about it, the first example makes a pleasing music out of the consonants in "kimchi pancake" and "pork-belly hash," with the note that scholars call a sibilant fricative (I think) coming back to close off the shebang with the first sound in "shout.

For the voiced pre-velar fricative, also called post-palatal, see voiced palatal fricative.

It is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol , the Greek chi, for the voiceless uvular fricative. There is also a voiceless post- velar fricative (also called pre-uvular) in some languages. For voiceless pre- velar fricative (also called post-palatal), see voiceless palatal fricative.

The voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative and voiced alveolo-palatal fricative are written and in the International Phonetic Alphabet.

The ⟨ch⟩ is a voiceless uvular fricative or voiceless velar fricative as in (: see ) in most varieties of German. The ⟨ll⟩ is a voiceless lateral fricative , a sound that does not occur in English.

The voiced alveolar tapped fricative reported from some languages is actually a very brief voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative.

Its major phonetic feature is the loss of the voiceless velar fricative x, which has become a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, ħ. The original voiceless pharyngeal fricative has retained that pronunciation. In all the other dialects of eastern Neo-Aramaic the opposite is true: the voiceless pharyngeal fricative has been lost and merged with the voiceless velar fricative. Another feature of Hértevin Neo-Aramaic is its set of demonstratives.

The voiced palato-alveolar fricative or voiced domed postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages.

There are also a few speakers who mix uvular and alveolar articulations. Among uvular articulations, he lists uvular trill , uvular fricative trill , uvular fricative and uvular approximant , which are used more or less equally often in all contexts. Almost all speakers with a uvular use all four of these realizations. Among alveolar articulations, he lists alveolar tap , voiced alveolar fricative , alveolar approximant , voiceless alveolar trill , alveolar tapped or trilled fricative , voiceless alveolar tap and voiceless alveolar fricative .

The other alveolar realizations include: a voiceless alveolar trill , a partially devoiced alveolar trill , a voiceless alveolar fricative tap/trill , a voiceless alveolar/postalveolar fricative (the least common realization), a voiced alveolar/postalveolar fricative and a voiced alveolar approximant . Among the uvular realizations, he lists a voiced uvular trill , a voiced uvular fricative trill , a voiced uvular fricative and a voiced uvular approximant , among which the uvular fricative trill is the most common realization. He also lists a central vowel (which probably means , or both of these) and elision of , both of which are very rare.

As a phonetic symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), it is used mainly for the so-called aspirations (fricative or trills), and variations of the plain letter are used to represent two sounds: the lowercase form represents the voiceless glottal fricative, and the small capital form represents the voiceless epiglottal fricative (or trill). With a bar, minuscule is used for a voiceless pharyngeal fricative. Specific to the IPA, a hooked is used for a voiced glottal fricative, and a superscript is used to represent aspiration.

Because the IPA symbol stands for the uvular fricative, the approximant may be specified by adding the downtack: , though some writingsSuch as . use a superscript , which is not an official IPA practice. For a voiced pre-uvular fricative (also called post-velar), see voiced velar fricative.

Especially in broad transcription, the voiceless post-palatal fricative may be transcribed as a palatalized voiceless velar fricative ( in the IPA, `x'` or `x_j` in X-SAMPA).

Alveolo-palatal fricative is a class of consonants in some oral languages. The consonants are sibilants, a variety of fricative. Their place of articulation is postalveolar. They differ in voicing.

Sha (Ш ш; italics: Ш ш) is a letter of the Glagolitic and Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the voiceless postalveolar fricative , like the pronunciation of sh in sheep or the somewhat similar voiceless retroflex fricative in Russian. More precisely, the sound in Russian denoted by ш is commonly transcribed as a palatoalveolar fricative but is actually a voiceless retroflex fricative. It is used in every variation of the Cyrillic alphabet for Slavic and non-Slavic languages.

However, in the local Karst dialect spoken in the lower Vipava Valley, /g/ has developed into the voiced glottal fricative /ɦ/, and often a voiceless glottal fricative at the end of words.

In Azerbaijani and Crimean Tatar, represents , the voiced velar fricative.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, represents a voiceless velar fricative.

Thus, in cases where a dialectal variation between voiceless uvular and velar fricatives is claimed the main difference between the two may be the trilling of the uvula as frication can be velar in both cases - compare Northern Dutch acht 'eight' (with a postvelar-uvular fricative trill) with Southern Dutch or , which features a non-trilled fricative articulated at the middle or front of the soft palate. For a voiceless pre-uvular fricative (also called post- velar), see voiceless velar fricative.

A voiced velopharyngeal fricative is . Velopharyngeal fricatives are frequently accompanied by uvular trill, in which case they may be written , or .A superscript ʀ is technically correct, but might be mistaken for a separate incompletely or lightly articulated uvular trill, so a dedicated letter 12px has been created for the fricative + trill. A posterior nasal fricative is a type of velopharyngeal fricative in which the soft palate approaches the pharyngeal wall without closing off the velopharyngeal port, allowing frication through the nasal passages.

Horrocks' transcription already has a fricative γ with a palatal allophone before front vowels.Note, however, that Horrocks has chosen to transcribe this sound as , rather than , assuming a palatal fricative and not an approximant value.

The International Phonetic Alphabet uses to represent the voiceless labiodental fricative.

Navajo lacks a clear distinction between phonetic fricatives and approximants. Although the pair ~ has been described as a fricative and an approximant, respectively, the lack of a consistent contrast between the two phonetic categories and a similar patterning with other fricative pairs suggests that they are better described as continuants. Additionally, observations have been made about the less fricative-like nature of and the more fricative-like nature of . ;Sonorants A more abstract analysis of Navajo posits two different phonemes (see the below for elaboration).

The epiglottal region produces the plosive as well as sounds that range from fricative to trill, and . Because the latter are most often trilled and rarely simply fricative, these consonants have been classified together as simply pharyngeal, and distinguished as plosive, fricative/approximant and trill.John Esling (2010) 'Phonetic Notation', in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, 2nd ed., p. 695.

The grapheme Ȟ, ȟ (H with caron) is a letter used in the Finnish Kalo language and the Lakota language. It represents a voiceless velar fricative in the former and a voiceless uvular fricative in the latter.

According to Påhlsson (1972),Påhlsson, C. (1972) The Northumbrian Burr. Lund: Gleerup. the Burr is typically pronounced as a voiced uvular fricative, often with accompanying lip-rounding (). Approximant, voiceless fricative, tapped and trilled uvular pronunciations occur occasionally.

Börje developed from Old Swedish Birghir which was pronounced with a voiced velar fricative [ɣ]: [birɣir]. The voiced velar fricative was spelled ⟨gh⟩ i Old SwedishElias Wessén, Svensk språkhistoria I: Ljudlära och ordböjningslära. Fourth edition. Stockholm 1955.

The tables below show common sound changes involved in lenition. In some cases, lenition may skip one of the sound changes. The change voiceless stop > fricative is more common than the series of changes voiceless stop > affricate > fricative.

In Haida, a language isolate, the letter ĝ was sometimes used to represent pharyngeal voiced fricative In Aleut, an Eskimo-Aleut language, ĝ represents a voiced uvular fricative . The corresponding voiceless Aleut sound is represented by x̂. In Dutch, the letter ĝ is used in some phrase books and dictionaries for pronunciation help. It represents a plosive , because g is pronounced as a fricative in Dutch.

A voiceless palato-alveolar fricative or voiceless domed postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in many languages, including English. In English, it is usually spelled , as in ship. Postalveolar fricative The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , the letter esh introduced by Isaac Pitman (not to be confused with the integral symbol ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `S`.

The lenis obstruents Mangold transcribes the voiced palatal fricative with the symbol : as if it were an approximant. However, he explicitly states that is the lenis fricative counterpart of the fortis fricative (). It is also worth noting that among the lenis obstruents as well as the fortis counterpart of the () appear only in loanwords. are fully voiced after voiceless obstruents so abdanken 'to resign' is pronounced .

Voiced and voiceless tapped alveolar fricatives have been reported from a few languages. Flapped fricatives are possible but do not seem to be used.Laver (1994) Principles of Phonetics, p. 263. See voiced alveolar tapped fricative, voiceless alveolar tapped fricative.

The Wojokeso has fifteen simple and six complex consonant phonemes. The points of articulation include bilabial, alveolar, alveopalatal and velar. The bilabial fricative phoneme is /p/, alveolar resonant phoneme /I/, alveopalatal stop phoneme /j/ and velar fricative phoneme /h/.

Telugu has ĉ and ĵ, which are not represented in Sanskrit. Their pronunciation is similar to the "s" sound in the word treasure (i.e., the postalveolar voiced fricative) and "z" sound in zebra, i.e., the alveolar voiced fricative, respectively.

Zain is a consonant with the sound which is a voiced alveolar fricative.

In Kashubian, sz represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative , identical to the English "sh".

The final vowel of happy is . It favors open syllables, usually omitting syllable-final , , or a fricative. The interdental fricatives appear as in syllable-initial position (such as thing and this having respective pronunciations of ting and dis), and as finally. The glottal fricative is preserved, as is the voiceless labio-velar fricative (in such words as whit and which in contrast to voiced in wit and wish).

', or ' (), is one of the six letters the Arabic alphabet added to the twenty- two inherited from the Phoenician alphabet (the others being , , , , ). In Classical Arabic, it represents a velarized voiced dental fricative , and in Modern Standard Arabic, it can also be a pharyngealized, voiced dental fricative or voiced alveolar fricative . In name and shape, it is a variant of . Its numerical value is 900 (see Abjad numerals).

64 Sani commonly represents the voiceless alveolar fricative , like the pronunciation of in "see".

115 Khani commonly represents the voiceless velar fricative , like the pronunciation of in "bach".

120 Hae commonly represents the voiceless glottal fricative , like the pronunciation of in "head".

31 Vini commonly represents the voiced labiodental fricative , like the pronunciation of in "vine".

32 Zeni commonly represents the voiced alveolar fricative , like the pronunciation of in "zebra".

A seminal insight into how the Germanic languages diverged from their Indo-European ancestor had been established in the early nineteenth century, and had been formulated as Grimm's law. Amongst other things, Grimm's law described how the Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops ', ', ', and regularly changed into Proto-Germanic (bilabial fricative ), (dental fricative ), (velar fricative ), and (velar fricative ).R.D. Fulk, A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages, Studies in Germanic Linguistics, 3 (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2018), , , p. 102. However, there appeared to be a large set of words in which the agreement of Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Baltic, Slavic etc.

Nahuatl word "Huaxyacac" was transliterated as "Oaxaca" using Medieval Spanish orthography, in which the x represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative (, the equivalent of English sh in "shop"), making "Oaxaca" pronounced as . However, during the sixteenth century the voiceless fricative sound evolved into a voiceless velar fricative (, like the ch in Scottish "loch"), and Oaxaca began to be pronounced . In present-day Spanish, Oaxaca is pronounced or , the latter pronunciation used mostly in dialects of southern Mexico, the Caribbean, much of Central America, some places in South America, and the Canary Islands and western Andalusia in Spain where has become a voiceless glottal fricative ().

Another feature of South Ulster English is the drop in pitch on stressed syllables. A prominent phonetic feature of South Ulster is the realisation of /t/ as a fricative with identical characteristics of the stop, i.e. an apico-alveolar fricative in weak positions.

The nonstandard symbols are commonly used to transcribe these vowels in place of or , respectively. The term apical vowel should not be taken as synonymous with syllabic fricative, as e.g., the bilabial syllabic fricative in Liangshan Yi is not pronounced with the tongue.

99 Ghani commonly represents the voiced velar fricative , like the pronunciation of French-like R.

In Koine Greek and later dialects it became a fricative (/) along with Θ and Φ.

Another common phonological alternation of Yup'ik is word-final fortition. Only the stops /t k q/, the nasals /m n ŋ/, and the fricative /χ/ may occur word-finally. Any other fricative (and in many cases also /χ/) will become a plosive when it occurs at the end of a word. For example, qayar-pak "big kayak" is pronounced [qajaχpak], while "kayak" alone is [qajaq]; the velar fricative becomes a stop word-finally.

The voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ("z", plus the curl also found in its voiceless counterpart ), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `z\`. It is the sibilant equivalent of the voiced palatal fricative. The voiced alveolo- palatal sibilant fricative does not occur in any major dialect of English.

Among all the 28 consonants, voiced and voiceless plosives are present along with voiceless aspirated plosives. Sounds like nasals, trills, retroflex flap, lateral and retroflex laterals all occur in this language. There are also two approximants in the Jarawa language, these being labial and palatal, along with a few fricatives like the pharyngeal fricative and the bilabial fricative. Two labialised consonants also exist, such as the pharyngeal fricative and voiceless aspirated velar plosive.

500x500px In Classical Arabic, it represents a velarized voiced dental fricative , and in Modern Standard Arabic, it can also be a pharyngealized, voiced dental fricative or voiced alveolar fricative . In most Arabic vernaculars ẓāʾ and ḍād have been merged quite early. The outcome depends on the dialect. In those varieties (such as Egyptian, Levantine and Hejazi), where the dental fricatives , are merged with the dental stops , , ẓāʾ is pronounced or depending on the word; e.g.

The voiceless fricative /f/ is sometimes voiced fafi -> [favi]. In rapid speech the voiceless fricative /x/ is sometimes voiced ere [exe] -> [eƔe]. The use of [r] is not conditioned by a phonological rule. Older generations of Wuvulu-Aua speakers still use the [r] phone.

Kashubian ż is a voiced fricative like in Polish, but it is postalveolar () rather than retroflex.

Unicode offers ȥ "z with hook" as a grapheme for Middle High German coronal fricative instead.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the minuscule chi is the symbol for the voiceless uvular fricative.

Kha represents the voiceless uvular fricative in Ossetian. The digraph ⟨хъ⟩ represents the voiceless uvular plosive .

The phoneme has three different pronunciations depending on the dialect area: # An alveolar retracted fricative (or "apico-alveolar" fricative) sounds a bit like English and is characteristic of the northern and central parts of Spain and is also used by many speakers in Colombia's Antioquia department. # A alveolar grooved fricative , much like the most common pronunciation of English , is characteristic of western Andalusia (e.g. Málaga, Seville, and Cádiz), Canary Islands, and Latin America. # An dental grooved fricative (ad hoc symbol), which has a lisping quality and sounds something like a cross between English and but is different from the occurring in dialects that distinguish and .

The consonant series are tenuis stop, aspirate, voiced, prenasalized, voiceless nasal, voiced nasal, voiceless fricative, voiced fricative, respectively. In addition, hl, l are laterals, and hx is . V, w, ss, r, y are the voiced fricatives. With stops and affricates, voicing is shown by doubling the letter.

The voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some oral languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ("c", plus the curl also found in its voiced counterpart ). It is the sibilant equivalent of the voiceless palatal fricative, and as such it can be transcribed in IPA with . In British Received Pronunciation, after syllable-initial (as in Tuesday) is realized as a devoiced palatal fricative.

In the Roman Swahili alphabet, is used to represent the voiced velar fricative () in Arabic origin words.

Numbami distinguishes 5 vowels and 18 consonants. Voiceless /s/ is a fricative, but its voiced and prenasalized equivalents are affricated, varying between more alveolar and more palatalized . The liquid /l/ is usually rendered as a flap . The labial approximant is slightly fricative, tending toward , when followed by front vowels.

The voiceless labialized velar (labiovelar) approximant (traditionally called a voiceless labiovelar fricative) is a type of consonantal sound, used in spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is (a rotated lowercase letter ) or . is generally called a "fricative" for historical reasons, but in English, the language for which the letter is primarily used, it is a voiceless approximant, equivalent to or . The symbol is rarely appropriated for a labialized voiceless velar fricative, , in other languages.

In the Malay and Indonesian alphabet, is used to represent the voiced velar fricative () in Arabic origin words.

In Middle English, ough was regularly pronounced with a back rounded vowel and a velar fricative (e.g., , , , or ).

When Pe appears without the dagesh dot in its center ('), then it usually represents a voiceless labiodental fricative .

The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "slit" fricative) is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed , occasionally (retracted or alveolarized , respectively), (constricted voiceless ), or (lowered ). Few languages also have the voiceless alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur.

It represents the voiceless postalveolar affricate (as in English "church") in Albanian, Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Friulian, Kurdish, Tatar, Turkish (as in ', ', ', '), and Turkmen. It is also sometimes used this way in Manx, to distinguish it from the velar fricative. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨ç⟩ represents the voiceless palatal fricative.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet and other modern Latin-alphabet based phonetic notations, it represents the voiced velar fricative.

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-234 is used to represent a voiceless alveolar fricative, ie /s/..

When this letter appears as ' without the dagesh ("dot") in its center then it represents a voiced labiodental fricative: .

A dot added below Jajja (ਜ਼) denotes that it has to be pronounced as the voiced alveolar fricative /z/.

In medieval Cornish manuscripts, yogh was used to represent the voiced dental fricative , as in its , now written , pronounced .

A successful voiced fricative thus requires a delicate balance between meeting the aerodynamic needs for both voicing and frication.

The voiceless velar fricative , spelled , is associated with some unusual patterns in many dialects of Irish. For one thing, its presence after the vowel triggers behavior atypical of short vowels; for another, and its slender counterpart interchange with the voiceless glottal fricative in a variety of ways, and can sometimes be deleted altogether.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), represents the voiceless dental fricative, as in thick or thin. It does not represent the consonant in the, which is the voiced dental fricative. A similar-looking symbol, [ɵ], which is described as a lowercase barred o, indicates in the IPA a close-mid central rounded vowel.

When aspirated consonants are doubled or geminated, the stop is held longer and then has an aspirated release. An aspirated affricate consists of a stop, fricative, and aspirated release. A doubled aspirated affricate has a longer hold in the stop portion and then has a release consisting of the fricative and aspiration.

That occurs in southern Peninsular Spanish dialects of the "ceceo" type, which have replaced the former hissing fricative with , leaving only . Languages with no sibilants are fairly rare. Most have no fricatives at all or only the fricative . Examples include most Australian languages, and Rotokas, and what is generally reconstructed for Proto-Bantu.

In English, the digraph represents in most cases one of two different phonemes: the voiced dental fricative (as in this) and the voiceless dental fricative (thing). More rarely, it can stand for (Thailand, Thames) or the cluster (eighth). In compound words, may be a consonant sequence rather than a digraph, as in the of lighthouse.

Although clearly fricatives, these are further forward than velars in most languages, and might better be called prevelar. Archi also has a voiced fricative, as well as a voiceless and several ejective lateral velar affricates, but no alveolar lateral fricatives or affricates. In New Guinea, some of the Chimbu–Wahgi languages such as Melpa, Middle Wahgi, and Nii, have a voiceless velar lateral fricative, which they write with a double-bar el (Ⱡ, ⱡ). This sound also appears in syllable coda position as an allophone of the voiced velar lateral fricative in Kuman.

Take for instance the presence of aspirated and unaspirated alveolar stops that both appear frequently in English, oftentimes without the speaker knowing about the existence of two allophones instead of one. In other languages the difference between these two allophones is obvious and significant to the meaning of the word. There is also the example of Arabic, which has two sounds that an English speaker would hear and classify as a voiced glottal fricative, only one of which is actually a voiced glottal fricative. The other, written as ⟨ħ⟩, is a voiceless pharyngeal fricative.

As wildcards, for {consonant} and for {vowel} are ubiquitous. Other common capital-letter symbols are for {tone/accent} (tonicity), for {nasal}, for {plosive}, for {fricative}, for {sibilant}, is particularly ambiguous. It has been used for 'stop', 'fricative', 'sibilant', 'sonorant' and 'semivowel'. The illustrations given here use, as much as possible, letters that are capital versions of members of the sets they stand for: IPA [n] is a nasal, [p] a plosive, [f] a fricative, [s] a sibilant, [l] a liquid, [r] both a rhotic and a resonant, and [ʞ] a click.

This would then simplify to in the contexts of clusters involving other voiceless fricatives due to resulting difficult pronunciations, e.g. or , c.f. . On the other hand, there is no specific evidence of the transition of consonant from aspirate to fricative in the Koine Greek period. There is evidence for fricative in Laconian in the 5th century BC,e.g.

The voiceless palatal lateral fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in a few spoken languages. This sound is somewhat rare; Dahalo has both a palatal lateral fricative and an affricate; Hadza has a series of affricates. In Bura, it is the realization of palatalized and contrasts with . The IPA has no dedicated symbol for this sound.

The Cyrillic letter Ge stroke or Ayn (in Kazakh) (Ғ,ғ) is a Г with a horizontal stroke. It is used in Kazakh and Uzbek where it represents a voiced uvular fricative . Despite having a similar shape, it is not related to the F of the Latin alphabet. In Kazakh, this letter may also represent the voiced velar fricative .

') (Lysistrata 142 and 1263), for ('sacrificial victim') (Histories book 5, chapter 77)., , , These spellings indicate that was pronounced as a dental fricative or a sibilant , the same change that occurred later in Koine. Greek spelling, however, does not have a letter for a labial or velar fricative, so it is impossible to tell whether also changed to .

The southern dialect varies between and , but it is not clear whether the letter represents a trill or a non-sibilant fricative.

A graphical variant of is , which has been adopted into the International Phonetic Alphabet as the sign for the voiced postalveolar fricative.

In Modern Israeli Hebrew (and Ashkenazi Hebrew, although not under strict pronunciation), the letter Chet () usually has the sound value of a voiceless uvular fricative (), as the historical phonemes of the letters ח () and כ () merged, both becoming the voiceless uvular fricative (). In more rare phonologies, it is pronounced as a voiceless pharyngeal fricative () and is still among Mizrahi Jews (especially among the older generation and popular Mizrahi singers, mostly Yemenite Jews), in accordance with oriental Jewish traditions (see, e.g., Mizrahi Hebrew and Yemenite Hebrew). The ability to pronounce the Arabic letter ' () correctly as a voiceless pharyngeal fricative is often used as a shibboleth to distinguish Arabic-speakers from non-Arabic-speakers; in particular, pronunciation of the letter as is seen as a hallmark of Ashkenazi Jews and Greek Jews.

The phone is actually a laminal voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative . The corresponding voiced phone is similar, but is apical rather than laminal .

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-1346 is used to represent a voiceless velar fricative, i.e. /x/, or otherwise as needed..

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-12356 is used to represent a voiced pharyngeal fricative, i.e. /ʕ/, or otherwise as needed..

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, Greek minuscule beta denotes a voiced bilabial fricative . A superscript version may also indicate a compressed vowel, like .

The bilabial ejective fricative is a rare type of consonantal sound. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .

A voiceless labiodental affricate ( in IPA) is a rare affricate consonant that is initiated as a labiodental stop and released as a voiceless labiodental fricative . The XiNkuna dialect of Tsonga has this affricate, as in "hippopotamuses" and aspirated "distance" (compare "tortoise", which shows that the stop is not epenthetic), as well as a voiced labiodental affricate, , as in "chin". There is no voiceless labiodental fricative in this dialect of Tsonga, only a voiceless bilabial fricative, as in "finished". (Among voiced fricatives, both and occur, however.) German has a similar sound in Pfeffer ('pepper') and Apfel ('apple').

An affricate is a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative, generally with the same place of articulation (most often coronal). It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single phoneme or a consonant pair.Peter Roach, English Phonetics and Phonology Glassary , 2009 English has two affricate phonemes, and , often spelled ch and j, respectively.

The alphabet on black-figure pottery with a lambda-shaped gamma Gamma (uppercase , lowercase ; gámma) is the third letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 3. In Ancient Greek, the letter gamma represented a voiced velar stop . In Modern Greek, this letter represents either a voiced velar fricative or a voiced palatal fricative.

The amount of devoicing is variable, but the fully voiceless variant tends to be alveolo-palatal in the sequence: . It is a fricative, rather than a fricative element of an affricate because the preceding plosive remains alveolar, rather than becoming alveolo-palatal, as in Dutch., . The first source specifies the place of articulation of after as more front than the main allophone of .

The voiceless pharyngeal fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is an h-bar, . In the transcription of Arabic, Hebrew and other scripts, it is often written , . Typically characterized as a fricative in the upper pharynx, it is often characterized as a whispered [h].

The voiced pharyngeal approximant or fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `?\`. Epiglottals and epiglotto-pharyngeals are often mistakenly taken to be pharyngeal. Although traditionally placed in the fricative row of the IPA chart, is usually an approximant.

Consequently, Adam's text no longer shows long ā. Kortlandts version is a radical deviation from the prior texts in a number of ways. First, he followed the glottalic theory, writing glottalic plosives with a following apostrophe (t’) and omitting aspirated voiced plosives. Second, he substitutes the abstract laryngeal signs with their supposed phonetic values: ' = ' (glottal stop), ' = ' (pharyngeal fricative), ' = ' (pharyngeal fricative with lip rounding).

Szadzenie ( is a regional phonological feature of the Polish language. It consists in replacement or merger of dental affricate (c, dz) and dental fricative (s, z) into their retroflex counterparts i.e. retroflex affricate (cz, dż) and retroflex fricative (sz, ż), respectively. Szadzenie is an example of hypercorrection and exaggerated avoidance of Mazurzenie which is phonetically marked as rural and incorrect.

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-146 is used to represent a Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative, i.e. /ʃ/ and otherwise as needed..

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-1456 is used to represent a voiceless dental fricative, i.e. /θ/, and is otherwise assigned as needed..

Features of the voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative: It does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.

Features of the voiced dental non-sibilant fricative: It does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.

The fricative may also appear in borrowings from other languages, such as Nahuatl and English. In addition, the affricates and also occur in Nahuatl borrowings.

The term aspiration sometimes refers to the sound change of debuccalization, in which a consonant is lenited (weakened) to become a glottal stop or fricative .

The voiceless retroflex lateral fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The IPA has no symbol for this sound. However, the "belt" of the voiceless lateral fricative is combined with the tail of the retroflex consonants to create the extIPA letter : :alt=, <ɭ with belt> In 2008, the Unicode Technical Committee accepted the letter as , included in Unicode 6.0.

The voiceless bidental fricative is a rare consonantal sound used in some languages. The only natural language known to use it is the Shapsug dialect of Adyghe. It is also used for a geminate voiceless glottal fricative (so phonemically ) in the original version of the constructed language Ithkuil,The Phonology of Ithkuil, see section 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions its offshoot Ilaksh,The Phonology of Ilaksh, see section 1.2.

The voiceless alveolar tap or flap is rare as a phoneme. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , a combination of the letter for the voiced alveolar tap/flap and a diacritic indicating voicelessness. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `4_0`. The voiceless alveolar tapped fricative reported from some languages is actually a very brief voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative.

The voiceless upper-pharyngeal plosive or stop is a rare consonant. Pharyngeal consonants are typically pronounced at two regions of the pharynx, upper and lower. The lower region is epiglottal, so the upper region is often abbreviated as merely 'pharyngeal'. Among widespread speech sounds in the world's languages, the upper pharynx produces a voiceless fricative and a voiced sound that ranges from fricative to (more commonly) approximant, .

The voiced upper-pharyngeal plosive or stop is a rare consonant. Pharyngeal consonants are typically pronounced at two regions of the pharynx, upper and lower. The lower region is epiglottal, so the upper region is often abbreviated as merely 'pharyngeal'. Among widespread speech sounds in the world's languages, the upper pharynx produces a voiceless fricative and a voiced sound that ranges from fricative to (more commonly) approximant, .

In Modern Greek, it has two distinct pronunciations: In front of high or front vowels ( or ) it is pronounced as a voiceless palatal fricative , as in German ich or like the h in some pronunciations of the English words hew and human. In front of low or back vowels (, or ) and consonants, it is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative (), as in German ach.

Occasionally, represents the original sound, as in Hallelujah and fjord (see Yodh for details). In words of Spanish origin, where represents the voiceless velar fricative (such as jalapeño), English speakers usually approximate with the voiceless glottal fricative . In English, is the fourth least frequently used letter in words, being more frequent only than , , and . It is, however, quite common in proper nouns, especially personal names.

The Nahuatl word Mēxihco () was transliterated as "México" using Medieval Spanish orthography, in which the x represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative (, the equivalent of English sh in "shop"), making "México" pronounced as . At the time, Spanish j represented the voiced postalveolar fricative (, like the English s in "vision", or French j today). However, by the end of the fifteenth century j had evolved into a voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant as well, and thus both x and j represented the same sound (). During the sixteenth century this sound evolved into a voiceless velar fricative (, like the ch in Scottish "loch"), and México began to be pronounced .

In standard English, the phonetic realization of the dental fricative phonemes shows less variation than for many other English consonants. Both are pronounced either interdentally, with the blade of the tongue resting against the lower part of the back of the upper teeth and the tip protruding slightly, or with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth. These two positions may be in free variation, but for some speakers they are in complementary distribution, the position behind the teeth being used when the dental fricative stands in proximity to an alveolar fricative or , as in myths () or clothes (). Lip configuration may vary depending on phonetic context.

Letter Shaviyani (ށ) is the second letter of the Thaana alphabet. It represents the voiceless retroflex fricative , and is only found at the ends of words.

Features of the voiced uvular fricative: In many languages it is closer to an approximant, however, and no language distinguishes the two at the uvular articulation.

In several Germanic languages, including German and Yiddish, ch represents the voiceless velar fricative . In Rheinische Dokumenta, ch represents , as opposed to _ch_ , which stands for .

A voiced labiodental affricate ( in IPA) is a rare affricate consonant that is initiated as a voiced labiodental stop and released as a voiced labiodental fricative .

Glottal stops are written with an apostrophe. The fricative /ʃ/ is written as . Wyandot uses a different orthography from Wendat that explicitly indicates allophones of consonants (e.g. , ).

The Tatar language is mainly written in Cyrillic, but a Latin-based alphabet is also in use. In the Latin alphabet, ğ represents , the voiced uvular fricative.

The alveolar ejective fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .

The voiceless bilabial fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .

Features of the voiceless palatal fricative: The otherwise identical post-palatal variant is articulated slightly behind the hard palate, making it sound slightly closer to the velar .

Features of the voiced palatal fricative: The otherwise identical post-palatal variant is articulated slightly behind the hard palate, making it sound slightly closer to the velar .

The retroflex ejective fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .

The voiced retroflex lateral fricative is a type of consonantal sound. The IPA has no symbol for this sound, though there is an extIPA letter for it.

The discussion in the article is about assimilation and an affricative daleth and in the footnote Morgenstern is suddenly talking about the elision of a fricative daleth.

The voiceless velar lateral fricative is a very rare speech sound. As one element of an affricate, it is found for example in Zulu and Xhosa (see velar lateral ejective affricate). However, a simple fricative has only been reported from a few languages in the Caucasus and New Guinea. Archi, a Northeast Caucasian language of Dagestan, has four voiceless velar lateral fricatives: plain , labialized , fortis , and labialized fortis .

In the English writing system is used to represent the sound , the voiceless labiodental fricative. It is often doubled at the end of words. Exceptionally, it represents the voiced labiodental fricative in the common word "of". F is the twelfth least frequently used letter in the English language (after C, G, Y, P, B, V, K, J, X, Q, and Z), with a frequency of about 2.23% in words.

As a group of eastern Persian varieties which are considered the more formal and classical varieties of Persian, Hazaragi retains the voiced fricative , and the bilabial articulation of has borrowed the (rare) retroflexes and ; as in buṭ (meaning "boot") vs. but (meaning "idol") (cf. Persian '); and rarely articulates . The convergence of voiced uvular stop (ق) and voiced velar fricative (غ) in Western Persian (probably under the influence of Turkic languages)A.

The voiced uvular fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , an inverted small uppercase letter , or in broad transcription if rhotic. This consonant is one of several collectively called guttural R when found in European languages. The voiced uvular approximant is also found interchangeably with the fricative, and may also be transcribed as .

The voiceless palatal fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `C`. It is the non-sibilant equivalent of the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative. The symbol ç is the letter c with a cedilla, as used to spell French and Portuguese words such as façade and ação.

The sound change affected sequences of vowel + nasal consonant + fricative consonant. ("Spirant" is an older term for "fricative".) The sequences in question are -ns-, -mf-, and -nþ-, preceded by any vowel. The nasal consonant disappeared, sometimes causing nasalization and compensatory lengthening of the vowel before it. The nasalization disappeared relatively soon after in many dialects along the coast, but it was retained long enough to prevent Anglo-Frisian brightening of to .

The source uses the symbol for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative for the fricative part of this sound (), but also indicates the sound to be prevelar. Zulu and Xhosa have a voiceless lateral affricate as an allophone of their voiceless velar affricate. Hadza has an ejective velar lateral affricate as an allophone of its velar ejective affricate. Indeed, in Hadza this contrasts with a palatal lateral ejective affricate, .

4th century BC to 4th century AD), its pronunciation shifted to that of a voiceless bilabial fricative (), and by the Byzantine Greek period (c. 4th century AD to 15th century AD) it developed its modern pronunciation as a voiceless labiodental fricative (). The romanization of the Modern Greek phoneme is therefore usually . It may be that phi originated as the letter qoppa, and initially represented the sound before shifting to Classical Greek .

In addition to less turbulence, approximants also differ from fricatives in the precision required to produce them. When emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated (that is, the airstream may become slightly turbulent), which is reminiscent of fricatives. For example, the Spanish word ayuda ('help') features a palatal approximant that is pronounced as a fricative in emphatic speech. Spanish can be analyzed as having a meaningful distinction between fricative, approximant, and intermediate .

Bura-Pabir (also known as Bura, Burra, Bourrah, Pabir, Babir, Babur, Barburr, Mya Bura, Kwojeffa, Huve, Huviya) is a Chadic language spoken in Nigeria. Dialects are Pela, Bura Pela, Hill Bura, Hyil Hawul, Bura Hyilhawul, and Plain Bura. Bura has been reported to contrast a voiceless palatal lateral fricative, , which is quite rare. There are thus five laterals in Bura: , though can be analyzed as a palatalized fricative, .

Typographic variants include a double-story and single-story g. In the early stages of the alphabet, the typographic variants of g, opentail (8px) and looptail (8px), represented different values, but are now regarded as equivalents. Opentail has always represented a voiced velar plosive, while was distinguished from and represented a voiced velar fricative from 1895 to 1900. Subsequently, represented the fricative, until 1931 when it was replaced again by .

The alveolo-palatal ejective fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .

In Irish, represents (the voiced velar fricative) and (the voiced palatal approximant). Word-initially it represents the lenition of , for example mo ghiall "my jaw" (cf. giall "jaw").

For example: :Tag. kasalanan > Tb. asalanan ‘sin’ :Tag. Kinarawan > Tb. Inaruan ‘river name’ :Tag. katay > Tb. ate ‘kill (root word)’ /f/ voiceless labiodental fricative environment: syllable initial only.

The palato-alveolar ejective fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .

The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), it can represent the sound as in a number of ways including or (retracted or alveolarized , respectively), (constricted ), or (lowered ). Few languages also have the voiced alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. It can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show that full occlusion does not occur.

The voiced velar lateral fricative is a very rare speech sound that can be found in Archi, a Northeast Caucasian language of Dagestan, in which it is clearly a fricative, although further forward than velars in most languages, and might better be called prevelar. Archi also has various voiceless fricatives and voiceless and ejective affricates at the same place of articulation. (The source uses the symbol for the voiced alveolar lateral fricative (), but also indicates the sound to be prevelar.) It occurs as an intervocalic allophone of in Nii and perhaps some related Wahgi languages of New Guinea. The IPA has no dedicated symbol for this sound, but it can be transcribed as a raised velar lateral approximant, .

Most Romance languages have maintained the distinction between a phoneme and a phoneme : a voiced bilabial stop and a voiced, usually labiodental, fricative, respectively. Instances of the phoneme could be inherited directly from Latin (unless between vowels), or they could result from the voicing of Latin between vowels. The phoneme was generally derived either from an allophone of Latin between vowels or from the Latin phoneme corresponding to the letter ⟨v⟩ (pronounced in Classical Latin but later fortified to the status of a fricative consonant in Vulgar Latin). In most Romance-speaking regions, had labiodental articulation, but in Old Spanish, which still distinguished /b/ and /v/, the latter was probably realized as a bilabial fricative .

The voiceless alveolar fricative trill is not known to occur as a phoneme in any language, except possibly the East Sakhalin dialect of Nivkh. It occurs allophonically in Czech.

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-126 is used to represent a voiced dorsal fricative or aspirate, such as /ɣ/, /ʁ/, or /gʱ/, or otherwise as needed..

The voiceless labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in a number of spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .

One case study found that a 17-month-old child acquiring German replaced the voiceless velar fricative with the nearest available continuant , or deleted it altogether ( 'book' pronounced or ).

Unusually among Australian languages, Barrow Point had at least two fricative phonemes, and . They usually developed from and , respectively, when preceded by a stressed long vowel, which then shortened.

The majority of Assyriologists deem an alveolar trill or tap the most likely pronunciation of Akkadian /r/ in most dialects. However, there are several indications toward a velar or uvular fricative ~ particularly supported by John Huehnergard.John Huehnergard and Christopher Woods (2004), Akkadian and Eblaite, in: Roger D. Woodard Roger (ed.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, Cambridge, p.230-231. The main arguments constitute alternations with the voiceless uvular fricative (e.g.

It was used in the Jaᶇalif alphabet (as a part of Uniform Turkic Alphabet) for the Tatar language in the first half of the 20th century to represent a voiced postalveolar fricative , now written j. It was also used in the 1992 Latin Chechen spelling as voiced postalveolar fricative . It was also used in a 1931 variant of the Karelian alphabet for the Tver dialect. The 1931-1941 Mongolian Latin alphabet used it to represent .

In Czech it is used to denote , a raised alveolar non-sonorant trill and it is an allophone of 'rz' in Polish. Its manner of articulation is similar to other alveolar trills but the tongue is raised; it is partially fricative. It is usually voiced, , but it also has a voiceless allophone occurring in the vicinity of voiceless consonants or at the end of a word. In Upper Sorbian, it denotes the voiceless postalveolar fricative .

In present-day Spanish, México is pronounced or , the latter pronunciation used mostly in dialects of southern Mexico, the Caribbean, much of Central America, some places in South America, and the Canary Islands and western Andalusia in Spain where has become a voiceless glottal fricative (),Canfield, D[elos] Lincoln (1981), Spanish Pronunciation in the Americas while in Chile and Peruvian coast where voiceless palatal fricative is an allophone of before palatal vowels .

Gheada () is a term in Galician to describe the debuccalisation of the voiced velar stop to a voiceless pharyngeal fricative . Although it is found throughout Galicia, its use is declining in Lugo and eastern Ourense, and it is rarely encountered in education or broadcasting. However, it is neither considered incorrect nor stigmatised, and it is perfectly acceptable in speech. Occasionally, the sound is articulated as a voiceless velar fricative , as in Castilian jamón.

The English "Pygmalion" comes from the Ancient Greek "Πυγμαλίων" Pugmalíōn. The Greek lemma in turn mostly likely comes from the Phoenician "𐤐𐤏𐤌𐤉𐤕𐤍‎", transliterated as p‘mytn. Ancient Semitic languages contained a distinct voiced velar fricative (/ɣ/ sound) which was denoted by a letter called Ayin. However, that letter more commonly denoted another phoneme, the voiced pharyngeal fricative (/ʕ/), and over time, the latter pronunciation gradually absorbed /ɣ/ until it was no longer preserved.

On the phonetic level, the classical consonants and are usually realised as voiced (hereafter marked ) and . The latter is still, however, pronounced differently from , the distinction probably being in the amount of air blown out (Cohen 1963: 13–14). In geminated and word-final positions both phonemes are voiceless, for some speakers /θ/ apparently in all positions. The uvular fricative is likewise realised voiceless in a geminated position, although not fricative but plosive: .

' is the voiceless palatal fricative (which is found in the word 'I'), and ' is the voiceless velar fricative (which is found in the word the interjection 'oh', 'alas'). is the German word for 'sound, phone'. In German, these two sounds are allophones occurring in complementary distribution. The allophone occurs after back vowels and (for instance in 'book'), the allophone after front vowels (for instance in 'me/myself') and consonants (for instance in 'fear', 'sometimes').

Dutch ch was originally voiceless, while g was voiced. In the northern Netherlands, both ch and g are voiceless, while in the southern Netherlands and Flanders the voiceless/voiced distinction is upheld. The voiceless fricative is pronounced [x] or [χ] in the north and [ç] in the south, while the voiced fricative is pronounced [ɣ] in the north (i.e. the northern parts of the area that still has this distinction) and [ʝ] in the south.

The letter Ƣ (minuscule: ƣ) has been used in the Latin orthographies of various, mostly Turkic languages, such as Azeri or the Jaꞑalif orthography for Tatar.Some examples of LATIN LETTER OI (gha) (U+01A2, U+01A3) in Tatar and Uighur printing, with remarks on the recommended glyphs. It is also included in Pinyin for Kazakh and Uyghur. It usually represents a voiced velar fricative but is sometimes used for a voiced uvular fricative .

The velar stops are palatalized before front vowels or at the end of a syllable. In Classical Persian, the uvular consonants and denoted the original Arabic phonemes, the fricative and the plosive , respectively. In modern Tehrani Persian (which is used in the Iranian mass media, both colloquial and standard), there is no difference in the pronunciation of and . The actual realisation is usually that of a voiced stop , but a voiced fricative ~ is common intervocalically.

The World Atlas of Language Structures claims that Maxakalí has no contrastive fricative or nasal consonants, citing "Gudschinski et al. 1970". It is important to note that WALS did not consider [h] to be a true fricative in this judgement. The phonological status of the nasal consonants is ambiguous; Silva (2020) argues that in modern Maxakalí they are becoming contrastive through phonologization, even though until recently nasal consonants occurred only as allophones of voiced obstruents.

In standard Russian, Ghe represents the voiced velar plosive but is devoiced to word-finally or before a voiceless consonant. It represents before a palatalizing vowel. In the Southern Russian dialect, the sound becomes the velar fricative . Sometimes, the sound is the glottal fricative in the regions bordering Belarus and Ukraine. It is acceptable, for some people, to pronounce certain Russian words with (sometimes referred to as Ukrainian Ge): (Bog, bogatyj, blago, Gospod’).

The following excerpt, the beginning of the Gospel of John, is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a progressive popular variety of Koiné in the early Christian era.Horrocks (1997: 94). Modernizing features include the loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongization, transition to stress accent, and raising of to . Also seen here are the bilabial fricative pronunciation of diphthongs and , loss of initial , fricative values for and , and partial post-nasal voicing of voiceless stops.

Two-thirds of these, or 10 percent of all languages, have unpaired voiced fricatives but no voicing contrast between any fricative pair.Maddieson, Ian. Patterns of Sounds. Cambridge University Press, 1984. .

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-2346 is used to represent a voiced alveolar fricative or aspirate, such as /ð/ or /dʱ/, and is otherwise assigned as needed..

The letter Һ occurs before the letters П, Т, К, Ц and Ч, and marks (historical) preaspiration. The actual pronunciation, however, varies between true preaspiration or the fricative sounds , , or .

In the area around the Río de la Plata (Argentina, Uruguay), this phoneme is pronounced as a palatoalveolar sibilant fricative, either as voiced or, especially by young speakers, as voiceless .

The word "loch" is sometimes used as a shibboleth to identify natives of England, because the fricative sound is used in Scotland whereas most English people pronounce the word like "lock".

Laz is written using two alphabets: the Georgian script and an extended Turkish Latin alphabet. In the Latin alphabet, represents , the voiced velar fricative, and corresponds to the Georgian letter ghani.

Diphthongs and lost their ancient value of and fortified to a fricative consonantal pronunciation of or , through the likely intermediate stages of and then Horrocks 2010: 169Comparable to the modern pronunciation of (partially assimilated to before voiceless consonants , , , , , , , , and , this assimilation being undated). Sporadic confusions of with , which attest a fricative pronunciation, are found as early as 3rd century BC Boeotia and in 2nd century BC Egypt.In Egypt ῥάυδους for ῥάβδους, Gignac (1976: page 233, note 1) Further such confusions appear rarely in the papyri at the beginning of the 1st century AD. for for the early bilabial fricative stage, Buth, op. cit., page 4, note 8, citing Francis Thomas Gignac, A Grammar of the Greek Papyri of the Roman and Byzantine Periods.

Aristophanes , l. 214, for () but this is unlikely to have influenced Koine Greek which is largely based on Ionic-Attic. According to Allen, the first clear evidence for fricative and in Koine Greek dates from the 1st century AD in Latin Pompeian inscriptions.Particularly meaningful is lasfe found for () Yet, evidence suggest an aspirate pronunciation for in Palestine in the early 2nd century,Randall Buth, op. cit., page 4 and Jewish catacomb inscriptions of the 2nd–3rd century AD suggest a pronunciation of for , for and for , which would testify that the transition of to a fricative was not yet general at this time, and suggests that the transition of to a fricative may have happened before the transition of and .

During the 16th century, the three voiced sibilant phonemes—dental , apico-alveolar , and palato-alveolar (as in Old Spanish fazer, casa, and ojo, respectively) lost their voicing and merged with their voiceless counterparts: , , and (as in caçar, passar, and baxar respectively). The character ⟨ç⟩, called ⟨c⟩ cedilla, originated in Old Spanish but has been replaced by ⟨z⟩ in the modern language. Additionally, the affricate lost its stop component, to become a laminodental fricative, . As a result, the sound system then contained two sibilant fricative phonemes whose contrast depended entirely on a subtle distinction between their places of articulation: apicoalveolar, in the case of the , and laminodental, in the case of the new fricative sibilant , which was derived from the affricate .

25px Ža (झ़) is the character jha (झ) combined with a nuqta. It is used to transcribe the voiced patalal fricative from Urdu (ژ) and English. Ža (झ़) should not be confused with za (ज़), which is used to denote the voiced alveolar sibilant from Urdu, English, and other languages. Ža (झ़) should also not be confused zha (ॹ), which is used in Devanagari transcriptions of the Avestan letter zhe (𐬲) to denote the voiced post-alveolar fricative .

The acoustic difference between an affricate and a stop + fricative consonant cluster is the rate of increase in the amplitude of the frication noise (i.e. the rise time); affricates have a short rise time, consonant clusters have a longer rise time between the stop and fricative . The velar aspiration is also found on a labialized velar (orthographic ). There is variation within Navajo, however, in this respect: some dialects lack strong velar frication having instead a period of aspiration.

For simplicity, this article uses only the term "post-palatal". in some languages, which is articulated slightly more back compared with the place of articulation of the prototypical voiceless palatal fricative, though not as back as the prototypical voiceless velar fricative. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as , (both symbols denote a retracted ) or (advanced ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are `C_-` and `x_+`, respectively.

Bazigar has an almost identical phonology to Punjabi except for the presence of the voiceless palatal fricative and the absence of the voiceless glottal fricative . Words with initial in Punjabi correspond to words with a tone in Bazigar. There are differences from Punjabi in the vocabulary and the morphology, notably in the absence of a vowel feminine ending (e.g. 'old woman'), and there are similarities to Hindi and Western Rajasthani, for example the genitive marker and the dative marker .

Other languages use fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech and several languages in Democratic Republic of the Congo, and China, including Mandarin Chinese. In Mandarin, they are historically allophones of , and spelled that way in Pinyin. Ladefoged and Maddieson call these "fricative vowels" and say that "they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels". That is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels.

'is') and in other positions (e.g. 'saint', 'autumn', and 'hurried'). The remaining labial fricatives are typically labiodental , but they as well as the fricative allophone of have bilabial allophones in many dialects; the distribution depends partly on environment (bilabials are more likely to be found adjacent to rounded vowels) and partly on the individual speaker. Among the coronals, most are alveolar, but the broad stops and lateral are typically dental , and the slender coronal fricative is typically postalveolar .

Boa means "good" (feminine) and voa, "he/she/it flies". Unlike most of the West Iberian languages, Portuguese usually differs between the voiced bilabial plosive and the voiced labiodental fricative, but the distinction used to be absent in the dialects of the northern half of Portugal, and in some dialects spoken in the border of Brazil or Portugal and Spanish-speaking countries. Both are realized indistinctly as a voiced bilabial plosive or a voiced bilabial fricative, like in Spanish.

For most other languages , it represents the voiceless velar fricative , for example in transcriptions of the letter () in standard Arabic, standard Persian, and Urdu, Cyrillic Х, х (kha), Spanish j, as well as the Hebrew letter kaf () in instances when it is lenited. When used for transcription of the letter () in Sephardic Hebrew, it represents the voiceless pharyngeal fricative . In Canadian Tlingit it represents , which in Alaska is written _k_. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for .

This is why, for example, no language is known to contrast the voiceless labialized velar approximant (also transcribed with the special letter ) with a voiceless labialized velar fricative . Similarly, Standard Tibetan has a voiceless lateral approximant, , and Welsh has a voiceless lateral fricative , but the distinction is not always clear from descriptions of these languages. Again, no language is known to contrast the two. Iaai is reported to have an unusually large number of voiceless approximants, with .

Languages with fricatives but no sibilants, however, do occur, such as Ukue in Nigeria, which has only the fricatives . Also, almost all Eastern Polynesian languages have no sibilants but do have the fricatives and/or : Māori, Hawaiian, Tahitian, Rapa Nui, most Cook Islands Māori dialects, Marquesan, and Tuamotuan. Tamil only has the sibilant and fricative in loanwords, and they are frequently replaced by native sounds. The sibilants exist as allophones of and the fricative as an allophone of .

However, the features are not necessarily imparted as secondary articulation. Superscripts are also used iconically to indicate the onset or release of a consonant, the on-glide or off-glide of a vowel, and fleeting or weak segments. Among other things, these phenomena include pre-nasalization (), pre-stopping (), affrication (), pre-affrication (), trilled, fricative, nasal, and lateral release (), rhoticization (), and diphthongs (). So, while indicates velarization of non-velar consonants, it is also used for fricative release of the velar stop ().

The laminal coronals are denti-alveolar, whereas the apicals are alveolar tending toward post-alveolar. When geminate, the epiglottals are a voiceless stop and fricative. (Thus is not pharyngeal as sometimes reported, since pharyngeal stops are not believed to be possible.) In utterance-initial position they may be a partially voiced (negative voice onset time) stop and fricative. However, as singletons between vowels, is a flap or even an approximant with weak voicing, whereas is a fully voiced approximant.

The sound it represented at the time of the introduction of the Arabic alphabet is somewhat uncertain, likely a pharyngealized voiced alveolar lateral fricative or a similar affricated sound or . One of the important aspects in some Tihama dialects is the preservation of the emphatic lateral fricative sound , this sound is likely to be very similar to the original realization of ḍād, but this sound () and are used as two allophones for the two sounds ḍād and ḏạ̄ʾ .

Also in Gafat (extinct since the 1950s) a uvular fricative or trill might have existed.Edward Lipiński (1997), Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar (= Orientalia Lovaniensa Analecta 80), Leuven, p.132-133.

In the present-day orthographies of Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami, đ represents the fricative . It is considered a distinct letter and placed between D and E in alphabetical order.

As a phonetic symbol, lowercase is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and X-SAMPA symbol for the voiceless palatal plosive, and capital is the X-SAMPA symbol for the voiceless palatal fricative.

The alphabet on a black figure vessel, with a point-and-circle theta. In Ancient Greek, θ represented the aspirated voiceless dental plosive , but in Modern Greek it represents the voiceless dental fricative .

A variant form, , is encoded as part of the IPA Extensions Block. It is used to represent the voiceless palatal-velar fricative in the International Phonetic Alphabet. The Teuthonista phonetic transcription system uses .

Each is considered to be a combination of an appropriate stop and fricative phoneme: the sequences , , and , respectively. The rhotic sounds are all equally acceptable as an identical phoneme. , , , and may be syllabic.

In phonetic transcription, the lowercase barred C may denote a voiceless palatal fricative (IPA: ), and in 1963 it was proposed as a symbol for a voiceless flat postalveolar fricative by William A. Smalley. Pointed letters in Noah Webster’s 1828 American dictionary of the English language, with the c with bar for the letter 'c' pronounced as k. In 19th-century American English dictionaries such as those by Noah Webster and William Holmes McGuffey, the letter was used to denote pronounced as .

Finnish Romani uses Ȟ/ȟ. Lakota uses Č/č, Š/š, Ž/ž, Ǧ/ǧ (voiced post-velar fricative) and Ȟ/ȟ (plain post-velar fricative). The DIN 31635 standard for transliteration of Arabic uses Ǧ/ǧ to represent the letter . ', on account of the inconsistent pronunciation of J in European languages, the variable pronunciation of the letter in educated Arabic , and the desire of the DIN committee to have a one-to-one correspondence of Arabic to Latin letters in its system.

The most common distribution between bilabials and labiodentals is the English one, in which the nasal and the stops, , , and , are bilabial and the fricatives, , and , are labiodental. The voiceless bilabial fricative, voiced bilabial fricative, and the bilabial approximant do not exist in English, but they occur in many languages. For example, the Spanish consonant written b or v is pronounced, between vowels, as a voiced bilabial approximant. Lip rounding, or labialization, is a common approximant- like co-articulatory feature.

It is pronounced as either a voiceless dental fricative or the voiced counterpart of it . However, in modern Icelandic, it is pronounced as a laminal voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative ,, cited in similar to th as in the English word thick, or a (usually apical) voiced alveolar non- sibilant fricative , similar to th as in the English word the. Modern Icelandic usage generally excludes the latter, which is instead represented with the letter eth ; however, may occur as an allophone of , and written , when it appears in an unstressed pronoun or adverb after a voiced sound. In typography, the lowercase thorn character is unusual in that it has both an ascender and a descender (other examples are lowercase Cyrillic ф and in some fonts, the Latin letter f).

Ljudevit Gaj first used this digraph in 1830. It is also used in some languages of Africa and Oceania where it represents a prenazalized voiced postalveolar affricate or fricative, or . In Malagasy, it represents .

In the rest of the Americas, the velar fricative is prevalent. In Chile, becomes the more frontal (like German ch in ich) when it precedes palatal vowels : , ; in other phonological environments it is pronounced .

Nanning Pinghua has a voiceless lateral fricative for Middle Chinese /s/ or /z/, for example in the numbers "three" and "four". This is unlike Standard Cantonese but like some other Yue varieties such as Taishanese.

Hypernasal speech or hyperrhinolalia or rhinolalia aperta is inappropriate increased airflow through the nose during speech, especially with syllables beginning with plosive and fricative consonants. Examples of hypernasal speech include cleft palate and velopharyngeal insufficiency.

In Danish, may have slight frication, and, according to , it may be a pharyngeal approximant . In Finnish, a weak pharyngeal fricative is the realization of after the vowels or in syllable-coda position, e.g. 'star'.

Zha (ॹ) should also not be confused with ža (झ़), which is the character jha (झ) combined with a nuqta, and is used to transcribe the voiced post-alveolar fricative from Urdu (ژ) and English.

Many Cape Verdean speakers clearly distinguish in the pronunciation certain word pairs: eminência \ iminência, emita \ imita, emigrante \ imigrante, elegível \ ilegível, emergir \ imergir, etc. ## Unstressed initial “e” before “s” + consonant In Portugal the unstressed initial “e” before “s” + consonant is pronounced . In Cape Verde, this “e” is not pronounced at all, beginning the word by a voiceless palatal fricative (estado, espátula, esquadro) or by a voiced palatal fricative (esbelto, esganar). ## Some Cape Verdean speakers haves some trouble pronouncing the unstressed sound, pronounced in European Portuguese (revelar, medir, debate).

The Gaddang language is related to Ibanag, Itawis, Malaueg and others. It is distinct in that it features phonemes not present in many neighboring Philippine languages. As an example the "f","v","z" and "j" sounds appear in Gaddang. There are notable differences from other languages in the distinction between "r" and "l", and the "f" sound is a voiceless bilabial fricative somewhat distinct from the fortified "p" sound common in many Philippine languages (but not much closer to the English voiceless labiodental fricative).

In Belarusian Łacinka (both in the 1929 and 1962 versions), corresponds to Cyrillic (El), and is normally pronounced (almost exactly as in English pull). In Navajo, is used for a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative , like the Welsh double L. is used in orthographic transcription of Ahtna, an Athabaskan language spoken in Alaska; it represents a breathy lateral fricative. It is also used in Tanacross, a related Athabaskan language. When writing IPA for some Scandinavian dialects which involve the pronunciation of a retroflex flap , e.g.

The spelling of sz for the voiceless alveolar fricative (), continuing Proto-Germanic , originates in Old High German, contrasting with the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative (), continuing Proto-Germanic , spelled ss. The spelling survives in Middle High German even after the merger of the two phonemes and . In the Gothic book hands and bastarda scripts of the high medieval period, is written with long s and tailed z, as ſʒ. The development of a recognizable ligature representing the sz digraph develops in handwriting in the early 14th century.

In the transliterations below, ' is used to refer to the sh'vah, which is similar/equivalent to ə; a mid-word aleph, a glottal stop; and a mid-word ayin, a voiced pharyngeal fricative ʕ similar/equivalent to Arabic . Whenever ` is used, it refers to ayin whether word-initial, medial, or final. 'H/h' are used to represent both he, an English h sound as in "hat"; and ḥes, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative ħ equivalent to Arabic . Whenever 'ḥ' is used, it refers to ḥet.

In Ukrainian and Rusyn, it represents a voiced glottal fricative , a breathy voiced counterpart of the English . In Belarusian (like in Southern Russian), the letter corresponds to the velar fricative and its soft counterpart . In both languages, the letter is called He and transliterated with H rather than with G. In Ukrainian, Rusyn and Belarusian, a voiced velar plosive is written with the Cyrillic letter Ghe with upturn (Ґ ґ) in Ukrainian (transliterated with G) and with the digraph кг in Belarusian (also ґ in Taraškievica).

As noted above, the Old English phoneme split into two phonemes in early Middle English: a voiceless dental fricative and a voiced dental fricative . Both continued to be spelt . Certain English accents feature variant pronunciations of these sounds. These include fronting, where they merge with /f/ and /v/ (found in Cockney and some other dialects); stopping, where they approach /t/ and /d/ (as in some Irish speech); alveolarisation, where they become (in some African varieties); and debuccalisation, where becomes before a vowel (found in some Scottish English).

A velopharyngeal fricative, more commonly known as a velopharyngeal snort, is a sound produced by some people with a cleft palate, whereby turbulent air is forced through a restricted velopharyngeal port into the nasal cavity. The term 'velopharyngeal' indicates "articulation between the upper surface of the velum and the back wall of the naso-pharynx."Bertil Malmberg & Louise Kaiser (1968) Manual of phonetics, North-Holland, p. 325. The symbol for a voiceless velopharyngeal fricative in the extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for disordered speech is .

Hwe (Ꚕ ꚕ; italics: Ꚕ ꚕ) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. Hwe is used in the old Abkhaz alphabet, where it represents the voiceless pharyngeal fricative . It is a Cyrillic letter corresponding to Ҳә.

A voiced bilabial affricate ( in IPA) is a rare affricate consonant that is initiated as a bilabial stop and released as a voiced bilabial fricative . It has not been reported to occur phonemically in any language.

A voiced epiglottal affricate ( in IPA) is a rare affricate consonant that is initiated as an epiglottal stop and released as a voiced epiglottal fricative . It has not been reported to occur phonemically in any language.

A voiceless bilabial affricate ( in IPA) is a rare affricate consonant that is initiated as a bilabial stop and released as a voiceless bilabial fricative . It has not been reported to occur phonemically in any language.

"Bithlo" derives from the Muskogee word pilo ("canoe"). The represents a lateral fricative which was often transcribed . The unaspirated of Muskogee is acoustically as similar to English voiced and unaspirated as to English voiceless and aspirated .

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-12346 is used to represent a voiceless alveolar or dental fricative, such as /s/ or /s̪/ when multiple letters correspond to these values, and is otherwise assigned as needed..

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-156 is used to represent a guttural fricative or approximant, such as /h/, /ʜ/, or /ʕ/ when multiple letters correspond to these values, and is otherwise assigned as needed..

When these do occur they are normally at word boundaries and consist of either two continuants, a sonorant and a stop, or a fricative and a stop, with the stop always to the inside of its partner.

In Italian, the trigraph , when appearing before a vowel or as the article and pronoun gli, represents the palatal lateral approximant . Other languages typically use to represent regardless of position. Amongst European languages, Czech, Dutch, Finnish, and Slovak are an exception as they do not have in their native words. In Dutch, represents a voiced velar fricative instead, a sound that does not occur in modern English, but there is a dialectal variation: many Netherlandic dialects use a voiceless fricative ( or ) instead, and in southern dialects it may be palatal .

However, the sound represented by the letter ç in French and Portuguese orthography is not a voiceless palatal fricative but , the voiceless alveolar fricative. Palatal fricatives are relatively rare phonemes, and only 5% of the world's languages have as a phoneme. The sound occurs, however, as an allophone of in German, or, in other languages, of in the vicinity of front vowels. There is also the voiceless post-palatal fricativeInstead of "post-palatal", it can be called "retracted palatal", "backed palatal", "palato-velar", "pre-velar", "advanced velar", "fronted velar" or "front-velar".

There is also a voiceless uvular fricative trill (a simultaneous and ) in some languages, e.g. Hebrew and Wolof as well as in the northern and central varieties of European Spanish. It can be transcribed as (a devoiced and raised uvular trill) in IPA. It is found as either the voiceless counterpart of or the sole dorsal fricative in Northern Standard Dutch and regional dialects and languages of the Netherlands (Dutch Low Saxon and West Frisian) spoken above the rivers Rhine, Meuse and Waal (sometimes termed the Rotterdam–Nijmegen Line).

The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiceless dental, alveolar, and postalveolar lateral fricatives is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `[K]`. The symbol is called "belted l" and should not be confused with "l with tilde", , which transcribes a different sound, the velarized alveolar lateral approximant. It should also be distinguished from a voiceless alveolar lateral approximant, although the fricative is sometimes incorrectly described as a "voiceless l", a description fitting only of the approximant.

The voiced glottal fricative, sometimes called breathy-voiced glottal transition, is a type of sound used in some spoken languages which patterns like a fricative or approximant consonant phonologically, but often lacks the usual phonetic characteristics of a consonant. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `h\`. In many languages, has no place or manner of articulation. Thus, it has been described as a breathy-voiced counterpart of the following vowel from a phonetic point of view.

Learners from very many cultural backgrounds have difficulties with English dental fricatives, usually caused by interference with either sibilants or stops. Words with a dental fricative adjacent to an alveolar fricative, such as clothes , truths , fifths , sixths , anesthetic , etc., are commonly very difficult for foreign learners to pronounce. Some of these words containing consonant clusters can also be difficult for native speakers, including those using the standard and pronunciations generally, allowing such accepted informal pronunciations of clothes as (a homonym of the verb close) and fifth(s) as .

Since sounds like with a following puff of air, was the logical spelling in the Latin alphabet. By the time of New Testament Greek (koiné), however, the aspirated stop had shifted to a fricative: . Thus theta came to have the sound that it still has in Modern Greek, and which it represents in the IPA. From a Latin perspective, the established digraph now represented the voiceless fricative , and was used thus for English by French-speaking scribes after the Norman Conquest, since they were unfamiliar with the Germanic graphemes ð (eth) and þ (thorn).

In Modern Greek, which uses the Greek alphabet, the Greek letter gamma (uppercase: ; lowercase: ) – which is ancestral to the Roman letters and – has "soft-type" and "hard-type" pronunciations, though Greek speakers do not use such a terminology. The "soft" pronunciation (that is, the voiced palatal fricative ) occurs before and (both which represent ), and before , , , , and (which all represent ). In other instances, the "hard" pronunciation (that is, the voiced velar fricative ) occurs. In the Russian alphabet (a variant of Cyrillic), represents both hard (твёрдый ) and soft (мягкий ) pronunciations, and , respectively.

Besides nasalized oral fricatives, there are true nasal fricatives, previously called nareal fricatives. They are sometimes produced by people with disordered speech. The turbulence in the airflow characteristic of fricatives is produced not in the mouth but in the nasal cavity. A superimposed homothetic sign that resembles a colon divided by a tilde is used for this in the extensions to the IPA: is a voiced alveolar nasal fricative, with no airflow out of the mouth, and is the voiceless equivalent; is an oral fricative with simultaneous nasal frication.

This was introduced during the Spanish Conquest of Yucatán which began in the early 16th century, and the now-antiquated conventions of Spanish orthography of that period ("Colonial orthography") were adapted to transcribe Yucatec Maya. This included the use of x for the postalveolar fricative sound (which is often written in English as sh), a sound that in Spanish has since turned into a velar fricative nowadays spelled j. In colonial times a "reversed c" (ɔ) was often used to represent , which is now more usually represented with (and with in the revised ALMG orthography).

However common it is, this pronunciation is considered sub-standard. Only in one case, in the grammatical ending (which corresponds to English -y), the fricative pronunciation of final is prescribed by the Siebs standard, for instance ('important'), 'importance'. The merger occurs neither in Austro-Bavarian and Alemannic German nor in the corresponding varieties of Standard German, and therefore in these regions is pronounced . Many speakers do not distinguish the affricate from the simple fricative in the beginning of a word, in which case the verb ('[he] travels') and the noun ('horse') are both pronounced .

In German, ch normally represents two allophones: the voiceless velar fricative (or ) following a, o or u (called Ach-Laut), and the voiceless palatal fricative following any other vowel or a consonant (called Ich-Laut). A similar allophonic variation is thought to have existed in Old English. The sequence "chs" is normally pronounced , as in sechs (six) and Fuchs (fox). An initial "ch" (which only appears in loaned and dialectical words) may be pronounced (common in southern varieties), (common in western varieties) or (common in northern and western varieties).

In the Romance languages, has generally developed from its original palatal approximant value in Latin to some kind of fricative. In French, Portuguese, Catalan, and Romanian it has been fronted to the postalveolar fricative (like in English measure). In Spanish, by contrast, it has been both devoiced and backed from an earlier to a present-day ~ , with the actual phonetic realization depending on the speaker's dialect/s. In modern standard Italian spelling, only Latin words, proper nouns (such as Jesi, Letojanni, Juventus etc.) or those borrowed from foreign languages have .

In the acrophony of the Thai script, khon (คน) means ‘person’. Kho khon (ฅ) represents the voiced velar fricative sound /ɣ/ that existed in Old Thai at the time the alphabet was created but no longer exists in Modern Thai. When the Thai script was developed, the voiceless velar fricative sound did not have a Sanskrit or Pali counterpart so the character kho khwai was slightly modied to create kho khon. During the Old Thai period, this sounds merged into the stop /ɡ/, and as a result the use of this letters became unstable.

Za (ज़) is the character ज with a single dot underneath. It is used in Devanagari transcriptions of Urdu, English, and other languages to denote the voiced alveolar sibilant . Za (ज़) should not be confused with ža (झ़), which is the character jha (झ) combined with a nuqta, and is used to transcribe the voiced post-alveolar fricative from Urdu (ژ) and English. Za (ज़) should also not be confused zha (ॹ), which is used in Devanagari transcriptions of the Avestan letter zhe (𐬲) to denote the voiced post-alveolar fricative .

A number of languages have syllabic fricatives or fricative vowels. In several varieties of Chinese, certain high vowels following fricatives or affricates are pronounced as extensions of those sounds, with voicing added (if not already present) and a vowel pronounced while the tongue and teeth remain in the same position as for the preceding consonant, leading to the turbulence of a fricative carrying over into the vowel. In Mandarin Chinese, this happens for example with sī, shī, and rī. Traditional grammars describing them as having a "buzzing" sound. A number of modern linguistsJerry Norman (1988).

From greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants (with occlusion, or blocked airflow), fricative consonants (with partially blocked and therefore strongly turbulent airflow), approximants (with only slight turbulence), and vowels (with full unimpeded airflow). Affricates often behave as if they were intermediate between stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences of a stop and fricative. Over time, sounds in a language may move along the cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition or towards more stricture in a process called fortition.

The bilabial fricative is diachronically unstable and is likely to shift to ., citing The sound is not used in English dialects except for Chicano English, but it can be produced by approximating the normal English between the lips.

In Middle Dutch, was often used to represent (the voiced velar fricative) before , , and . The spelling of English word ghost with a (from Middle English gost) was likely influenced by the Middle Dutch spelling gheest (Modern Dutch geest).

Fortition, also known as strengthening, is a consonantal change that increases the degree of stricture. It's the opposite of the more common lenition. For example, a fricative or an approximant may become a stop (i.e. becomes or becomes ).

It commonly represents /ʃ/, the voiceless postalveolar fricative (like sh in shoe). It is written as the letter S with a cedilla below and it has both the lower-case (U+015F) and the upper-case variants (U+15E).

However, fricative and sonorant consonant phonemes exhibit regular contrasts in voice, including in nasals (rare in the world's languages). Additionally, length is contrastive for consonants, but not vowels. In Icelandic, the main stress is always on the first syllable.

Ef or Fe (Ф ф; italics: Ф ф) is a Cyrillic letter, commonly representing the voiceless labiodental fricative , like the pronunciation of in "fill". The Cyrillic letter Ef is romanized as . In some languages it is known as Fe.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) it represents the voiced postalveolar fricative consonant. For example: vision . It is pronounced as the "s" in "treasure" or the "si" in the word "precision". It is used with that value in Uropi.

In the Castilian Spanish spoken in most of Spain the word is pronounced , with a voiceless dental fricative (as in English thing). However, the Italian automaker often uses the Southern Spanish and Latin American Spanish pronunciation, , with an sound.

In some reconstructions of Proto-Semitic phonology, there is an emphatic interdental fricative, ( or ), featuring as the direct ancestor of Arabic , while it merged with in most other Semitic languages, although the South Arabian alphabet retained a symbol for .

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-123456 is used to represent a voiced dental/alveolar fricative or aspirant, such as /ð/, /z/, or /dʰ/ when multiple letters correspond to these values, and is otherwise assigned as needed..

A similar sound characterized as a "voiceless apico-or corono-post-dental slit fricative" has been observed in Nicaragua, El Salvador, Honduras, Colombia, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela; In these places, ceceo is a largely rural pronunciation and is often stigmatized.

Puxian has 15 consonants, including the zero onset, the same as most other Min varieties. Puxian is distinctive for having a lateral fricative instead of the in other Min varieties, similar to Taishanese. Puxian has 53 finals and 6 phonemic tones.

In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-245 is used to represent a voiced palatal affricate, fricative, or approximant, such as /dʑ/, /ʑ/ or /j/, and is otherwise assigned as needed. It is also used for the number 0..

Moreover, the [k] of -pak is only a stop by virtue of it being word-final: if another suffix is added, as in qayar-pag-tun "like a big kayak" a fricative is found in place of that stop: [qajaχpaxtun].

It is used in some orthographies of Cornish for . is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi ( alone represents the fricative ), and in Nambikwara it is a glottalized . In Esperanto orthography, it is an unofficial surrogate of , which represents .

In Fijian, stands for a voiced dental fricative , while in Somali it has the value of . The letter is also used as a transliteration of Cyrillic in the Latin forms of Serbian, Macedonian, and sometimes Ukrainian, along with the digraph .

The Miskito phoneme inventory includes three vowels (a, i, u), apparently with phonemic length playing a part. Consonant series include voiced and voiceless plosives, voiced nasals and semivowels, two liquids and the fricative s. Orthographic h apparently represents a suprasegmental feature.

Scanian realizes the phoneme as a uvular trill in clear articulation, but everyday speech has more commonly a voiceless or a voiced uvular fricative , depending on phonetic context. That is in contrast to the alveolar articulations and retroflex assimilations in most Swedish dialects north of Småland. The realizations of the highly variable and uniquely Swedish fricative also tend to be more velar and less labialized than in other dialects. The phonemes of Scanian correspond to those of Standard Swedish and most other Swedish dialects, but long vowels have developed into diphthongs that are unique to the region.

The devoicing and raising diacritics may be used to transcribe it: . However, the "belt" on the existing symbol for a voiceless lateral fricative, , forms the basis for other lateral fricatives used in the extIPA, including the palatal, : Image:Palatal lateral fricative.png SIL International has added this symbol to the Private Use Areas of their Gentium, Charis, and Doulos fonts, as U+F267 (). If distinction is necessary, the voiceless alveolo-palatal lateral fricative may be transcribed as (retracted and palatalized ) or (devoiced, advanced and raised ); these are essentially equivalent, since the contact includes both the blade and body (but not the tip) of the tongue.

The voiced dental fricative is a consonant sound used in some spoken languages. It is familiar to English-speakers as the th sound in father. Its symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet is eth, or and was taken from the Old English and Icelandic letter eth, which could stand for either a voiced or unvoiced (inter)dental non-sibilant fricative. Such fricatives are often called "interdental" because they are often produced with the tongue between the upper and lower teeth (as in Received Pronunciation), and not just against the back of the upper teeth, as they are with other dental consonants.

201–211 or reversed ⟨⟩ be used as a dedicated symbol for the dental approximant, but despite occasional usage, this has not gained general acceptance. The fricative and its unvoiced counterpart are rare phonemes. Almost all languages of Europe and Asia, such as German, French, Persian, Japanese, and Mandarin, lack the sound. Native speakers of languages without the sound often have difficulty enunciating or distinguishing it, and they replace it with a voiced alveolar sibilant , a voiced dental stop or voiced alveolar stop , or a voiced labiodental fricative ; known respectively as th-alveolarization, th-stopping, and th-fronting.

Modern Hebrew pronunciation developed from a mixture of the different Jewish reading traditions, generally tending towards simplification. In line with Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation, emphatic consonants have shifted to their ordinary counterparts, /w/ to /v/, and [ɣ ð θ] are not present. Most Israelis today also merge /ʕ ħ/ with /ʔ χ/, do not have contrastive gemination, and pronounce /r/ as a uvular fricative [ʁ] or a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] rather than an alveolar trill, because of Ashkenazi Hebrew influences. The consonants /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ have become phonemic due to loan words, and /w/ has similarly been re-introduced.

The 1999 Handbook of the International Phonetic Association was the first book outlining the specifications of the alphabet in 50 years, superseding the 1949 Principles of the IPA. It consisted of just over 200 pages, four times as long as the Principles. In addition to what was seen in the 1996 chart, the book included for mid central vowel release, for voiceless dental fricative release, and for voiceless velar fricative release as part of the official IPA in the "Computer coding of IPA symbols" section. The section also included for a voiced retroflex implosive, noting it was "not explicitly IPA approved".

The transcriptions she uses are or (velar) and or (epiglottal).Technically they should have superscript or, in broader transcription, , but a precomposed Unicode glyph is only available for , and in most fonts the other combinations look bad. (It is not clear if the is written because the rear release is actually an affricate, or because it better distinguishes these from the homorganic/uvular case, as in broad transcription may be used for either a velar or a uvular fricative.) In Gǀui, which has a velar release, the fricative is actually lateral, and so may be narrowly transcribed as (or ).

The digraph "ch" represents a voiceless velar fricative whereas the graph "h" is an obsolete spelling from Old Polish that used to stand for a voiced glottal fricative; today, this form of pronunciation is present only is certain dialects of Polish, most notably the dialect of Podhale. "Móch" instead of "Much" (which is the plural, genitive of "mucha", meaning "fly"). In Polish there are two graphemes that realise the close back rounded vowel phoneme; this is a remnant from Old Polish phonology, where the diacritic-o (ó) was used to express a long close mid rounded vowel. Today this spelling variation is obsolete.

The lengthening of words ending in a coronal fricative, for instance, could be obtained by prolonging the entire rhyme and/or the fricative only. Most of the time, however, the neutral vowel [ɨ:] is appended to achieve the desired effect. Prolonged pauses Similarly to filled pauses, single occurrences of prolonged pauses occurring between stretches of fluent speech, may be preceded and followed by silent pauses, as they most often occur on function words with a CV or V structure. Even though they are not always central, the vowels of such syllables may be as long as the ones observed for filled pauses.

Its use in transliteration of Hebrew into English is based on influences of Yiddish and German, particularly since transliteration into German tended to be earlier than transliteration into English. See . Furthermore, the letter ḥeth (), which is the first letter in the Hebrew spelling, is pronounced differently in modern Hebrew (voiceless uvular fricative) from in classical Hebrew (voiceless pharyngeal fricative ), and neither of those sounds is unambiguously representable in English spelling. However, its original sound is closer to the English H than to the Scottish Ch, and Hanukkah more accurately represents the spelling in the Hebrew alphabet.

It takes by rule this sound value before the front vowels (e, i, y, ä and ö) word or root initially (as in sked (spoon)), while normally representing in other positions. In Norwegian and Faroese, it is used to write voiceless postalveolar fricative (only in front of i, y, ei and øy/oy). is used in the Iraqw and Bouyei languages to write the lateral fricative . (Sl is used in the French tradition to transcribe in other languages as well, as in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages.) is used in German for as in Spaß instead of using schp.

In the Nukuoro language, each phoneme is distinct: “/b/ is an aspirated bilabial stop, /d/ is a lax aspirated dental stop, /g/ is a slightly aspirated of implosive velar stop, /v/ is a very lax labio-dental fricative, /s/ is a tense voiceless alveo-palatal fricative, /h/ is a voiceless velar fricative, /m/ is a voiced bilabial nasal, /n/ is a voiced dental nasal, /ng/ is a voiced velar nasal, /l/ is a voiced dental flap, /i/ is a high front unrounded vowel, /e/ is a mid front unrounded vowel, /a/ us a low or mid central unrounded vowel, /o/ is a mid back rounded vowel, and /u/ is a high back rounded vowel” (Carroll 1965). For double phonemes “stops have increased aspiration especially after pause, and articulation is tense and phones are normally voiceless; nasals and fricatives have tense articulation; flaps are tense, long, with pre-voiced dental stop; and vowels are about twice as long as single vowels and not rearticulated” (Carroll 1965).

This too is correlated with those phenomimes and psychomimes containing the same fricative sound, for example and . The use of the gemination can create a more emphatic or emotive version of a word, as in the following pairs of words: , , , and many others.

14-15, 320. (Among some very traditional South-West speakers, other possible variants include a "tapped R", the alveolar tap , or even a "uvular R", the voiced uvular fricative , in rural south-central Ireland.Hickey, Raymond (1985). "R-Coloured vowels in Irish English".

Intonation is prominent. Dental fricative is replaced by glottal stop at initial and medial positions. Inflection and derivation are the forms of word formation. There are two numbers—singular and plural, two genders—masculine and feminine, and three cases—simple, oblique, and vocative.

In Ancient Greek, delta represented a voiced dental plosive . In Modern Greek, it represents a voiced dental fricative , like the "th" in "that" or "this" (while in foreign words is instead commonly transcribed as ντ). Delta is romanized as d or dh.

There are three approximates /l/, /r/, and /w/. There is one fricative /f/ which is usually voiceless however when placed between vowels it can become voiced. And finally, there are two nasals /m/ and /n/. There are no consonant clusters within the language.

Ge with inverted breve (Г̑ г̑; italics: Г̑ г̑) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. Ge with inverted breve is used in the Aleut language, where it represents the voiced uvular fricative . It corresponds to Latin letter G with circumflex (Ĝ ĝ Ĝ ĝ).

In a romanization of Pashto, ǧ is used to represent (equivalent to غ). In the Berber Latin alphabet, ǧ is pronounced as an English J, like in Jimmy. In Lakota, ǧ represents voiced uvular fricative . In DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration it represents the letter (').

Kha with inverted breve (Х̑ х̑; italics: Х̑ х̑) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. Kha with inverted breve is used in the Aleut language, where it represents the voiceless uvular fricative . It corresponds to Latin letter X with circumflex (X̂ x̂ X̂ x̂).

Zje (З́ з́; italics: З́ з́) is a letter of the Cyrillic alphabet, formed from З with the addition of an acute accent. It is used in the Montenegrin alphabet. It represents the voiced alveolo-palatal fricative /ʑ/. It corresponds to the Latin Ź.

Ishkashimi, as one of the Pamir languages, does not contain velar fricative phonemes, which is possibly the result of being influenced by Persian and Indo-Aryan languages throughout the history of its development. Also the use of the consonant [h] in the language is optional.

Voiceless sonorants have a strong tendency to either revoice or undergo fortition, for example to form a fricative like or . In connected, continuous speech in North American English, and are usually flapped to following sonorants, including vowels, when followed by a vowel or syllabic .

The voiceless palatal lateral affricate is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. There are two ways it can be represented: either by using the IPA as ⟨⟩, or by using the non-IPA sign for the voiceless palatal lateral fricative as ⟨⟩.

Among these, the tap is most common, whereas the tapped/trilled fricative is the second most common realization. Elsewhere in the article, the consonant is transcribed for the sake of simplicity and for the sake of consistency with IPA transcriptions of other dialects of Limburgish.

In Welsh ch represents the voiceless uvular fricative . The digraph counts as a separate letter in the Welsh alphabet, positioned after c and before d; so, for example, chwilen 'beetle' comes after cymryd 'take' in Welsh dictionaries; similarly, Tachwedd 'November' comes after taclus 'tidy'.

In other languages, voiceless fricatives become affricates ; see for example Xhosa.Jeff Mielke, 2008. The emergence of distinctive features, p 139ff This is similar to the epenthetic stop in words like dance () in many dialects of English, which effectively is fortition of fricative to affricate .

In many non-Slavic languages it can represent both and (the latter mostly in Turkic and some Finno-Ugric languages). In Ossetian, an Indo-Iranian language spoken in the Caucasus, ⟨г⟩ represents the voiced velar stop . However, the digraph ⟨гъ⟩ represents the voiced uvular fricative .

Until 1957, only two pronunciations were allowed: an alveolar trill and an alveolar tap . After 1957, a uvular trill was also allowed. A voiced uvular fricative , used extensively in contemporary Standard German, is not allowed. Therefore, rot ('red') can be pronounced , and but not .

Dentolabial consonants are the articulatory opposite of labiodentals: They are pronounced by contacting lower teeth against the upper lip. They are rare cross-linguistically, likely due to the prevalence of dental malocclusions (especially retrognathism) that make them difficult to produce, though one allophone of Swedish has been described as a velarized dentolabial fricative, and the voiceless dentolabial fricative is apparently used in some of the southwestern dialects of Greenlandic (Vebæk 2006). The diacritic for dentolabial in the extensions of the IPA for disordered speech is a superscript bridge, , by analogy with the subscript bridge used for labiodentals: . Complex consonants such as affricates, prenasalized stops and the like are also possible.

The voiceless glottal fricative, sometimes called voiceless glottal transition, and sometimes called the aspirate, is a type of sound used in some spoken languages that patterns like a fricative or approximant consonant phonologically, but often lacks the usual phonetic characteristics of a consonant. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `h`, although has been described as a voiceless vowel because in many languages, it lacks the place and manner of articulation of a prototypical consonant as well as the height and backness of a prototypical vowel: Lamé contrasts voiceless and voiced glottal fricatives.

Former IPA symbol for the voiced alveolar lateral fricative In 1938, a symbol shaped similarly to heng was approved as the official IPA symbol for the voiced alveolar lateral fricative, replacing . It was suggested at the same time, however, that a compromise shaped like something between the two may also be used at the author's discretion. It was this compromise version that was included in the 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association and the subsequent IPA charts, until it was replaced again by at the 1989 Kiel Convention. Despite the Association's prescription, is nonetheless seen in literature from the 1960s to the 1980s.

The voiced labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `v`. The sound is similar to voiced alveolar fricative /z/ in that it is familiar to most European speakers, but cross-linguistically it is a fairly uncommon sound, being only a quarter as frequent as [w]. Moreover, Most languages that have /z/ also have /v/ and similarly to /z/, the overwhelming majority of languages with [v] are languages of Europe, Africa, or Western Asia, although the similar labiodental approximant /ʋ/ is also common in India.

Meanwhile, eventually lost its affrication and merged with , although is maintained throughout Trás-os-Montes. It appears that the sound written ⟨v⟩ was at one point during the medieval period pronounced as a voiced bilabial fricative . Subsequently, it either changed into a labiodental fricative (as in central and southern Portugal, and hence in Brazil), or merged into (as in northern Portugal and Galicia, similarly to modern Spanish). Also similarly to modern Spanish, the voiced stops eventually became pronounced as fricatives between vowels and after consonants, other than in the clusters (the nasals were presumably still pronounced in these clusters, rather than simply reflected as a nasal vowel).

A phonetic phenomenon is the intervocalic weakening of the Italian soft g, the voiced affricate (g as in judge) and soft c, the voiceless affricate (ch as in church), known as attenuation, or, more commonly, as deaffrication. Between vowels, the voiced post-alveolar affricate consonant is realized as voiced post-alveolar fricative (z of azure): → . This phenomenon is very evident in daily speech (common also in Umbria and elsewhere in Central Italy): the phrase la gente, 'the people', in standard Italian is pronounced , but in Tuscan it is . Similarly, the voiceless post-alveolar affricate is pronounced as a voiceless post-alveolar fricative between two vowels: → .

It is considered a single letter in many Austronesian languages (Māori, Tagalog, Tongan, Gilbertese, Tuvaluan, Indonesian, Chamorro), the Welsh language, and Rheinische Dokumenta, for velar nasal ; and in some African languages (Lingala, Bambara, Wolof) for prenasalized (). :For the development of the pronunciation of this digraph in English, see NG-coalescence and G-dropping. :The Finnish language uses the digraph 'ng' to denote the phonemically long velar nasal in contrast to 'nk' , which is its "strong" form under consonant gradation, a type of lenition. Weakening produces an archiphonemic "velar fricative", which, as a velar fricative does not exist in Standard Finnish, is assimilated to the preceding , producing .

In Icelandic, ð represents a voiced dental fricative , which is the same as the th in English that, but it never appears as the first letter of a word, where þ is used in its stead. The name of the letter is pronounced in isolation (and before words beginning with a voiceless consonant) as and therefore with a voiceless rather than voiced fricative. In Faroese, ð is not assigned to any particular phoneme and appears mostly for etymological reasons; however, it does show where most of the Faroese glides are; when ð appears before r, it is, in a few words, pronounced . In the Icelandic and Faroese alphabets, ð follows d.

The communes of Vaccarizzo Albanese and San Giorgio Albanese were founded by Albanian refugees after the conquest of Albania by the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent mass migration of Albanians to Italy. As all Arbëresh dialects, Vaccarizzo Albanian exhibits many medieval elements of the Albanian language. However, unlike other Arbëresh dialects, which under southern Italian dialectal influence have undergone a process of partial or total fricativization resulting in the change of the intervocalic voiced velar plosive () to a voiced velar fricative (), Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained the initial . Another feature of the Vaccarizzo dialect is the sonorization of the voiceless velar fricative , which also occurs in the Arbëresh dialects of the region.

On the other hand, the voiceless labialized velar plosive has only a single stop articulation, velar (), with a simultaneous approximant- like rounding of the lips. In some dialects of Arabic, the voiceless velar fricative has a simultaneous uvular trill, but this is not considered double articulation either.

In rare instances, a fricative–stop contour may occur. This is the case in dialects of Scottish Gaelic that have velar frication where other dialects have pre-aspiration. For example, in the Harris dialect there is 'seven' and 'eight' (or , ).Laver (1994) Principles of Phonetics, p. 374.

Vowels are produced by the passage of air through the larynx and the vocal tract. Most vowels are voiced (i.e. the vocal folds are vibrating). Except in some marginal cases, the vocal tract is open, so that the airstream is able to escape without generating fricative noise.

The voiced alveolar lateral fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiced dental, alveolar, and postalveolar lateral fricatives is (sometimes referred to as lezh), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `K\`.

Its name is "zsé" and represents , a voiced postalveolar fricative, similar to J in Jacques and s in vision. A few examples are rózsa "rose" and zsír "fat". is used in the Shona language to write the whistled sibilant . This was written ɀ from 1931 to 1955.

Neither claim has been validated to date however, and the Tsou claim has been nearly disproved. There are claims of Tohono O'odham women speaking entirely ingressively. There are examples of ingressive sounds that belong to paralanguage. Japanese has what has been described an apicoprepalatal fricative approximant.

Ubykh has been cited in the Guinness Book of Records (1996 ed.) as the language with the most consonant phonemes, although it may have fewer than some of the Khoisan languages. It has 20 uvular and 29 pure fricative phonemes, more than any other known language.

'Samekh (Phoenician sāmek ' ; Hebrew samekh , Syriac semkaṯ) is the fifteenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including the Hebrew alphabet. Samekh represents a voiceless alveolar fricative . Unlike most Semitic consonants, the pronunciation of remains constant between vowels and before voiced consonants. The numerical value of samekh is 60.

Pages 167-176. Page 174 Forms where the fricative /θ/ became the stop /t/ show the Latin-derived rather than the Greek-derived form, and are found in the following toponyms: Shtanë, Shtanas, Shtanaz, Shtanaska.Riska, Albert (2013). "The Christian Saints in the (Micro)toponymy of Albania".

Shcha (Щ щ; italics: Щ щ) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. In Russian, it represents the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative , similar to the pronunciation of in sheep (but longer). In Ukrainian and Rusyn, it represents the consonant cluster . In Bulgarian, it represents the consonant cluster .

Four series of ejective-contour clicks (as classified by the rear release) are attested. There are two manners of articulation (stop and fricative) and two voicing contrasts, each of which is found for each of the places of articulation (as classified by the front release) that clicks use.

The sequence la cena, 'the dinner', in standard Italian is pronounced , but in Tuscan it is . As a result of this weakening rule, there are a few minimal pairs distinguished only by length of the voiceless fricative (e.g. lacerò 'it/he/she ripped' vs. lascerò 'I will leave/let').

In phonology, it often stands for mora. In syntax, μP (mu phrase) can be used as the name for a functional projection.. Celtic specialists sometimes use /µ/ to represent an Old Irish nasalized labial fricative of uncertain articulation, the ancestor of the sound represented by Modern Irish mh.

Alternatively, the agreement morphemes may have changed under the influence of Aramaic. Also, some surviving manuscripts of the Mishna confuse guttural consonants, especially ʾaleph () (a glottal stop) and ʿayin () (a voiced pharyngeal fricative). That could be a sign that they were pronounced the same way in Mishnaic Hebrew.

A /x/ is more commonly heard, especially in the Celtic countries but also for many speakers elsewhere, in the word loch and in certain proper names such as Buchan. For details of the above phenomena, see H-loss (Middle English). See also the vocalization of the voiced velar fricative .

Few languages make a phonemic distinction between a word beginning with a vowel and a word beginning with a glottal stop followed by a vowel, since the distinction will generally only be audible following another word. However, Maltese and some Polynesian languages do make such a distinction, as in Hawaiian "fire" and / "tuna". Hebrew and Arabic forbid empty onsets. The names Israel, Abel, Abraham, Omar, Abdullah, and Iraq appear not to have onsets in the first syllable, but in the original Hebrew and Arabic forms they actually begin with various consonants: the semivowel in yisrāʔēl, the glottal fricative in heḅel, the glottal stop in ʔaḅrāhām, or the pharyngeal fricative in ʕumar, ʕabduḷḷāh, and ʕirāq.

That is inherited from European Portuguese, and carioca shares it only with Florianopolitano and some other Fluminense accents. In the northern tones of Brazilian Portuguese, not all coda and become postalveolar. # (for Europeans) , as well what would be coda (when it would is not pre-vocalic) in European Portuguese, may be realized as various voiceless and voiced guttural- like sounds, most often the latter (unlike in other parts of Brazil), and many or most of them can be part of the phonetic repertory of a single speaker. Among them the velar and uvular fricative pairs, as well both glottal transitions (voiced & unvoiced), the voiceless pharyngeal fricative and the uvular trill: , (between vowels), , , , , and .

English speakers tend to approximate the Spanish pronunciation as ; with a rather than with an sound. In Castilian Spanish, the initial is similar to the German in the name Bach and Scottish Gaelic and Irish in loch, though Spanish varies by dialect. Historically, the modern pronunciation of the name José in Spanish is the result of the phonological history of Spanish coronal fricatives since the fifteenth century, when it departed from Old Spanish. Unlike today's pronunciation of this name, in Old Spanish the initial was a voiced postalveolar fricative (as the sound "je" in French), and the middle stood for a voiced apicoalveolar fricative /z̺/ (as in the Castilian pronunciation of the word mismo).

According to Nubia Tobar, who interviewed some of the last speakers of the language, there were six oral vowels organized into three basic levels of openness: high, medium and low, and three positions: anterior, central and posterior, each of which with its corresponding glottalized and elongated. The 22 consonants were p, ph (aspirated), t, th (aspirated), t (palatal), ts (Africa), k, kh (aspirated), kw (velar) b, d, and (voiceless palatal sound), g, m, n, n, f, s, z (voiced alveolar fricative), h (voiceless glottal fricative), che (palatal affricate), and the glide w. The language was thought lost until two elderly speakers were located in the 1990s. Presumably the language is now extinct.

While the pronunciation of Modern Hebrew is based on Sephardi Hebrew, the pronunciation has been affected by the immigrant communities that have settled in Israel in the past century and there has been a general coalescing of speech patterns. The pharyngeal [] for the phoneme chet () of Sephardi Hebrew has merged into [] which Sephardi Hebrew only used for fricative chaf (). The pronunciation of the phoneme ayin () has merged with the pronunciation of aleph (), which is either [] or unrealized [∅] and has come to dominate Modern Hebrew, but in many variations of liturgical Sephardi Hebrew, it is [], a voiced pharyngeal fricative. The letter vav () is realized as [], which is the standard for both Ashkenazi and most variations of Sephardi Hebrew.

The highly variable sj sound varies between and on the Finnish mainland, often close to sh in English shoe. In the Åland Islands, its realization is similar to the velar (and often labialized) pronunciations of nearby parts of Sweden. The historic k sound before front vowels and the tj sound, in modern Central Swedish a fricative , is an affricate or in all Finland Swedish dialects, close to ch in English chin, except for some Åland Swedish, in which it is a simple fricative. The tonal word accent, which distinguishes some minimal pairs in most dialects of Swedish and Norwegian, is not present in Finland Swedish (except around the parish of Snappertuna, west of Helsinki).

The similarity between the stop and fricative resulted in their complete merger entirely by the end of the Old Spanish period. In Modern Spanish, the letters ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩ represent the same phoneme (usually treated as in phonemic transcription), which is generally realized as the fricative except when utterance-initial or after a nasal consonant, when it is realized as the stop . The same situation prevails in northern Portuguese dialects, including Galician, but the other Portuguese dialects maintain the distinction. The merger of and also occurs in Standard Catalan in eastern Catalonia, but the distinction is retained in Standard Valencian spoken in eastern Catalonia and some areas in southern Catalonia, in the Balearic dialect, as well as in Alguerese.

Specific words and phrases could be spoken by assigning a value to the reserved string variable `S$`. This was interpreted letter-by-letter unless brackets were used to denote other allophones. A simple example would be "(dth)is", (dth) representing the voiced dental fricative /ð/. Sixty-three allophones were provided.

Because the Russian loanword dacha (дача ) looks like it could be German, the pronunciation , with a velar fricative, shows an attempt at marking a word as foreign, but with a sound not originally present in the source word. The more common pronunciation is , which sounds closer to the original Russian word.

The Grammaire albanaise (1887) first used gj, but it was also used by Librandi (1897). Rada (1866) used ⟨g⟩, ⟨gh⟩, ⟨gc⟩, and ⟨gk⟩ for g, and ⟨gki⟩ for ⟨gj⟩. ;⟨h⟩ The older versions of the Albanian alphabet differentiated between two “h” sounds, one for one for the Voiceless velar fricative .

Wugang words with the D tone are the only words in which devoicing can occur,Original from the University of Virginia Digitized Apr 30, 2009 with voiced stop and fricative initials. Wugang dialect is one of the dialects which use "佢" or "其" as the pronoun for the third person.

The Bulgarian pronunciation of the name Jeleva is , with the -sound of English pleasure (voiced palato-alveolar fricative). According to the current official standards for the Romanization of Bulgarian, her name should be transliterated as "Zheleva". Because of this confusion, some people erroneously pronounce the name with a y-sound, .

El with hook has been in use in the Khanty since 1990. El with hook and El with descender are considered variants of the same letter in Khanty, their use depends on the particular publisher. This letter represents the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative , like the pronunciation of in the Welsh language.

Rests are variously indicated with fricative syllables, such as sa and ho; or with semivowels, such as iya. A polysyllable, such as sore and dokkoi, indicates a two-beat rest. This is called "kakegoe." If the rest is not sung, the space is often filled with unscripted sounds called kiais.

Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative. Trilled affricates are also known. Nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly found in nasal occlusives and nasal vowels, but nasalized fricatives, taps, and approximants are also found.

In Polish orthography, sz represents a voiceless retroflex fricative . Although being a different consonant, it is usually approximated by English speakers with the "sh" sound. It usually corresponds to ш or š in other Slavic languages. Like other Polish digraphs, it is not considered a single letter for collation purposes.

Ze (З з; italics: З з) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the voiced alveolar fricative , like the pronunciation of in "zebra". Ze is romanized using the Latin letter . The shape of Ze is very similar to the Arabic numeral three and the Cyrillic letter E .

Unusually for Indo- Aryan languages, four distinct phonemic fricatives are recorded in Wadiyari; contrasting at three places of articulation: the alveolar, the post-alveolar, and the glottal. All of these are unrestricted. A labiodental fricative was also observed; however, this is wholly restricted to Persian loanwords. Alveolar fricatives are often affricatized.

In the Tabares dialect, the velar fricative /x/ is released as [x] initially and [ɣ] (voiced) intervocalically, except when followed by the high front vowel /i/, where it is also retroflexed [ɣ˞]. The front mid-vowel /e/ is usually pronounced [ɛ] in word-final heavy syllables, but pronounced [e] elsewhere.

The lowercase đ is used in some phonetic transcription schemes to represent a voiced dental fricative (English th in this). Eth (ð) is more commonly used for this purpose, but the crossed d has the advantage of being able to be typed on a standard typewriter, by overlaying a hyphen over a d.

The voiceless uvular fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , the Greek chi. The sound is represented by (ex with underdot) in Americanist phonetic notation. It is sometimes transcribed with (or , if rhotic) in broad transcription.

The voiced epiglottal or pharyngeal trill, or voiced epiglottal fricative,John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, 2nd ed., p 695. is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .

Verdurian's phonology has eight vowels and twenty-one consonants. Among the most exotic of its sounds is the voiced uvular fricative (ʁ), which is transcribed as an R with a háček over it (Ř, ř).Ethnoslavica: Johannes Reinhart, Tilmann Reuther, Gerhard Neweklowsky, (C) 2006, p. 213. Verdurian also has its own alphabet.

Three feminine forms have been derived from Llywelyn - Llywela, Llewellanne, Loella and Louella- as well as two hypocoristic forms, Llelo and Llela (usually considered male and female, respectively). The hypocoristic forms are always pronounced (and sometimes spelt) with an initial [l], rather than with the alveolar fricative represented in Welsh by ll.

The letter ق (qāf) is pronounced as an unvoiced velar fricative /x/ with the same pronunciation as خ ( _kh_ e) whereas in Standard Hindustani dialects the ق is pronounced as a velar plosive /k/ with the same pronunciation as ک (kāf). For example, the word 'qabar' (grave) is pronounced as ' _kh_ abar' (news).

The Middle-Welsh LL ligature. Unicode: U+1EFA and U+1EFB. In Welsh, stands for a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative sound (IPA: ). This sound is very common in place names in Wales because it occurs in the word , for example, Llanelli, where the appears twice, or Llanfairpwllgwyngyll, where the appears three times.

The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic phonology includes an emphatic voiceless alveolar lateral fricative or affricate for '. This sound is considered to be the direct ancestor of Arabic ', while merging with in most other Semitic languages. The letter itself is distinguished a derivation, by addition of a diacritic dot, from ص ṣād (representing /sˤ/).

The phoneme written Л л is pronounced as a voiced alveolar lateral fricative mostly by the Circassians of Kabardino and Cherkessia, but many Kabardians pronounce it as an alveolar lateral approximant in diaspora.Phonetic Structures of Turkish Kabardian (page 3 and 4) The series of labialized alveolar sibilant affricates and fricatives that exist in Adyghe became labiodental consonants in Kabardian, for example the Kabardian words мафӏэ "fire", зэвы "narrow", фыз "wife" and вакъэ "shoe" are pronounced as машӏо , зэжъу , шъуз and цуакъэ in Adyghe. Kabardian has a labialized voiceless velar fricative which correspond to Adyghe , for example the Adyghe word "тфы" ( "five" is тху () in Kabardian. In the Beslenei dialect, there exists an alveolar lateral ejective affricate which corresponds to in literary Kabardian.

The sequence nasal+fricative in some Ndonga demonstratives (ndhika, ndhoka etc.) corresponds to a single fricative in Kwambi (dhika, dhoka etc.). Demonstratives with an initial sequence nasal+k in Ndonga are absent from Kwambi, where the forms ‘huka’, ‘hoka’ etc. are always used instead of ‘nkuka’, ‘nkoka’ etc. A phenomenon whereby non-syllabic /m/ cannot occur in front of /v/ in Kwambi might be related, and it gives rise to word pairs such as Kwambi ‘ovura’ (=rain) and ‘nuuvo’ (=this year) vs. Ndonga ‘omvula’ and ‘nuumvo’. All verbs except ‘ha’ (=go) must be analysed as lacking an initial /h/ in Kwambi, which gives us word pairs such as Kwambi ‘ara’ vs. Ndonga ‘hala’ (=want) and Kwambi ‘anga’ vs. Ndonga ‘hanga’ (=brew beer).

The Greek alphabet was in turn the basis of other alphabets, notably the Etruscan and Coptic and later the Armenian, Gothic, and Cyrillic. Similar arguments can be derived in these cases as in the Phoenician-Greek case. For example, in Cyrillic, the letter (ve) stands for , confirming that beta was pronounced as a fricative by the 9th century AD, while the new letter (be) was invented to note the sound . Conversely, in Gothic, the letter derived from beta stands for , so in the 4th century AD, beta may have still been a plosive in Greek although according to evidence from the Greek papyri of Egypt, beta as a stop had been generally replaced by beta as a voiced bilabial fricative by the first century AD.

Sibiliant sounds are made by allowing the maxillary incisors to nearly touch the mandibular incisors, while fricative sounds are made by allowing the maxillary incisors to touch the slightly inverted lower lip at the wet-dry line. By having the patient count upwards from fifty and then upwards from sixty, the dentist can watch and listen to the patient attempting to make first fricative and then sibilant sounds and adjust the wax rims accordingly. A common trick is to ask the patient to say the name "Emma," as the position of the mandible immediately after completing the word is a rough estimate of the patient's proper VDO. The position after saying "Emma" is referred to as the vertical dimension at rest, or VDR.

In order for a syllable to be contracted, it must begin with a [+sonorant] consonant, that is, a voiced sound with a relatively free passage of air. In Yuchi, this includes sounds such as (where indicates a glottallized sound), the fricative , and . A syllable must also be unstressed in order to contract.Linn, 2001, p.

The voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that aren't palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed (retracted constricted voiceless ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `r\_-_0_r`.

The voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that aren't palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed (retracted constricted ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `r\_-_r`.

Appearance of comma (upper row) and cedilla (lower row) in the Times New Roman font. Note that the cedilla is placed higher than the comma. S-comma (majuscule: Ș, minuscule: ș) is a letter which is part of the Romanian alphabet, used to represent the sound , the voiceless postalveolar fricative (like sh in shoe).

The poem "Gleams of Thunderstorm" by Emma Andijewska being read in Ukrainian The Ukrainian language has six vowels, , , , , , . A number of the consonants come in three forms: hard, soft (palatalized) and long, for example, , , and or , , and . The letter represents voiced glottal fricative , often transliterated as Latin h. It is the voiced equivalent of English .

The close-mid back unrounded vowel, or high-mid back unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. Its symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet is , called "ram's horns". It is distinct from the symbol for the voiced velar fricative, , which has a descender. Despite that, some writingsSuch as and .

He proposed consistently spelling the sj-sound, voiced palatal approximant, voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative, and (all of which continue to have several realisations in Swedish orthography) as "sj", "j", "tj", and "ks", respectively. He also considered "Börjer Jarl" to be an acceptable alternative spelling of Birger Jarl. Noreen is buried at Uppsala gamla kyrkogård.

Beta (, ; uppercase , lowercase , or cursive ; or ) is the second letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 2. In Ancient Greek, beta represented the voiced bilabial plosive . In Modern Greek, it represents the voiced labiodental fricative (while in foreign words is instead commonly transcribed as μπ).

This is why approximations are very common and so are hypercorrections and hyperforeignisms. The most distinguishable feature is the lack of fricative consonants, particularly , and . Another feature is the general absence of the schwa , and therefore pronounced by its respective full equivalent vowel although the r-colored variant is increasingly popular in recent years.

In the syllable coda, the nasals merge into one sound. Phonetically, its realization varies between alveolar and velar . merges with so sheep and cheap are pronounced alike. The outcome of the merger varies and can be either a fricative (both cheap and sheep sound like sheep) or an affricate (both cheap and sheep sound like cheap).

Most West Chadic languages have a similar consonant inventory separated into eight major groups: labialized laryngeal, laryngeal, labialized velar, velar, lateral, alveopalatal, alveolar, and labial. In the Bade/Ngizim languages, the glottal stop plays no role, but the vowel hiatus relies on elision and coalescence. The sounds also feature a "yawning" and has a shift from fricative to stop.

Ze with descender (Ҙ ҙ; italics: Ҙ ҙ) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It is unique to the Bashkir language where it represents the voiced dental fricative , like the pronunciation of in "this". Its form is derived from the Cyrillic letter Ze (З з З з). It is romanized as ⟨ź⟩, or more phonetically, ⟨ð⟩.

The velum is raised so that air cannot flow through the nasal cavity. If the velum is lowered and allows for air to flow through the nose, the result in a nasal stop. However, phoneticians almost always refer to nasal stops as just "nasals".Affricates are a sequence of stops followed by a fricative in the same place.

Tse (Ц ц; italics: Ц ц), also known as Ce, is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the voiceless alveolar affricate , like the pronunciation of zz in "pizza". In the standard Iron dialect of Ossetic, it represents the voiceless alveolar sibilant fricative /s/. In other dialects, including Digoron, it has the same value as in Russian.

In most parts of Brazil, however, has become an unvoiced fricative (variously ), and all instances of not preceding a vowel have been likewise affected. (When final, this sound is sometimes not pronounced at all.) at the end of a syllable became heavily velarized in Portuguese. This still remains in Portugal, but in Brazil has progressed further, merging into .

The velum is raised so that air cannot flow through the nasal cavity. If the velum is lowered and allows for air to flow through the nose, the result in a nasal stop. However, phoneticians almost always refer to nasal stops as just "nasals".Affricates are a sequence of stops followed by a fricative in the same place.

This most commonly occurs in northern and western Germany, where the local dialects did not originally have the sound . Some speakers also have peculiar pronunciation for in the middle or end of a word, replacing the in with a voiceless bilabial fricative, i.e. a consonant produced by pressing air flow through the tensed lips. Thereby ('drop') becomes , rather than .

In Irish orthography it represents the voiced velar fricative or the voiced palatal approximant ; at the beginning of a word it shows the lenition of , for example mo dhoras ('my door' cf. doras 'door'). :In the pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, was used for the voiced alveolar implosive in Pular, a Fula language. It is currently written .

In Balto-Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet instead of the Cyrillic alphabet, ch represents the voiceless velar fricative . Ch is used in the Lithuanian language to represent the "soft h" , in word choras [ˈxɔrɐs̪] "choir". This digraph is not considered a single letter in the Lithuanian alphabet. This digraph is used only in loanwords.

In Goidelic languages, ch represents the voiceless velar fricative . In Irish, ch stands for when broad and (or between vowels) when slender. Examples: broad in chara "friend" (lenited), loch "lake, loch", boichte "poorer"; slender in Chéadaoin "Wednesday" (lenited), deich "ten". Breton has evolved a modified form of this digraph, c'h for representing , as opposed to ch, which stands for .

The letter ζ represents the voiced alveolar fricative in Modern Greek. The sound represented by zeta in Greek before 400 BCE is disputed. See Ancient Greek phonology and Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching. Most handbooks agree on attributing to it the pronunciation (like Mazda), but some scholars believe that it was an affricate (like adze).

Shahin, 2005, p. 414. Other proper Arabic transliterations for the Arabic name are ' or Ġazzah (DIN 31635). Accordingly, "Gaza" might be spelled "Gazza" in English. Although the "z" is double in Arabic, it was transliterated into Greek as a single zeta, and the voiced velar or uvular fricative at the beginning was transliterated with a gamma.

In historical linguistics, betacism (, ) is a sound change in which (the voiced bilabial plosive, as in bane) and (the voiced labiodental fricative , as in vane) are confused. The final result of the process can be either /b/ → [v] or /v/ → [b]. Betacism is a fairly common phenomenon; it has taken place in Greek, Hebrew and several Romance languages.

There is a Paamese orthography which has been in use for over 75 years which accurately represents almost all of the consonant phonemes. The only point of difference is the labial fricative, which, although voiceless in most environments, is written . The velar nasal is written with the digraph . A long vowel is written with a macron over the vowel: .

Pronunciations of the or type are reflected in the former Scots spelling quh- (as in quhen for when, etc.).Barber, C.L., Early Modern English, Edinburgh University Press 1997, p. 18. In some dialects of Scots, the sequence has merged with the voiceless labiodental fricative .A similar phenomenon to this has occurred in most varieties of the Maori language.

Doulos SIL glyph for ʮ. ʮ (turned h with fishhook) is a symbol from extensions to IPA for apical dental rounded syllabic alveolar fricative. That is, it is the "z" sound in English pronounced with rounded lips, and treated as a vowel in a syllable. It is used by Sinologists when transcribing words from various languages.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, represents the voiced labiodental fricative. See Help:IPA. In English, V is unusual in that it has not traditionally been doubled to indicate a short vowel, the way, for example, P is doubled to indicate the difference between "super" and "supper". However, that is changing with newly coined words, such as "divvy up" and "skivvies".

The Maxakali live in the districts of Santa Helena de Minas, Bertópolis, Ladainha and Teófilo Otoni in the federal state Minas Gerais. The 1460 members of the group live in isolation and poverty. They speak the Maxakalí language, which is one of the Maxakalían languages. This language is notable for having neither nasal nor fricative consonants contrastively.

Th-stopping The [d] is used to represent the voiced “th” sound /ð/, and a [t] to represent the voiceless one /θ/. For example, “that thing over there” becomes “dat ting over dere”. This is derived from Hiberno- English. Slit fricative t The phoneme when appearing at the end of word or between vowel sounds, is pronounced as in Hiberno-English; the most common pronunciation is as a "slit fricative", it is somewhat drawn out, instead of a distinct tap of the tongue on the top of the mouth. H-dropping Both h-dropping and h-insertion occur in many varieties of Newfoundland English – for example, Holyrood becomes “‘Olyrood” and Avondale becomes “H’Avondale” Rhoticity Newfoundland is a rhotic accent like most of North America, as well as Ireland and the English West Country.

Persian dialects of Khuzestan are halfway between north Iranian dialects and Dari dialects, or midway between Modern and Classical Persian dialects. # Word-final [æ] in Classical Persian is allophonized to [e], except [næ] ('no'). # The long vowels of Classical Persian [] and [] merged into Modern Persian [], and [] and [] merged into []. # Arabic letter و is realized as a voiced labiodental fricative [v].

Ve (В в; italics: В в) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the voiced labiodental fricative , like in "vase". The capital letter Ve looks the same as the capital Latin letter B, but is pronounced differently. Ve is romanized usually by the Latin letter V but sometimes the Latin letter W (such as in Polish or German).

The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in some dialects of English, most notably in Scottish English, e.g. in loch, broch or saugh (willow). The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , the Latin letter x.

De with breve (Д̆ д̆; italics: Д̆ д̆) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. Its form is derived from the Cyrillic De (Д д) by adding a breve. De with breve is used in the Aleut language (Bering dialect), where it represents the voiced dental fricative /ð/, like the pronunciation of ⟨th⟩ in English “they” . For example, ‘ад̆аӽ’ – father, ‘чӣд̆аӽ’ – baby bird.

The voiceless epiglottal or pharyngeal trill, or voiceless epiglottal fricative,John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, 2nd ed., p 695. is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `H\`.

However, its characteristics are also influenced by the preceding vowels and whatever other sounds surround it. Therefore, it can be described as a segment whose only consistent feature is its breathy voice phonation in such languages. It may have real glottal constriction in a number of languages (such as Finnish), making it a fricative. Lamé contrasts voiceless and voiced glottal fricatives.

The word Piapoco is a Spanish nickname in reference to the toucan. Most Piapoco also speak Spanish. Speakers who have had less contact with Spanish speakers more often pronounce the phoneme "s" as a voiceless interdental fricative. Younger speakers of the Piapoco language tend to eliminate the "h" more than older speakers due to their contact with the Spanish language.

The letter Ʈ (minuscule: ʈ), called T with retroflex hook, is a letter of the Latin alphabet based on the letter t. It is used to represent a voiceless retroflex plosive in the International Phonetic Alphabet, and is used some alphabets of African languages. A ligature of ʈ with h was part of the Initial Teaching Alphabet to represent the voiceless dental fricative.

The letter (encoded at U+06C1) replaces the regular he (encoded at U+0647) in Urdu (as well as the Punjabi Shahmukhi alphabet) for the voiced glottal fricative [ɦ] but is word-finally pronounced ("silent /h/") following Persian pronunciation methods, while the do-cas͟hmī he is used in digraphs for aspiration and breathy voice and hence never used word-initially.

'sun'); and an intermediate sound (with more frication than but less frication than ) before (e.g. 'straightened'). The slender tap has a palatalised palato-alveolar fricative . as its primary allophone. As in English, voiceless stops are aspirated (articulated with a puff of air immediately upon release) at the start of a word, while voiced stops may be incompletely voiced but are never aspirated.

A number of consonants are realised differently when they occur in clusters with certain other consonants. This particularly concerns clusters that involve the approximants or the glottal fricative . Clusters where the second consonant was are realised as palatalised consonants, and clusters where the second consonant was are realised as labialised. Consonant clusters where the initial consonant is are realised as preaspirated and devoiced.

In Longgu, certain orthographic conventions can be used. It is important to realise that the labialised bilabial phonemes in Longgu can essentially be written as pw, bw and mw, the bilabial fricative / β/ as v, the glottal stop /ʔ/ as /’/ and the velar nasal /ŋ/ as digraph /ng/. Apart from these exceptions, all the other consonants are written in their phoneme form.

In most European languages written in the Latin script, such as in Romance and Germanic languages, appears almost exclusively in the digraph . In French, Occitan, Catalan and Portuguese, represents or ; in Spanish, it represents . replaces for before front vowels and , since in those languages represents a fricative or affricate before front vowels. In Italian represents (where is the semivowel allophone of ).

Among Yemen and some Sephardi areas, tav without a dagesh represented a voiceless dental fricative - a pronunciation hailed by the Sfath Emeth work as wholly authentic, while the tav with the dagesh is the plosive . In traditional Italian pronunciation, tav without a dagesh is sometimes . Tav with a geresh () is sometimes used in order to represent the TH digraph in loanwords.

Many languages, such as English, have two sibilant types, one hissing and one hushing. A wide variety of languages across the world have this pattern. Perhaps most common is the pattern, as in English, with alveolar and palato- alveolar sibilants. Modern northern peninsular Spanish has a single apico- alveolar sibilant fricative , as well as a single palato-alveolar sibilant affricate .

Confusions between b and v show that the Classical semivowel , and intervocalic partially merged to become a bilabial fricative (Classical semivowel became in Vulgar Latin, while became an allophone of in intervocalic position). Already by the 1st century AD, a document by one Eunus writes for and for .Horrocks, Geoffrey and James Clackson (2007). The Blackwell History of the Latin Language.

That includes the differentiation between short and long vowels and between the various accents; the pronunciation of the spiritus asper as /h/ and the pronunciation of β, γ and δ as plosives and of diphthongs as such. However, there is often no mention of the ancient aspirate pronunciation of θ, φ and χ, which are different from the modern fricative pronunciation.

In some Polish dialects (found in the eastern borderlands and in Upper Silesia) there is an additional voiced glottal fricative , represented by the letter . In standard Polish, both and represent . Some eastern dialects also preserve the velarized dental lateral approximant, , which corresponds with in standard Polish. Those dialects also can palatalize () in every position, but standard Polish does so only allophonically before and .

Melpa (also written Medlpa) is a Papuan language spoken by about 130,000 people predominantly in Mount Hagen and the surrounding district of Western Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea. Melpa has a pandanus language used during karuka harvest. Melpa has a voiceless velar lateral fricative, written as a double-barred el (Ⱡ, ⱡ). It is notable for its binary counting system.

500x500px ' () is one of the six letters the Arabic alphabet added to the twenty-two from the Phoenician alphabet (the others being , , , , ). In Modern Standard Arabic it represents the voiceless dental fricative , also found in English as the "th" in words such as "think" and "thin". In name and shape, it is a variant of (). Its numerical value is 500 (see Abjad numerals).

This article discusses the phonological system of Standard Macedonian (unless otherwise noted) based on the Prilep-Bitola dialect. For discussion of other dialects, see Macedonian dialects. Macedonian possesses five vowels, one semivowel, three liquid consonants, three nasal stops, three pairs of fricatives, two pairs of affricates, a non-paired voiceless fricative, nine pairs of voiced and unvoiced consonants and four pairs of stops.

Although it belongs to the late classical period rather than the Koine Greek period, Boeotian phonology is shown here as it prefigures several traits of later Koine phonology. By the 4th century BC, Boeotian had monophthongized most diphthongs, and featured a fricative . In contrast with Ionic-Attic and Koine, had remained a back vowel in Boeotian (written ). Long and short vowels were still distinguished.

Steed, W., & Hardie, P. (2004). Acoustic Properties of the Kuman Voiceless Velar Lateral Fricative. Proceedings of the 10th Australian International Conference on Speech Science & Technology, Sydney. The IPA has no separate symbol for these sounds, but they can be transcribed as a devoiced raised velar lateral approximant, (here the devoicing ring diacritic is placed above the letter to avoid clashing with the raising diacritic).

However, appropriate symbols are easy to make by adding a lateral- fricative belt to the symbol for the corresponding lateral approximant (see below). Also, a devoicing diacritic may be added to the approximant. Nearly all languages with such lateral obstruents also have the approximant. However, there are a number of exceptions, many of them located in the Pacific Northwest area of the United States.

Obstruents are subdivided into plosives (oral stops), such as , with complete occlusion of the vocal tract, often followed by a release burst; fricatives, such as , with limited closure, not stopping airflow but making it turbulent; and affricates, which begin with complete occlusion but then release into a fricative-like release, such as .Zsiga, Elizabeth. The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.

The pipe at the beginning of the name "ǀXam" represents a dental click, like the English interjection tsk, tsk! used to express pity or shame. The denotes a voiceless velar fricative click accompaniment. Compared to other Khoisan languages, there is little variation in rendering the name though it is sometimes seen with the simple orthographic variant ǀKham, as well as a different grammatical form, ǀKhuai.

Words of more than one syllable generally have even stress on all the syllables (unlike spoken English). A quick review of sounds with audio samples gives clear examples, including some of the names used in this book. A site about Welsh mountain names offers a quick guide to pronunciation. The sound represented by ll or Ll is a voiceless lateral fricative, which does not exist in English.

In Czech, there are two contrasting alveolar trills. Besides the typical apical trill, written r, there is another laminal trill, written ř, in words such as rybáři 'fishermen' and the common surname Dvořák. Its manner of articulation is similar to but is laminal and the body of the tongue is raised. It is thus partially fricative, with the frication sounding rather like but less retracted.

The voiced retroflex sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `z``. Like all the retroflex consonants, the IPA symbol is formed by adding a rightward-pointing hook extending from the bottom of a z (the letter used for the corresponding alveolar consonant).

It was known as Sexmoan until January 15, 1991. The town's former name in Spanish was Sexmoán, as was initially transcribed by Spanish friars. In Spanish, the letter used to be pronounced as a voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/, identical to the digraph in English. It was derived from the ancient Kapampangan rootword sasmo, which means to meet, according to a 17th-century Kapampangan dictionary.

In medial positions, both pronunciations are possible. In Modern Hebrew this restriction is not absolute, e.g. פִיזִיקַאי and never (= "physicist"), סְנוֹבּ and never (= "snob"). A dagesh may be inserted to unambiguously denote the plosive variant: בּ = , כּ = , פּ =; similarly (though today very rare in Hebrew and common only in Yiddish) a rafé placed above the letter unambiguously denotes the fricative variant: בֿ = , כֿ = and פֿ = .

The phoneme originated in Vulgar Latin from the palatalization of the plosives and in some conditions. Later, changed into in many Romance languages and dialects. Spanish has not used the symbol since an orthographic reform in the 18th century (which replaced ç with the now- devoiced z), but it was adopted for writing other languages. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, represents the voiceless palatal fricative.

Occasionally, is written for this sound, following Portuguese and medieval Spanish usage. "G" is the voiced velar spirant , as in Spanish haga; it is not a plosive () as in English gate. "V" is the English and French labiodental voiced fricative , as in Victor, not the Spanish bilabial. It is also pronounced as the labiodental approximant , which is like with the lower lip touching the upper teeth.

The slender coronal stops may be realized as alveolo-palatal affricates in a number of dialects, including Tourmakeady, Erris, and Teelin. The slender dorsal stops may be articulated as true palatals or as palatovelars . The phoneme has three allophones in most dialects: a palatal approximant before vowels besides and at the ends of syllables (e.g. 'nice', 'will be'); a voiced (post)palatal fricative before consonants (e.g.

Kha with hook (Ӽ ӽ; italics: Ӽ ӽ) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. In Unicode, this letter is called "Ha with hook". Its form is derived from the Cyrillic Kha (Х х Х х) by adding a hook to the right leg. Kha with hook is used in the alphabets of the Itelmen and Nivkh languages, where it represents the voiceless uvular fricative .

Sonorants contrast with obstruents, which do stop or cause turbulence in the airflow. The latter group includes fricatives and stops (for example, and ). Among consonants pronounced in the back of the mouth or in the throat, the distinction between an approximant and a voiced fricative is so blurred that no language is known to contrast them. Thus, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal fricatives never contrast with approximants.

In Old and Middle Irish, the lenited was a nasalized bilabial fricative. Sundanese has an allophonic nasalized glottal stop ; nasalized stops can occur only with pharyngeal articulation or lower, or they would be simple nasals. Nasal flaps are common allophonically. Many West African languages have a nasal flap (or ) as an allophone of before a nasal vowel; Pashto, however, has a phonemic nasal retroflex lateral flap.

An orthography for the Komo language has been conclusively constructed. It is based on the Latin alphabet. Vowels: a, e, i, ɨ, o, u, ʉ Consonants: p, b, pp, m, w, t, d, tt, dd, ss, z, n, r, l, sh, y, k, g, kk, h In the orthography, the double consonants denote the ejective or implosive sounds. The "sh" letter combination denotes the palatal fricative.

Early word productions are phonetically simple and usually follow the syllable structure CV or CVC, although this generalization has been challenged. The first vowels produced are , , and , followed by , , and , with rounded vowels emerging last. German children often use phonological processes to simplify their early word production. For example, they may delete an unstressed syllable ( 'chocolate' pronounced ), or replace a fricative with a corresponding stop ( 'roof' pronounced ).

In Portuguese, ch represents . Ch is pronounced as a voiceless postalveolar affricate in both Castillian and Latin American Spanish, or a voiceless postalveolar fricative in Andalusian. Ch is traditionally considered a distinct letter of the Spanish alphabet, called che. In the 2010 Orthography of the Spanish Language, Ch is no longer considered a letter of its own but rather a digraph consisting of two letters.

The Polar Inuit were the last to cross from Canada into Greenland and they may have arrived as late as in the eighteenth century.Fortescue 1991. page 1 The language differs from Kalaallisut by substituting Kalaallisut with an h-sound often pronounced like a palatal fricative as in German ich. Inuktun also allows more consonant combinations than Kalaallisut and has some minor grammatical and lexical differences.

Atsina is the name applied by specialists in Algonquian linguistics. Arapaho and Atsina are dialects of a common language usually designated by scholars as "Arapaho-Atsina". Historically, this language had five dialects, and on occasion specialists add a third dialect name to the label, resulting in the designation, "Arapaho-Atsina-Nawathinehena". Compared with Arapaho proper, Gros Ventre had three additional phonemes , , , and , and lacked the velar fricative .

Be (Б б italics: Б б б) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the voiced bilabial plosive , like the English pronunciation of in "ball". It should not be confused with the Cyrillic letter Ve (В в), which is shaped like Latin capital letter B but represents the voiced labiodental fricative . The Cyrillic letter Б (Be) is romanized using the Latin letter B.

The orthography was standardized in 1983-84 and used from 1985 onward. It is based on the Sindhi alphabet with three additional letters: , representing a voiced dental implosive /ɗ/, , representing a retroflex lateral approximant /ɭ/, and , representing a voiced glottal fricative /ɦ/. These letters all use an inverted V (like the circumflex) as the diacritical mark because Sindhi already makes frequent use of dots.

A modified version of the letter wynn called vend was used briefly for the sounds , , and . Long vowels were sometimes marked with acutes but also sometimes left unmarked or geminated. The standardized Old Norse spelling was created in the 19th century and is, for the most part, phonemic. The most notable deviation is that the nonphonemic difference between the voiced and the voiceless dental fricative is marked.

Piwr, Pyowr, or Pyur (uppercase: Փ, lowercase: փ) is the 35th letter of the Armenian alphabet. It represents the aspirated voiceless bilabial stop (/pʰ/). Its capital form is homoglyphic to the Cyrillic letter Ef, the Greek letter Phi, and the symbol for the voiceless bilabial fricative. The lowercase form is the letter Tyun with two additional vertical lines jutting on the top and the bottom.

The phonology of Welsh includes a number of sounds that do not occur in English and are typologically rare in European languages. The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative , the voiceless nasals , and , and the voiceless alveolar trill are distinctive features of the Welsh language. Stress usually falls on the penultimate syllable in polysyllabic words, and the word-final unstressed syllable receives a higher pitch than the stressed syllable.

Nowadays, this is a mere sequence of two phonemes ; the conservative Moscow pronunciation is now somewhat obsolete. is a sequence of letters used in Russian to write a long voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative , the same value as the letter . However, since the sound value of is a predictable effect of assimilation, it is not a true digraph. An example is in the word мужчина ('man'), pronounced .

Old Tibetan phonology is rather accurately rendered by the script. The finals were pronounced devoiced although they are written as voiced, the prefix letters assimilated their voicing to the root letters. The graphic combinations hr and lh represent voiceless and not necessarily aspirate correspondences to r and l respectively. The letter ' was pronounced as a voiced guttural fricative before vowels but as homorganic prenasalization before consonants.

The voiceless uvular stop q [qȹ] is pronounced like a back k, with the back of the tongue touching the soft palate, as in aq "white," Qeshqer "Kashgar." The sound gh is typically a voiced fricative version of q, also pronounced at the very back of the mouth and sounds like French or German r, as in Roissy or Ruhr. (Near front vowels, gh is often pronounced more front, like French Rue or German Rübe.) Finally, the Uyghur voiceless velar or uvular fricative x is pronounced like ch in Scottish loch, or further back in the mouth, like a back version of German ach. The four sounds k, g, q and gh are subject to consonant harmony: (1) within a stem (main word), they potentially determine its backness and (2) within a variable suffix, they conform to the backness and voicing of the preceding stem.

Many Jewish immigrants to Israel spoke a variety of Arabic in their countries of origin and pronounced the Hebrew rhotic as an alveolar tap , similar to Arabic '. Gradually, many of them began pronouncing their Hebrew rhotic as a voiced uvular fricative , a sound similar or (depending on the Arabic dialect) identical to Arabic '. However, in modern Sephardic and Mizrahi poetry and folk music an alveolar rhotic continues to be used.

Chicano speakers may realize bilabially, as a stop or a fricative/approximant , with very being pronounced or . Dental fricatives change pronunciation so think may be pronounced , or more rarely or . Most Latin American Spanish dialects, such as Mexican Spanish, exhibit seseo, a lack of distinction between and that is a part of Standard European Spanish. and may merge into ; job may sound like yob and yes may sound like jes.

Tlingit has a complex phonological system, compared to Indo-European languages such as English or Spanish. It has an almost complete series of ejective consonants accompanying its stop, fricative, and affricate consonants. Tlingit's only missing ejective consonant in the Tlingit series is pronounced , and the language is also notable for having several laterals but no voiced and for having no labials in most dialects, except for and in recent English loanwords.

Worldwide, relatively few languages have affricates in these positions even though the corresponding stop consonants, and , are common or virtually universal. Also less common are alveolar affricates where the fricative release is lateral, such as the sound found in Nahuatl and Navajo. Some other Athabaskan languages, such as Dene Suline, have unaspirated, aspirated, and ejective series of affricates whose release may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or lateral: , , , , , , , , , , , and .

Some, such as Greek, Italian and Serbo-Croatian, have more than two liquid phonemes. All three languages have the set , with two laterals and one rhotic. Similarly, the Iberian languages contrast four liquid phonemes. , , , and a fourth phoneme that is an alveolar trill in all but some varieties of Portuguese, where it is a uvular trill or fricative (also, the majority of Spanish speakers lack and use the central instead).

Hyperforeignisms occur in Polish sometimes with English loanwords or names. One example would be the name Roosevelt, which is pronounced , as if it started like goose, even though a natural Polish pronunciation would be closer to the English one. Phenian, now obsolete name for Pyongyang, which was a transcription of Russian , was pronounced , as if 'ph' represented voiceless labiodental fricative like in English. Loanwords from Japanese are often subject to hyperforeignism.

It sounds like a simultaneous and , and non-native speakers may pronounce it as or . In the IPA, it is typically written as plus the raising diacritic, , but it has also been written as laminal .For example, Ladefoged (1971). (Before the 1989 IPA Kiel Convention, it had a dedicated symbol .) The Kobon language of Papua New Guinea also has a fricative trill, but the degree of frication is variable.

The voiceless retroflex sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is . Like all the retroflex consonants, the IPA letter is formed by adding a rightward-pointing hook to the bottom of the ess (the letter used for the corresponding alveolar consonant). A distinction can be made between laminal, apical, and sub-apical articulations.

Avane is characterized phonetically in comparison to Maipure, showing some large differences. Avane uses the dental stop /[d]/, which is not seen in Maipure but is native to Yavitero and Baniva. It uses the glottal fricative /[h]/ (/[x]/) before /[i]/ and/or /[a]/, where Maipure would use /[t]/, /[k]/, and /[j]/. Also unlike Maipure, the Avane diphthongs /[ai]/ and /[au]/ do not appear to be contracted in stressed syllables.

The voiced palatal fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) that represents this sound is (crossed-tail j), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `j\`. It is the non-sibilant equivalent of the voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant. In broad transcription, the symbol for the palatal approximant, , may be used for the sake of simplicity.

Initiation by means of the lungs (actually the diaphragm and ribs) is called pulmonic initiation. The vast majority of sounds used in human languages are pulmonic egressives. In most languages, including all the languages of Europe (excluding the Caucasus), all phonemes are pulmonic egressives. The only attested use of a phonemic pulmonic ingressive is a lateral fricative in Damin, a ritual language formerly used by speakers of Lardil in Australia.

Miller (2003) attributes this to a larger glottal opening than is found in for example Hindustani breathy-voiced consonants. ;Linguo-pulmonic affricates The rear articulation may also be released as a fricative, one which may be either voiceless or voiced. Aspiration / breathy voice is not distinctive, as fricatives are not easily aspirated. However, because the forward articulation may be considered a stop, these are called affricates rather than fricatives.

Though English speakers take it for granted, the digraph is in fact not an obvious combination for a dental fricative. The origins of this have to do with developments in Greek. Proto-Indo-European had an aspirated that came into Greek as , spelled with the letter theta. In the Greek of Homer and Plato, this was still pronounced , and therefore when Greek words were borrowed into Latin, theta was transcribed with .

In Coatzospan Mixtec, fricatives and affricates are nasalized before nasal vowels even when they are voiceless. In the Hupa, the velar nasal often has the tongue not make full contact, resulting in a nasalized approximant, . That is cognate with a nasalized palatal approximant in other Athabaskan languages. In Umbundu, phonemic contrasts with the (allophonically) nasalized approximant and so is likely to be a true fricative rather than an approximant.

See comments on /p/ for contrastive features. : faglon ‘second most recently born child in a family’ : fatfat ‘thrash around’ Rare in Austronesian languages. Historically related to Tagalog and other Philippine languages. /p/. For example: : afuy ‘fire’ (Tagalog: ‘apoy’) : fana ‘arrow’ (Tagalog: ‘pana’) : fag grammatical linker (other Mangyan languages except Buhid, ‘pag’) /s/ voiceless alveolar fricative can occur in all syllable positions, and in the initial consonant cluster /st/.

Perhaps, the most perceptible traits are the deaf velar fricative aspiration and the implosive /s/, these ones are the most characteristic and contrast with the rest of the province of Salamanca's speech. People still retain some words dating from the Middle Ages and having Mozarab and Basque origin. Due to these dialect's southern traits, it is considered to belong to the Extremaduran dialects stemming from the old Leonese language.

Additionally Akkadian is the only Semitic language to use the prepositions ina and ana (locative case, English in/on/with, and dative-locative case, for/to, respectively). Other Semitic languages like Arabic and Aramaic have the prepositions bi/bə and li/lə (locative and dative, respectively). The origin of the Akkadian spatial prepositions is unknown. In contrast to most other Semitic languages, Akkadian has only one non-sibilant fricative: ḫ .

The phonology of Welsh is characterised by a number of sounds that do not occur in English and are rare in European languages, such as the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative and several voiceless sonorants (nasals and liquids), some of which result from consonant mutation. Stress usually falls on the penultimate syllable in polysyllabic words, while the word-final unstressed syllable receives a higher pitch than the stressed syllable.

The standard pronunciation of is ). Another common merger is that of at the end of a syllable with or , for instance ('war'), but ('wars'); ('he lay'), but ('we lay'). This pronunciation is frequent all over central and northern Germany. It is characteristic of regional languages and dialects, particularly Low German in the North, where represents a fricative, becoming voiceless in the syllable coda, as is common in German (final- obstruent devoicing).

In French, the only truly guttural sound is (usually) a uvular fricative (or the guttural R). In Portuguese, is becoming dominant in urban areas. There is also a realization as a , and the original pronunciation as an also remains very common in various dialects. In Russian, is assimilated to the palatalization of the following velar consonant: лёгких . It also has a voiced allophone , which occurs before voiced obstruents.

The classic pronunciations of and are preserved in the eastern varieties, Dari and Tajiki, as well as in the southern varieties (e.g. Zoroastrian Dari language and other Central / Central Plateau or Kermanic languages). Some Iranian speakers show a similar merger of and , such that alternates with , with the latter being restricted to intervocalic position. Some speakers front to a voiceless palatal fricative in the vicinity of , especially in syllable-final position.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), aspirated consonants are written using the symbols for voiceless consonants followed by the aspiration modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiceless glottal fricative . For instance, represents the voiceless bilabial stop, and represents the aspirated bilabial stop. Voiced consonants are seldom actually aspirated. Symbols for voiced consonants followed by , such as , typically represent consonants with murmured voiced release (see below).

In Russian and Bulgarian, the letter Be generally represents the voiced bilabial plosive , but word-finally or before a voiceless consonant, it also represents the voiceless . Before a palatalizing vowel, it represents . In Macedonian, the letter represents the sound , but if it is in the final position of the word, it is pronounced as , like in ('bread'). In Mari, it may represent either /b/ or the voiced bilabial fricative .

However, the use of a syllabic fricative is often observed in informal English with the paralinguistic expression "Shh!", which may serve as a guide to the pronunciation of "Shih".A female Shih Tzu at around 18 months of age.In the modern Chinese language, the Shih Tzu is generally known as the "Xi Shi dog"; Xi Shi was regarded as one of the most beautiful women of ancient China.

Martínez-Celdrán, E. (2004) "Problems in the classification of approximants". Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34, 201–10. However, such frication is generally slight and intermittent, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants. Because voicelessness has comparatively reduced resistance to air flow from the lungs, the increased air flow creates more turbulence, making acoustic distinctions between voiceless approximants (which are extremely rare cross-linguistically) and voiceless fricatives difficult.

In the Romance languages French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian and Portuguese, generally has a "hard" value of and a "soft" value whose pronunciation varies by language. In French, Portuguese, Catalan and Spanish from Latin America and some places in Spain, the soft value is as it is in English. In the Spanish spoken in most of Spain, the soft is a voiceless dental fricative . In Italian and Romanian, the soft is .

Different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme are called allophones. Specific allophonic variations, and the particular correspondences between allophones (realizations of speech sound) and phonemes (underlying perceptions of speech sound) can vary even within languages. For example, speakers of Quebec French often express voiceless alveolar stops (/t/) as an affricate. An affricate is a stop followed by a fricative and in this case sounds like the English 'ch' sound.

Zha (ॹ) is the character ज with three dots underneath. It is used in Devanagari transcriptions of the Avestan letter zhe (𐬲) to denote the voiced patalal fricative . An example of its usage is in Kavasji Edulji Kanga's Avesta, yazna 41.3 to write ईॹीम्. Zha (ॹ) should not be confused with za (ज़), which is used to denote the voiced alveolar sibilant from Urdu, English, and other languages.

Regions with the merger (yeísmo) in dark blue, regions with distinction in pink Most dialects that merge the two sounds represented by and realize the remaining sound as a voiced palatal fricative , which is similar to the in English your, but it sometimes sounds like in English jar, especially after or or at the beginning of a word. For example, relleno is pronounced and conllevar is pronounced or .

In Jarai dialects spoken in Cambodia, the "(C)" in the cluster "C(C)" can also be the voiced velar fricative , a phoneme used by the Jarai in Cambodia, but not attested in Vietnam. The vowel of the first syllable in disyllabic words is most often the mid-central unrounded vowel, , unless the initial consonant is the glottal stop . The second vowel of the stressed syllable produces a diphthong.

In English, the plosive in the affricate , as in the word church, is farther back than an alveolar due to assimilation with the postalveolar fricative . In narrow transcription, may be transcribed . In General American English, the in the word eighth is farther front than normal, due to assimilation with the interdental consonant , and may be transcribed as . Languages may have phonemes that are farther back than the nearest IPA symbol.

In positions other than word-initial, Xamtanga contrasts geminate and non-geminate consonants. With most consonants, the difference between a geminate and a non-geminate is simply one of length, but the cases of are more complex. When not word- initial, non-geminate is realized as a bilabial or labiodental fricative , and and are realized as affricates: . Their geminate equivalents may be realized as prolonged , or can simply be short .

The voiced dental click is a click consonant found primarily among the languages of southern Africa. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is or ; a symbol abandoned by the IPA but still preferred by some linguists is or . In languages which use the Bantu letters for clicks, this is most commonly written , but it is written in those languages that use for the uvular fricative.

The voiced (post)alveolar click is a click consonant found primarily among the languages of southern Africa. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is or ; a symbol abandoned by the IPA but still preferred by some linguists is or . In languages which use the Bantu letters for clicks, this is most commonly written , but it is written in those languages that use for the uvular fricative.

The voiced lateral click is a click consonant found primarily among the languages of southern Africa. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is or ; a symbol abandoned by the IPA but still preferred by some linguists is or . In languages which use the Bantu letters for clicks, this is most commonly written , but it is written in those languages that use for the uvular fricative.

It is either pronounced as an alveolar trill (more frequent in the Southern Islands) or either as an uvular trill , voiced uvular fricative or voiced velar fricative (more frequent in the Northern Islands). ## Intervocalic , and In Portugal, these are realized as the fricatives , and . In Cape Verde they are always pronounced as plosives , and . # Vowels and diphthongs ## Unstressed open vowels In European Portuguese there are cases when the unstressed is pronounced open : \- when it originates etymologically from (sadio, Tavares, caveira, etc.); \- when a final is followed by an initial (minha amiga, casa amarela, uma antena, etc.); \- when the is followed by a preconsonantal (alguém, faltou, etc.); \- other cases harder to explain (camião, racismo, etc.) In Cape Verdean Portuguese there is the tendency to realize these as close : \- vadio, caveira, minha amiga, uma antena, alguém, faltou, are all pronounced with ; Note that in the educated register some instances of the unstressed are pronounced open : baptismo, fracção, actor, etc.

In the 16th century, as the Spanish colonization of the Americas was beginning, the phoneme now represented by the letter j had begun to change its place of articulation from palato-alveolar to palatal and to velar , like German ch in Bach (see History of Spanish and Old Spanish language). In southern Spanish dialects and in those Hispanic American dialects strongly influenced by southern settlers (e.g. Caribbean Spanish), rather than the velar fricative , the result was a softer glottal sound , like English h in hope. Glottal is nowadays the standard pronunciation for j in Caribbean dialects (Cuban, Dominican, and Puerto Rican) as well as in mainland Venezuela, in most Colombian dialects excepting Pastuso dialect that belongs to a continuum with Ecuadorian Spanish, much of Central America, southern Mexico, the Canary Islands and western Andalusia in Spain; in the rest of the country, alternates with a "raspy" uvular fricative , sometimes accompanied by uvular vibration.

One fricative consonant is still represented with a ligature: , and the extensions to the IPA contain three more: , and . The Initial Teaching Alphabet, a short-lived alphabet intended for young children, used a number of ligatures to represent long vowels: ꜷ, æ, œ, ᵫ, ꭡ, and ligatures for ee, ou and oi that are not encoded in Unicode. Ligatures for consonants also existed, including ligatures of ʃh, ʈh, wh, ʗh, ng and a reversed t with h (neither the reversed t nor any of the consonant ligatures are in Unicode). Rarer ligatures also exist, such as ꜳ; ꜵ; ꜷ; ꜹ; ꜻ (barred av); ꜽ; ꝏ, which is used in medieval Nordic languages for (a long close-mid back rounded vowel), as well as in some orthographies of the Massachusett language to represent (a long close back rounded vowel); ᵺ; ỻ, which was used in Medieval Welsh to represent (the voiceless lateral fricative); ꜩ; ᴂ; ᴔ; and ꭣ.

Fricatives appear in waveforms as random noise caused by the turbulent airflow, upon which a periodic pattern is overlaid if voiced. Fricatives produced in the front of the mouth tend to have energy concentration at higher frequencies than ones produced in the back. The centre of gravity, the average frequency in a spectrum weighted by the amplitude, may be used to determine the place of articulation of a fricative relative to that of another.

In such cases, voicing typically starts about halfway through the hold of the consonant. No language is known to contrast such a sound with a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative . In a number of languages, including most varieties of English, the phoneme becomes velarized ("dark l") in certain contexts. By contrast, the non-velarized form is the "clear l" (also known as: "light l"), which occurs before and between vowels in certain English standards.

Six series of pulmonic-contour clicks (as classified by the rear release) are attested. There are two manners of articulation (stop and fricative) and four voicing contrasts, each of which is found for each of the places of articulation (as classified by the front release) that clicks use. ;Linguo-pulmonic stops In linguo-pulmonic stops, the rear articulation is released into a pulmonic stop. This may be tenuis, aspirated, voiced, or murmured (breathy-voiced).

El with tail (Ӆ ӆ; italics: Ӆ ӆ) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. Its form is derived from the Cyrillic letter el (Л л) by adding a tail to the right leg. El with tail is used in the alphabets of the Itelmen language and Kildin Sami language, where it is located between and . This letter represents the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative , like the pronunciation of in the Welsh language.

The name Melechesh consists of two words of Hebrew and Aramaic origins: melech (meaning king; מֶלֶךְ, ܡܲܠܟܵܐ) and esh (meaning fire; אֵשׁ); hence, king of fire or fiery king. The portmanteau was originated by the band. The digraph ch is pronounced similarly to the Scottish ch, as in the word loch, or the Greek letter Χ. The Modern Hebrew realization of it is the voiceless uvular fricative (/χ/). See Modern Hebrew phonology and Aramaic phonology.

The letter thorn (þ) is often seen in the Middle English dialect, but it is also used in Anglo-Saxon runes, Old Norse, Gothic and Icelandic alphabets. Thorn originated from the rune ᚦ in the kElder Fuþark. Such a character is referred to as thorn in Anglo-Saxon and thurs ("giant") in the Scandinavian rune poems. Its sound closely resembles a voiceless dental fricative [θ], like th in the English word thick, for example.

Batak is written from left to right and top to bottom. Like all Brahmi-based scripts, each consonant has an inherent vowel of , unless there is a diacritic (in Toba Batak called pangolat) to indicate the lack of a vowel. Other vowels, final ŋ, and final velar fricative are indicated by diacritics, which appear above, below, or after the letter. For example, ba is written ba (one letter); bi is written ba.

A less common phonetic phenomenon is the realization of "voiceless s" (voiceless alveolar fricative ) as the voiceless alveolar affricate when preceded by , , or . → . For example, il sole (the sun), pronounced in standard Italian as , would be in theory pronounced by a Tuscan speaker . However, since assimilation of the final consonant of the article to the following consonant tends to occur in exactly such cases (see "Masculine definite articles" below) the actual pronunciation will be usually .

They command a varied repertoire of explosive and fricative whistles, percussive clicking sounds, and harsh rasping, churring or tearing sounds. Three species have a rasping alarm call (cubla, senegalensis and pringlii), while the remaining three (gambensis, angolensis and sabini) have a stuttering alarm call. Wing fripping and bill snapping complement vocal communication. The nest is a neat compact cup in the general fashion of bushshrikes, but similar to those of shrike-flycatchers.

Particular mention should be made to the francophones of Bayou Lafourche, who speak a linguistic feature that is absent everywhere else in Louisiana. Some francophones along Bayou Lafourche pronounce the letters "g" and "j" as a voiceless glottal fricative, but others pronounce the two letters in the manner of most other francophones.John Guilbeau. " A Glossary of Variants From Standard French in La Fourche Parish," Master's thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 1936.

A notable exception remains, ALA-LC (1991), the system used by the Library of Congress, continues to recommend modifier letter turned comma or left single quotation mark . The symbols for the corresponding phonemes in the International Phonetic Alphabet, for pharyngeal fricative (ayin) and for glottal stop (alef) were adopted in the 1928 revision. In anglicized Arabic or Hebrew names or in loanwords, ayin is often omitted entirely: Iraq , Arab , Saudi , etc.; Afula , Arad , etc.

The only certain PIE fricative phoneme was a strident sound, whose phonetic realization could range from [s] to palatalized or . It had a voiced allophone that emerged by assimilation in words such as ' ('nest'), and which later became phonemicized in some daughter languages. Some PIE roots have variants with appearing initially: such is called s-mobile. The "laryngeals" may have been fricatives, but there is no consensus as to their phonetic realization.

Consonantal vav () generally represents a voiced labiodental fricative (like the English v) in Ashkenazi, European Sephardi, Persian, Caucasian, Italian and modern Israeli Hebrew, and was originally a labial- velar approximant . In modern Israeli Hebrew, some loanwords, the pronunciation of whose source contains , and their derivations, are pronounced with : – (but: – ). Modern Hebrew has no standardized way to distinguish orthographically between and . The pronunciation is determined by prior knowledge or must be derived through context.

The nature of sibilants as so-called 'obstacle fricatives' is complicated – there is a continuum of possibilities relating to the angle at which the jet of air may strike an obstacle. The grooving often considered necessary for classification as a sibilant has been observed in ultrasound studies of the tongue for the supposedly non-sibilant voiceless alveolar fricative of English.Stone, M. & Lundberg, A. (1996). Three-dimensional tongue surface shapes of English consonants and vowels.

As a monarch of Ndongo and Matamba, her native name was Ngola Njinga. Ngola was the Ndongo name for the ruler and the etymological root of "Angola". In Portuguese, she was known as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). According to the current Kimbundu orthography, her name is spelled Njinga Mbandi (the "j" is a voiced postalveolar fricative or "soft j" as in Portuguese and French, while the adjacent "n" is silent).

This vowel came to be epenthetic, particularly before -ʀ endings. At the same time, the voiceless stop consonants p, t and k became voiced plosives and even fricative consonants. Resulting from these innovations, Danish has kage (cake), tunger (tongues) and gæster (guests) whereas (Standard) Swedish has retained older forms, kaka, tungor and gäster (OEN kaka, tungur, gæstir). Moreover, the Danish pitch accent shared with Norwegian and Swedish changed into stød around this time.

Several sound changes that historically affected European Portuguese were not shared by BP. Consonant changes in European Portuguese include the weakening of , , and to fricative , , and , while in BP these phonemes are maintained as stops in all positions. A vowel change in European Portuguese that does not occur in BP is the lowering of to before palatal sounds (, , , , and ) and in the diphthong em , which merges with the diphthong ãe normally, but not in BP.

The symbol stands for a voiceless sibilant like the s of English sick, while represents a voiceless interdental fricative like the th of English think. In some cases where the phonemic merger would render words homophonic in Latin America, one member of the pair is frequently replaced by a synonym or derived form—e.g. caza replaced by , or ('to boil'), homophonic with ('to sew'), replaced by . For more on seseo, see González-Bueno.

The Spanish digraph ch (the phoneme ) is pronounced in most dialects. However, it is pronounced as a fricative in some Andalusian dialects, New Mexican Spanish, some varieties of northern Mexican Spanish, informal Panamanian Spanish, and informal Chilean Spanish. In Chilean Spanish this pronunciation is viewed as undesirable, while in Panama it occurs among educated speakers. In Madrid and among upper- and middle-class Chilean speakers it is pronounced as the alveolar affricate .

Coastal Kadazan has adopted many loanwords, particularly from other northern Borneo indigenous languages and also Malay. Kadazan extensively employs the voiced alveolar sibilant fricative /z/ in their native lexicons, a feature found in only a few Austronesian languages. The Tsou and Paiwan languages also have these particular elements, spoken by the Taiwanese aborigines. Another language is Malagasy spoken in the island of Madagascar thousands of miles away off the coast of Africa.

The classical pronunciation associated with the consonant ר rêš was a flap , and was grammatically ungeminable. In most dialects of Hebrew among the Jewish diaspora, it remained a flap or a trill . However, in some Ashkenazi dialects of northern Europe it was a uvular rhotic, either a trill or a fricative . This was because most native dialects of Yiddish were spoken that way, and the liturgical Hebrew of these speakers carried the Yiddish pronunciation.

As with all other Romance languages, the alveolar trill is the original way to pronounce the letter r in Occitan, as it was in Latin. Nowadays, the uvular trill and the voiced uvular fricative or approximant are common in some Occitan dialects (Provence, Auvergne, Alps, Limousin). The dialects of Languedoc and Gascony also have these realizations, but it is generally considered to be influence from French and therefore rejected from the standard versions of these dialects.

Other Hebrew words that are regularly interspersed are ramzor (stoplight), mazgan (air conditioner), and mahshev (computer). The resulting dialect is usually referred to as 'Israeli Arabic'. Such borrowings are often "Arabized" to reflect not only Arabic phonology but the phonology of Hebrew as spoken by Arabs. For example, the second consonant of מעונות (me'onot, "dormitory") would be pronounced as a voiced pharyngeal fricative rather than the glottal stop traditionally used by the vast majority of Israeli Jews.

Horrocks notes that is written for any letter or digraph representing in other dialects––i.e. , , , or , which never represented the sound in Ancient Greek––not just . He therefore attributes this phonological feature of East Greek to vowel weakening, paralleling the omission of unstressed vowels. Horrocks (2010: 400) Fricative values for former voiced and aspirate stop consonants were probably already common; however, some dialects may have retained voiced and aspirate stop consonants until the end of the 1st millennium.

Tamil and Malayalam have both retroflex lateral (/ɭ/) and retroflex approximant (/ɻ/) sounds, whereas Kannada has retained only the retroflex lateral. Evidence shows that both retroflex approximant and the retroflex laterals were once (before the 10th century) also present in Kannada. However, all the retroflex approximants changed into retroflex laterals in Kannada later. In Kannada, the bilabial voiceless plosive (/p/) at the beginning of many words has disappeared to produce a velar fricative (/h/) or has disappeared completely.

Aperiodic sound sources are the turbulent noise of fricative consonants and the short-noise burst of plosive releases produced in the oral cavity. Voicing is a common period sound source in spoken language and is related to how closely the vocal cords are placed together. In English there are only two possibilities, voiced and unvoiced. Voicing is caused by the vocal cords held close by each other, so that air passing through them makes them vibrate.

Many phonemes in the Qawiaraq dialect have undergone a process of consonant weakening, although to what degree varies somewhat between villages. This process is motivated in part by prosody and parallels the consonant weakening processes at work in Yupik. As a result, many stops have become fricatives and many fricatives have become glides or completely disappeared. For example, the word meat – niqi in most dialects – is rendered as nigi in Qawiaraq – the stop has become the fricative .

The voiced bilabial fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `B`. The official symbol is the Greek letter beta, though on the IPA chart the Latin beta is used. This letter is also often used to represent the bilabial approximant, though that is more precisely written with a lowering diacritic, that is .

Letter "Ħ" Ħ (minuscule: ħ) is a letter of the Latin alphabet, derived from H with the addition of a bar. It is used in Maltese and in Tunisian Arabic transliteration (based on Maltese with additional letters) for a voiceless pharyngeal fricative consonant (corresponding to the letter heth of Semitic abjads). Lowercase is used in the International Phonetic Alphabet for the same sound. In unicode, the special character ℏ (U+210F), represents the reduced Planck constant of quantum mechanics.

Signage on Polish municipal police () cars uses both the standard form (Ż) and the variant with horizontal stroke (Ƶ) Ż represents the voiced retroflex fricative , somewhat similar to the pronunciation of in "mirae". It usually corresponds to Ж or Ž in most other Slavic languages. Its pronunciation is the same as the rz digraph, the only difference being that evolved in Polish from a palatalized . Ż represents common Slavic phoneme that originates from a palatalized or .

The name Burmazi is a compound of the Albanian words burr (man) + madh (big or great). The form Burmazi instead of Burmadhi signifies a retained characteristic from an older phase in the Albanian language before /z/ settled into the voiced dental fricative /ð/. Originally, they were a semi-nomadic community based on kinship ties that lived in non-permanent settlements (katund). Burmazi first appear in 1300 as a tribe that lived in the area around Stolac and Trebinje.

In many languages, pharyngeal consonants trigger advancement of neighboring vowels. Pharyngeals thus differ from uvulars, which nearly always trigger retraction. For example, in some dialects of Arabic, the vowel is fronted to [æ] next to pharyngeals, but it is retracted to next to uvulars, as in حال 'condition', with a pharyngeal fricative and a fronted vowel, compared to خال 'maternal uncle', with a uvular consonant and a retracted vowel. In addition, consonants and vowels may be secondarily pharyngealized.

The Oxford Dictionary of Saints. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. . By the late 14th century, þēodisc had given rise to Middle English duche and its variants, which were used as a blanket term for all the non-Scandinavian Germanic languages spoken on the European mainland. Historical linguists have noted that the medieval "Duche" itself most likely shows an external Middle Dutch influence, in that it shows a voiced alveolar stop rather than the expected voiced dental fricative.

Some other speech features are also stereotyped as markers of gay or bisexual males: carefully enunciated pronunciation, wide pitch range (high and rapidly changing pitch), breathy voice, lengthened fricative sounds, and pronunciation of as and as (affrication), etc. Research shows that gay speech characteristics include many of the same characteristics other speakers use when attempting to speak with special carefulness or clarity, including over-articulating and expanding the vowel spaces in the mouth.Munson et al., 2006, p. 235.

As with the vocabulary, Kwambi morphology is basically similar to Ndonga. Some of the differences that exist are predictable due to phonological differences. For example, grammatical forms associated with Bantu noun class 7 consistently have an affricate in Kwambi where Ndonga has a fricative, which for example can be seen in the local names of the dialects themselves: Otshikwambi vs. Oshindonga. Nevertheless, not all differences are due to differences in the phoneme inventories of the two dialects.

In Polish orthography, it represents whenever it precedes a vowel, and whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ś appearing in other situations. In Welsh is used for the sound as in siocled ('chocolate'). is used Swedish to write the sje sound (see also ) and in Faroese, Danish, Norwegian and Dutch to write Voiceless postalveolar fricative . is used in Swedish to write the sje sound .

The dialects of Goalpara straddle the Assamese-Bengali language divides and display features from both languages. Though the phonemes in the eastern dialects approach those of Assamese, the western dialect approach those of Bengali. The distinctive velar fricative /x/ present in Assamese is present in the eastern dialect, but absent in the western dialect. The dental and alveolar distinction in Bengali are found in the western dialect, but merged into alveolars in the eastern dialect in consonance with Assamese.

Eth in Arial and Times New Roman Eth (, uppercase: Ð, lowercase: ð; also spelled edh or eð) is a letter used in Old English, Middle English, Icelandic, Faroese (in which it is called edd), and Elfdalian. It was also used in Scandinavia during the Middle Ages but was subsequently replaced with dh and later d. It is often transliterated as d. The lowercase version has been adopted to represent a voiced dental fricative in the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Cyrillic script could only inadequately reflect Romanian phonemes. After the adoption of Romance loanwords, the use of the Cyrillic writing system became even more problematic, but a Roman script was introduced only gradually between 1830 and 1860. Initially a transitional writing system was introduced which retained certain Cyrillic letters for specific Romanian sounds. For instance, the Romanian mid central vowel (ə) was represented by the Cyrillic letter "Ъ", and the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative (ʃ) by the letter "ш".

Zha (ૹ) is the character ja (જ) with three dots underneath. It is used in Gujarati transcriptions of the Avestan letter zhe (𐬲) to denote the voiced patalal fricative and is analogous to the Devanagari character zha (ॹ). Zha (ૹ) was added to the Unicode Standard as a single character ljust like the Devanagari character zha (ॹ) with Unicode 8.0 on 17 June 2015. An example of a word in the Gujarati script the uses zha (ૹ) is ચીૹ્દી.

Pe is the seventeenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Pē 12px, Hebrew Pē , Aramaic Pē 12 px, Syriac Pē ܦ, and Arabic (in abjadi order). The original sound value is a voiceless bilabial plosive: ; it retains this value in most Semitic languages, except for Arabic, where the sound changed into the voiceless labiodental fricative , carrying with it the pronunciation of the letter. The Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek Pi (Π), Latin P, and Cyrillic П.

In French spelling, aspirated "h" (French: "h" aspiré) is an initial silent letter that represents a hiatus at a word boundary, between the word's first vowel and the preceding word's last vowel. At the same time, the aspirated h stops the normal processes of contraction and liaison from occurring. The name of the now-silent h refers not to aspiration but to its former pronunciation as the voiceless glottal fricative in Old French and in Middle French.

Afenmai (Afemai), or Yekhee, is an Edoid language spoken in Edo State, Nigeria by Afenmai people. Not all speakers recognize the name "Yekhee"; some use the district name Etsako. Previously the name used by British colonial administration was Kukuruku, supposedly after a battle cry "ku-ku-ruku", now considered derogatory. Afenmai is unusual in reportedly having a voiceless tapped fricative as the "tense" equivalent of the "lax" voiced tap (compare 'hat' and 'louse'Laver (1994) Principles of Phonetics, p.

In the middle of words, the g sound (normally ) may turn into a velar nasal or velar fricative . An exception to this is numerals; 15 jūgo is considered to be one word, but is pronounced as if it was jū and go stacked end to end: . In many accents, the j and z sounds are pronounced as affricates ( and , respectively) at the beginning of utterances and fricatives in the middle of words. For example, sūji 'number', zasshi 'magazine'.

Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, , originally had the form of a dotless question mark, and derives from an apostrophe. A few letters, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative, , were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter ', via the reversed apostrophe). Some letter forms derive from existing letters: # The right-swinging tail, as in marks retroflex articulation. It derives from the hook of an r.

There are 17 emission points (makhārij al-ḥurūf) of the letters, located in various regions of the throat, tongue, lips, nose, and the mouth as a whole for the prolonged (madd or mudd) letters. The manner of articulation (ṣifat al-ḥurūf) refers to the different attributes of the letters. Some of the characteristics have opposites, while some are individual. An example of a characteristic would be the fricative consonant sound called ṣafīr, which is an attribute of air escaping from a tube.

The phonological system of Standard Macedonian is based on the Prilep-Bitola dialect. Macedonian possesses five vowels, one semivowel, three liquid consonants, three nasal stops, three pairs of fricatives, two pairs of affricates, a non-paired voiceless fricative, nine pairs of voiced and unvoiced consonants and four pairs of stops. Out of all the Slavic languages, Macedonian has the most frequent occurrence of vowels relative to consonants with a typical Macedonian sentence having on average 1.18 consonants for every one vowel.

Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. There are several retroflex consonants not yet recognized by the IPA. For example, the Iwaidja language of northern Australia has a retroflex lateral flap as well as a retroflex tap and retroflex lateral approximant ; and the Dravidian language Toda has a subapical retroflex lateral fricative and a retroflexed trill . Because of the regularity of deriving retroflex symbols from their alveolar counterparts, people will occasionally use a font editor to create the appropriate symbols for such sounds.

The voiced velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound that is used in various spoken languages. It is not found in Modern English but existed in Old English. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , a Latinized variant of the Greek letter gamma, , which has this sound in Modern Greek. It should not be confused with the graphically- similar , the IPA symbol for a close-mid back unrounded vowel, which some writingsSuch as and .

The presence of and absence of , is a very distinctive areal feature of European languages and those of adjacent areas of Siberia and Central Asia. Speakers of East Asian languages that lack this sound may pronounce it as (Korean and Japanese), or / (Cantonese and Mandarin), and thus be unable to distinguish between a number of English minimal pairs. In certain languages, such as Danish, Faroese, Icelandic or Norwegian the voiced labiodental fricative is in a free variation with the labiodental approximant.

In Italian, has no phonological value. Its most important uses are in the digraphs 'ch' and 'gh' , as well as to differentiate the spellings of certain short words that are homophones, for example some present tense forms of the verb avere ('to have') (such as hanno, 'they have', vs. anno, 'year'), and in short interjections (oh, ehi). Some languages, including Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, and Finnish, use as a breathy voiced glottal fricative , often as an allophone of otherwise voiceless in a voiced environment.

The English pronunciation as t rather than a dental fricative is the result of French influence from an early date. In Britain, the surname is widely distributed throughout the country, but especially common in Scotland, Cornwall, and Wales. Thomas is the ninth most common surname in the United Kingdom. It is found as a personal name among Christians in India, and in the United States; it is also used as a family name among the Saint Thomas Christian families from Kerala, South India.

Of the 29 Proto-Semitic consonants, only one has been lost: , which merged with , while became (see Semitic languages). Various other consonants have changed their sound too, but have remained distinct. An original lenited to , and – consistently attested in pre-Islamic Greek transcription of Arabic languagesAl-Jallad, 42 – became palatalized to or by the time of the Quran and , , or after early Muslim conquests and in MSA (see Arabic phonology#Local variations for more detail). An original voiceless alveolar lateral fricative became .

The digraph was first used in Latin since the 2nd century B.C. to transliterate the sound of the Greek letter chi in words borrowed from that language. In classical times, Greeks pronounced this as an aspirated voiceless velar plosive . In post- classical Greek (Koine and Modern) this sound developed into a fricative . Since neither sound was found in native Latin words (with some exceptions like pulcher 'beautiful', where the original sound was influenced by or ), in Late Latin the pronunciation occurred.

'Teth, also written as ' or Tet, is a letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Ṭēt 10px, Hebrew Ṭēt , Aramaic Ṭēth 10px, Syriac Ṭēṯ ܛ, and Arabic . It is the 16th letter of the modern Arabic alphabet. The Persian ṭa is pronounced as a hard "t" sound and is the 19th letter in the modern Persian alphabet. The Phoenician letter also gave rise to the Greek theta (), originally an aspirated voiceless dental stop but now used for the voiceless dental fricative.

He is the fifth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Hē , Hebrew Hē , Aramaic Hē 12 px, Syriac Hē ܗ, and Arabic ه. Its sound value is a voiceless glottal fricative (). The proto-Canaanite letter gave rise to the Greek Epsilon Ε ε, Etruscan E 𐌄, Latin E, Ë and Ɛ, and Cyrillic Е, Ё, Є and Э. He, like all Phoenician letters, represented a consonant, but the Latin, Greek and Cyrillic equivalents have all come to represent vowel sounds.

Additionally, the Arabic letter has been borrowed to indicate the voiced pharyngeal fricative as well as the glottal stop. The letters b, g, k, p, and t may represent stops ( and ) or fricatives ( and ). Formerly the fricatives were not distinctive segments but merely allophones of the stops after a vowel; the sound rule governing this alternation is now defunct. Neo-Mandaic orthography differs from that of Classical Mandaic by using u to represent even when it is a reflex of Classical Mandaic b.

Spanish has a fricative for loanwords of origins from native languages in Mexican Spanish, loanwords of French, German and English origin in Chilean Spanish, loanwords of Italian, Galician, French, German and English origin in Rioplatense Spanish and Venezuelan Spanish, Chinese loanwords in Coastal Peruvian Spanish, Japanese loanwords in Bolivian Spanish, Paraguayan Spanish, Coastal Peruvian Spanish, Basque loanwords in Castilian Spanish (but only learned loanwords, not those inherited from Roman times), and English loanwords in Puerto Rican Spanish and all dialects.

A typical Australian phonological inventory includes just three vowels, usually , which may occur in both long and short variants. In a few cases the has been unrounded to give . There is almost never a voicing contrast; that is, a consonant may sound like a at the beginning of a word, but like a between vowels, and either symbol could be (and often is) chosen to represent it. Australia also stands out as being almost entirely free of fricative consonants, even of .

Lowercase Latin gamma is used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the voiced velar fricative. A lowercase Latin gamma that lies above the baseline rather than crossing it () represents the close-mid back unrounded vowel. In certain nonstandard variations of the IPA the uppercase form is used. The lowercase Latin gamma can also be used in contexts (such as chemical or molecule nomenclature) where gamma must not be confused with the letter y, which can occur in some computer typefaces.

The voiceless velar and palatal fricative sounds [x] and [ç], considered to be allophones of /h/ and reflected by the in the spelling of words such as night, taught and weight, were lost in later Middle English or in Early Modern English. Their loss was accompanied by certain changes in the previous vowels. In some cases [x] became /f/, as in laugh. A /x/ is still heard in words of the above type in certain Scots and northern English traditional dialect speech.

For example, in the word schilling, the trigraph sch represents the voiceless postalveolar fricative , rather than the consonant cluster . In the word beautiful, the sequence eau is pronounced , and in the French word château it is pronounced . It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a sequence of letters in English is a trigraph, because of the complicating role of silent letters. There are however a few productive trigraphs in English such as tch as in watch, and igh as in high.

The consonant pairs –, –, and – were historically allophonic, as a consequence of a phenomenon of spirantisation known as begadkefat. In Modern Hebrew, the six sounds are phonemic. Similar allophonic alternation of BH/MH –, – and – was lost, with the allophones merging into simple . These phonemic changes were partly due to the mergers noted above, to the loss of consonant gemination, which had distinguished stops from their fricative allophones in intervocalic position, and the introduction of syllable-initial and non-syllable-initial and in loan words.

In Hebrew, the classical pronunciation associated with the consonant ' was tapped , and was grammatically treated as an ungeminable phoneme of the language. In most dialects of Hebrew among the Jewish diaspora, it remained a tap or a trill . However, in some Ashkenazi dialects as preserved among Jews in northern Europe it was a uvular rhotic, either a trill or a fricative . This was because many (but not all) native dialects of Yiddish were spoken that way, and their liturgical Hebrew carried the same pronunciation.

When the letter "g" is either the first or last letter of the word or syllable, it is pronounced as an unvoiced velar fricative in the back of the throat. Words ending in "-ng" are pronounced identical to those in English. In most cases of plurals ending in -nde, the "d" falls away in the informal pronunciation and spelling and the "n" is duplicated in sound and re-positioned within the degrees of comparison. For example: Tande (plural of tand; "tooth"), formal = "tande", informal = "tanne".

When it was first derived from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained only 21 letters. Later, G was added to represent , which had previously been spelled C, and Z ceased to be included in the alphabet, as the language then had no voiced alveolar fricative. The letters Y and Z were later added to represent Greek letters, upsilon and zeta respectively, in Greek loanwords. W was created in the 11th century from VV. It represented in Germanic languages, not Latin, which still uses V for the purpose.

This leads many languages of the world to have a voiced uvular fricative instead as the voiced counterpart of the voiceless uvular plosive. Examples are Inuit; several Turkic languages such as Uyghur and Yakut; several Northwest Caucasian languages such as Abkhaz; and several Northeast Caucasian languages such as Ingush. There is also the voiced pre-uvular plosiveInstead of "pre-uvular", it can be called "advanced uvular", "fronted uvular", "post-velar", "retracted velar" or "backed velar". For simplicity, this article uses only the term "pre-uvular".

The velarized alveolar lateral approximant ( dark l) is a type of consonantal sound used in some languages. It is an alveolar, denti-alveolar, or dental lateral approximant, with a secondary articulation of velarization or pharyngealization. The regular symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represent this sound are (for a velarized lateral) and (for a pharyngealized lateral), though the dedicated letter , which covers both velarization and pharyngealization, is perhaps more common. The last symbol should never be confused with , which represents the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative.

79 It has been proposed that either a turned ⟨⟩ or reversed ⟨⟩ be used as a dedicated symbol for the bilabial approximant, but despite occasional usage this has not gained general acceptance. It is extremely rare for a language to make a phonemic contrast between the voiced bilabial fricative and the bilabial approximant. The Mapos Buang language of New Guinea contains this contrast. Its bilabial approximant is analyzed as filling a phonological gap in the labiovelar series of the consonant system rather than the bilabial series.

A transliteration pattern peculiar to Sinhala, and facilitated by the absence of phonemic aspirates, is the use of for the voiceless dental plosive, and the use of for the voiceless retroflex plosive. This is presumably because the retroflex plosive is perceived the same as the English alveolar plosive , and the Sinhala dental plosive is equated with the English voiceless dental fricative .Matzel (1983), p. 16 Dental and retroflex voiced plosives are always rendered as , though, presumably because is not found as a representation of in English orthography.

For historical reasons, the dialects of Africa are generally closer to those of Portugal than the Brazilian dialects, but in some aspects of their phonology, especially the pronunciation of unstressed vowels, they resemble Brazilian Portuguese more than European Portuguese. They have not been studied as exhaustively as European and Brazilian Portuguese. Asian Portuguese dialects are similar to the African ones and so are generally close to those of Portugal. In Macau, the syllable onset rhotic is pronounced as a voiced uvular fricative or uvular trill .

Nasalized versions of other consonant sounds also exist but are much rarer than either nasal occlusives or nasal vowels. Some South Arabian languages use phonemic nasalized fricatives, such as , which sounds something like a simultaneous and . The Middle Chinese consonant 日 (; in modern Standard Chinese) has an odd history; for example, it has evolved into and (or and respectively, depending on accents) in Standard Chinese; / and in Hokkien; / and / while borrowed into Japan. It seems likely that it was once a nasalized fricative, perhaps a palatal .

In English historically represented (the voiceless velar fricative, as in the Scottish Gaelic word Loch), and still does in lough and certain other Hiberno- English words, especially proper nouns. In the dominant dialects of modern English, is almost always either silent or pronounced (see Ough). It is thought that before disappearing, the sound became partially or completely voiced to or , which would explain the new spelling - Old English used a simple - and the diphthongization of any preceding vowel. It is also occasionally pronounced , such as in Edinburgh.

In the romanization of various languages, usually represents the voiced velar fricative (). Like , may also be pharyngealized, as in several Caucasian and Native American languages. In transcriptions of Indo-Aryan languages such as Sanskrit and Hindi, as well as their ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, represents a voiced velar aspirated plosive (often referred to as a breathy or murmured voiced velar plosive). In the romanization of Ukrainian language is used seldom to avoid occurrence of another digraph, usually which is used for another type of phoneme.

The name is derived from the Nahuatl Xalisco, which means "over a sandy surface". Until about 1836, the name was spelled "Xalisco," with the "x" used to indicate the "sh" sound from Nahuatl. However, the modern Spanish based pronunciation is represented with a "j." Jalisco is pronounced or , the latter pronunciation used mostly in dialects of southern Mexico, the Caribbean, much of Central America, some places in South America, and the Canary Islands and western Andalusia in Spain where has become a voiceless glottal fricative ().

Emer rebuking Cú Chulainn. (1905 illustration by H. R. Millar.) Emer , is an Irish name, in modern Irish Eimhear or Éimhear (Eimer, Eimear and Éimear are also used as modern versions),Medially and finally m is a bilabial fricative in Old Irish (represented in Modern Irish by mh): E.G. Quinn, Old-Irish Workbook, Royal Irish Academy, 1975, p. 5. daughter of Forgall Monach, is the wife of the hero Cú Chulainn in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. Alternative version in Scottish Gaelic is Eimhir.

Verner's law described a historical sound change in the Proto-Germanic language whereby consonants that would usually have been the voiceless fricatives , , , , , following an unstressed syllable, became the voiced fricatives , , , , .In Proto-Germanic, voiced fricatives were allophones of their corresponding voiced plosives when they occurred between vowels, semivowels, and liquid consonants. The situations where Verner's law applied resulted in fricatives in these very circumstances, so fricative can be used in this context. The law was formulated by Karl Verner, and first published in 1877.

Pronunciation in the many varieties of African French can be quite varied. There are nonetheless some trends among African French speakers; for instance, the letter R tends to be pronounced as the historic alveolar trill of pre-20th Century French instead of the now standard uvular trill or 'guttural R.' The voiced uvular fricative, the sound represented by in the Arabic word , is another common alternative. Pronunciation of the letters [d], [t], [l] and [n] may also vary, and intonation may differ from standard French.

Tone distinctions in Yabem appear to be of relatively recent origin (Bradshaw 1979) and still correlate strongly with obstruent voicing contrasts (but not in its closest relative, Bukawa). Only high tones occur in syllables with voiceless obstruents (p, t, k), and only low tone occurs in syllables with voiced obstruents (b, d, g). The fricative /s/ is voiced in low-tone syllables but voiceless in high-tone syllables. Other phonemes are neutral with respect to tone and so occur in both high-tone or low-tone environments.

' or Chet' is the eighth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Ḥēt 𐤇 10px, Hebrew Ḥēth , Aramaic Ḥēth 10 px, Syriac Ḥēṯ ܚ, Arabic Ḥā' , Maltese Ħ, ħ. Heth originally represented a voiceless fricative, either pharyngeal , or velar . In Arabic, two corresponding letters were created for both phonemic sounds: unmodified ' represents , while ' represents . The Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek eta , Etruscan H, Latin H and Cyrillic И. While H is a consonant in the Latin alphabet, the Greek and Cyrillic equivalents represent vowel sounds.

In modern Hebrew, the letter represents a voiced glottal fricative , and may also be dropped, although this pronunciation is seen as substandard. Also, in many variant Hebrew pronunciations the letter may represent a glottal stop. In word-final position, Hei is used to indicate an a-vowel, usually that of qamatz ( ), and in this sense functions like Aleph, Vav, and Yud as a mater lectionis, indicating the presence of a long vowel. Hei, along with Aleph, Ayin, Reish, and Khet, cannot receive a dagesh.

The situation in German education may be representative of that in many other European countries. The teaching of Greek is based on a roughly Erasmian model, but in practice, it is heavily skewed towards the phonological system of German or the other host language. Thus, German-speakers do not use a fricative for θ but give it the same pronunciation as τ, , but φ and χ are realised as the fricatives and . ζ is usually pronounced as an affricate, but a voiceless one, like German z .

Korean scholars often propose an Old Korean velar fricative as ancestral to Middle Korean . Some orthographic alternations suggest that Silla writers did not distinguish between Middle Chinese initial and initial , although linguist Marc Miyake is skeptical of the evidence, while some Middle Korean allomorphs alternate between and a velar. Linguist Wei Guofeng suggests that the Old Korean phonemes and had overlapping distributions, with allophones such as being shared by both phonemes. Alexander Vovin also argues via internal reconstruction that intervocalic in earlier Korean lenited to Middle Korean .

Spanish- speaking areas with yeísmo feature: pink indicates areas without yeísmo, violet indicates areas that sometimes use yeísmo, while blue indicates areas with yeísmo. Traditionally Spanish had a phonemic distinction between (a palatal lateral approximant, written ll) and (a voiced palatal fricative, written y). But for most speakers in Spain and the Americas, these two phonemes have been merged in the phoneme . This merger results in the words ('silenced') and ('fell') being pronounced the same, whereas they remain distinct in dialects that have not undergone the merger.

The disappearance of the N is explained by the fact that in Classical Latin an N before a fricative is pronounced as a nasalization of the previous vowel (meaning consul is pronounced /kõːsul/). Also, consul is pronounced [ko:sul], as shown in ancient writing, "COSOL", whereas the classical spelling (consul) seems like an etymological reminder of the nasal consonant. Pierre Monteil, Éléments de phonétique et de morphologie du latin, Nathan, 1970, . If a senator held the consulship twice then: COS becomes COS II; thrice becomes COS III, etc.

Digo speakers usually write their language using an alphabet based on the Latin alphabet used for Swahili, with additional combinations of letters representing some of the sounds that are distinctive to Digo (e.g. 'ph' for the voiced bilabial fricative or approximant). This has been developed further by the Digo Language and Literacy Project of Bible Translation and Literacy (East Africa). The project has produced basic literacy materials (listed in the Ethnologue) and published a Digo-English-Swahili Dictionary using the new orthography (Mwalonya et al.

Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless (tenuis) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among 'other symbols',"for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there." (IPA Handbook, p 18) and with the remaining consonants arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals), to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives) and minimal closure (approximants), again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common lenition pathway of stop → fricative → approximant, as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; affricates may be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells.

People learning Dutch as a foreign language also tend to use the alveolar trill because it contrasts better with the voiceless velar fricative in Dutch. The Afrikaans language of South Africa also uses an alveolar trill for its rhotic, except in the non- urban rural regions around Cape Town, chiefly in the town of Malmesbury, Western Cape, where it is uvular (called a bry). Some Afrikaans speakers from other areas also bry, either as a result of ancestry from the Malmesbury region or from difficulty pronouncing the alveolar trill.

In Spanish dialectology, the realization of coronal fricatives is one of the most prominent features distinguishing various dialect regions. The main three realizations are the phonemic distinction between and ('''''), the presence of only an alveolar ('''''), or, less commonly, the presence of only a denti- alveolar that is similar to ('''''). While an urban legend attributes the presence of the dental fricative to a Spanish king with a lisp, the various realizations of these coronal fricatives are actually a result of historical processes that date back to the 15th century.

Ceceo is a phenomenon found in a few dialects of southern Spain in which and are not distinguished and there is only one coronal fricative phoneme realized as , a sibilant sounding somewhat like , but not identical. Ceceo is found primarily in some varieties of Andalusian Spanish, although Hualde reports that there is some evidence of it in parts of Central America. A publication of the University of Oviedo also notes that ceceo can be found in Argentina and Chile. Other linguists have noticed the use of ceceo in parts of Puerto Rico, Honduras, and Venezuela.

The following papyrus letter from 100 AD is again transcribed in popular Koine pronunciation. It now shows fricative values for the second element in diphthongs αυ/ευ and for β, except in transliterations of Latin names,However, the pronunciation suggested by Horrocks is more advanced than the pronunciation indicated by the table above since αυ/ευ have fully transitioned to [av, ev]. but aspirated plosives remain plosive. Monophthongization and loss of vowel length are clearly seen in the graphic interchanges of ι/ει, υ/οι, and ω/o.

There may be evidence for fricative in 2nd century AD Attic, in the form of omission of the second element in the diphthongs (which were pronounced ) before .e.g. for , Horrock (2010:171), citing Konrad Meisterhans (1900), Grammatik der attischen Inschriften Armenian transcriptions transcribe as until the 10th century AD, so it seems that was pronounced as aspirate by at least some speakers until then. There is disagreement as to when consonants , and , which were originally pronounced , , , acquired the value of ,An intermediate stage of has been proposed by some, cf.

The EIEC spelling largely corresponds to that used in the Proto-Indo-European language article, with ha for h2 and hx for unspecified laryngeals h. Lehmann attempts to give a more phonetical rendering, with (voiceless velar fricative) for h2 and (glottal stop) for h1. Further differences include Lehmann's avoidance of the augment, and of the palato-alveolars as distinctive phonemes. Altogether, Lehmann's version can be taken as the reconstruction of a slightly later period, after contraction for example of earlier ' to ', say of a Centum dialect, that has also lost (or never developed) the augment.

Affricates are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by a combination of two letters, one for the stop element and the other for the fricative element. In order to show that these are parts of a single consonant, a tie bar is generally used. The tie bar appears most commonly above the two letters, but may be placed under them if it fits better there, or simply because it is more legible.For example, in Niesler, Louw, & Roux (2005) Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases Thus: : or :.

A less common notation indicates the release of the affricate with a superscript: : This is derived from the IPA convention of indicating other releases with a superscript. However, this convention is more typically used for a fricated release that is too brief to be considered a true affricate. Though they are no longer standard IPA, ligatures are available in Unicode for eight common affricates :. Any of these notations can be used to distinguish an affricate from a sequence of a stop plus a fricative, which exists in some languages such as Polish.

Rarer lateral consonants include the retroflex laterals that can be found in many languages of India and in some Swedish dialects, and the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative , found in many Native North American languages, Welsh and Zulu. In Adyghe and some Athabaskan languages like Hän, both voiceless and voiced alveolar lateral fricatives occur, but there is no approximant. Many of these languages also have lateral affricates. Some languages have palatal or velar voiceless lateral fricatives or affricates, such as Dahalo and Zulu, but the IPA has no symbols for such sounds.

Most academic publications of recent decades use a fairly uniform transcription-orthography in Latin script (as used in this article).In this article, the graphs š and ž are used instead of standard c and j in order to make the transcribed examples more accessible to readers with no background in berberology. The most unusual feature of this orthography is the employment of the symbol ɛ (Greek epsilon) to represent (voiced epiglottal fricative), for example taɛmamt "turban". Except with ḥ (= IPA ), the subscript dot indicates pharyngealisation, for example aḍrḍur "deaf person".

The Dictionary of the Spanish Royal Academy defines the word "jarquía" (xarquía in old Castilian) as "district or territory located east of a great city and dependent on it" and says that it proceeds from Arabic Šarqiyya, meaning "eastern part" or " eastern." It coincides with the region of Axarquia which lies in the east of Málaga. The Royal Academy, in its spelling of the Spanish Language, 1999 edition, explains that, in old Castilian, consonant fricative phoneme represented the palatal [ʃ] as in English sh sound, found in words like Axarquía, Don Quixote, Mexico, Texas etc.

The diversification of the Czech-Slovak group within West Slavic began around that time, marked among other things by its use of the voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable. The Bohemian (Czech) language is first recorded in writing in glosses and short notes during the 12th to 13th centuries. Literary works written in Czech appear in the late 13th and early 14th century and administrative documents first appear towards the late 14th century. The first complete Bible translation also dates to this period.

In the acrophony of the Thai script, khuat (ขวด) means ‘bottle’. Kho khuat (ฃ) represents the voiceless velar fricativesound /x/ that existed in Old Thai at the time the alphabet was created but no longer exists in Modern Thai. When the Thai script was developed, the voiceless velar fricative sound did not have a Sanskrit or Pali counterpart so the character kho khai was slightly modified to create kho khuat. During the Old Thai period, this sound merged into the aspirated stop /kʰ/, and as a result the use of this letters became unstable.

S̈, s̈ in lower case, also s with diaeresis, is a letter in the Chechen language, where it represents the voiceless postalveolar fricative. It has the same sound as the š used in Slavic languages written with the Latin alphabet, the Turkish/Romanian ş and the common digraph "sh". In the Chechen language, it was changed from the original ş to the s̈, at the same time the ç was changed into the c̈. In older Czech orthography s̈ was used in codas instead of ſſ for /ʃ/, modern orthography uses š for all instances.

Fricatives are consonants where the airstream is made turbulent by partially, but not completely, obstructing part of the vocal tract. Sibilants are a special type of fricative where the turbulent airstream is directed towards the teeth, creating a high-pitched hissing sound. Nasals (sometimes referred to as nasal stops) are consonants in which there's a closure in the oral cavity and the velum is lowered, allowing air to flow through the nose. In an approximant, the articulators come close together, but not to such an extent that allows a turbulent airstream.

Example include Ancient Greek λάχανον and its Albanian reflex lakër because it would appear to have been loaned before <χ> changed from an aspirated stop /kʰ/ to a fricative /x/, μᾱχανάν and its Albanian reflex mokër which likewise seems to reflect a stop /kʰ/ for <χ> and also must be specifically Doric or Northwestern (other Greek dialects have or <η> rather than <ά>), and θωράκιον and its Albanian reflex targozë which would appear to have predated the frication of Greek <θ> (before the shift in Koine, representing /tʰ/).

The letter is sometimes used to represent the dental approximant, a similar sound, which no language is known to contrast with a dental non-sibilant fricative, but the approximant is more clearly written with the lowering diacritic: . Very rarely used variant transcriptions of the dental approximant include (retracted ), (advanced ) and (dentalized ). It has been proposed that either a turned ⟨⟩Kenneth S. Olson, Jeff Mielke, Josephine Sanicas-Daguman, Carol Jean Pebley & Hugh J. Paterson III, 'The phonetic status of the (inter)dental approximant', Journal of the International Phonetic Association, Vol. 40, No. 2 (August 2010), p.

The voiced palatal fricative is a very rare sound, occurring in only 7 of the 317 languages surveyed by the original UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database. In Kabyle, Margi, Modern Greek, and Scottish Gaelic, the sound occurs phonemically, along with its voiceless counterpart, and in several more, the sound occurs a result of phonological processes. There is also the voiced post-palatal fricativeInstead of "post- palatal", it can be called "retracted palatal", "backed palatal", "palato- velar", "pre-velar", "advanced velar", "fronted velar" or "front-velar". For simplicity, this article uses only the term "post-palatal".

The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is the lower case form of the letter Ezh (), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `Z`. An alternative symbol used in some older and American linguistic literature is , a z with a caron. In some transcriptions of alphabets such as the Cyrillic, the sound is represented by the digraph zh. palato-alveolar fricative Although present in English, the sound is not represented by a specific letter or digraph, but is formed by yod-coalescence of and in words such as measure.

Arguably, the best known example of this sound change is yeísmo, which occurs in many Spanish and some Galician dialects. In accents with yeísmo, the palatal lateral approximant merges with the palatal approximant which, phonetically, can be an affricate (word-initially and after ), an approximant (in other environments) or a fricative (in the same environments as the approximant, but only in careful speech). In Romanian, the palatal lateral approximant merged with centuries ago. The same happened to the historic palatal nasal , although that is an example of lenition.

Two or more consonant sounds may appear sequentially linked or clustered as either identical consonants or homorganic consonants that differ slightly in the manner of articulation, as when the first consonant is a fricative and the second is a stop.Ravid, Dorit diskin et al. (2005). Perspectives on Language and Language Development, p. 55. In some languages, a syllable-initial homorganic sequence of a stop and a nasal is quite uncontroversially treated as a sequence of two separate segments; and the separate status of the stop and the nasal is quite clear.

The consonants listed in the first table above as denti-alveolar are sometimes described as alveolars, and sometimes as dentals. The affricates and the fricative are particularly often described as dentals; these are generally pronounced with the tongue on the lower teeth. The retroflex consonants (like those of Polish) are actually apical rather than subapical, and so are considered by some authors not to be truly retroflex; they may be more accurately called post-alveolar. Some speakers not from Beijing may lack the retroflexes in their native dialects, and may thus replace them with dentals.

The Latin letters B, C, D are used only as parts of digraphs, while F, Q, W, X, Z are not used at all. (Older books wrote modern and as and , respectively.) The letter L and the digraph are only used in words adopted from Spanish, words influenced by Spanish phonology, or non-verbal onomatopoeias. The Spanish digraph is not used in Guarani. Despite its spelling, the digraph is not the Spanish affricate sound (English "ch" as in "teach"), but a fricative (English "sh" as in ship, French "ch" as in chapeau).

250px Ł or ł, described in English as L with stroke, is a letter of the West Slavic (Polish, Kashubian, and Sorbian), Belarusian Latin, Ukrainian Latin, Wymysorys, Navajo, Dëne Sųłıné, Inupiaq, Zuni, Hupa, and Dogrib alphabets, several proposed alphabets for the Venetian language, and the ISO 11940 romanization of the Thai script. In Slavic languages, it represents the continuation of Proto-Slavic non-palatal (dark L), except in Polish, Kashubian, and Sorbian, where it evolved further into . In most non-European languages, it represents a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative or similar sound.

Old Portuguese had a large number of occurrences of hiatus (two vowels next to each other with no consonant in between), as a result of the loss of Latin between vowels. In the transition to modern Portuguese, these were resolved in a complex but largely regular fashion, either remaining, compressing into a single vowel, turning into a diphthong, or gaining an epenthetic consonant such as or ; see above. Portuguese traditionally had two alveolar rhotic consonants: a flap and trill , as in Spanish. In most areas of Portugal the trill has passed into a uvular fricative .

The Tamil script differs from other Brahmi-derived scripts in a number of ways. Unlike every other Brahmic script, it does not regularly represent voiced or aspirated stop consonants as these are not phonemes of the Tamil language even though voiced and fricative allophones of stops do appear in spoken Tamil. Thus the character k, for example, represents but can also be pronounced [] or [] based on the rules of Tamil grammar. A separate set of characters appears for these sounds when the Tamil script is used to write Sanskrit or other languages.

For more information, see In Czech, the alveolar trill was raised before to become the raised alveolar trill , spelled as in . This is a form of palatalization, and it also occurred in Polish, where it became a simple sibilant fricative (spelled or ) around the 16th century. The pronunciation is considered to be non-standard, and is used only by some older speakers. In Scottish Gaelic raising, compared with modern Irish for example _cos, focal_ are raised to Scottish Gaelic _cas, facal_ meaning respectively ‘word’, and ‘foot’ or ‘leg’.

The voiceless velar lateral affricate is an uncommon speech sound found as a phoneme in the Caucasus and as an allophone in several languages of eastern and southern Africa. Archi, a Northeast Caucasian language of Dagestan, has two such affricates, plain and labialized , though they are further forward than velars in most languages, and might better be called prevelar. Archi also has ejective variants of its lateral affricates, several voiceless lateral fricatives, and a voiced lateral fricative at the same place of articulation, but no alveolar lateral fricatives or affricates.The Archi Language Tutorial.

Fricatives are consonants where the airstream is made turbulent by partially, but not completely, obstructing part of the vocal tract. Sibilants are a special type of fricative where the turbulent airstream is directed towards the teeth, creating a high-pitched hissing sound. Nasals (sometimes referred to as nasal stops) are consonants in which there's a closure in the oral cavity and the velum is lowered, allowing air to flow through the nose. In an approximant, the articulators come close together, but not to such an extent that allows a turbulent airstream.

Many of these languages have subsequently developed some voiced obstruents. The most common such sounds are and (often pronounced with some implosion), which result from former preglottalized and , which were common phonemes in many Asian languages and which behaved like voiceless obstruents. In addition, Vietnamese developed voiced fricatives through a different process (specifically, in words consisting of two syllables, with an initial, unstressed minor syllable, the medial stop at the beginning of the stressed major syllable turned into a voiced fricative, and then the minor syllable was lost).

An example of this in English is the -insertion between a voiceless alveolar fricative and a plural-z, as in (with the underlying representation ). English also has a rule which devoices segments after voiceless consonants, as in , with the underlying representation ). In the output form (buses), final devoicing has not applied, because the phonological context in which this rule could have applied has gone as a consequence of the application of -insertion. Put differently, the application order "(1) -insertion (2) final devoicing" is a bleeding order in English.

When the Tamil language is transliterated into the Latin script, represents a retroflex approximant (Tamil ழ U+0BB4, ḻ, [ɻ]). in Polish orthography represents whenever it precedes a vowel, and whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ź appearing in other situations. is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced lateral fricative is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for . is the last (forty-fourth) letter of the Hungarian alphabet.

A central consonant, also known as a median consonant, is a consonant sound that is produced when air flows across the center of the mouth over the tongue. The class contrasts with lateral consonants, in which air flows over the sides of the tongue rather than down its center. Examples of central consonants are the voiced alveolar fricative (the "z" in the English word "zoo") and the palatal approximant (the "y" in the English word "yes"). Others are the central fricatives , the central approximants , the trills , and the central flaps .

The letter ch is a digraph consisting of the sequence of Latin alphabet graphemes C and H, however it is a single phoneme (pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative ) and represents a single entity in Czech collation order, inserted between H and I. In capitalized form, Ch is used at the beginning of a sentence (Chechtal se. "He giggled."), while CH or Ch can be used for standalone letter in lists etc. and only fully capitalized CH is used when the letter is a part of an abbreviation (e.g.

Krĩkatí (also Krinkati or Krikati) is a Timbira variety of the Northern Jê language group (Jê, Macro-Jê) spoken by the Krĩkatí in Terra Indígena Krikati in Maranhão, Brazil. Krĩkatí is closely related to Pykobjê, but differs from it in lacking the velar nasal phoneme /ŋ/ (as in cahã ‘snake’, hõr ‘to sleep’, corresponding to Pykobjê cagã, gõr) as well as the fricative allophone of /j/ (which is realized as [s ~ ʃ] in the coda position in Pykobjê, but as [j] in Krĩkatí). There is a Krĩkatí-Portuguese dictionary by a New Tribes Mission missionary.

The letter tav is one of the six letters that can receive a dagesh kal diacritic; the others are bet, gimel, dalet, kaph and pe. Bet, kaph and pe have their sound values changed in modern Hebrew from the fricative to the plosive, by adding a dagesh. In modern Hebrew, the other three do not change their pronunciation with or without a dagesh, but they have had alternate pronunciations at other times and places. In traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation, tav represents an without the dagesh and has the plosive form when it has the dagesh.

Ayin (also ayn or ain; transliterated ) is the sixteenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician 10px, Hebrew , Aramaic 10 px, Syriac ܥ, and Arabic (where it is sixteenth in abjadi order only). The letter represents a voiced pharyngeal fricative () or a similarly articulated consonant. In some Semitic languages and dialects, the phonetic value of the letter has changed, or the phoneme has been lost altogether (thus, in Modern Hebrew it is reduced to a glottal stop or is omitted entirely). The Phoenician letter is the origin of the Greek, Latin and Cyrillic letter O.

There are approximately 4,000 Spanish words in Tagalog (between 20% and 33% of Tagalog words), and around 6,000 Spanish words in Visayan and other Philippine languages. The Spanish counting system, calendar, time, etc. are still in use with slight modifications. Archaic Spanish words have been preserved in Tagalog and the other vernaculars, such as (from , meaning "coins"), ("soap", modern Spanish ; at the beginning of Spanish rule, the j used to be pronounced , the voiceless postalveolar fricative or the "sh" sound), relos ("watch", Spanish with the j sound), and ("money", from Spanish ).

In Old English, ð (called ' by the Anglo-Saxons) was used interchangeably with þ to represent the Old English dental fricative phoneme or its allophone , which exist in modern English phonology as the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives now spelled "th". Unlike the runic letter þ, ð is a modified Roman letter. ð was not found in the earliest records of Old English. A study of Mercian royal diplomas found that ð (along with đ) began to emerge in the early 8th century, with ð becoming strongly preferred by the 780s.

In some pre- Unified Silla transcriptions of Korean proper nouns, Chinese affricate and fricative sibilants appear interchangeable. This has been interpreted as some stage of Old Korean having lacked the Middle Korean distinction between and . The hyangga poems, however, differentiate affricates and fricatives consistently, while the Chinese distinction between the two is faithfully preserved in Sino-Korean phonology. Koreans thus clearly distinguished from by the eighth century, and Marc Miyake casts doubt on the notion that Korean ever had a stage where affricates and fricatives were not distinct.

Dutch underwent none of these sound changes and thus occupies a central position in the West Germanic languages group. Standard Dutch has a sound inventory of 13 vowels, 6 diphthongs and 23 consonants, of which the voiceless velar fricative (hard ch) is considered a well known sound, perceived as typical for the language. Other relatively well known features of the Dutch language and usage are the frequent use of digraphs like Oo, Ee, Uu and Aa, the ability to form long compounds and the use of slang, including profanity. The Dutch language has many dialects.

The manuscript contains twelve quires totaling 91 folios, with sections written in English Vernacular Minuscule by three or four hands between 1060 and 1220. Two main scribes were responsible for most of the text, working in an alternating manner and easily distinguished by the very different ways in which they wrote the symbol & (a scribal abbreviation) and the letter ð ("edh", a voiced or unvoiced dental fricative). The MS has rubrics in red ink, and the initials of each homily are in red or sometimes green. The MS was rebound in October 1984.

The body of the tongue is raised towards the palate. This is similar to the "domed" English postalveolar fricative sh. Because the tongue is "peeled" from the roof of the mouth from back to front during the release of these stops, there is a fair amount of frication, giving the ty something of the impression of the English palato-alveolar affricate ch or the Polish alveolo-palatal affricate ć. That is, these consonants are not palatal in the IPA sense of the term, and indeed they contrast with true palatals in Yanyuwa.

The extremely small number of speakers makes Ormuri an endangered language that is considered to be in a "threatened" state. Ormuri is notable for its unusual sound inventory, which includes a voiceless alveolar trill that does not exist in the surrounding Pashto. Ormuri also has voiceless and voiced alveolo-palatal fricatives (the voiceless being contrastive with the more common voiceless palato-alveolar fricative), which also exist in the Waziristani dialect of Pashto, but could have been adopted from Ormuri due to its close proximity."Dying Languages; Special Focus on Ormuri".

L with bar in Doulos SIL L with bar (capital Ƚ, lower case ƚ) is a Latin letter L with a bar diacritic. It appears in the alphabet of the Venetian language, and in its capital form it is used in the Saanich orthography created by Dave Elliott in 1978. In Unicode, both the capital and lower case are in the Latin Extended-B block. The capital () is part of the "Additions for Sencoten" (Saanich), while the lower case () is noted as an "Americanist phonetic usage" as an alternative to , the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative.

Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants which did not have their own letters in the writing system, but over time they merged with other consonants. The stop consonants developed fricative allophones under the influence of Aramaic, and these sounds eventually became marginally phonemic. The pharyngeal and glottal consonants underwent weakening in some regional dialects, as reflected in the modern Samaritan Hebrew reading tradition. The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew changed over time and is reflected differently in the ancient Greek and Latin transcriptions, medieval vocalization systems, and modern reading traditions.

As mentioned above, the sound of initial , when distinguished from plain , is often pronounced as a voiceless labio-velar approximant , a voiceless version of the ordinary sound. In some accents, however, the pronunciation is more like , and in some Scottish dialects it may be closer to or --the sound preceded by a voiceless velar fricative or stop. (In other places the of qu- words is reduced to .) In the Black Isle, the (like generally) is traditionally not pronounced at all.Robert McColl Millar, Northern and Insular Scots, Edinburgh University Press (2007), p. 62.

The 2nd century geographer Ptolemy mentioned a people called Χοῦνοι Khunnoi, when listing the peoples of the west Eurasian steppe. (In the Koine Greek used by Ptolemy, Χ generally denoted a voiceless velar fricative sound; hence contemporary Western Roman authors Latinised the name as Chuni or Chunni.) The Khunnoi lived "between the Bastarnae and the Roxolani", according to Ptolemy. However, modern scholars such as E. A. Thompson have claimed that the similarity of the ethnonyms Khunnoi and Hun were coincidental. Maenchen-Helfen and Denis Sinor also dispute the association of the Khunnoi with Attila's Huns.

Iñupiaq (Paġlagivsigiñ Utqiaġvigmun), Utqiagvik, Alaska, framed by whale jawbones The Eskimo–Aleut family of languages includes two cognate branches: the Aleut (Unangan) branch and the Eskimo branch. The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to those of the Eskimo subfamily. Eskimo–Aleut languages possess voiceless plosives at the bilabial, coronal, velar and uvular positions in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops but retained the nasal. In the Eskimo subfamily a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present.

The Latin letter gamma, Ɣ (minuscule: ɣ), is a letter used in some orthographies based on the Latin alphabet. Its uppercase and lowercase shape is based on the lowercase shape of the Greek letter gamma (γ). Unlike the Greek gamma, the Latin gamma may have serifs. Latin gamma is used to represent a voiced velar fricative, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, and in the alphabets of several African languages such as Yom, Dagbani, Dinka, Kabiyé, and Ewe, some Berber languages using the Berber Latin alphabet, and sometimes in the romanization of Pashto.

The etymology of both names is uncertain, and scholars disagree about them. They are known in Hebrew as (Səḏōm) and (‘Ămōrāh). In the Septuagint, these became Σόδομα (Sódoma) and Γόμορρᾰ (Gómorrha; the Hebrew ghayn was absorbed by ayin sometime after the Septuagint was transcribed, it is still pronounced as a voiced uvular fricative in Mizrahi, which is rendered in Greek by a gamma, a voiced velar stop). According to Bob Macdonald, the Hebrew term for Gomorrah was based on the Semitic root ʿ-m-r, which means "be deep", "copious (water)".

Kha or Ha (Х х; italics: Х х) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It looks the same as the Latin letter X (X x X x), in both uppercase and lowercase, both roman and italic forms, and was derived from the Greek letter Chi, which also bears a resemblance to both the Latin X and Kha. It commonly represents the voiceless velar fricative , similar to the pronunciation of in “loch”. Kha is romanised as for Russian, Ukrainian, and Tajik, and as for Belarusian, while being romanised as for Serbian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, and Kazakh.

Based on ancient descriptions of this sound, it is clear that in Qur'anic Arabic ḍ was some sort of unusual lateral sound. Sibawayh, author of the first book on Arabic grammar, explained the letter as being articulated from "between the first part of the side of the tongue and the adjoining molars". It is reconstructed by modern linguists as having been either a pharyngealized voiced alveolar lateral fricative or a similar affricated sound or . The affricated form is suggested by loans of ḍ into Akkadian as ld or lṭ and into Malaysian as dl.

The Dalecarlian alphabet consists of 32 letters, 25 derived from the Swedish alphabet, and seven additional letters: vowels with an ogonek diacritic, denoting nasality: (Ąą, Ęę, Įį, Ųų, Y̨y̨, and Ą̊ą̊) as well as the consonant Ðð (eð), denoting voiced dental fricative, as 'th' in 'father'. The letters Cc, Qq, Xx and Zz are only used in names and foreign words. The alphabet is used for Elfdalian and for other Dalecarlian dialects. The language up until recently and on a small scale today is written with Dalecarlian runes.

Modern Slavic languages written in the Cyrillic alphabet make little use of digraphs apart from for , for (in Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Bulgarian), and and for the uncommon Russian phoneme . In Russian, the sequences and do occur (mainly in loanwords) but are pronounced as combinations of an implosive (sometimes treated as an affricate) and a fricative; implosives are treated as allophones of the plosive /d̪/ and so those sequences are not considered to be digraphs. Cyrillic has few digraphs unless it is used to write non-Slavic languages, especially Caucasian languages.

Most of Malay dialects particularly in Malaysia are non-rhotic. Perak Malay is one of non-rhotic variants of Malay language and the 'r' is guttural. In Perak Malay, if the 'r' appears in the initial and middle position of a word, it will be pronounced as French 'r' specifically voiced uvular fricative, [ʁ] but if it comes in the final position of a word and in a postvocalic setting, it will be dropped or deleted and then substituted into an open vowel; usually 'o' by affecting the open vowel preceding it.

The neighboring Indo-Aryan languages have exerted a pervasive external influence on the closest neighbouring Eastern Iranian, as it is evident in the development in the retroflex consonants (in Pashto, Wakhi, Sanglechi, Khotanese, etc.) and aspirates (in Khotanese, Parachi and Ormuri). A more localized sound change is the backing of the former retroflex fricative ṣ̌ , to x̌ or to x , found in the Shughni–Yazgulyam branch and certain dialects of Pashto. E.g. "meat": ɡuṣ̌t in Wakhi and γwaṣ̌a in Southern Pashto, but changes to in Shughni, γwax̌a in Central Pashto and γwaxa in Northern Pashto.

Voiceless vowels are also an areal feature in languages of the American Southwest (like Hopi and Keres), the Great Basin (including all Numic languages), and the Great Plains, where they are present in Numic Comanche but also in Algonquian Cheyenne, and the Caddoan language Arikara. Sonorants may also be contrastively, not just environmentally, voiceless. Standard Tibetan, for example, has a voiceless in Lhasa, which sounds similar to but is less noisy than the voiceless lateral fricative in Welsh; it contrasts with a modally voiced . Welsh contrasts several voiceless sonorants: , , , and , the last represented by "rh".

Moreover, is simplified to in normal Iranian speech, thereby merging with the short vowel (see below). This does not occur in Afghan Persian. # The high short vowels and tend to be lowered in Iranian Persian to and , unlike are in Dari where they might have both high and lowered allophones. # The pronunciation of the labial consonant (و), which is realized as a voiced labiodental fricative , but Afghan Persian still retains the (classical) bilabial pronunciation ; is found in Afghan Persian as an allophone of before voiced consonants and as variation of in some cases, along with .

'Do you want to...?']) # The absence of ordinal numerals higher than 'sixth', so that 'seventh' is col che a fà set 'the one which makes seven'. # The existence of three affirmative interjections (that is, three ways to say yes): si, sè (from Latin sic est, as in Italian); é (from Latin est, as in Portuguese); òj (from Latin hoc est, as in Occitan, or maybe hoc illud, as in Franco-Provençal, French and Old Catalan and Occitan). # The absence of the voiceless postalveolar fricative (like the sh in English sheep), for which an alveolar S sound (as in English sun) is usually substituted.

Its partial equivalent in Macedonian is Ѓ ѓ (because only some dialects contain the sound). When a true đ is not available or desired, it is transcribed as dj in modern Serbo-Croatian, and as gj in Macedonian. The use of dj in place of đ used to be more common in Serbo- Croatian texts, but is now considered obsolete and discouraged by style guides. An example of đ being used for a voiced dental fricative in the phonetic transcription of early Germanic languages, alongside ƀ for bilabial and ʒ for velar, from Joseph Wright's Old High German Primer (1906).

Florentine (fiorentino), spoken by inhabitants of Florence and its environs, is a Tuscan dialect and the immediate parent language to modern Italian. Although its vocabulary and pronunciation are largely identical to standard Italian, differences do exist. The Vocabolario del fiorentino contemporaneo (Dictionary of Modern Florentine) reveals lexical distinctions from all walks of life. Florentines have a highly recognisable accent in phonetic terms due to the so- called gorgia toscana): "hard c" between two vowels is pronounced as a fricative similar to an English h, so that dico 'I say' is phonetically , i cani 'the dogs' is .

Similarly, t between vowels is pronounced as in English thin, and p in the same position is the bilabial fricative . Other traits include using a form of the subjunctive mood last commonly used in medieval times, a frequent usage in everyday speech of the modern subjunctive, and a shortened pronunciation of the definite article, instead of "il", causing doubling of the consonant that follows, so that il cane 'the dog', for example, is pronounced . Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio pioneered the use of the vernacular instead of the Latin used for most literary works at the time.

Medieval catelogues of literature see this genre as contrasting with Eachtra, 'expeditions' or 'adventures' in which the protagonist visits the Otherworld of Irish traditional lore. In Ireland, an overwhelmingly English speaking country, usage of the Irish language is an outward expression of Irish identity, which is a central theme of Primordial's aesthetic and appeal. Imrama, correctly pronounced with a stressed first syllable and voiced labiodental fricative second 'm', is pronounced by the band themselves (as native speakers of English, ignorant of the Irish language and its orthography reading the word would) with a stressed second syllable and bilabial nasal second 'm'.

Lowercase Greek gamma is used in the Americanist phonetic notation and Uralic Phonetic Alphabet to indicate voiced consonants. The gamma was also added to the Latin alphabet, as Latin gamma, in the following forms: majuscule Ɣ, minuscule ɣ, and superscript modifier letter ˠ. In the International Phonetic Alphabet the minuscule letter is used to represent a voiced velar fricative and the superscript modifier letter is used to represent velarization. It is not to be confused with the character , which looks like a lowercase Latin gamma that lies above the baseline rather than crossing, and which represents the close-mid back unrounded vowel.

The letter thorn was used for writing Old English very early on, as was ð; unlike ð, thorn remained in common use through most of the Middle English period. Both letters were used for the phoneme , sometimes by the same scribe. This sound was regularly realised in Old English as the voiced fricative between voiced sounds, but either letter could be used to write it; the modern use of in phonetic alphabets is not the same as the Old English orthographic use. A thorn with the ascender crossed (Ꝥ) was a popular abbreviation for the word that.

Some languages have a voiced velar approximant that is unspecified for rounding, and therefore cannot be considered the semivocalic equivalent of either or its rounded counterpart . Examples of such languages are Catalan, Galician and Spanish, in which the unspecified for rounding voiced velar approximant consonant (not semivowel) appears as an allophone of . Eugenio Martínez Celdrán describes the voiced velar approximant consonant as follows: There is a parallel problem with transcribing the palatal approximant. The symbol may also be used when the voiced velar approximant is merely an allophone of the voiced velar fricative as, compared with , it is more similar to the symbol .

The Oron people speak a dialect known as "Örö" by the Oronians, but widely called "Oron", an anglicized spelling and pronunciation. Many Oron people are also fluent in the Efik dialect. Örö has many dialectical similarities with the Ibibio and Annang people, hence many Oronians can communicate proficiently in Ibibio and Annang languages. The phonemes of Oron comprise seven oral vowels í, ε, e, a, o, σ, u, five plosive consonants b, kp, d, t, k, three nasal consonants m, ŋ, n, three fricative consonants f, s, h, two semi-vowel consonants w, y and one lateral consonant l.

In Medieval manuscripts, the name is frequently "disguised" in records produced by scribes unfamiliar with Welsh naming conventions, and has been confused with the Welsh name Moreiddig (which has produced Moredik, Moriddik and Morithik). By the early Middle Ages, the name took the form of Mereduc, in part due to "its suitability for taking Latin case-endings". The name has been rendered into Latin as Mereducco, Mereduci, Mereduth, Mereduco, Mereduc and Mereducus, Mereducius. In the dialect of Dyfed (Pembrokeshire) the final voiced interdental fricative (represented in writing by dd) was lost to produce the name Meredy.

It also may be heard as a voiced dental fricative [ð], such as the th in the English word the. Seen throughout Old English writing, thorn also remained common throughout literature in the Middle English period. Throughout such a period, a handwritten form of the letter thorn was similar to the letter "y"; when composed with a small "e" above it ("the"), it was an Early Modern English abbreviation for the word the. Such a form may be seen within the 1611 edition of the Bible (King James Version) in Romans or in the Mayflower Compact.

There are two main problems with Roman Urdu schemes which exists. Either they are not reversible to Urdu script or they don't allow pronouncing the Urdu words properly. Another shortcoming is that a lot of Roman Urdu schemes confuse the Urdu letter 'Choti He' which has the sound of voiceless glottal fricative with 'Do Chasham He' which is used as a digraph for aspirated consonants in Urdu script. The digraphs "Sh" for letter Shin and "Zh" for letter Zhe also cause problems as they could be interpreted as the letter Sin and 'Choti He' or letter Ze and 'Choti He' respectively.

Llywelyn is a Welsh personal name, which has also become a family name most commonly spelt Llewellyn (). The name has many variations and derivations, mainly as a result of the difficulty for non-Welsh speakers of representing the sound of the initial double ll (a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative). The name Lewis became closely associated with Llywelyn as early as the 13th century, when Anglo-Norman scribes often used the former as an anglicised version of the latter; many Welsh families came to do the same over the following centuries as the adoption of formal English-style surnames became more widespread.

A voiced epiglottal or pharyngeal tap or flap is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language. However, it exists as the intervocalic voiced allophone of the otherwise voiceless epiglottal stop of Dahalo and perhaps of other languages. It may also exist in Iraqi Arabic, where the consonant 'ayn is too short to be an epiglottal stop, but has too much of a burst to be a fricative or approximant. There is no dedicated symbol for this sound in the IPA, but it can be transcribed by adding an "extra short" diacritic to the symbol for the stop, .

325) Like the uvular trill, the ingressive velic trill does not involve the tongue; it is the velum that passively vibrates in the airstream. The Speculative Grammarian has proposed a jocular symbol for this sound (and also the sound used to imitate a pig's snort), a double-wide with double dot x18px suggesting a pig's snout. (This might be typeset as Cyrillic Ꙫ.) The Extensions to the IPA identifies an egressive fricative pronounced with this same configuration, common with a cleft palate, as velopharyngeal , and with accompanying uvular trill as or 12px.No Unicode support as of 2019.

Some of these questions are geared toward tongue protrusion and an opening of lips when the client is in repose; habitual mouth breathing; digit sucking; existence of high and narrow palatal arch; ankyloglossia (tongue-tie); malocclusions, (Class II, III); weak chewing muscles (masseter); weak lip muscles (orbicularis oris); overdeveloped chin muscles (mentalis); muscular imbalance; abnormal dentition. Tongue thrusting and speech problems may co-occur. Due to unconventional postures of the tongue and other articulators, interdental and frontal lisping are very common. The alveolar sounds /s/ and /z/ are produced more anteriorly thus leading to interdental fricative like sounds, /th/.

In the Latin-based orthographies of many European languages (including English), a distinction between hard and soft occurs in which represents two distinct phonemes. The sound of a hard (which often precedes the non-front vowels , and ) is that of the voiceless velar stop, (as in car) while the sound of a soft (typically before , and ), depending on language, may be a fricative or affricate. In English, the sound of soft is (as in the first and final c’s in " _c_ ircumferen _c_ e"). There was no soft in classical Latin, where it was always pronounced as .

He was credited with the power to render an enemy's bullet harmless. The word Harifal is a word etymologically corrupted by the particular Pushto accent, sharply contrasted with Arabic. Pushto is not a kindred language to Arabic and has no equivalent of the Arabic character ain (ع) to be exactly articulated, just as English has no equivalent for this Arabic character, so Pashto speakers always convert the Arabic glottal ain (ع) into a palatal fricative hay {soft hay}. The phonemes /q/, /f/ tend to be replaced by [k] and {P}, so that Arif is invariably pronounced as Harif or Harip.

Irish Studio LLC. Due to Irish immigration patterns, a strong influence of Irish English features is documented in Newfoundland English, Cape Breton English, and some Halifax English, including a fronting of ~, a slit fricative realization of , and a rounded realization of . Newfoundland English further shows the cheer–chair merger, the line–loin merger, and a distinct lack of the marry–merry merger. The flapping of intervocalic and to an alveolar tap between vowels, as well as pronouncing it as a glottal stop , is less common in the Maritimes than elsewhere in Canada, so that "battery" is pronounced instead of with a glottal stop.

In addition, sibilants are absent from Australian Aboriginal languages, in which fricatives are rare; even the few indigenous Australian languages that have fricatives do not have sibilants. The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant (commonly termed the voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant) is a fricative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, usually with the tip of the tongue (apex) against the alveolar ridge. It is a sibilant sound and is found most notably in a number of languages in a linguistic area covering northern and central Iberia. It is most well known from its occurrence in the Spanish of this area.

English does not have phonological final- obstruent devoicing of the type that neutralizes phonemic contrasts; thus pairs like bad and bat are distinct in all major accents of English. Nevertheless, voiced obstruents are devoiced to some extent in final position in English, especially when phrase-final or when followed by a voiceless consonant (for example, bad cat ). Old English had final devoicing of , although the spelling did not distinguish and . It can be inferred from the modern pronunciation of half with a voiceless , from an originally voiced fricative in Proto-Germanic (preserved in German and Gothic ).

He was assigned to an army entertainment troupe on the Golan Heights. Afterward he returned to the London production, appearing in a total of 430 performances. It was during the London run that he began being known by his last name only, as the English producers were unable to pronounce the voiceless uvular fricative consonant Ḥet at the beginning of his first name, Chaim, instead calling him "Shame". In casting the 1971 film version of Fiddler on the Roof, director Norman Jewison and his production team sought an actor other than Zero Mostel for the lead role.

The smooth breathing (; psilí; ) is a diacritical mark used in polytonic orthography. In ancient Greek, it marks the absence of the voiceless glottal fricative from the beginning of a word. Some authorities have interpreted it as representing a glottal stop, but a final vowel at the end of a word is regularly elided (removed) when the following word starts with a vowel and elision would not happen if the second word began with a glottal stop (or any other form of stop consonant). In his Vox Graeca, W. Sidney Allen accordingly regards the glottal stop interpretation as "highly improbable".

The contrast between the two phonemes was neutralized in certain environments, as the fricative also occurred as an allophone of /b/ between vowels, after a vowel, and after certain consonants in Old Spanish.The confusion of Latin and in Spain is demonstrated by an often-cited pun in Latin, "Beati Hispani quibus vivere bibere est" [Blessed (are the) Spaniards, for whom to live is to drink], with variants such as "Beati Hispani, dum bibere dicunt vivere". The saying seems to be not really from Roman times but from the Middle Ages or even the Renaissance. See Nihil Novum sub Sole.

One noteworthy situation that does pertain to the representation of consonants is the indication of phonetic distinctions between each of the four character pairs beys/veys, kof/khof, pey/fey, and tof/sof. The 'hard' (plosive) pronunciation of the first letter in each pair is unequivocally denoted by a dot (dagesh) in the middle of the letter. The 'soft' (fricative) pronunciation is similarly notated with a horizontal bar over the letter (rafe). Most orthographic systems usually only point one of the two characters in a pair but may be inconsistent from pair to pair in indicating the hard or soft alternative.

One of the most distinctive features of the Spanish variants is the pronunciation of when it is not aspirated to or elided. In northern and central Spain, and in the Paisa Region of Colombia, as well as in some other, isolated dialects (e.g. some inland areas of Peru and Bolivia), the sibilant realization of is an apico-alveolar retracted fricative , a sound transitional between laminodental and palatal . However, in most of Andalusia, in a few other areas in southern Spain, and in most of Latin America it is instead pronounced as a lamino-alveolar or dental sibilant.

The consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted, as is the order in which they may appear. Onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters: a stop and approximant, as in play; a voiceless fricative and approximant, as in fly or sly; s and a voiceless stop, as in stay; and s, a voiceless stop, and an approximant, as in string. Clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas. Clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing, and clusters of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of articulation are prohibited.

Capital yogh (left), lowercase yogh (right) In Modern English yogh is pronounced , , using short o or , , , using long o.. It stood for and its various allophones—including and the voiced velar fricative —as well as the phoneme ( in modern English orthography). In Middle English, it also stood for the phoneme and its allophone [ç] as in ("night", in an early Middle English way still often pronounced as spelled so: ). Sometimes, yogh stood for or , as in the word , "yowling". In Middle Scots, it represented the sound in the clusters , and written l and n.. Yogh was generally used for rather than y.

A 1693 book printing that uses the "double u" alongside the modern letter; this was acceptable if printers did not have the letter in stock or the font had been made without it. The sounds (spelled ) and (spelled ) of Classical Latin developed into a bilabial fricative between vowels in Early Medieval Latin. Therefore, no longer adequately represented the labial-velar approximant sound of Germanic phonology. The Germanic phoneme was therefore written as or ( and becoming distinct only by the Early Modern period) by the earliest writers of Old English and Old High German, in the 7th or 8th centuries.

Of these, Ё, Ц, Ч, Щ, Ъ, Ь, Э, are used only in words borrowed from Russian or through the Russian language which are written according to Russian orthographic rules. The letter Х in conversational speech is pronounced similar to Қ. The letter Һ is used only in Arabic-Persian borrowings and is often pronounced like an unvoiced Х (as , or a voiceless glottal fricative). The letter И represents the tense vowel obtained from the combinations ЫЙ and ІЙ . The letter У represents and the tense vowel obtained from the combinations ҰУ , ҮУ , ЫУ and ІУ .

It is composed of digraph ㅃ and a circle-shaped single letter ㅇ, which means the letter "to lighten" sounds, linguistically to change stop consonants to the fricative consonants in cases of bilabial consonants (for ᄛ, ㅇ changes alveolar tap to alveolar lateral approximant or retroflex lateral approximant). Because these letters are created to transcribe consonants of Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca), these are disappeared soon. In modern days, ㅃ is used for different sound, [pʰ]. Japanese kana use trigraphs for (C)yō sequences, as in きょう kyou ("today"); the う is only pronounced after another .

These are the superposed chôndrôbindu , denoting a suprasegmental for nasalisation of vowels (as in "moon"), the postposed ônusbar indicating the velar nasal (as in "Bengali") and the postposed bisôrgô indicating the voiceless glottal fricative (as in "ouch!") or the gemination of the following consonant (as in "sorrow"). The Bengali consonant clusters ( juktôbênjôn) are usually realised as ligatures, where the consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition.

In spite of some modifications in the 19th century, the Bengali spelling system continues to be based on the one used for Sanskrit, and thus does not take into account some sound mergers that have occurred in the spoken language. For example, there are three letters (, , and ) for the voiceless postalveolar fricative , although the letter retains the voiceless alveolar sibilant sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in "fall", "beat", etc. The letter also retains the voiceless retroflex sibilant sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in "suffering", "clan", etc. Similarly, there are two letters ( and ) for the voiced postalveolar affricate .

In Cyrillic used for languages of the Caucasus, there are a couple five-letter sequences used for 'strong' (typically transcribed in the IPA as geminate, and doubled in Cyrillic) labialized consonants. Since both features are predictable from the orthography, their pentagraph status is dubious. The pentagraph is used in Archi for : a labialized , which is the 'strong' counterpart of the pharyngealized voiceless uvular fricative (), written using the trigraph , whose graph is in turn an unpredictable derivation of () and thus a true trigraph. It occurs, for example, in an Archi word ххьIвелтIбос meaning rummage through someone else's things.

However, is the usual form for the relative particle in these two villages, with a variant , where Bakh'a always uses . Among the velar consonants, the traditional voiced pair of has collapsed into , while /ɡ/ still remains a phoneme in some words. The unvoiced velar fricative, , is retained, but its plosive complement , while also remaining a distinct phoneme, has in its traditional positions in Aramaic words started to undergo palatalization. In Bakh'a, the palatalization is hardly apparent; in Maaloula, it is more obvious, and often leads to ; in Jubb'adin, it has become , and has thus merged phonemically with the original positions of .

In archaic forms of Japanese, there existed the kwa ( ) and gwa ( ) digraphs. In modern Japanese, these phonemes have been phased out of usage and only exist in the extended katakana digraphs for approximating foreign language words. The singular n is pronounced before t, ch, ts, n, r, z, j and d, before m, b and p, before k and g, at the end of utterances, and some kind of high nasal vowel before vowels, palatal approximants (y), fricative consonants s, sh, h, f and w. In kanji readings, the diphthongs ou and ei are today usually pronounced (long o) and (long e) respectively.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, opentail has always represented a voiced velar plosive, while was distinguished from and represented a voiced velar fricative from 1895 to 1900. In 1948, the Council of the International Phonetic Association recognized and as typographic equivalents, and this decision was reaffirmed in 1993. While the 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association recommended the use of for a velar plosive and for an advanced one for languages where it is preferable to distinguish the two, such as Russian, this practice never caught on. The 1999 Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, the successor to the Principles, abandoned the recommendation and acknowledged both shapes as acceptable variants.

Vaux (1992) proposes that the source of [+ATR] were simply the voiced stops such as , , as found in Classical Armenian: voiced stops often involve tongue root advancement. Garrett notes that Adjarian's Law is however never triggered by voiced stops that have developed from the Classical Armenian plain voiceless stops; but it also triggered by the breathy-voiced fricative (which developed in the involved dialects from Classical Armenian ). He proposes that the voiced stop consonants that trigger it should be assumed to similarly have been breathy voiced , by the time of Adjarian's law. Breathy voiced stops are recorded from several other dialects of Armenian; none of these however show Adjarian's law.

Road sign in British Columbia showing the use of 7 to represent in Squamish. In the traditional Romanization of many languages, such as Arabic, the glottal stop is transcribed with an apostrophe, , which is the source of the IPA character . In many Polynesian languages that use the Latin alphabet, however, the glottal stop is written with a reversed apostrophe, (called ‘okina in Hawaiian and Samoan), which is commonly used to transcribe the Arabic ayin as well (also ) and is the source of the IPA character for the voiced pharyngeal fricative . In Malay the glottal stop is represented by the letter , in Võro and Maltese by .

In phonetics, palato-alveolar (or palatoalveolar) consonants are postalveolar consonants, nearly always sibilants, that are weakly palatalized with a domed (bunched-up) tongue. They are common sounds cross-linguistically and occur in English words such as ship and chip. The fricatives are transcribed (voiceless) and (voiced) in the International Phonetic Alphabet, while the corresponding affricates are (voiceless) and (voiced). (For the affricates, tied symbols or unitary Unicode symbols are sometimes used instead, especially in languages that make a distinction between an affricate and a sequence of stop + fricative.) Examples of words with these sounds in English are shin , chin , gin and vision (in the middle of the word).

Pama–Nyungan languages generally share several broad phonotactic constraints: Single-consonant onsets, a lack of fricatives, and a prohibition against liquids (laterals and rhotics) beginning words. Voiced fricatives have developed in several scattered languages, such as Anguthimri, though often the sole alleged fricative is and is analyzed as an approximant by other linguists. The prime example is Kala Lagaw Ya, which acquired both fricatives and a voicing contrast in them and in its plosives from contact with Papuan languages. Several of the languages of Victoria allowed initial , and one—Gunai—also allowed initial and consonant clusters and , a trait shared with the extinct Tasmanian languages across the Bass Strait.

The rear articulation may also be released as a fricative. However, because the forward articulation may be considered a stop, these are called affricates rather than fricatives. There are two conventions for writing the frication: the English convention, with an x, and the Afrikaans tradition, with a g. Both are used in the orthographies of Khoisan languages. In Juǀ’hõa, for example, they are written voiceless ǃk ǁk ǀk ǂk and voiced gǃk gǁk gǀk gǂk, and in the old orthography qg’ xg’ cg’ çg’ and dqg’ dxg’ dcg’ dçg’; in Naro, they are (voiceless) qg’ xg’ cg’ tcg’, and in Khoekhoe (Korana), ǃkh’ ǁkh’ ǀkh’ ǂkh’.

The most important development on the way to modern English was the investing of the existing distinction between and with phonemic value. Minimal pairs, and hence the phonological independence of the two phones, developed as a result of three main processes. #In early Middle English times, a group of very common function words beginning with (the, they, there, etc.) came to be pronounced with instead of . Possibly this was a sandhi development; as these words are frequently found in unstressed positions, they can sometimes appear to run on from the preceding word, which may have resulted in the dental fricative being treated as though it were word-internal.

The S. L. Wong system uses in the broad transcription to represent the phoneme written (also written , "devoiced b") in narrow transcriptions, and uses in the broad system to represent the phoneme written in the narrow system. The difference between and , or and , etc. is similarly a difference in aspiration and not in voicing. One particular aspect of the S. L. Wong system is the differentiation of the fricative and affricative initials into ( ) and ( ) respectively to reflect the difference in Putonghua between (/x/ /q/ /j/) and (/s/ /c/ /z/), even though it was acknowledged that ( ) are "duplicates" of ( ) and are pronounced exactly the same in modern Cantonese.

In most dialects, "the" is pronounced as (with the voiced dental fricative followed by a schwa) when followed by a consonant sound, and as (homophonous with thee) when followed by a vowel sound or used as an emphatic form. In modern American English, however, there is an increasing tendency to limit the usage of the latter pronunciation to emphatic purposes and use the former even before a vowel. The same change is happening in New Zealand English. In some Northern England dialects of English, the is pronounced (with a dental t) or as a glottal stop, usually written in eye dialect as ; in some dialects it reduces to nothing.

Quantal theory is supported by a theory of language change, developed in collaboration with Jay Keyser, which postulates the existence of redundant or enhancement features. It is quite common, in language, to find a pair of phonemes that differ in two features simultaneously. In English, for example, "thin" and "sin" differ in both the place of articulation of the fricative (teeth versus alveolar ridge), and in its loudness (nonstrident versus strident). Similarly, "tell" and "dell" differ in both the voicing of the initial consonant, and in its aspiration (the /t/ in "tell" is immediately followed by a puff of air, like a short /h/ between the plosive and the vowel).

This connection has been rejected by linguists in modern times, however, due to the lack of the middle voiced pharyngeal fricative in the triliteral roots, which is usually preserved in Tigrinya.Alfred Felix Landon Beeston, "Review: Excavations at Aksum: An Account of Research at the Ancient Ethiopian Capital Directed in 1972-74", in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. School of Oriental and African Studies, 1992. Instead, the name may be connected with the Agazian clan conquered by the 4th- century king Ezana of Axum, and the Agʿaze (unvocalized 'GZ, referring either to a person or a group) of the Hawulti at Matara.

A medieval Welsh scribe or a scribe familiar with the Welsh language would understand that the usage of the mutated form of llwyd, and lwyd was employed to convey the sense of "holiness". Therefore, as a surname Llwyd/Lloyd "retains the radical consonant after the persona name, masc. and fem alike". The Anglo-Norman scribe would not be familiar enough with medieval Welsh orthography to know that ll was used for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative and generally used l for the initial ll and its lenited version, single l except that occasionally attempts were made to show that the sound was l with a difference.

View of Gaza from the port The name "Gaza" is first known from military records of Thutmose III of Egypt in the 15th century BCE. In Semitic languages, the meaning of the city name is "fierce, strong". The Hebrew name of the city is Aza (עזה) – the ayin at the beginning of the word represented a voiced velar fricative in Biblical Hebrew, but in Modern Hebrew, it is silent. According to Shahin, the Ancient Egyptians called it "Ghazzat" ("prized city"), and the Muslims often referred to it as "Ghazzat Hashem", in honor of Hashim, the great-grandfather of Muhammad who, according to Islamic tradition, is buried in the city.

During late antiquity, the Greek phoneme represented by the letter mutated from an aspirated stop to a fricative . This mutation affected the pronunciation of , which began to be used to represent the phoneme in some of the languages that had it. One of the earliest languages to use the digraph this way was Old High German, before the final phase of the High German consonant shift, in which and came to be pronounced . The Old English Latin alphabet adapted the runic letter (thorn), as well as (eth; in Old English), a modified version of the Latin letter , to represent this sound, but the digraph gradually superseded these letters in Middle English.

English also uses to represent the voiced dental fricative , as in father. This unusual extension of the digraph to represent a voiced sound is caused by the fact that, in Old English, the sounds /θ/ and /ð/ stood in allophonic relationship to each other and so did not need to be rigorously distinguished in spelling. The letters and were used indiscriminately for both sounds, and when these were replaced by in the 15th century, it was likewise used for both sounds. (For the same reason, is used in English for both and .) In the Norman dialect Jèrriais, the French phoneme is realized as , and is spelled under the influence of English.

With only five oral and no nasal or long vowels, Esperanto allows a fair amount of allophonic variation, though the distinction between and , and arguably and , is phonemic. The may be a labiodental fricative or a labiodental approximant , again in free variation; or , especially in the sequences kv and gv ( and , like "qu" and "gu"), but with considered normative. Alveolar consonants t, d, n, l are acceptably either apical (as in English) or laminal (as in French, generally but incorrectly called "dental"). Postalveolars ĉ, ĝ, ŝ, ĵ may be palato-alveolar (semi- palatalized) as in English and French, or retroflex (non-palatalized) as in Polish, Russian, and Mandarin Chinese.

The Mandarin Chinese pronunciation is approximately . Though the Wade-Giles system is often regarded as less intuitive, "Shih Tzu" is a useful linguistic example of both of two cases where the Wade-Giles scheme reflects the use of a syllabic fricative after a corresponding consonant cluster (retroflexes and sibilants) in modern Mandarin. This is a unique phonological feature that does not appear in any other known modern language in their standardized form. Indeed, though the exact classification is still debated (and dialectal variants exist), linguists generally agree that these sounds cannot be represented by conventional symbols in the IPA; hence an unorthodox approximation "SHIRR" was used earlier in this paragraph.

Esh (majuscule: Ʃ Unicode U+01A9, minuscule: ʃ Unicode U+0283) is a character used in conjunction with the Latin script. Its lowercase form ʃ is similar to a long s ſ or an integral sign ∫; in 1928 the Africa Alphabet borrowed the Greek letter Sigma for the uppercase form Ʃ, but more recently the African reference alphabet discontinued it, using the lowercase esh only. The lowercase form was introduced by Isaac Pitman in his 1847 Phonotypic Alphabet to represent the voiceless postalveolar fricative (English sh). It is today used in the International Phonetic Alphabet, as well as in the alphabets of some African languages.

The distinction between the sounds grew in the dialects of northern and central Spain by paradigmatic dissimilation, but dialects in Andalusia and the Americas merged both sounds. The dissimilation in the northern and central dialects occurred with the laminodental fricative moving forward to an interdental place of articulation, losing its sibilance to become . The sound is represented in modern spelling by ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ and by ⟨z⟩ elsewhere. In the south of Spain, the deaffrication of resulted in a direct merger with , as both were homorganic,, and the new phoneme became either laminodental ("seseo", in the Americas and parts of Andalusia) or ("ceceo", in a few parts of Andalusia).

Xalapa is pronounced [xalapa] or [halapa], the last pronunciation is used principally in dialects of Mexico's south, the Caribbean, a large part of Central America, some places in South America and the Canary Islands and western Andalusia in Spain, where [x] has evolved into a voiceless glottal fricative ([h]). The complete name of the city is Xalapa-Enríquez, bestowed in honor of a governor from the 19th century, Juan de la Luz Enríquez. The city's nickname, City of Flowers (Spanish: La ciudad de las flores), was given by Alexander von Humboldt, who visited the city 10 February 1804. The reference is also related to the city's older colonial history.

In Europe languages with in native words are in a central-western European zone between Cornwall and Poland: English, German, Low German, Dutch, Frisian, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Walloon, Polish, Kashubian, Sorbian, Wymysorys, Resian and Scandinavian dialects. German, Polish, Wymysorys and Kashubian use it for the voiced labiodental fricative (with Polish, related Kashubian and Wymysorys using Ł for ), and Dutch uses it for . Unlike its use in other languages, the letter is used in Welsh and Cornish to represent the vowel as well as the related approximant consonant . The following languages historically used for in native words, but later replaced it by : Swedish, Finnish, Czech, Slovak, Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian, Belarusian Łacinka.

A telltale indication of an excessive VDO is a patient straining to close his or her lips around the wax rims during VDO determination. Conversely, a deficient VDO will appear as though the patient's mouth has collapsed, and the chin appears too close to the nose; in essence, the patient would be over-closing his or her mouth because there would not be enough wax on the wax rims to maintain the proper vertical dimension of occlusion. In terms of phonetics, certain sounds are made by configuring the mouth in specific ways. The two sounds most commonly used to establish a patient's VDO are sibilant and fricative sounds.

Argentines are amongst the few Spanish-speaking countries (like Uruguay, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Honduras) that almost universally use what is known as voseo – the use of the pronoun vos instead of tú (Spanish for "you"). In many of the central and north-eastern areas of the country, the "rolling r" takes on the same sound as the ll and y ('zh' – a voiced palatal fricative sound, similar to the "s" in the English pronunciation of the word "vision"). South Bolivian Quechua is a Quechuan language spoken by some 800,000 people, mostly immigrants who have arrived in the last years. There are 70,000 estimated speakers in Salta Province.

Basque influence is evident in words such as 'ma' (mother), 'coscorria' (useless, inept) and 'tap' (tap), to name only a few cases. Basque also influenced the pronunciation of the letter 's' apico-alveolar, so in the Antioquia, and the letter "ll" (double L) pronounced as a fricative, not to overlook the inclusion of the letter "a" before certain initial Rs: instead of , instead of and instead of . Basques began to immigrate regularly and are distributed throughout the country. Due to this presence is that the Colombian department of Antioquia has been considered a major route of the Basque- Navarre immigration, mainly during the colonial era, when hundreds of Basques migrated to be linked to the Spanish colonization companies.

Vowels (a, e, i, o, u and diphthongs such as ai) corresponded to sine tones and their combinations, plosive consonants (p, k, t) to pulses, and fricative consonants such as f, s, sh, and ch, to rushing noises . Stockhausen on the one hand subjected the recording of a child's voice to the same manipulations as the sounds and noises produced in the studio, and on the other hand tried to approximate the latter in various degrees to the vocal sounds. He wanted to achieve a continuum between electronic and human sounds . In any event, the first step had been taken towards the inclusion of materials other than sounds produced purely by electronic means.

Because of the limitations of the language's scripts, its phonology is not well understood. Its consonants included at least stops /p/, /t/ and /k/, sibilants /s/, /ʃ/ and /z/ (with an uncertain pronunciation), nasals /m/ and /n/, liquids /l/ and /r/ and fricative /h/, which was lost in late Neo- Elamite. Some peculiarities of the spelling have been interpreted as suggesting that there was a contrast between two series of stops (/p/, /t/, /k/ as opposed to /b/, /d/, /g/), but in general, such a distinction was not consistently indicated by written Elamite. Elamite had at least the vowels /a/, /i/, and /u/ and may also have had /e/, which was not generally expressed unambiguously.

Obstruent-only syllables also occur phonetically in some prosodic situations when unstressed vowels elide between obstruents, as in potato and today , which do not change in their number of syllables despite losing a syllabic nucleus. A few languages have so-called syllabic fricatives, also known as fricative vowels, at the phonemic level. (In the context of Chinese phonology, the related but non-synonymous term apical vowel is commonly used.) Mandarin Chinese is famous for having such sounds in at least some of its dialects, for example the pinyin syllables sī shī rī, sometimes pronounced respectively. Though, like the nucleus of rhotic English church, there is debate over whether these nuclei are consonants or vowels.

Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic consonant inventory, with pharyngeal /ʕ ħ/, a series of "emphatic" consonants (possibly ejective, but this is debated), lateral fricative /ɬ/, and in its older stages also uvular /χ ʁ/. /χ ʁ/ merged into /ħ ʕ/ in later Biblical Hebrew, and /b ɡ d k p t/ underwent allophonic spirantization to [v ɣ ð x f θ] (known as begadkefat). The earliest Biblical Hebrew vowel system contained the Proto-Semitic vowels /a aː i iː u uː/ as well as /oː/, but this system changed dramatically over time. By the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls, /ɬ/ had shifted to /s/ in the Jewish traditions, though for the Samaritans it merged with /ʃ/ instead.

Avestan has retained voiced sibilants, and has fricative rather than aspirate series. There are various conventions for transliteration of Dīn Dabireh, the one adopted for this article being: Vowels: :a ā ə ə̄ e ē o ō å ą i ī u ū Consonants: :k g γ x xʷ č ǰ t d δ ϑ t̰ p b β f :ŋ ŋʷ ṇ ń n m y w r s z š ṣ̌ ž h The glides y and w are often transcribed as ii and uu, imitating Dīn Dabireh orthography. The letter transcribed t̰ indicates an allophone of with no audible release at the end of a word and before certain obstruents.

In Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel . Then, the plosive before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like in Italian and in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate became a fricative (thus, ) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. Caesar's cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's".

The central character is a Siberian native, who has been prisoner in a Gulag and who speaks a language that has almost disappeared, one that keeps the last vestige of a vanished sound, the lateral fricative with labiovelar appendix. A Russian student comes to understand him and wants to show him to a congress on Uralic languages in Helsinki. However, a purist Finnish professor attempts to prevent the innocent Siberian appearance there as a living proof of the philological connection between the Finnish language and the American natives. The plot includes a Lapp pimp, country cottages with saunas, vacation boats in the Baltic Sea, and sometimes the narration takes a rowdy tone with reminiscences of Wilt by Tom Sharpe.

Egyptian is fairly typical for an Afroasiatic language in that at the heart of its vocabulary is most commonly a root of three consonants, but there are sometimes only two consonants in the root: rꜥ(w) "sun" (the is thought to have been something like a voiced pharyngeal fricative). Larger roots are also common and can have up to five consonants: sḫdḫd "be upside- down". Vowels and other consonants are added to the root to derive different meanings, as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afroasiatic languages still do. However, because vowels and sometimes glides are not written in any Egyptian script except Coptic, it can be difficult to reconstruct the actual forms of words.

Consonants remain the same as in the existing Devanagari tradition, with the use of joined digraphs to represent additional sounds in the language, such as the combination of क (k) and य (y) for the palatal stop क्य ([c] 'kh'), स (s) and य (y) for the palatal fricative स्य ([ʃ] 'sh'), र and ह for the voiceless liquid र्ह ([r̥] 'rh'), and ल and ह for the voiceless lateral ल्ह ([l̥] 'lh'). Vowel length is not distinguished. Tone is distinguished using an additional diacritic after the vowel, so tó 'rice' (high tone) is तो while tò 'stone' (low tone) is तोः. The Syuba-Nepali-English dictionary also uses a Roman orthography.

Phonologically, it is noteworthy among the Omotic languages for having velar and uvular fricative phonemes. The basic word order is SOV (subject–object–verb), as in other Omotic languages, indeed as in all the languages of the core of the Ethiopian Language Area. The language, as well as the Dime people themselves, reportedly decreased in numbers over the 20th century due to predation from their neighbors the Bodi, and both are in danger of extinction. According to Ethiopian census figures, the 1994 census reported 6293 speakers of the Dime language in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region alone;1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia: Results for Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region, Vol.

Pykobjê (also Gavião-Pykobjê, Pykobjê-Gavião, Gavião, Pyhcopji, or Gavião- Pyhcopji) is a Timbira variety of the Northern Jê language group (Jê, Macro- Jê) spoken by the Gavião-Pykobjê people in Terra Indígena Governador close to Amarante, Maranhão (Brazil). Pykobjê is closely related to Krĩkatí, but differs from it in retaining the velar nasal /ŋ/ of Proto-Timbira (spelt in the orthography, as in cagã ‘snake’, gõr ‘to sleep’), which Krĩkatí has replaced with /h/, as well as in having the voiceless fricative [s ~ ʃ] (spelt , as in cas ‘pacará basket’ or hõhmtyx ‘his/her wrist’), which occurs in the coda position only and corresponds to /j/ in all other Timbira varieties, including Krĩkatí.

This orthography continues in use, with only two major changes: the addition of wh to distinguish the voiceless bilabial fricative phoneme from the labio-velar phoneme /w/; and the consistent marking of long vowels. The Māori embraced literacy enthusiastically, and missionaries reported in the 1820s that Māori all over the country taught each other to read and write, using sometimes quite innovative materials in the absence of paper, such as leaves and charcoal, and flax. Missionary James West Stack recorded the scarcity of slates and writing materials at the Native schools and the use sometimes of "pieces of board on which sand was sprinkled, and the letters traced upon the sand with a pointed stick".

So-called voiced aspirated consonants are nearly always pronounced instead with breathy voice, a type of phonation or vibration of the vocal folds. The modifier letter after a voiced consonant actually represents a breathy-voiced or murmured dental stop, as with the "voiced aspirated" bilabial stop in the Indo-Aryan languages. This consonant is therefore more accurately transcribed as , with the diacritic for breathy voice, or with the modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiced glottal fricative . Some linguists restrict the double-dot subscript to murmured sonorants, such as vowels and nasals, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript hook-aitch for the breathy-voiced release of obstruents.

When Eliezer ben Yehuda drafted his Standard Hebrew language, he based it on Sephardi Hebrew, both because this was the de facto spoken form as a lingua franca in the land of Israel and because he believed it to be the most beautiful of the Hebrew dialects. However, the phonology of Modern Hebrew is in some respects constrained to that of Ashkenazi Hebrew, including the elimination of pharyngeal articulation and the conversion of from an alveolar tap to a voiced uvular fricative, though this latter sound was rare in Ashkenazi Hebrew, in which uvular realizations were more commonly a trill or tap, and in which alveolar trills or taps were also common.

Sometimes, Mecklenburg is pronounced . This is because the digraph marks a preceding short vowel in High German. Mecklenburg however is within the historical Low German language area, and the "c" appeared in its name during the period of transition to Standard, High German usage (Low German authors wrote the name Meklenborg or Męklenborg, depicting proper Low German pronunciation, which itself was a syncope of Middle Low German Mekelenborg). The introduction of the "c" is explained as follows: Either the "c" signals the stretched pronunciation of the preceding "e" (Dehnungs-c), or it signals the pronunciation of the subsequent "k" as an occlusive [k] to prevent it from falsely being rendered as a fricative [χ] following a Low German trend.

Distinction () refers to the differentiated pronunciation of the two Spanish phonemes written and or (only before or , the so-called "soft" ): # represents a voiceless alveolar sibilant (either laminal as in English, or apical); # and soft represent a voiceless dental fricative (the in think). This pronunciation is the standard on which Spanish orthography was based, and it is universal in Central and Northern parts of Spain, except for some bilingual speakers of Catalan and Basque, according to . Thus, in Spanish the choice between the spellings , , , , and , , , , is determined by the pronunciation in most of Spain, unlike English, where it is often done according to etymology or orthographic conventions (although in English, soft c is always and never like s is, as with 'rise' vs. 'rice').

The LaTeX wordmark, typeset with LaTeX's `\LaTeX` macro The characters 'T', 'E', and 'X' in the name come from the Greek capital letters tau, epsilon, and chi, as the name of TeX derives from the ('skill', 'art', 'technique'); for this reason, TeX's creator Donald Knuth promotes its pronunciation as ()Donald E. Knuth, The TeXbook, Addison–Wesley, Boston, 1986, p. 1. (that is, with a voiceless velar fricative as in Modern Greek, similar to the ch in loch). Lamport remarks that "TeX is usually pronounced tech, making lah-teck, lah- teck, and lay-teck the logical choices; but language is not always logical, so lay-tecks is also possible."Lamport (1994), p 5 The name is traditionally printed in running text with a special typographical logo: LaTeX.

In addition, the postalveolar and palatal consonants are written as c, j, š, ž, and y (in IPA: /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/ and /j/), the velar fricative /ɣ/ is written as ǧ, and the glottal stop is written as ʼ . The diacritic marks can be referred to in Ho-Chunk with the following terms: sįįc 'tail' for the ogonek, wookanak 'hat' for the haček, and hiyuša jikere 'sudden start/stop' for the glottal stop. For a short period of time in the mid to late 1800s, Ho-Chunk was written with an adaptation of the "Ba-Be-Bi-Bo" syllabics system. As of 1994, however, the official alphabet of the Ho-Chunk Nation is an adaptation of the Latin script.

Those words which had original long vowels, like team and cream (which come from Old English tēam and Old French creme) may have , while those which had an original short vowel that underwent open syllable lengthening in Middle English (see previous section), like eat and meat (from Old English etan and mete) have a sound resembling (like the sound heard in some dialects in words like eight and weight that lost a velar fricative). In Alexander's book (2001) about the traditional Sheffield dialect, the spelling "eigh" is used for the vowel of eat and meat, while "eea" is used for the vowel of team and cream. However, a 1999 survey in Sheffield found the pronunciation to be almost extinct there.

Extreme differences in pronunciation can be heard within Argentina. One notable pronunciation difference found in Argentina is the “sh” sounding y and ll. In most Spanish speaking countries the letters y and ll are pronounced somewhat like the “y” in yo-yo, however in most parts of Argentina they are pronounced like “sh” in English (such as "shoe") or like "zh" (such as the sound the ~~makes in "measure"). In many of the central and north-eastern areas of the country, the trilled /r/ takes on the same sound as the and ('zh' - a voiced palatal fricative sound, similar to the "s" in the English pronunciation of the word "vision".) For Example, “Río Segundo” sounds like “Zhio Segundo” and “Corrientes” sounds like “Cozhientes”.

Tangsuyuk is a dish that was first made by Chinese immigrants in the port city of Incheon, where the majority of ethnic Chinese population in South Korea live. It is derived from Shandong-style tángcùròu (), as Chinese immigrants to Korea mostly had Shandong ancestry, including those that had first migrated to Northeastern China. Although the Chinese characters meaning "sugar" (), "vinegar" (), and "meat" () are pronounced dang, cho, and yuk in Korean, the dish is called tangsuyuk, not dangchoyuk, because the word tangsu derived from the transliteration of Chinese pronunciation tángcù , with the affricate c in the second syllable weakened into fricative s . The third syllable ròu () was not transliterated, as Sino-Korean word yuk () meaning "meat" was also commonly used in Korean dish names.

In the Latin-based orthographies of many European languages, the letter is used in different contexts to represent two distinct phonemes that in English are called hard and soft . The sound of a hard (which often precedes the non- front vowels or a consonant) is usually the voiced velar plosive (as in gangrene or golf) while the sound of a soft (typically before , , or ) may be a fricative or affricate, depending on the language. In English, the sound of soft is the affricate , as in general, giant, and gym. A at the end of a word usually renders a hard (as in "dog"), while if a soft rendition is intended it would be followed by a silent (as in "change").

Earlier Greek, represented by Mycenaean Greek, likely had a labialized velar aspirated stop , which later became labial, coronal, or velar depending on dialect and phonetic environment. The other Ancient Greek dialects, Ionic, Doric, Aeolic, and Arcadocypriot, likely had the same three-way distinction at one point, but Doric seems to have had a fricative in place of in the Classical period, and the Ionic and Aeolic dialects sometimes lost aspiration (psilosis). Later, during the Koine Greek period, the aspirated and voiced stops of Attic Greek lenited to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding in Medieval and Modern Greek. Cypriot Greek is notable for aspirating its inherited (and developed across word-boundaries) voiceless geminate stops, yielding the series /pʰː tʰː cʰː kʰː/.

The use of the merged phoneme is called "yeísmo". In Spain, the distinction is preserved in some rural areas and smaller cities of the north, while in South America the contrast is characteristic of bilingual areas where Quechua languages and other indigenous languages that have the sound in their inventories are spoken (this is the case of inland Peru and Bolivia), and in Paraguay. The phoneme can be pronounced in a variety of ways, depending on the dialect. In most of the area where yeísmo is present, the merged phoneme is pronounced as the fricative or approximant or as the glide , and also, in word-initial positions, glide , affricates and (the latter is also used in other positions as variants of or ).

The valley itself was named after the late 17th century German theologian and hymn writer Joachim Neander who often visited the area. Neanderthal can be pronounced using the (as in ) or the standard English pronunciation of th with the fricative /θ/ (as ). Neanderthal 1, the type specimen, was known as the "Neanderthal cranium" or "Neanderthal skull" in anthropological literature, and the individual reconstructed on the basis of the skull was occasionally called "the Neanderthal man". The binomial name Homo neanderthalensis—extending the name "Neanderthal man" from the individual specimen to the entire species, and formally recognizing it as distinct from humans—was first proposed by Irish geologist William King in a paper read to the 33rd British Science Association in 1863.

During the end of the 18th and 19th centuries, a period known as the "Golden Age", the grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of the Russian language was stabilized and standardized, and it became the nationwide literary language; meanwhile, Russia's world-famous literature flourished. Until the 20th century, the language's spoken form was the language of only the upper noble classes and urban population, as Russian peasants from the countryside continued to speak in their own dialects. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the compulsory education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features (such as fricative in Southern Russian dialects) are still observed in colloquial speech.

In dialects of Oaxaca, much of Chiapas and the southern Highland and interior regions, the pronunciation of is uvular . This is identical to the Mayan pronunciation of the dorsal fricative which, unlike the Spanish romanization , in Mayan languages is commonly represented orthographically by . (In Spanish spelling before the 16th century, the letter represented ; historical shifts have moved this articulation to the back of the mouth in all varieties of the language except Judaeo-Spanish.) In Northern Western Mexican Spanish, Peninsular Oriental, Oaxaqueño and in eastern variants influenced by Mayan languages, , represented by , tends to be deaffricated to , a phonetic feature typical of both Mayan languages and southwestern Andalusian Spanish dialects. All varieties of Mexican Spanish are characterized by yeísmo: the letters and correspond to the same phoneme, .

The letter shape 'H' was originally used in most Greek dialects to represent the sound /h/, a voiceless glottal fricative. In this function, it was borrowed in the 8th century BC by the Etruscan and other Old Italic alphabets, which were based on the Euboean form of the Greek alphabet. This also gave rise to the Latin alphabet with its letter H. Other regional variants of the Greek alphabet (epichoric alphabets), in dialects that still preserved the sound /h/, employed various glyph shapes for consonantal heta side by side with the new vocalic eta for some time. In the southern Italian colonies of Heracleia and Tarentum, the letter shape was reduced to a "half-heta" lacking the right vertical stem (Ͱ).

However, not all linguists agree on this; the French orientalist André Roman supposes that the letter was actually a voiced emphatic alveolo-palatal sibilant , similar to the Polish ź. This is an extremely unusual sound, and led the early Arabic grammarians to describe Arabic as the lughat aḍ-ḍād "the language of the ḍād", since the sound was thought to be unique to Arabic. The emphatic lateral nature of this sound is possibly inherited from Proto-Semitic, and is compared to a phoneme in South Semitic languages such as Mehri (where it is usually an ejective lateral fricative). The corresponding letter in the South Arabian alphabet is ḍ , and in Ge'ez alphabet ' ፀ), although in Ge'ez it merged early on with .

Gāndhārī is an early Middle Indo-Aryan language - a Prakrit - with unique features that distinguish it from all other known Prakrits. Phonetically, it maintained all three Old Indo-Aryan sibilants - s, ś and ṣ - as distinct sounds where they fell together as [s] in other Prakrits, a change that is considered one of the earliest Middle Indo-Aryan shifts. Gāndhārī also preserves certain Old Indo-Aryan consonant clusters, mostly those involving v and r. In addition, intervocalic Old Indo-Aryan th and dh are written early on with a special letter (noted by scholars as an underlined s, [ _s_ ]), which later is used interchangeably with s, suggesting an early change to a sound, likely the voiced dental fricative ð, and a later shift to z and then a plain s.

In their Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar, Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui point out several other types of sound symbolism in Japanese, that relate phonemes and psychological states. For example, the nasal sound gives a more personal and speaker-oriented impression than the velars and ; this contrast can be easily noticed in pairs of synonyms such as and which both mean because, but with the first being perceived as more subjective. This relationship can be correlated with phenomimes containing nasal and velar sounds: While phenomimes containing nasals give the feeling of tactuality and warmth, those containing velars tend to represent hardness, sharpness, and suddenness. Similarly, i-type adjectives that contain the fricative in the group shi tend to represent human emotive states, such as in the words , , , and .

One notable dialectal feature is the merging of the voiced palatal fricative (as in ayer) with the palatal lateral approximant (as in calle) into one phoneme (yeísmo), with losing its laterality. While the distinction between these two sounds has traditionally been a feature of Castilian Spanish, this merger has spread throughout most of Spain in recent generations, particularly outside of regions in close linguistic contact with Catalan and Basque. In Spanish America, most dialects are characterized by this merger, with the distinction persisting mostly in parts of Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and northwestern Argentina. In the other parts of Argentina, the phoneme resulting from the merger is realized as ; and in Buenos Aires the sound has recently been devoiced to among the younger population; the change is spreading throughout Argentina.

Civil Russian font from middle 18th and beginning of 19th centuries Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, miscellaneous adjustments were made ad hoc, as the Russian literary language came to assume its modern and highly standardized form. These included the introduction of the letter ё (yo) and the gradual loss of ѵ (izhitsa, corresponding to the Greek upsilon υ and the Latin y), in favor of и or і (both of which represented ); and ѳ (corresponding to the Greek theta), in favor of ф or т. (The Russian language neither has nor ever had a voiceless dental fricative. The ѳ was used only for foreign words, particularly Greek.) By 1917, the only two words still spelled with ѵ were мѵро (müro, , 'myrrh') and сѵнодъ (sünod, , 'synod'), and rarely even at that.

The status of is somewhat different from and , since it also appears in native Finnish words, as a regular 'weak' correspondence of the voiceless (see Consonant gradation below). Historically, this sound was a fricative, (th as in English the), varyingly spelled as d or dh in Old Literary Finnish. Its realization as a plosive originated as a spelling pronunciation, in part because when mass elementary education was instituted in Finland, the spelling d in Finnish texts was mispronounced as a plosive, under the influence of how Swedish speakers would pronounce this letter. (In the close to seven centuries during which Finland was under first Swedish, then Russian rule, Swedish speakers dominated the government and economy.) Initially, few native speakers of Finnish acquired the foreign plosive realisation of the native phoneme.

Sagittal section of alveolo-palatal fricative In phonetics, alveolo-palatal (or alveopalatal) consonants, sometimes synonymous with pre-palatal consonants, are intermediate in articulation between the coronal and dorsal consonants, or which have simultaneous alveolar and palatal articulation. In the official IPA chart, alveolo-palatals would appear between the retroflex and palatal consonants but for "lack of space".John Esling, 2010, "Phonetic Notation". In Hardcastle, Laver, & Gibbon, eds, The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, p 693 Ladefoged and Maddieson characterize the alveolo-palatals as palatalized postalveolars (palato-alveolars), articulated with the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge and the body of the tongue raised toward the palate, whereas Esling describes them as advanced palatals (pre-palatals), the furthest front of the dorsal consonants, articulated with the body of the tongue approaching the alveolar ridge.

In languages such as French, all obstruents occur in pairs, one modally voiced and one voiceless: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [ʒ] → [p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [ʃ]. In English, every voiced fricative corresponds to a voiceless one. For the pairs of English stops, however, the distinction is better specified as voice onset time rather than simply voice: In initial position, /b d g/ are only partially voiced (voicing begins during the hold of the consonant), and /p t k/ are aspirated (voicing begins only well after its release). Certain English morphemes have voiced and voiceless allomorphs, such as: the plural, verbal, and possessive endings spelled -s (voiced in kids but voiceless in kits ), and the past-tense ending spelled -ed (voiced in buzzed but voiceless in fished ).

While it is true that the presence of digraphs with in Latin inspired the Goidelic usage, their allocation to phonemes is based entirely on the internal logic of the Goidelic languages. Lenition in Gaelic lettering was traditionally denoted in handwriting using an overdot but typesetters lacked these pre-composed types and substituted a trailing h. It is also a consequence of their history: the digraph initially, in Old and Middle Irish, designated the phoneme , but later sound changes complicated and obscured the grapheme–sound correspondence, so that is even found in some words like Scottish Gaelic piuthar "sister" that never had a to begin with. This is an example of "inverted (historical) spelling": the model of words where the original interdental fricative had disappeared between vowels caused to be reinterpreted as a marker of hiatus.

Perhaps the best known example of betacism is in the Romance languages. The first traces of betacism in Latin can be found in the third century CE. The results of the shift are most widespread in the Western Romance languages, especially in Spanish, where the letters ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩ are now both pronounced (the voiced bilabial fricative) except phrase-initially and after when they are pronounced ; the two sounds ( and ) are now allophones. Betacism is one of the main features in which Galician and northern Portuguese diverge from southern Portuguese; in Catalan betacism features in many dialects, though not in central and southern Valencian or in the Balearic dialect. Other Iberian languages with betacism are Astur-Leonese and Aragonese (in fact, for the latter there is a pronunciation-based orthography changing all v's into b's).

In general, coastal regions of Andalusia preferred , and more inland regions preferred (see the map at ceceo). During the colonization of the Americas, most settlers came from the south of Spain; that is the cause, according to almost all scholars, for nearly all Spanish- speakers in the New World still speaking a language variety derived largely from the Western Andalusian and Canarian dialects. Meanwhile, the alveopalatal fricative , the result of the merger of voiceless (spelled ⟨x⟩ in Old Spanish) with voiced (spelled with ⟨j⟩ in some words and in others with ⟨g⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩), was moved backwards in all dialects, to become (depending on geographical variety) velar , uvular (in parts of Spain) or glottal (in Andalusia, Canary Islands, and parts of the Americas, especially the Caribbean region).

Although the Estonian orthography is generally guided by phonemic principles, with each grapheme corresponding to one phoneme, there are some historical and morphological deviations from this: for example preservation of the morpheme in declension of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'. Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž, they are substituted with sh and zh in some written texts, although this is considered incorrect. Otherwise, the h in sh represents a voiceless glottal fricative, as in Pasha (pas-ha); this also applies to some foreign names. Modern Estonian orthography is based on the Newer Orthography created by Eduard Ahrens in the second half of the 19thcentury based on Finnish orthography.

While this is an allophone of a single phoneme to speakers of Quebec French, to speakers of Belgian French this is heard as a stop followed by a fricative, or in other words as two different phonemes. This was accomplished by asking Belgian French speakers to repeat an utterance containing this affricate backwards, which resulted in the production of two separate sounds. If these speakers understood the affricate as a single sound, an allophone meant to stand in for the standard pronunciation [t], and not as two consecutive sounds, they would have reproduced the affricate exactly as is when they repeated the utterance backwards. It is important not to mistake allophones, which are different manifestations of the same phoneme in speech, with allomorphs, which are morphemes that may sound different in different contexts.

Alongside linguists Dan Slobin and Carol Moder, Bybee's work helped popularize the concept of mental schemas (or schemata) to explain grammatical structure, especially in terms of connections between morphological forms within a paradigm. Bybee defines schemas as "an emergent generalization over words having similar patterns of semantic and phonological connections". For instance, the English irregular verbs snuck, struck, strung, spun and hung are connected through a schema that builds on similarities between these verbs and across the lexicon: the meaning of past tense, the vowel [ʌ], the final nasal and/or (sequence of) velar consonants, as well as the initial fricative consonant /s/ or /h/. Connections between individual forms and schemas exist in a network (see below) whose links can be strengthened, weakened and at times also severed or created.

Tabares and Remuk show a cognate similarity of 96% and among cognates there is a regular phonetic variation that occurs in the velar fricative, otherwise the cognate words are usually pronounced the same. The grammar between the dialects does not vary; when it does differ, the residents of the Mato area said the words could be pronounced either way and that it depended on the preference of the speaker. The only minor difference that separate the variations is the constant phoneme /x/. (1) /xɑlux/ → [xɑ.»luʔ] ‘door’ (Tabares speaker) /xɑlux/ → [ʔɑ.»luʔ] ‘door’ (Ramuk speaker) (2) /buxu/ → [»bu.ɣu] ‘pig’ (Tabares speaker) /buxu/ → [»bu.ʔu] ‘pig’ (Ramuk speaker) (3) /bɑxi/ → [»bɑ.ɣ˞i] ‘medicine’ (Tabares speaker) /bɑxi/ → [»bɑ.ʔi] ‘medicine’ (Ramuk speaker) Speakers of the Ramuk dialect pronounce /x/ as [ʔ] in all environments.

Although the Estonian orthography is generally guided by phonemic principles, with each grapheme corresponding to one phoneme, there are some historical and morphological deviations from this: for example the initial letter 'h' in words, preservation of the morpheme in declension of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'. Where it is impractical or impossible to type š and ž, they are substituted with sh and zh in some written texts, although this is considered incorrect. Otherwise, the h in sh represents a voiceless glottal fricative, as in Pasha (pas-ha); this also applies to some foreign names. Modern Estonian orthography is based on the Newer Orthography created by Eduard Ahrens in the second half of the 19th century based on Finnish orthography.

Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, whispery voice, soughing and susurration) is a phonation in which the vocal folds vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are adjusted to let more air escape which produces a sighing-like sound. A simple breathy phonation, (not actually a fricative consonant, as a literal reading of the IPA chart would suggest), can sometimes be heard as an allophone of English between vowels, such as in the word behind, for some speakers. In the context of the Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit and Hindi and comparative Indo-European studies, breathy consonants are often called voiced aspirated, as in the Hindi and Sanskrit stops normally denoted bh, dh, ḍh, jh, and gh and the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European phoneme gʷʰ. , as breathy voice is a different type of phonation from aspiration.

The basic Celtiberian signary contains 26 signs rather than the 28 signs of the original model, the northeastern Iberian script, since the Celtiberians omitted one of the two rhotic and one of the three nasals. The remaining 26 signs comprised 5 vowels, 15 syllabic signs and 6 consonants (one lateral, two sibilants, one rhotic and two nasals). The sign equivalent to Iberian s is transcribed as z in Celtiberian, because it is assumed that it sometimes expresses the fricative result of an ancient dental stop (d), while the Iberian sign ś is transcribed as s. As for the use of the nasal signs, there are two variants of the Celtiberian script: In the eastern variant, the excluded nasal sign was the Iberian sign ḿ, while in the western variant, the excluded nasal sign was the Iberian sign m.

An example from the history of English is the lengthening of vowels that happened when the voiceless velar fricative and its palatal allophone were lost from the language. For example, in the Middle English of Chaucer's time the word night was phonemically ; later the was lost, but the was lengthened to to compensate, causing the word to be pronounced . (Later the became by the Great Vowel Shift.) Both the Germanic spirant law and the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law show vowel lengthening compensating for the loss of a nasal. Non-rhotic forms of English have a lengthened vowel before a historical post-vocalic : in Scottish English, girl has a short followed by a light alveolar , as presumably it did in Middle English; in Southern British English, the has dropped out of the spoken form and the vowel has become a "long schwa" .

For a long time, it was known as a trait of the Andalusian dialect, and it seems to have reached Madrid and other cities of central and northern Spain only in the last 100 years or so. Since more than half of the early settlers of Spanish America came from Andalusia, most Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas have yeísmo, but there are pockets in which the sounds are still distinguished. Native-speakers of neighboring languages, such as Galician, Astur-Leonese, Basque, Aragonese, Occitan and Catalan, usually do not feature yeísmo in their Spanish since those languages retain the phoneme. A related trait that has also been documented sporadically for several hundred years is rehilamiento (literally "whizzing"), the pronunciation of as a sibilant fricative or even an affricate , which is common among non-native Spanish speakers as well.

Alliteration narrowly refers to the repetition of a letter in any syllables that, according to the poem's meter, are stressed, as in James Thomson's verse "Come…dragging the lazy languid line along". Consonance is a broader literary device identified by the repetition of consonant sounds at any point in a word (for example, coming home, hot foot). Alliteration is a special case of consonance where the repeated consonant sound is in the stressed syllable. Alliteration may also refer to the use of different but similar consonants, such as alliterating z with s, as does the author of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, or as Anglo-Saxon (Old English) poets would alliterate hard/fricative g with soft g (the latter exemplified in some courses as the letter yogh – ȝ – pronounced like the y in yarrow or the j in Jotunheim).

This same phoneme is rendered as by many authors, including Canfield and Lipski, using the convention of the Revista de Filología Española. That phoneme, in most variants of Mexican Spanish, is pronounced as either a palatal fricative or an approximant in most cases, although after a pause it is instead realized as an affricate . Also present in most of the interior of Mexico is the preservation (absence of debuccalization) of syllable-final ; this, combined with frequent unstressed vowel reduction, gives the sibilant a special prominence. This situation contrasts with that in the coastal areas, on both the Pacific and the Gulf Coastal sides, where the weakening or debuccalization of syllable-final is a sociolinguistic marker, reflecting the tension between the Mexico City norm and the historical tendency towards consonantal weakening characteristic of coastal areas in Spanish America.

The nasalisation of vowels and consonants in Mixtec is an interesting phenomenon that has had various analyses. All of the analyses agree that nasalization is contrastive and that it is somewhat restricted. In most varieties, it is clear that nasalization is limited to the right edge of a morpheme (such as a noun or verb root), and spreads leftward until it is blocked by an obstruent (plosive, affricate or fricative in the list of Mixtec consonants). A somewhat more abstract analysis of the Mixtec facts claims that the spreading of nasalization is responsible for the surface "contrast" between two kinds of bilabials ( and , with and without the influence of nasalization, respectively), between two kinds of palatals ( and nasalized —often less accurately (but more easily) transcribed as —with and without nasalization, respectively), and even two kinds of coronals ( and , with and without nasalization, respectively).

The rhotic used in Denmark is a voiced uvular approximant, and the nearby Swedish ex-Danish regions of Scania, Blekinge, southern Halland as well as a large part of Småland and on the Öland island, use a uvular trill or a uvular fricative. To some extent in Östergötland and still quite commonly in Västergötland, a mixture of guttural and rolling rhotic consonants is used, with the pronunciation depending on the position in the word, the stress of the syllable and in some varieties depending on whether the consonant is geminated. The pronunciation remains if a word that is pronounced with a particular rhotic consonant is put into a compound word in a position where that realization would not otherwise occur if it were part of the same stem as the preceding sound. However, in Östergötland the pronunciation tends to gravitate more towards and in Västergötland the realization is commonly voiced.

For most sounds involving the tongue, the place of articulation can be sufficiently identified just by specifying the point of contact on the upper part of the mouth (for example, velar consonants involve contact on the soft palate and dental consonants involve the teeth), along with any secondary articulation such as palatalization (raising of the tongue body) or labialization (lip rounding). However, among sibilants, particularly postalveolar sibilants, there are slight differences in the shape of the tongue and the point of contact on the tongue itself, which correspond to large differences in the resulting sound. For example, the alveolar fricative and the three postalveolar fricatives differ noticeably both in pitch and sharpness; the order corresponds to progressively lower-pitched and duller (less "hissy" or piercing) sounds. ( is the highest-pitched and most piercing, which is the reason that hissing sounds like "Sssst!" or "Psssst!" are typically used to attract someone's attention).

There is ongoing discussion as to how the distinction between what were historically described as 'velar' and 'uvular' clicks is best described. The 'uvular' clicks are only found in some languages, and have an extended pronunciation that suggests that they are more complex than the simple ('velar') clicks, which are found in all. Nakagawa (1996) describes the extended clicks in Gǀwi as consonant clusters, sequences equivalent to English st or pl, whereas Miller (2011) analyses similar sounds in several languages as click–non-click contours, where a click transitions into a pulmonic or ejective articulation within a single segment, analogous to how English ch and j transition from occlusive to fricative but still behave as unitary sounds. With ejective clicks, for example, Miller finds that although the ejective release follows the click release, it is the rear closure of the click that is ejective, not an independently articulated consonant.

This is easier to use on a keyboard, and the familiarity of graphemes used for Spanish reduces the possibility of confusion. For example, to represent the palatal nasal /ɲ/ in the word meaning 'nothing', Italian norms require a digraph, thus gnent, whereas the Spanish system provides a uniquely interpretable single grapheme familiar to Chipileños schooled in Mexico: ñent. Some considerations: a) the grave accent is used with è and ò to indicate that the pronunciation of the vowel is open, e.g. [ɛ] spècho (mirror) and [ɔ] stòrder (twist); b) the acute accent is used to indicate an undetermined tonic accent c) ‘zh’ is used to indicate the voiceless dental fricative (θ) e.g. giazh (ice) d) ‘ch’ is used to represent the voiceless postalveolar affricate (t͡ʃ) e.g., (converse), ranch (spider) or (cheese) e) ‘ge’ or ‘gi’ is used for the voiced postalveolar affricate (ʤ) which does not exist in Spanish orthography.

In English, occurs as a single-letter grapheme (being either silent or representing the voiceless glottal fricative () and in various digraphs, such as , , , or ), (silent, , , , or ), (), (), (), ( or ), (In many dialects, and have merged). The letter is silent in a syllable rime, as in ah, ohm, dahlia, cheetah, pooh-poohed, as well as in certain other words (mostly of French origin) such as hour, honest, herb (in American but not British English) and vehicle (in certain varieties of English). Initial is often not pronounced in the weak form of some function words including had, has, have, he, her, him, his, and in some varieties of English (including most regional dialects of England and Wales) it is often omitted in all words (see -dropping). It was formerly common for an rather than a to be used as the indefinite article before a word beginning with in an unstressed syllable, as in "an historian", but use of a is now more usual (see ).

In the syllabic portions of the scripts, each plosive sign stood for a different combination of consonant and vowel, so that the written form of ga displayed no resemblance to ge, and bi looked quite different from bo. In addition, the original format did not distinguish voiced from unvoiced plosives, so that ga stood for both /ga/ and /ka/, and da stood for both /da/ and /ta/. On the other hand, the continuants (fricative sounds like /s/ and sonorants like /l/, /m/, trills, and vowels) were written with simple alphabetic letters, as in Phoenician and Greek. Over the past few decades, many researchers have come to believe that one variant of the northeastern Iberian script, the older one according to the archaeological contexts, distinguished voicing in the plosives by adding a stroke to the glyphs for the alveolar (/d/~/t/) and velar (/g/~/k/) syllables, creating distinct glyphs for unvoiced /t/ and /k/, and restricting the original glyphs to voiced /d/ and /g/.

A distinction is often made between so-called normative and non-normative preaspiration: in a language with normative preaspiration of certain voiceless obstruents, the preaspiration is obligatory even though it is not a distinctive feature; in a language with non-normative preaspiration, the preaspiration can be phonetically structured for those who use it, but it is non-obligatory, and may not appear with all speakers. Preaspirated consonants are typically in free variation with spirant-stop clusters, though they may also have a relationship (synchronically and diachronically) with long vowels or -stop clusters. Preaspiration can take a number of different forms; while the most usual is glottal friction (an -like sound), the precise phonetic quality can be affected by the obstruent or the preceding vowel, becoming for example after close vowels; other potential realizations include and even . Preaspiration is very unstable both synchronically and diachronically and is often replaced by a fricative or by a lengthening of the preceding vowel.

According to the American commander of the US mission in Iraq and Syria, Lt Gen James Terry, the Arab coalition partners believed strongly that the US should avoid referring to the enemy as ISIL and instead use Daesh, to avoid giving legitimacy to the group's aims. Although these names were being widely used in the Arabic world, the western media were initially slow to adopt them, in favour of ISIS/ISIL. This has subsequently changed after the group's name change to IS, with media and politicians now using it widely, with the BBC speculating this was either "despite or perhaps as a direct consequence of the irritation it causes the group". Karin Ryding, emerita professor of Arab linguistics at Georgetown University, suggested Daesh is sub-optimal, since many English speakers are unable to pronounce it the same way Arabic speakers do, due to the voiced pharyngeal fricative, represented by the apostrophe in Dai'ish.

Victor Hugo, during his exile in Jersey, took an interest in the language and numbered some Jèrriais writers among his circle of acquaintances and supporters. Sir Robert Pipon Marett's prestige and influence helped to reinforce the movement toward standardisation of the writing system based on French orthography, a trend which was also helped by the nascent Norman literary revival in the neighbouring Cotentin area of mainland Normandy where writers, inspired by the example of the Norman writers of Jersey and Guernsey, began their own production of literary works. However, differing (if mutually comprehensible) writing systems have been adopted in Jersey, Guernsey and mainland Normandy. The question is sometimes raised as to whether Jèrriais should move to a writing system based on English orthography, however this would have implications for the continuity of the literary tradition over two centuries or more (note though, that the digraph "th" for the typical dental fricative of Jèrriais has evidently been borrowed from English orthography).

The Old Castilian of Don Quixote is a humoristic resource—he copies the language spoken in the chivalric books that made him mad; and many times, when he talks nobody is able to understand him because his language is too old. This humorous effect is more difficult to see nowadays because the reader must be able to distinguish the two old versions of the language, but when the book was published it was much celebrated. (English translations can get some sense of the effect by having Don Quixote use King James Bible or Shakespearean English, or even Middle English.) In Old Castilian, the letter x represented the sound written sh in modern English, so the name was originally pronounced . However, as Old Castilian evolved towards modern Spanish, a sound change caused it to be pronounced with a voiceless velar fricative sound (like the Scots or German ch), and today the Spanish pronunciation of "Quixote" is .

In much of Latin America—especially in the Caribbean and in coastal and lowland areas of Central and South America—and in the southern half of Spain, syllable-final is either pronounced as a voiceless glottal fricative, ) (debuccalization, also frequently called "aspiration"), or not pronounced at all. In some varieties of Hispanic American Spanish (notably Honduran and Salvadoran Spanish) this may also occur intervocalically within an individual word—as with , which may be pronounced as —or even in initial position. In southeastern Spain (eastern Andalusia, Murcia and part of La Mancha), the distinction between syllables with a now-silent s and those originally without s is preserved by pronouncing the syllables ending in s with open vowels (that is, the open/closed syllable contrast has been turned into a tense/lax vowel contrast); this typically affects the vowels , and , but in some areas even and are affected. For instance, ('all the swans are white'), can be pronounced , or even (Standard Peninsular Spanish: , Latin American Spanish: ).

Today, Tupi languages are still heard in Brazil (states of Maranhão, Pará, Amapá, Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro, and Espírito Santo), as well as in French Guiana, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina. It is a common mistake to speak of the "Tupi–Guarani language": Tupi, Guarani and a number of other minor or major languages all belong to the Tupian language family, in the same sense that English, Romanian, and Sanskrit belong to the Indo-European language family. One of the main differences between the two languages was the replacement of Tupi by the glottal fricative in Guarani. The first accounts of the Old Tupi language date back from the early 16th century, but the first written documents containing actual information about it were produced from 1575 onwards – when Jesuits André Thévet and José de Anchieta began to translate Catholic prayers and biblical stories into the language.

The modifications to Devanagari are minor, and are intended to ensure that all sounds in the language can be represented. None of the orthographies use the 'inherent schwa vowel', meaning that a consonant without an overt vowel is not treated as having an implied vowel. Consonants remain the same as in the existing Devanagari tradition, with the use of joined digraphs to represent additional sounds in the language, such as the combination of क (k) and य (y) for the palatal stop क्य ([c] 'kh'), स (s) and य (y) for the palatal fricative स्य ([ʃ] 'sh'), र and ह for the voiceless liquid र्ह ([r̥] 'rh'), and ल and ह for the voiceless lateral ल्ह ([l̥] 'lh') ह्य ('hy'). Vowel length is unmarked in the Syuba dictionary, in the two Yolmo dictionaries the standard Devanagari length distinctions are made, with the addition of a small diacritic below the 'a' vowel ( ा) to indicate a longer vowel.

Similarly, in the Gorgia Toscana variety of Italian, the intonation phrase is the domain of a rule that changes voiceless plosives (/p/, /t/, /k/) between vowels into fricative consonants, like /θ/ (th) and /h/. In addition to describing prominence relations between words, metrical trees can also describe prominence relations within words. Indeed, a set of rules developed by Liberman and Prince can be used to quite accurately predict stress in English words. Their Lexical Category Prominence Rule states that the second node in a pair of sister nodes is labeled W unless one of a number of conditions are met, such as the node branching or dominating a particular suffix, in which case it is labeled S. Allowable tree structures and node labels for a particular word in Liberman and Prince's system are constrained by the two-value feature [± stress], which can be assigned to segments or syllables by separate rules that refer to the number and type of segments in the syllable and the syllable's position in the word.

Stanshall formed a number of short-lived groups during 1970 alone, including biG GRunt (formed while the Bonzos were still on their farewell tour, and including fellow Bonzos Roger Ruskin Spear and Dennis Cowan, and with Anthony 'Bubs' White on guitar), The Sean Head Showband (again featuring Cowan and White), Gargantuan Chums, and the slightly longer-lived Bonzo Dog Freaks with Innes and the ever-faithful Cowan and White (this conglomerate was also known simply as Freaks). Early that year, biG GRunt recorded a well-received session for BBC Radio 1 Disc Jockey John Peel, and shortly afterwards made a memorable appearance on BBC television. Despite this promising start, biG GRunt dissolved during their first UK tour when Stanshall became incapacitated by the onset of an anxiety disorder that caused a nervous breakdown and would continue to plague him for the rest of his life. However, he soon recovered sufficiently to record and release, on the Liberty label, his first solo single "Labio-Dental Fricative/Paper Round", credited to Vivian Stanshall and The Sean Head Showband (an oblique reference to Stanshall having shaved off all of his hair during his breakdown), and featuring Eric Clapton on guitar.

San José, Costa Rica the Italian language is taught in regional public education, and throughout the country there are many schools that also teach the language as an optional subject.San Vito, un pueblo de Italianos emigrados (in Spanish) Map showing in green the areas where the Italian language is spoken Also noteworthy is the lasting southern influence in certain phonetic and lexical aspects of Costa Rican Spanish. Among the Italian linguistic inheritances, the best known is the pronunciation of the r and rr, which the majority of the population pronounces as a deaf alveolar rhithic fricative, as do the Sicilians. On the other hand, it exists in modern Costa Rican "slang" a multitude of Italianisms: acois (from the echo: here), birra (from the beer: beer), bochinche (fight, disorder), capo (someone outstanding), bell (from it: bell jergal: spy, means to watch), canear (from the "canne: police baton, means to be in jail"), "chao" (from the "ciao: goodbye"), facha (from "faccia": "face, used when someone is badly dressed"), used when someone is poorly arranged) and sound (from the suonare: sound, means to fail or hit), among many others.