But the new research adds a further option: could an increased risk of infection from sexually transmitted infections associated with polygyny have contributed to — or even driven — the overall move from polygyny to monogamy?
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In fact, the causal relationship between polygyny and conflict is unclear.
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The greater the degree of polygyny, the larger the size difference.
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Polygyny is hard work for men but good for women, says Gurmeet, because it is "undesirable" for a woman to be unmarried.
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Polygyny in these societies is no boon to women, but neither is it the driver of social unrest that some have claimed it to be.
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But there are many cultures where a husband can have more than one wife ( polygyny) or, less commonly, a wife can have more than one husband ( polyandry).
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Evolutionarily speaking, polygamy was the "default setting for human intimacy," and polygyny — an arrangement in which a man mates with a harem of wives — remains our biological inclination.
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Wherever it is widely practised, polygamy (specifically polygyny, the taking of multiple wives) destabilises society, largely because it is a form of inequality which creates an urgent distress in the hearts, and loins, of young men.
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PIOTR ZIENTARAAssociate professor of economicsUniversity of Gdansk You pointed to the high incidence of polygamy, and specifically polygyny, in which one husband has multiple wives, for being in part responsible for South Sudan's civil war ("The perils of polygamy", December 23rd).
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While polygyny has been seen in other owl species, including barn owls and Eurasian eagle owls, it is exceedingly rare, possibly due to the fact that the setup requires a surplus of prey to be obtained for both females by the one male.
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Societies with the highest polygyny rates, such as Benin, Burkina Faso and Guinea, are also characterised by high rates of population growth and by lengthy gaps between men's and women's average ages at first marriage, with men marrying five to ten years later than women.
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"There may be examples of [male] cult leaders who did not make use of their position to further their personal polygyny, but I cannot think of any," notes David Barash of the University of Washington in "Out of Eden: The Surprising Consequences of Polygamy".
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This means we need to examine the things that constrain women in their homes, in their personal lives — high levels of violence against women and impunity for their assailants, lack of property and inheritance rights, laws that favor men in divorce and child custody cases, polygyny, bride prices, dowries.
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Whether we speak of attempts to ban almost all abortions, even in the case of rape or incest, here in the United States, or debates about legalizing polygyny in Central Asia, or that in 2015, three times the number of nations had abnormal childhood sex ratios favoring males than was the case 20 years prior, clearly the world cannot assume progress for women will be steady and straightforward.
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Polygamy as polygyny in most of Syria is restricted. Kusha, Hamid R. "Polygyny". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. .
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Other explanations postulate that polygyny is a tool used to ward off inclinations towards infidelity. In Edith Boserup's 1970 article on the study of Sub-Saharan African polygyny, higher incidences of adultery and prostitution were recorded in regions were polygyny was practiced, but delayed by males.
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Most modern Muslims view the practice of polygyny as allowed, but unusual and not recommended. The practice of polygyny is often viewed in its historical context, as the marriage was the only way for a woman to be provided for during the time of Muhammad. Many countries today either outlaw the practice of polygyny or place restrictions on it. Several countries, such as Libya, allow polygyny with few or no restrictions.
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Humans have the lowest levels of sexual dimorphism of any primate species, indicating that we have evolved decreasing levels of polygyny. Decreased polygyny is associated with increased paternal investment.
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Many Xylocopa bees demonstrate resource defense polygyny, and many demonstrate lek polygyny. X. micans serves as a bridge between the two, exhibiting both states. It serves as an intermediate in terms of mesosomal gland size between those species requiring resource defense polygyny and those species requiring lek polygyny (which need to release pheromones to attract females). X. micans also demonstrates that evolution of sexual dimorphism followed the evolution of non-resource defense mating strategies in Xylocopa.
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Turkey was the first Muslim-majority country to legally ban polygyny in 1926. This decision was not based on religious reasons, but rather was an entirely secular ban. Tunisia was the next country to ban polygyny through legislation passed in 1956 and restated in 1964. Unlike Turkey, Tunisia banned polygyny on religious grounds, citing two main reasons.
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The long-established criticism against polygyny stemmed from Thomas Aquinas nearly eight centuries ago. He contended that polygyny is unjust to wives and children. He also argues that it creates rival stepchildren and forces them to compete for attention, food, and shelter. According to Aquinas, polygyny violates the “traditional” requirements of fidelity between husband and wife.
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Women own businesses, and both polyandry and polygyny are socially accepted, with polygyny being more prevalent. Sometimes a prospective groom will work in the bride's family's household to earn the right to marry her.
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The earliest study of polygyny in Ghana focused on only rural urban residence and its relationship to polygyny. The study showed that the incidence of polygyny was about the same in both urban and rural areas. This was because at that time, life in rural and urban areas was not marriage type selective. Those who could afford and maintain more than one wife, or those, who because of their occupation such as farming, trading and laundry saw advantages of the lifestyle, usually were those who practiced polygyny.
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In Africa, the Americas, and Southeast Asia in the Premodern Era, circa 600 BCE – 1600 CE, both monogamy and polygyny occurred. Polygyny occurred even in areas of where monogamy was prevalent. Wealth played a key role in the development of family life during these times. Wealth meant the more powerful men had a principal wife and several secondary wives, known as resource polygyny.
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Although it is seldom, polygyny is observed in Elacatinus. Mated males may approach a new female if she is larger than their mate. Polygyny may also be exhibited in widowed males and females. When Elacatinus spp.
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Polygyny has appeared in literature in many different Islamic societies. Indian Muslim literature has traditionally stood divided on its position on polygyny as a justifiable practice. Two Indian authors, Akbari Begum and Bashiruddin Ahmad, revealed in their novels a belief that polygyny is acceptable in certain circumstances; whereas Nazr Sajjad Hyder opposed this notion and completely rejected the practice in her work. Gudar ka Lal (The Ruby in Rags), written in 1907 by Akbari Begum, projected the author's beliefs on a wide range of subjects involving the treatment of Muslim women and girls, including polygyny.
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According to William A. Searcy and Ken Yasukawa, the term cost of polygyny is defined as the net costs of polygyny after the summation of all of the component costs and benefits. Costs include less parental care and increased competition between females for the male's provision and food among other resources. A benefit could be group defense of the territory and resources. Searcy and Yasukawa graphically defined the distance between curve 1 (monogamous line) and curve 2 (bigamous line) of the polygyny threshold model graph (see above) to be the cost of polygyny.
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The higher the average polygyny rate, the greater the element of gerontocracy and social stratification. Throughout the African polygyny belt stretching from Senegal in the west to Tanzania in the east, as many as a third to a half of married women are in polygynous unions, and polygyny is found especially in West Africa. Historically, polygyny was partly accepted in ancient Hebrew society, in classical China, and in sporadic traditional Native American, African and Polynesian cultures. In the Indian subcontinent, it was known to have been practiced during ancient times.
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A number of mating variations have been observed: monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, or polygynandy.
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Women's legal rights are similar via polygyny marriages, and Islamic law involving property ownership.
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Evolutionarily speaking, polygyny in birds might have evolved because many females do not require male support to care for their offspring.Slagsvold, T., & Lifjeld, J. T. (1994). Polygyny in birds: the role of competition between females for male parental care. American Naturalist, 59-94.
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Though colonies of V. pensylvanica are generally monogynous and annual, polygyny and overwintering has been observed in non-native regions, specifically in Hawaii. The relaxation of the climate and climate-related constraints are believed to have contributed to the emergence of polygyny, and polygyny is a prerequisite for successful overwintering. Generally, climate is a constraining factor in the reproductive behavior of V. pensylvanica. When temperatures drop, food availability decreases and colony decline occurs.
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During period of polygyny, the nest may have up to several queens simultaneously, while periods of monogyny are marked by single queens. Polygyny gives rise to a set of aggressive queen-queen interactions (refer to section below) and dominance hierarchies (refer to section below).
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This indicates that the fundamental characteristic of the harem is seclusion of women rather than polygyny.
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Polygyny was practiced historically among the Banda people, but this practice has declined in modern times.
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Some analysts have posited that a high libido may be a factor in polygyny, although others have downplayed its significance. The sex drive as a factor in some Asian cultures was sometimes associated with wealthy men and those that were adjunct to an aristocracy, although such libidinal perceptions were at times discarded in favor of seeing polygyny as a factor of traditional life. For example, many Sub-Saharan African societies view polygyny as essential to expand their progeny and kinship, a practice of high cultural importance. In this case, it would be hard to determine whether the origins were that of high libido, as polygyny would be practiced regardless.
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Other, apparently newer customs include the practice of close-cousin endogamous marriages and polygyny in conformity with Islamic tenets. Polygyny, which has been witnessed among Tuareg chiefs and Islamic scholars, is in turn thought to be contrary to the pre-Islamic monogamous tradition of the nomadic Tuareg.
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In this view, jahiliyya marriage practices, including that of pre- Islamic polygyny, correlated with women's being "active participants, even leaders, in a wide range of community activities...their autonomy and participation were curtailed with the establishment of Islam, its institution of patrilineal, patriarchal marriage as solely legitimiate, and the social transformation that ensued." An extended discussion of the intersection of feminism and polygyny can be found in later sections of this article; see Muslim Feminism and Polygyny.
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There is an advantage to polygyny during situations where a colony must rapidly produce brood cells, such as during periods of food scarcity. Under these conditions, the queens are limited in their egg production and rely on the larval food from the brood cells. Polygyny allows for a greater production rate for the colony. It is speculated that alternating periods of significant flowering of food plants and food shortages are the ecological condition that favors polygyny.
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"Natural selection and the mating systems of solitary bees." American Scientist (1980): 146-153. Insects such as red flour beetles use polygyny to reduce inbreeding depression and thus maximize reproductive success. There is primary polygyny (several queens join to found a new colony, but after the hatching of the first workers the queens fight each other until only one queen survives and the colony becomes monogynous) and secondary polygyny (a well-established colony continues to have several queens).
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Warli women wear toe-rings and necklaces as a sign of being married. Some Warli practice polygyny.
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Most research into the determinants of polygyny has focused on macro-level factors. Widespread polygyny is linked to the kinship groups that share descent from a common ancestor.Timeas, Ian and Reyner, Angela. "Polygynists and Their Wives in Sub-Saharan Africa: an Analysis of Five Demographic and Health Surveys".
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Historian Todd Compton notes that Smith's practices included elements of both polygyny and polyandry.In Sacred Loneliness, pp. 15-16. In time, polygyny came to predominate. However, a very small minority of his followers believe the evidence is not legitimate, and that Smith did not advocate or practice plural marriage.
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This means that female crickets will mate with more than one male. Male crickets do not exhibit polygyny.
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To amplify the context within which polygyny occupies an Islamic relevance, one should look to the current debates surrounding polygyny in Islam, and more broadly, polygamy, and the implications that emerged from their contextual transition from the jahiliyya to the Islamic era. Two highly dichotomous views on the social significance of the institutionalization of polygyny by Islam are provided by Leila Ahmed and Asghar Ali Engineer, and their views differ on the question of women. How did the establishment of polygyny in Islam as the only alternative to monogamy change the social condition of women? One verse that is often cited in these arguments is that which was quoted earlier — verse 3 of Surah 4.
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Ralls, K.; Mesnick, S. "Sexual dimorphism", pp. 1005–1011 in Perrin, Würsig and Thewissen (2009).Berta, pp. 73–74. Despite a correlation between size dimorphism and the degree of polygyny, some evidence suggests that size differences between the sexes originated due to ecological differences and prior to the development of polygyny.
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In modern countries that permit polygamy, polygyny is typically the only form permitted. Polygyny is practiced primarily (but not only) in parts of the Middle East and Africa; and is often associated with Islam, however, there are certain conditions in Islam that must be met to perform polygyny. Polyandry is a form of marriage whereby a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Fraternal polyandry, where two or more brothers are married to the same wife, is a common form of polyandry.
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Polygyny threshold model graph The polygyny threshold model is an explanation of polygyny, the mating of one male of a species with more than one female. The model shows how females may gain a higher level of biological fitness by mating with a male who already has a mate. The female makes this choice despite other surrounding males because the choice male's genetics, territory, food supply, or other important characteristics are better than those of his competitors, even with two females on the territory.
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Polygyny is extremely rare in the family Apidea, and B. atratus was the first recorded example of polygyny in bumblebees. Colonies found in high altitude and temperate regions typically conform to an annual cycle with one queen per colony. Colonies found in sub tropical or tropical lowland regions seem to be perennial and oscillate between periods of polygyny and monogyny. Alternations occur between monogynous and polygynous life cycle phases occur two-three times a year, with the durations of each phase lasting from several weeks to months.
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However, failing to find differential receptiveness does not disaffirm this possibility if the polygyny allele is fixed in the population.
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The women in Fatayat NU use Islam and the religious texts to justify their actions and guide their decisions, so women who have extensively studied the religion are crucial. Out of the many controversial issues that Fatayat NU takes a stand on, polygyny is one that has recently come into contention. Although polygyny in Indonesia was never very popular, some Muslim women are worried that it is starting to gain more support. Nahdlatul Ulama is one of the organizations that approves of polygyny as an Islamic practice, but Fatayat NU is taking a contradicting stance; the members believe that polygyny can only be possible if men and women are unequal, which goes against their interpretation of the Qur'an's message on gender status.
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First, the Quran limited the practice of polygyny, thus it did not support the practice and clearly intended for the practice to be eliminated over time. Second, the Quran demands equal treatment of all wives in a polygynous marriage, which is impossible, thus making the practice illegal. Finally, Israel banned polygyny as well by 1978.
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Polygyny threshold model graph An explanation for why polygynous systems persist is explained by the polygyny threshold model. This model demonstrates the link between female reproductive success and territory quality or the quality of a breeding situation. The polygyny threshold model also shows the effects of female reproductive success when multiple females in the same territory mate with one male. In this situation, the female has the option of breeding with an unmated male in a poor-quality territory or with an already-mated male in a high-quality territory.
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A male (left) and small group of females The oribi is diurnal (active mainly during the day), though some activity may also be observed at night. The animal rests in cover during rain events. Unlike all other small antelopes, oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems, depending on the habitat – polyandry, polygyny and polygynandry; polygyny tends to prevail as the female-to-male ratio increases. A study suggested that polygyny is preferred in areas of high predator risk, as it leads to formation of groups as an anti-predator measure.
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Prince Manga Bell and favorite wives Polygyny, the practice wherein a man has more than one wife at the same time, is by far the most common form of polygamy. Many Muslim-majority countries and some countries with sizable Muslim minorities accept polygyny to varying extents both legally and culturally; some secular countries like India also accept it to varying degrees. Islamic law or sharia law is a religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition which allows polygyny. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the hadith.
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He asserts that there are situations in which the cost is shared between the primary and secondary female. He also mentions scenarios in which the primary female receives a decrease in her fitness upon addition of the secondary female to the harem. There are many other studies concerning the polygyny threshold model and costs to polygyny using other species. Staffan Bensch conducted a study on the great reed warbler that showed the only cost of polygyny to these females to be higher mortality of nestlings that were belonging to the primary female.
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The composition of the relationship will determine which type of polygamy is being practiced. Polygyny is the practice of a male partnering with multiple females. It is a fairly common mating strategy in humans, as well as in many other animals. Polygyny often occurs in agricultural societies and is often paired with male wealth or land access.
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Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Entry on γυνή Since the 11th century, Ashkenazi Jews have followed Rabbenu Gershom's ban on polygyny (except in rare circumstances).Frequently asked questions, Judaism and Polygamy. Some Mizrahi (Mideast) Jewish communities (particularly Yemenite Jews and Persian Jews) discontinued polygyny more recently, after they immigrated to countries where it was forbidden or illegal.
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In Hawaii, however, this does not occur.Gambino, Parker (1991) Reproductive plasticity of Vespula pensylvanica (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) on Maui and Hawaii Islands, U.S.A., New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 18:2,139-149, DOI: 10.1080/03014223.1991.10757960 Two genetic mechanisms have been proposed to explain polygyny in Hawaiian colonies. Hamilton’s kin selection theory provides an explanation for the divergence between polygyny and monogyny.
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However, when colonies engage in polygyny, having more than one queen, the rates of polyandry drop. It is assumed that colonies utilize either polyandry or polygyny, to increase the genetic diversity of the colony. Therefore, two different strategies can be employed. One strategy is that a female mates with many males and then disperses to start a new colony.
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The European pied flycatcher predominately practices a mixed mating system of monogamy and polygyny. Their mating system has also been described as successive polygyny. Within the latter system, the males leave their home territory once their primary mates lays their first eggs. Males then create a second territory, presumably in order to attract a secondary female to breed.
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Goody, Jack. "Polygyny, Economy and the Role of Women". In: The Character of Kinship. London: Cambridge University Press, 1973, pp. 180–190.
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Astrologers also advise on the date and time of the ceremony, and the color of the wedding dress. Polygyny is illegal in Myanmar.
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Anthropologists Douglas R. White and Michael L. Burton discuss and support Jack Goody's observation regarding African male farming systems in "Causes of Polygyny: Ecology, Economy, Kinship, and Warfare" where these authors note: Chinese immigrant with his three wives and fourteen children, Cairns, 1904 An analysis by James Fenske (2012) found that child mortality and ecologically-related economic shocks had a significant association with rates of polygamy in subsaharan Africa, rather than female agricultural contributions (which are typically relatively small in the West African savanna and sahel, where polygyny rates are higher), finding that polygyny rates decrease significantly with child mortality rates.
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Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas, 186 were found to be monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry.Ethnographic Atlas Codebook derived from George P. Murdock’s Ethnographic Atlas recording the marital composition of 1,231 societies from 1960 to 1980. Some research that show that males living in polygynous marriages may live 12 percent longer."Polygamy is the key to a long life", New Scientist, 19 August 2008 Polygyny may be practiced where there is a lower male:female ratio; this may result from male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases.
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Upon breeding with this first female, the male will procure more nesting sites, typically some distance from the site of the primary female, in order to attract a second female for mating. The males that have better success at polygyny are typically larger, older and more experienced at arriving earlier to the mating sites. Polygyny threshold model graph The female behaviour has also been studied in depth, especially due to the fact that some females accept polygyny while others are able to maintain monogamous relationships. The first female in a polygynous relationship does not suffer much in comparison to females in monogamous situations.
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The relationships are considered polygynous, not polyandrous, because the female husband is in fact assuming masculine gendered political roles. Religious groups have differing views on the legitimacy of polygyny. It is allowed in Islam and Confucianism. Judaism and Christianity have mentioned practices involving polygyny in the past, however, outright religious acceptance of such practices was not addressed until its rejection in later passages.
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Prairie voles appear to be an example of this form of monogamy, with males guarding and defending females within their vicinity. In polygynous species, males will try to monopolize and mate with multiple females. As with monogamy, polygyny in rodents can come in two forms; defense and non-defense. Defense polygyny involves males controlling territories that contain resources that attract females.
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Sadiq made a distinction between commandments and permissions in Islam. He stated that all Muslims must follow the commandments of their religion, but may avoid the permissions. Polygyny is permitted only in countries whose laws sanction its practice. In countries that prohibit polygyny, permission for its practice is disallowed under the commandment that all Muslims must obey the laws of the country in which they live.
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Some females willingly choose polygyny in order to gain access to the "best" resources available. In these cases, the benefits from superior resource access must outweigh the opportunity cost of giving up monogamous parental care by a male. They also can get support from the same group of other females when in danger, like a female lion. Females in polygyny may have less extra-pair copulation.
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How Humans Evolved (preferably the downloadable pdf version): WW Norton & Company, New York. Polygyny is beneficial in particular to the male, because he has a greater increase in fitness and reproductive success. This increase consequently reduces the genetic diversity of the community, often leading to increased inbreeding. However, polygyny is not a particularly beneficial mating system for females, because their mate choice is limited to one male.
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Due to an increase in the number of polygamous marriages, proposals were made in Tajikistan to re-legalize polygamy."Central Asia: Increase In Polygamy Attributed To Economic Hardship, Return To Tradition", EurasiaNet.org Tajik women who want to be second wives particularly support decriminalizing polygyny. Mukhiddin Kabiri, the Deputy Chairman of the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan, says that legislation is unlikely to stop the growth in polygyny.
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Generally, monogyny should prevail unless polygynous benefits outweigh the costs of shared reproduction. If females are unrelated, the costs would usually outweigh the benefits, and monogyny would result. Using kin selection theory, two possible explanations exist as to why polygyny arises. First, daughter queens remaining in the natal nest possibly create kin associations that provide a mechanism allowing the benefits of polygyny to outweigh the costs.
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Another genetic mechanism explaining why polygyny arises is due to the bottleneck effect. Because a small number of founders gave rise to the population of V. pensylvanica in Hawaii, the entire population in Hawaii thus has an average degree of relatedness higher than presumed among the North American population. In both cases, genetic relatedness and kin selection could explain why polygyny has emerged in non-native regions.
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Every subgroup is organized around a set of brothers, each of whom is often married to women who are sisters. Polygyny, especially sororal polygyny (co-wives are sisters), is the basis of the Wariʼ family structure. Villages are made up of nuclear families and a separate house, called "the men's house". It serves as a dormitory for single adolescents and as a meeting place for adult men.
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These primary females gain greater reproductive success because they are able to secure full-time help from the male once he returns from his search for a second mate. The second female, however, often suffers from polygyny. These females have 60% less offspring than females that are in a monogamous relationship. These findings are consistent with the polygyny threshold model, which is depicted at the left.
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Fox argues that "the major difference between polygyny and monogamy could be stated thus: while plural mating occurs in both systems, under polygyny several unions may be recognized as being legal marriages while under monogamy only one of the unions is so recognized. Often, however, it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between the two." As polygamy in Africa is increasingly subject to legal limitations, a variant form of de facto (as opposed to legal or de jure) polygyny is being practised in urban centres. Although it does not involve multiple (now illegal) formal marriages, the domestic and personal arrangements follow old polygynous patterns.
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Worldwide, different societies variously encourage, accept or outlaw polygamy. In societies which allow or tolerate polygamy, in the vast majority of cases the form accepted is polygyny. According to the Ethnographic Atlas Codebook (1998), of 1,231 societies noted, 588 had frequent polygyny, 453 had occasional polygyny, 186 were monogamous and 4 had polyandryEthnographic Atlas Codebook derived from George P. Murdock's Ethnographic Atlas recording the marital composition of 1231 societies from 1960 to 1980 \- although more recent research suggests that polyandry may occur more commonly than previously thought. In cultures which practice polygamy, its prevalence among that population often correlates with class and socioeconomic status.
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Polygyny and democracy: a cross-cultural comparison. Cross-Cultural Research, 34/2 (2000), 190-208.Korotayev, A. (2003). Christianity and democracy: A cross-cultural study (afterthoughts).
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Some Mizrahim migrated to India, other parts of Central Asia, and China. In some Mizrahi Jewish communities (notably those of Yemen and Iran), polygyny has been practiced.
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Islamic polygyny has also appeared as a controversial issue in films. For example, Ayat-ayat Cinta (Verses of Love) was released in Indonesia in 2008. This movie follows the life of Fahri bin Abdillah, a student in Egypt, and his relationships with four other women. The film inspired more open, public discussion on polygyny in Indonesia by calling attention to the conditions of women who enter into polygynous relationships.
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Myanmar outlawed polygyny from 2015. In Sri Lanka, polyandry was legal in the kingdom of Kandy, but outlawed by British after conquering the kingdom in 1815. When the Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese, the concubines of others were added to the list of inappropriate partners. Polyandry in Tibet was common traditionally, as was polygyny, and having several wives or husbands was never regarded as having sex with inappropriate partners.
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They feed largely on fish and marine invertebrates; but a few, like the killer whale, feed on large mammals and birds, such as penguins and seals. Some baleen whales (mainly gray whales and right whales) are specialised for feeding on benthic creatures. Male cetaceans typically mate with more than one female (polygyny), although the degree of polygyny varies with the species. Cetaceans are not known to have pair bonds.
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Polygyny refers to marriages in which men are permitted to have more than one wife at the same time. In precolonial times, polygyny was encouraged, especially for wealthy men. Polygamy was traditionally seen as a source of labor for men, as multiple wives allowed for more unpaid labor. In patrilineal societies, dowry received from marrying off daughters was also a traditional means for fathers to accumulate additional wealth.
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Although Madan was an adherent only of polygyny in a Christian context, this particular volume set the foundation of what is considered the modern Christian Plural Marriage movement.
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The members of the group rationalize that even though polygyny is illegal in America, rapping about it is much less offensive than when other artists rap about prostitutes.
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Monitoring Finnish owls 1982-1996: methods and results. 2nd Owl Symposium.Korpimäki, E. (1988). Factors promoting polygyny in European birds of prey—a hypothesis. Oecologia, 77(2), 278-285.
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Within the community this is termed "Divine Marriage", being based on Biblical examples such as King David. Polygyny is not required, constituting approximately 37% of marriages in 1992.
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This mating system has been termed as "resource-based non-harem polygyny". Unlike other honeyguides, this species has not been observed to lead humans and bears to bee hives.
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Yadvi, will take you on her journey through the India of Kings and Queens, of Princes and polygyny. Her deep internal strength bolstering her family honour will inspire viewers.
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Feminism's effect on polygyny in Islam is different in every Muslim society, depending on the different cultures that are interacting with Islam in each location. For example, in Iran, changes to women's rights occurred in the wake of the Islamic Revolution in 1979. During this revolution the Family Protection Law, which had given some power to women and imposed minimal restrictions on polygyny, was overturned. Muslim women were encouraged to return to their traditional roles.
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Polygyny is legal in Cameroon, contracted frequently for reasons of both status and wealth. It has been reported that polygamy is most often found in rural areas of the country. Even still, it has been said that polygamous unions are slowly beginning to decrease, mainly due to social and economic reasons. There is no limit on how many wives a man can take, which is rare for most nations that allow polygyny.
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The Hindu scriptures acknowledge numerous occasions of polygyny; it was the norm among kings, the nobility and the extremely wealthy. Pandu, the father of the Pandavas in Mahabharata, had two wives Kunti and Madri. Many other personalities including Rama had only one wife, and while this was regarded as morally exemplary, polygyny remained customary and acceptable among Hindus. It was legally abolished for Hindus in India by the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955.
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Because males defend areas near nesting or flowering sites, female and/or resource defense polygyny is common. Resource defense polygyny is when males acquire females by taking control of limited resources such as food and nesting sites. Females can gain access to these resources by mating with the males that defend these territories. Males can copulate with the best mate by defending the best resource because females are more attracted to these better resources.
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Traditional Sunni and Shia Islamic marital jurisprudence allows Muslim men to be married to multiple women (a practice known as polygyny and polygamy) — up to four at any point in time.
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The Kora family structure is mostly nuclear. Marriage with same exogamous gotra is prohibited . They are patrilineal and patrilocal. While polygyny is permissible in the Kora society, monogamous marriages are common .
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The documentary Japan — Female Sexuality touched on the subject from a 1990s perspective, and reported the trend to be increasing. Although polygyny is more common, some tribal societies are traditionally polyandrous.
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It is the most commonly type of mating system in observed in primate studies. Polygyny can occur as a result of spatial constraints where solitary males are able to defend access to nearby solitary females. Another pattern reflects a scramble competition, wherein adult males roam the landscape in search of sexually receptive females, moving on shortly after mating. Harem-polygyny occurs when a single adult male defends access to multiple females in order to gain exclusive mating access.
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3 (1996): 183-190. Web. Davies, Krebs, and West, in their textbook An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology, cited another Pribil study noting the polygyny cost to the red-winged blackbird females. The effect of polygyny made them less effective mothers when they were removed and taken to a more isolated population, proven by the fact that the mothers from monogamous relationships had better adaptation to the new environment.Davies, Nicholas B., John R. Krebs, and Stuart A. West.
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Today, polygyny is more widespread in Africa than in any other continent.Clignet, R., Many Wives, Many Powers, Northwestern University Press, Evanston (1970), p. 17. Some scholars see the slave trade's impact on the male-to-female sex ratio as a key factor in the emergence and fortification of polygynous practices in regions of Africa. Generally in rural areas with growing populations, the higher the incidence of polygyny, the greater the delay of first marriage for young men.
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Polygyny of the great reed warbler was assessed in another study that showed the importance of female choice. The differences in territory characteristics seemed to be more important. However, there is also a strong correlation between male and their territory characteristics. Models based on the polygyny threshold and sexy son hypotheses predict that females should gain evolutionary advantage in either short-term or long-term in this mating system, yet the study did not support this.
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Consequently, males can more easily monopolise the females. Thus, the mating system can be shifted from one that favours female success (polyandry), to one that promotes male success (monogamy, polygynandry, or polygyny).
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Nature, 291: 652–54, 1981; Hartung, J. Polygyny and Inheritance of Wealth. Current Anthropology, 23:1–12; Hartung, J. Matrilineal Inheritance: New Theory and Analysis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:661–68, 1985.
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Male pinnipeds typically mate with more than one female (polygyny), although the degree of polygyny varies with the species. The males of land-breeding species tend to mate with a greater number of females than those of ice breeding species. Male pinniped strategies for reproductive success vary between defending females, defending territories that attract females and performing ritual displays or lek mating. Pups are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear almost all the responsibility for raising them.
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The southern carpenter bee is unique among the genus Xylocopa in that it demonstrates two forms of mating strategies. In the early spring, the southern carpenter bee utilizes resource defense polygyny. Males structure territories around floral resources in order to take advantage of clumped distributions of females. Later in the season, toward July and August, southern carpenter bees are observed opting instead for lek polygyny, where males hold territories at nonflowering plants and landmarks such as small hills and prominent vegetation.
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Dead queens of the same species have been found in V. squamosa nests, supporting the idea of competition between queens as a result of polygyny. This polygyny may be tolerated in large multiple-season nests because the size of the nest reduces interactions between the competing queens. This process of seizing the nest within the species could provide the basis for parasitic nature of this species, as the takeover of a nest either within species or between species is a fairly similar process.
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Population Studies 52.2 (1998) Polygyny also served as "a dynamic principle of family survival, growth, security, continuity, and prestige", especially as a socially approved mechanism that increases the number of adult workers immediately and the eventual workforce of resident children. According to scientific studies, the human mating system is considered to be moderately polygynous, based both on surveys of world populations,Low B (1088) Measures of polygyny in humans. Curr Anthropol 29: 189–194.B.Murdock GP (1981) Atlas of World Cultures.
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Preserved Bombus pullatus from the Smithsonian InstitutionThis species is known to be quite aggressive, stinging humans within approximately 6 m of the nest if it is disturbed. Unlike most bumblebees, Bombus pullatus colonies contain multiple queens (a form of polygyny) like their close relative Bombus atratus (who rotate between polygyny and monogyny). However Bombus pullatus colonies have a comparatively higher number of queens. In one nest a total of 36 queens were sampled in a colony with a total of 343 individuals.
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One explanation given for this discrepancy in the time depths of patrilineal vs. matrilineal lineages was that females have a better chance of reproducing than males due to the practice of polygyny. When a male individual has several wives, he has effectively prevented other males in the community from reproducing and passing on their Y chromosomes to subsequent generations. On the other hand, polygyny does not prevent most females in a community from passing on their mitochondrial DNA to subsequent generations.
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Polyandry (; from poly-, "many" and ἀνήρ anēr, "man") is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives" participants of each gender, then it can be called polygamy, group or conjoint marriage. In its broadest use, polyandry refers to sexual relations with multiple males within or without marriage. Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas, 186 were found to be monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry.Ethnographic Atlas Codebook derived from George P. Murdock’s Ethnographic Atlas recording the marital composition of 1,231 societies from 1960 to 1980.
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Polygyny is considered an economic advantage in many rural areas. In some cases, the economic role of the additional wife enables the husband to enjoy more leisure.Boserup Esther. (1970). Women's role in economic development.
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Polygyny in the Northern Saw-whet Owl. The Auk, 106(4), 732-734. However, the Boreal owl has been show to exhibit biandry as wellSolheim, R. (1983). Bigyny and biandry in Tengmalm's Owl Aegolius funereus.
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The various types of polygyny result because of the differential access individuals have to resources.Emlen, S. T., & Oring, L. W. (1977). Ecology, sexual selection, and the evolution of mating systems . Science, 197(4300), 215-223.
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There are no legal restrictions against any polygynous marriages. As a result, polygyny is extensive throughout the country. There is an estimated report that over one-third of marriages in Mozambique.Mwareya, Ray (5 July 2016).
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In Malaysia and Morocco, a man must justify taking an additional wife at a court hearing before he is allowed to do so. In Sudan, the government encouraged polygyny in 2001 to increase the population.
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In Malaysia and Morocco, a man must justify taking an additional wife at a court hearing before he is allowed to do so. In Sudan, the government encouraged polygyny in 2001 to increase the population.
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The letter covered many topics such as polygyny, Senegalese class hierarchy, and religion so, it was difficult to place the genre of the book. Some called it a novel while others referred to Bâ's work as a letter. Author and professor Uzoma Esonwanne interpreted the book as a challenge to colonialism while also acknowledging colonial practices. The character Ramatoulaye's insistence on being heard and providing inside commentary on the downside of polygyny, made Esonwanne question the part gender plays in this new era of the world.
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During times of major economic/demographic transitions, investing more in fewer offspring (social monogamy not polygyny) increases reproductive success by ensuring the offspring themselves have enough initial wealth to be successful. This is seen in both England and Sweden during the industrial revolution and is currently being seen in the modernization of rural Ethiopia. Similarly, in modern industrialized societies, fewer yet better-invested offspring, i.e. social monogamy, can provide a reproductive advantage over social polygyny, but this still allows for serial monogamy and extra-pair copulations.
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Polygyny has been criticized by feminists such as Professor John O. Ifediora, who believes that women should be equal to men and not subject to them in marriage. Professor Ifediora also believes that polygyny is a "hindrance to social and economic development" in the continent of Africa due to women's lack of financial control. Standard polygynist practices often leave women at a disadvantage if they make the decision to remove themselves from the polygynist lifestyle. To leave the marriage, women must repay their bride price.
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Monomorphism is the ancestral state, and X. micans, which shows both mating strategies, have males partially covered in light hairs, showing the beginnings of sexual dimorphism that grows more prominent in species that require lek polygyny.
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Studies show there are two mechanisms that could lead to higher prevalence rates of HIV in men and women who are in polygynous unions: partners in polygynous unions have more extra-marital relationships and thus increase each other's exposure to HIV; women who are recruited into a polygynous union are more likely to be HIV positive than those who marry a monogamous husband. In addition to these two mechanisms, variation in HIV prevalence rates by union type is possibly due to individuals in polygynous unions are typically part of a sexual network with concurrent partnerships. The ecological association between polygyny and HIV prevalence is shown to be negative at the sub-national level. HIV prevalence tends to be lower in countries where the practice of polygyny is common, and within countries it is lower in areas with higher levels of polygyny.
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The tree swallow is likely an income breeder, as it breeds based on food abundance and temperatures during the laying season. This species is generally socially monogamous, but up to 8% of breeding males are polygynous. Polygyny is influenced by territory: males having territories with nest boxes at least apart are more likely to be polygynous. It is suggested that this polygyny depends on the conditions during the laying season: better conditions, such as an abundance of food, allow females in polygyny who do not receive help foraging to lay more eggs. The inside of a tree swallow nest The tree swallow has high rates of extra-pair paternity, 38% to 69% of nestlings being a product of extra-pair paternity, and 50% to 87% of broods containing at least one nestling that was the result of an extra-pair copulation.
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In all 16 situations, the females chose the unsettled land in which she could be monogamous.Pribil, S and Jaroslav Picman. "Polygyny in the red-winged blackbird: do females prefer monogamy or polygamy?". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 38.
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Where historical evidence is available, it indicates that the harem was much more likely to be monogamous. For example, in late Ottoman Istanbul, only 2.29 percent of married men were polygynous, with the average number of wives being 2.08. In some regions, like Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, prevalence of women in agricultural work leads to wider practice of polygyny, but makes seclusion impractical. In contrast, in Eurasian and North African rural communities that rely on male-dominated plough farming, seclusion is economically possible but polygyny is undesirable.
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Polygyny in Islam has surfaced in music around the world and across the decades. For instance, in Malaysia in the 1950s and 60s, the famous entertainer P. Ramlee dealt with many sociopolitical issues in his art. Whereas the rest of the music industry was under the outside influence of Latin America, India, and the United States, Ramlee's music was inspired by what was going on in Malaysian society. He critiqued the practice of polygyny to keep in line with his self-proclaimed role of exposing the weaknesses of his society.
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Chinese immigrant with his three wives and fourteen children, Cairns, Australia, 1904 Polygamy is a marriage that includes more than two partners. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny; and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be called polyamory, group or conjoint marriage. Polygyny is a form of plural marriage, in which a man is allowed more than one wife .
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These include sororal polygyny, in which the co-wives are sisters; and hut polygyny, in which each wife has her own residence and the husband visits them in rotation. A clear status hierarchy among wives is also sometimes used to avoid fighting by establishing unequivocally each wife's rights and obligations. Although there are several harmful aspects of this practice related to women, there are some reported personal and economic advantages for women such as sharing household and child rearing responsibilities. Also, wives share companionship and support with co-wives.
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Johnson, Kermott, and Lien conducted a study on the house wren (Troglodytes aedon) showing that there were inherent polygyny costs to these female populations, also. The secondary females lost more of the broods largely because of starvation, and they also experienced lesser reproductive success in other areas. One of the main factors in their decreased fitness was less male aid. Kyle Summers and David Earn studied female poison frogs, genus Dendrobates, to see if the polygyny costs drove the evolution of the parental care system from a female care to biparental or paternal care.
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These male and female behaviors cause male-to-male competition to be high within the bullfrog population and sexual selection for the females to be an intense process. Kentwood Wells postulated leks, territorial polygyny, and harems are the most likely classifications for the bullfrog mating system. Leks would be a valid description because males congregate to attract females, and the females arrive to the site for the purpose of copulation. In a 1980 study on bullfrogs in New Jersey, the mating system was classified as resource-defense polygyny.
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Women practicing polygyny are susceptible to sexually transmitted diseases, infertility, and mental health complications. Among the Logoli of Kenya, the fear of AIDS or becoming infected with the HIV virus has informed women's decisions about entering polygynous marriages. Some view polygyny as a means to prevent men from taking random sexual partners and potentially introducing STDs into relationships. Interviews conducted with some of the Logoli tribe in Kenya suggested they feared polygynous marriages because of what they have witnessed in the lives of other women who are currently in such relationships.
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The breeding behaviors of many Rallidae species are poorly understood or unknown. Most are thought to be monogamous, although polygyny and polyandry have been reported.Horsfall & Robinson (2003): pp. 209–210 Most often, they lay five to 10 eggs.
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In the south, the Congo influence is called Petwo (Petro). Many loa are of Congolese origin, such as Basimbi and Lemba. Polygyny persists alongside Catholic marriages. The dances and some forms of recreation tie in with African activities.
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Major caruncle, 5. Beard. During sexual behavior, these structures enlarge or become brightly colored. Animal sexual behaviour takes many different forms, including within the same species. Common mating or reproductively motivated systems include monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, polygamy and promiscuity.
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It was accepted in ancient Greece, until the Roman Empire and the Roman Catholic Church. In North America, polygyny is practiced by some Mormon sects, such as the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church).
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Such a difference may imply different social behaviour: young male Aphelops perhaps died less frequently from fighting, and used different kinds of ritualistic displays. Aphelops were probably not completely monogamous, with the degree of sexual dimorphism being suggestive of polygyny.
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The practice of what is usually called polygamy, enjoys de facto and de jure legality in Kenya. It is to be understood as polygyny, however. It states in the Kenyan constitution that a man can marry more than one wife.
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They deduced that the costs could not be concluded to be the sole cause of this parental transition. The numerous studies concerning polygyny costs show the different factors that not only cause these costs, but are also affected by these costs.
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They do not typically generate multiple queens (polygyny) in any given hive at swarming time. Their movements are fast and rather nervous. They exhibit quick defensive reaction, nervousness, and a propensity to swarm. They do make abundant use of propolis.
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Although, in different-sex marriages, an increase in the female contribution to subsistence tends to lead to matrilocal residence, it also tends simultaneously to lead to general non-sororal polygyny which effectively destroys matrilocality. If this polygyny factor is controlled (e.g., through a multiple regression model), division of labor turns out to be a significant predictor of postmarital residence. Thus, Murdock's hypotheses regarding the relationships between the sexual division of labor and postmarital residence were basically correct, thoughas has been shown by Korotayev the actual relationships between those two groups of variables are more complicated than he expected.
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So even though the revolution attempted to reinstate many patriarchal values, like unlimited polygyny, it ended up inspiring women to push for more rights and become more credible by studying religious texts. Egypt, Jordan, and Morocco also began restricting polygynous practices in Islam. Egypt's personal status laws underwent many changes between 1979 and 1985, but in the end they were very restrictive for women and reduced the limits on polygyny. This incentivized Egyptian feminists to create a new marriage contract (approved in 2000) that would give women some rights concerning divorce and what was allowable in marriage.
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Proposed explanations for the protective effect of polygyny include the distinctive structure of sexual networks produced by polygyny, the disproportionate recruitment of HIV positive women into marriages with a polygynous husband, and the lower coital frequency in conjugal dyads of polygynous marriages. For example, studies in Malawi have shown that for men and women in polygynous marriages, the rate of HIV is between 10-15%. About 14% of Malawi's population is infected with HIV, which causes AIDS, according to official figures. There are approximately 78,000 AIDS-related deaths and 100,000 new infections every year in the country.
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Usually the wives have little to no contact with each other and lead separate, individual lives in their own houses, and sometimes in different cities, though they all share the same husband. In most Muslim-majority countries, polygyny is legal with Kuwait being the only one where no restrictions are imposed on it. The practice is illegal in Muslim-majority Turkey, Tunisia, Albania, Kosovo and Central Asian countries. Countries that allow polygyny typically also require a man to obtain permission from his previous wives before marrying another, and require the man to prove that he can financially support multiple wives.
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In zoology the term polygyny is used for a pattern of mating in which a male animal has more than one female mate in a breeding season. Males get their mates by defending the females directly or holding resources that the females want and need. This is known as resource defense polygyny and males of the bee species Anthidium manicatum (also known as the European wool carder bee) exhibit this behavior. Males claim patches of floral plants, ward off conspecific males and other resource competitors, and mate with the multiple females who forage in their territories.
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Usually the wives have little to no contact with each other and lead separate, individual lives in their own houses, and sometimes in different cities, though they all share the same husband. In most Muslim-majority countries, polygyny is legal with Kuwait being the only one where no restrictions are imposed on it. The practice is illegal in Muslim- majority Turkey, Tunisia, Albania, Kosovo and Central Asian countries. Countries that allow polygyny typically also require a man to obtain permission from his previous wives before marrying another, and require the man to prove that he can financially support multiple wives.
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Four to six eggs are typically laid within the nests with an average incubation time of 13–14 days. Renesting and second broods have been occasionally documented for Sprague's pipit, as has polygyny; however, they are predominantly single-brooded (Jones et al. 2010).
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The anglerfish Haplophryne mollis is polyandrous. This female is trailing the atrophied remains of males she has encountered. Polyandry occurs when one female gets exclusive mating rights with multiple males. In some species, such as redlip blennies, both polygyny and polyandry are observed.
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Evolution 52: 1–7. Instead, it is much more common for polygynous mating to happen. Polygynous structures (excluding leks) are estimated to occur in up to 90% of mammals. Polygyny in birds occurs infrequently when compared to mammals, as monogamy is most commonly observed.
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Lekking polygyny seems to have been a characteristic of the family's original ancestor, and the associated sexual selection led to an adaptive radiation in which relationships may be traced by similarities in displays. An evolutionary explanation connecting lekking to fruit-eating has been proposed.
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In Indonesia, a majority-Muslim secular nation, polygyny is rare. In 2018, it was practiced by approximately 1% of the population. Polygamy has always been rare among South Asian Muslims.Ansari, Sarah. “Polygamy, Purdah and Political Representation: Engendering Citizenship in 1950s Pakistan.” Modern Asian Studies, vol.
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In mainland China, polygamy is illegal under Marriage Law passed in 1980. This replaced a similar 1950 prohibition. It is tolerated in Tibet. Polygyny where wives are of equal status had always been illegal in China, and had been considered a crime in some dynasties.
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There is no difference in costs or benefits between females who choose unmated males, monogamy, and females who settle with mated males, polygyny. Females may gain indirect benefits of picking higher quality males by producing higher-quality offspring, without suffering costs of shared territories.
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19 March 2010. Both the biblical patriarchs and kings of Israel are described as engaged in polygamous relationships.Dale Martin lecture. Despite the various polygynous relationships in the Bible, Old Testament scholar Peter Gentry has said that it does not mean that God condones polygyny.
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Dancing in the Dust or Ball in the Dust (original title Bal Poussière) is a 1988 Ivorian film dealing with themes of polygyny. It was directed by Henri Duparc, and starring actors (Bamba Bakary, Hanny Tchelly, Naky Sy Savanne, Thérèse Taba, and Anne Kabou.
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More specific efforts include those of the group Muslim Women's Quest for Equality when they petitioned the Supreme Court of India against the practices of talaq-e-bidat (triple talaq), nikah halala and polygyny under the Muslim personal laws illegal and unconstitutional in September 2016.
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Societies show variable acceptance of polygamy as a cultural ideal and practice. According to the Ethnographic Atlas, of 1,231 societies noted, 186 were monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny, and 4 had polyandry.Ethnographic Atlas Codebook derived from George P. Murdock's Ethnographic Atlas recording the marital composition of 1231 societies from 1960 to 1980 However, as Miriam Zeitzen writes, social tolerance for polygamy is different from the practice of polygamy, since it requires wealth to establish multiple households for multiple wives. The actual practice of polygamy in a tolerant society may actually be low, with the majority of aspirant polygamists practicing monogamous marriage.
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Polygyny (; from Neo-Greek πολυγυνία, from πολύ- poly-, "many", and γυνή gyne, "woman" or "wife")A Greek–English Lexicon, Liddell & Scott, s.v. γυνή is a mating system in which one male lives and mates with multiple females but each female only mates with a single male. Systems where several females mate with several males are defined either as promiscuity or polygynandry. Lek mating is frequently regarded as a form of polygyny, because one male mates with many females, but lek-based mating systems differ in that the male has no attachment to the females with whom he mates, and that mating females lack attachment to one another.
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According to Muslim feminists, Islamic polygyny was meant to curtail the practice that was already widespread in pre-Islamic times. Conquering rulers would collect massive harems of women and treat them without any respect; whereas Islam reduced the allowable amount of wives each husband could have and required that he treat them all equally. These feminists place emphasis on the idea that only those men who are capable of loving and financially providing for each wife equally are permitted to have more than one. They also point out the practice of polygyny in Islam was created for the purpose of taking care of fatherless children, or orphans.
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While polygynous marriages are not legally recognized under the civil marriage laws of Malawi, customary law affords a generous amount of benefits to polygynous unions, ranging from inheritance rights to child custody. It has been estimated that nearly one in five women in Malawi live in polygynous relationships. Efforts to abolish the practice and de facto recognition of polygyny have been widely apparent throughout the recent years in Malawi; led mainly by anti-AIDS organizations and feminist groups. An effort led in 2008 to outlaw polygyny in the country was fiercely opposed by Islamic religious leaders, citing the practice as a cultural, religious and pragmatic reality of the nation.
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Polygyny is illegal in the United States and Canada. Mormon fundamentalism believes in the validity of selected fundamental aspects of Mormonism as taught and practiced in the nineteenth century. Fundamentalist Latter-Day Saints' teachings include plural marriage, a form of polygyny first taught by Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. In the 21st century, several sources have claimed as many as 60,000 fundamentalist Latter-day Saints in the United States,Martha Sonntag Bradley, "Polygamy-Practicing Mormons" in J. Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann (eds.) (2002). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia 3:1023–1024.Dateline NBC, 2001-01-02.
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In this view the antimicrobial properties of melanin help mitigate the susceptibility to disease that polygyny induces by increasing testosteronization. According to this argument, the anti-infective qualities of melanin were more important than protection from ultraviolet light in the evolution of the darkest skin types. Manning asserts that skin color is more correlated with the occurrence of polygyny – explicable by it having an antimicrobial function – than the latitudinal gradient in intensity of ultraviolet radiation, and he points to the lack of very dark skin at equatorial latitudes of the New World and the relatively light skin of Khoisan people in Africa. Research seems to contradict Manning's explanation about skin color.
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The Annals of the Four Masters record her death sub anno 1131 - "Dubhchobhlaigh, daughter of Ruaidhri na Soighe Buidhe Ua Conchobhair, lady of Luighne, died." However, because of uncertainty over her husband's identity, and Gaelic Polygyny, her children are unknown (see Family tree, Eaghra Poprigh mac Saorghus).
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The mating system of A. manicatum is unlike those of most other bees. Females exhibit polyandry and continuously mate throughout their reproductive life. The interval of time between copulations amongst different males can be as short as 35 seconds in length. Males exhibit resource defense polygyny.
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Some Christians actively debate whether the New Testament or Christian ethics allows or forbids polygamy and there are several Christian views on the Old Covenant. This debate focuses almost exclusively on polygyny (one man having more than one wife) and not polyandry (one woman having more than one husband).
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Due to the Islamic traditions of polygyny and easy divorce (on the male side), King Abdul Aziz has approximately a thousand grandchildren. The following is a select list of notable grandsons in the male line. They will be in the line of Succession to the Saudi Arabian throne.
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Richard, A. F. (1992). Aggressive competition between males, female-controlled polygyny and sexual monomorphism in a Malagasy primate, Propithecus verreauxi. Journal of Human Evolution, 22(4), 395-406. Female red- winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) exhibit aggression toward other females upon intrusion into the harem, usually heightened around breeding season.
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Harbour seals follow a polygynous mating system. More specifically it has been shown that male harbour seals partake in lek polygyny. Male seals defend underwater territories with well-defined boundaries. The most valuable territories are near haulouts or along traffic corridors that provide maximum exposure to estrous females.
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Polygamy in red flour beetles is a behavior common to both males and females of this species. Polyandry is thus polygamy in the female members of a population as discussed in the section above. On the other hand, polygyny refers to polygamy practiced by males in a population.
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Polygyny is also practiced by some Muslim immigrants to the US, especially those from Africa and Asia. NPR's All Things Considered estimated in 2008 that 50,000 to 100,000 American Muslims live in polygamous families.Barbara Bradley Hagerty, "Some Muslims in US Quietly Engage in Polygamy", NPR, 2008-05-27.
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The offspring are then weaned at around 9–10 weeks. The mating system that occurs in Burramys parvus is resource defence polygyny. A philopatric group of females typically share a nest space within deep boulder crevices. The nest sites are generally areas of high densities of migrating Bogong moths.
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80 Polygyny was on the decline, and women were increasingly holding key posts in government, industry and academia. The country's first two female parliamentarians, Rawya Ateya and Amina Shukri, were elected in 1957.Sullivan 1986, p. 39 Karimah al- Sa'id became the deputy minister of education in the 1960s.
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During its years as a territory the Republican Party's ancestral hostility to the polygyny of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church),Talbot, Christine; A Foreign Kingdom: Mormons and Polygamy in American Political Culture, 1852-1890, p. 113 whose members settled Utah and have dominated the region ever since, meant that Utah territorial politics until 1891 was dominated by the Mormon-hierarchy- controlled "People's Party" and the anti-Mormon "Liberal Party".May, Dean L. ; Utah: A People's History, pp. 120-121 Those Mormons who did affiliate with national parties generally were Democrats, who lacked moral qualms associated with polygyny and slavery – although the Liberal Party did have allies within the GOP.
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This loss of rights led to the movement realizing that they could not necessarily rely on the government alone to protect their rights. This spurred the creation of the personal status laws, which covered many issues relating to marriage and divorce including polygyny. Passed in 1986, the law "effectively reinstates the provision of the 1975 Family Protection Law granting a wife the right to obtain a divorce if her husband marries a second woman without the wife's permission of if…a man does not treat his wives fairly and equally." This offers Iranian Muslim women some legal protection against polygyny, but the enforcement of the law is still up to the interpretation of the courts.
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Utah had been established as a territory within five years of the earliest settlement by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, but opposition by the Republican Party – dominant from 1860 – to Mormon polygyny meant that Utah was consistently refused statehood.Talbot, Christine; A Foreign Kingdom: Mormons and Polygamy in American Political Culture, 1852-1890, p. 113 Consequently, Utah territorial politics until 1891 was dominated by the Mormon-hierarchy-controlled "People's Party" and the anti-Mormon "Liberal Party".May, Dean L. ; Utah: A People's History, pp. 120-121 Those Mormons who did affiliate with national parties generally were Democrats, who lacked moral qualms associated with polygyny and slavery – although the Liberal Party did have allies within the GOP.
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Boserup (1970)Boserup, Esther. (1970). Woman's Role in Economic Development, London, England & Sterling, VA: Cromwell Press, Trowbridge was the first to propose that the high incidence of polygyny in sub-Saharan Africa is rooted in the sexual division of labor in hoe-farming and the large economic contribution of women. In some regions of shifting cultivation where polygyny is most frequently recorded, labor is often starkly divided between genders. In many of these cases, the task of felling trees in preparation of new plots, the fencing of fields against wild animals, and sometimes the planting of crops, is usually done by men and older boys (along with hunting, fishing and the raising of livestock).
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Since the nineteenth century, both men and women question the legal system regarding the Sharia Laws effect on women such as strict veiling, education, seclusion, polygyny and concubinage. In reforming these social issues, Muslim women started advocating for legal change, establishing schools for girls, and opposing to veiling and polygyny. In support of Yasmin's argument, Fatema Mernissi undermines that the ideal Muslim woman being portrayed as "silent and obedient" has nothing to do with the message of Islam. In her view, conservative Muslim men manipulated the religious texts of the Quran to preserve their patriarchal system in order to prevent women from sexual liberation; thus enforcing justification of strict veiling and limitation rights.
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Polygyny once practiced by leaders has nearly disappeared, possibly from the pressure missionaries put on them. Most marriages are now consecrated by a Catholic priest. Divorce is not uncommon and is initiated by either spouse. A village leader may get involved and try to convince a couple to stay together.
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Roosting behavior. Pp. 131-136 in Demography and natural history of the common fruit bat Artibeus jamaicensis on Barro Colorado Island, Panama (C. O. Handley Jr, D. E. Wilson and A. L. Gardner, eds.) Smithsonian Institution Press. In caves where there are enough roosting sites, there is some "female defensive polygyny".
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Sister Wife is a 2000 documentary that follows the African Hebrew Israelites, an African American community that immigrated to Israel and practices polygyny. The men can have up to seven wives. The film follows a couple that has been married for 21 years as they decide to take on another wife.
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In Women's Role in Economic Development, edited by Ester Boserup, 47. New York: St. Martin's Press. In most cases, women do not have access to their children if they decide to leave polygyny, nor are they allowed to take them, due to cultural ideas of ownership in relation to progeny.
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Some of the young polygynous men indicated that they were trapped in polygyny because of the large number of single women who needed and were willing to take them as husbands although they were already married. Most of those second and third wives were older women who had not yet married.
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They tanned hides to make clothing as well as bags, saddle cloths, and tepee covers. Mothers used cradleboards to carry an infant while working or traveling.Beatrice Medicine, "Gender", Encyclopedia of North American Indians, February 9, 2006. At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits.
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1910 In monogamous societies, wealthy and powerful men established enduring relationships with, and established separate household for, multiple female partners, aside from their legitimate wives; a practice accepted in Imperial China up until the Qing Dynasty of 1636–1912. This constitutes a form of de facto polygyny referred to as concubinage.
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Traditionally clothing is made by the women. Anāl are traditionally monogamous, although cases of polygyny have been reported. In order to marry, an Anāl man must pay a bride price (); after marriage, the wife moves to the husband's home. Divorce () is permitted among the Anāl, although a fine may be incurred.
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The workers of Temnothorax species are generally small. Colonies are typically monogynous, although facultative polygyny has been documented in several species. Colony populations are usually quite small, often with less than 100 workers. However, several studies have found colonies of some species to be widely dispersed with several to many satellite nests.
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The historical record offers contradictory evidence on the development and extent of monogamy as a social practice. Laura Betzig argues that in the six large, highly stratified early states, commoners were generally monogamous but that elites practiced de facto polygyny. Those states included Mesopotamia, Egypt, Aztec Mexico, Inca Peru, India and China.
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This, however, doesn't explain why estrus females generally mate with any proximate male nor any correlation between sexual and social monogamy. Birds, which are notable for a high incidence of social monogamy, do not have estrus. Researchers have observed a mixed mating system of monogamy and polygyny in the European pied flycatcher.
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Larger males have the advantage, displacing smaller males from the preferred territories over the course of the mating season. Males occur in great abundance during mating season; females are rarely seen. The operational sex ratio during this time is highly skewed towards males. In some ways, H. ustulata’s mating system resembles lek polygyny.
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Other mating systems, including polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity, also occur. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances. Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male.
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Divorce and polygyny are unremarkable, women are not secluded, and head coverings are not mandatory—they are often a rarity in urban areas.Imam, Ayesha M. Dossier 17: The Muslim Religious Right ('Fundamentalists') and Sexuality . WLUML, November 1997. Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.
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A small percentage of men have more than one wife, who are usually sisters (sororal polygyny). Among both Savanna and River Pumé, infidelity is uncommon and is cause for divorce. Compared with many lowland South American indigenous groups, the Pumé have low rates of infidelity and divorce among both men and women.
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Some researchers have noted that in certain species, such as the horseshoe crab, males are most successful at mating when they are able to practice scramble competition polygyny where they do not defend their territory but rather mate and move on, thus providing the highest likelihood of species survival and reproductive prowess.
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The polygyny and polyandry observed are likely to be responsible for the great genotypic diversity of the species colonies. The average inbreeding coefficient per colony is higher in Acromyrmex striatus than in Acromyrmex heyeri, which may reflect the different patterns of production of sexual individuals and nuptial flight of those two species.
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Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny, and there is no marriage bond between the wives; and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry, and there is no marriage bond between the husbands. If a marriage includes multiple husbands or wives, it can be called group marriage. A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately 10,000 to 5,000 years ago in Europe and Asia, and more recently in Africa and the Americas.
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They see societal practices, not Islam, as the main problem. Wadud points out the three reasons that the Qur'an views as acceptable forms of polygyny: if the husband is not sexually satisfied he may take another wife rather than turn to prostitutes or an affair, if the first wife is unable to reproduce or another woman with child needs to be taken care of, and/or if the husband is financially stable enough to care for another woman in the Muslim community. According to Wadud, the form of polygyny that the Qur'an supports focuses on "justice: dealing justly, managing funds justly, justice to the orphans, and justice to the wives." Barlas, who published her theological research several years later, argues a very similar point.
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Both feminist scholars point out the origin of the Islamic theory of polygyny in Ayah 4:3. This verse of the Qur'an was not meant to utilize polygyny as a way to oppress women, but to ensure that they were taken care of. The other form of feminism in the Islamic world is independent or state feminism. The premise behind this movement is that "no reform is possible in an Islamic legal and political system where ‘the very structure of power is male dominated to an absolute degree, back by the Constitution, an all-male clerical system ruling the country.’" They also point out that Islam supports and perpetuates a clear female role that designates women to the margins of society.
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In Islam, polygyny is allowed, and is practiced in some countries some Muslim countries, although under certain restrictions. The single passage in the Quran dealing directly with the topic of polygyny is in Surah 4 Verse 3: > And if you fear that you cannot act equitably towards orphans, then marry > such women as seem good to you, two and three and four; but if you fear that > you will not do justice (between them), then (marry) only one or what your > right hands possess; this is more proper, that you may not deviate from the > right course. The practice of polygamy continues among some Muslims worldwide, including a small share (less than 1%)What to Expect When You're Expecting a Co-Wife, from Slate.com. of American Muslims.
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Polygynous marriages fall into two types: sororal polygyny, in which the co-wives are sisters, and non-sororal, where the co-wives are not related. Polygyny offers husbands the benefit of allowing them to have more children, may provide them with a larger number of productive workers (where workers are family), and allows them to establish politically useful ties with a greater number of kin groups. Senior wives can benefit as well when the addition of junior wives to the family lightens their workload. Wives', especially senior wives', status in a community can increase through the addition of other wives, who add to the family's prosperity or symbolize conspicuous consumption (much as a large house, domestic help, or expensive vacations operate in a western country).
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Breeding of the smooth softshell turtle occurs from April to June. The mating system utilized by these turtles is polygyny, meaning that males will mate with more than one female. Males actively seek out females by approaching other adults. If the other party is male or a non- receptive female, aggression may be displayed.
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Male Edith's checkerspot butterflies exhibit polygyny and may mate with multiple females. Females, on the other hand, mate once or occasionally twice. Newly eclosed females remain motionless on the ground in low vegetation for about an hour after eclosion while their wings harden. During this time they cannot fly or easily reject courting males.
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Superb lyrebirds exhibit polygyny, with a single male mating with several females. A male's territory can overlap with up to six female territories. Within his territory, the male will construct several circular mounds of bare dirt on the forest floor, for the purpose of conducting courtship displays. These mounds are defended vigorously from other males.
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In Apoica pallens the nature of queen–worker morphological differences is determined at the larval stage. Queen larvae have different growth rates of various bodily compartments compared to larvae that will become workers. This generates castes based on different morphologies, rather than based on different sizes. Polygyny in Epiponini has no intolerant primary egglayer queen.
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According to the adat (customary practice) of the Karo people in North Sumatra, Indonesia, polygyny is permitted. A study of Kutagamber, a Karo village in the 1960s, noted one instance of the practice, as a result of levirate.Masri Singarimbun, Kutagamber: A village of the Karo. The Indonesian term for it is "turun ranjang" (lit.
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Adultery was a serious crime, punishable with death. After the submission, commercial marriage and polygyny were forbidden. The male head of the family had the liberty to get rid of invalid family members and sickly or deformed newborn children by drowning or burning. He was also allowed to kill or sell excessive female babies.
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Domesticated animals were uncommon, except for turkeys. Their villages often had wooden palisades for defense. Dress was minimal, consisting of a small genital covering and decorative ornaments of feathers, pearls, gold, shell, clay beads, coral beads, bones, teeth, or flowers. Polygyny was practiced by chiefs, whose wives lived together in a kind of harem.
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Polygyny is legal in Somalia and most commonly seen throughout Muslim communities. According to the Muslim tradition, men can have up to four wives. For a man to gain additional wives in Somalia, it must be granted by the court and it has to be proven that the first wife is either imprisoned or infertile.
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A proposal to decriminalize polygamy was heard by the Kyrgyz parliament. It was supported by the Justice Minister, the country's ombudsman, and the Muslim Women's organization Mutakalim, which had gathered 40,000 signatures in favour of polygamy. But, on March 26, 2007, parliament rejected the bill. President Kurmanbek Bakiyev is known to oppose legalizing polygyny.
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Males of many species attract females to their territory by either gathering in a lek or going out in search of dispersed females. In polygyny relationships in animals, the female is the one who provides most of the parental care for the offspring.Krebs, J. R., and N. B. Davies. An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology.
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Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1989. Print. Polygyny in eusocial insects means that some insects living in colonies have not only one queen, but several queens. Solitary species of insects take part in this practice in order to maximize their reproductive success of the widely dispersed females, such as the bee species Anthidium maculosum.Alcock, John.
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The division of Mundugumor families can be attributed to the practice of polygyny. The Mundugumor had a form of organization called a "rope". A man's rope was composed of a man, his daughters', and his daughters' son's daughters. A female rope consisted of a woman, her sons, her sons' daughters, and her sons' daughters' sons.
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William Luck states that polygyny is not prohibited by the Bible and it would have been required if a married man seduced (Ex. 22) or raped (Deut. 22) a virgin, as long as her father did not veto the marriage. However, in a book- length consideration of the problem, William George Blum argues that monogamy was always God's ideal.
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Ghanaian girl in traditional Ghanaian kente clothing and national costume. In Ghanaian society polygyny — marriages in which men are permitted to have more than one wife at the same time. — has been traditionally practised, especially among well-to-do Ghanaian men. Among matrilineal groups, such as the Akan, married women continued to reside at their maternal homes.
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Cattle, sheep, and goats are raised for food and milk. Polygyny is an accepted practice among the Konso. Group members also erect carvings (wagas), which are created in memory of a dead man who has killed an enemy or animal. The statues are often arranged in groups, with statues representing the man, his wives, and his adversaries present.
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The other queen turns her abdomen away, and what follows is the two queens circling one another, trying to touch the other's abdomen; as such, the queens are almost always active.Hayo H.W. Velthuis, Han De Vries, Vera L. Imperatriz-Fonseca. The polygyny of Melipona bicolor: scramble competition among queens. Apidologie, Springer Verlag (Germany), 2006, 37 (2), pp.222-239.
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Polygyny was common. Postmarital residence was matrilocal at first, and then neolocal. Pregnant women had to observe certain food taboos. Fathers observed couvade by remaining in hammocks for three days following the birth of their children—it was believed that a child's soul follows the child's father and might be injured if it exerted itself immediately after birth.
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The Fon culture is patrilineal and allows polygyny and divorce. A man with multiple wives usually lived in a compound with each wife and her children occupying a separate hut. A collection of compounds formed a village, usually headed by a hereditary chief. In contemporary times, tradition patrilineal clan-based living and associated practices are uncommon.
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Local rulers of villages usually had the most wives as a sign of power and status. Conquerors of villages would often marry the daughters of the former leaders as a symbol of conquest. The practice of resource polygyny continued with the spread and expansion of Islam in Africa and Southeast Asia. Children born into these households were considered free.
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Polygyny is not forbidden in the Old Testament and over 40 important figures had more than one wife, such as Esau, Elkanah, and Solomon. Moses had three wives; Zipporah, the daughter of Hobab and the "Cushite" woman. . However, does state that the king shall not have too many wives.Judaica Press Complete Tanach, Devarim - Chapter 17 from Chabad.org.
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Cartwright (2010). p. 404Cartwright (2010). p. 432 For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years younger than he was.Cartwright (2010). p. 433 His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of monogamy but still not advocating polygyny—instead musing about a polyamorous relationship he called tetragamy.
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Cults that teach and practice polygamy, marriage between more than two people, most often polygyny, one man having multiple wives, have long been noted, although they are a minority. It has been estimated that there are around 50,000 members of polygamist cults in North America.Bridgstock, Robert. 2014. The Youngest Bishop in England: Beneath the Surface of Mormonism.
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Small herds of up to four members are common; males defend their group's territory, large. The oribi is primarily a grazer, and prefers fresh grasses and browses occasionally. A seasonal breeder, the time when mating occurs varies geographically. Unlike all other small antelopes, oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems, depending on the habitat – polyandry, polygyny and polygynandry.
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They also live in the Sonitpur and North Lakhimpur districts of Assam. Their population of around 300,000 makes them the most populous tribe of Arunachal Pradesh, closely followed by the tribes of the Adi according to 2001 census. The Nyishi language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family, however, the origin is disputed. Polygyny is prevalent among the Nyishi.
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Some mothers use cradleboards to carry an infant while working or traveling.Beatrice Medicine, "Gender", Encyclopedia of North American Indians, February 9, 2006. In matriarchal and egalitarian nations, the gender roles are usually not so clear-cut, and are even less so in the modern era. At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits.
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It was called Motse-oa-'M'a-Jesu, and led by Bishop Allard. He invited Holy Family Sisters from France to work with Sotho women. The initial efforts aimed at the gaining converts as well as ending the practice of polygyny where old men paid brideprice to marry young girls. The later efforts attracted resistance from the traditional families.
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Reudink, M. W., Marra, P. P., Boag, P. T., & Ratcliffe, L. M. (2009). Plumage coloration predicts paternity and polygyny in the American redstart. Animal Behaviour, 77, 495-501. Males are invariably very territorial and the superior males occupy the best habitats, such as moist mangroves, while inferior males occupy secondary habitats such as dry scrub forests.
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Bahu Bharya (Polygyny) () is a 1999 Sri Lankan Sinhala adult suspense thriller film directed by Udayakantha Warnasuriya and produced by Ranjith Jayasuriya for Ureka Films. It stars Ranjan Ramanayake and Vasanthi Chathurani in lead roles along with Sangeetha Weeraratne and Srinath Maddumage. Music composed by Dilup Gabadamudalige. It is the 912th Sri Lankan film in the Sinhala cinema.
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Colonies of R. marginata often outlive the queens; workers may serve different queens throughout their lifetimes. This creates overlapping matrilines within the colony where workers end up caring for the brood of different mothers, yet again decreasing the relatedness amidst workers.Gadagkar et al. Serial polygyny in the primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata: implications for the evolution of sociality.
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Moustached tamarins practice a variety of mating systems: polyandry, polygyny or polygynandry. The mothers often receive help from up to 4 or 5 other members of the group. In polyandrous groups, the alpha male tolerates the presence of other males who can provide infant-care. Not having enough helpers can sometimes lead to infanticide by the mother.
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They use their sharp incisors to gnaw food, excavate burrows, and defend themselves. Most eat seeds or other plant material, but some have more varied diets. They tend to be social animals and many species live in societies with complex ways of communicating with each other. Mating among rodents can vary from monogamy, to polygyny, to promiscuity.
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Marriages are endogamous. The preferred and common form of marriage is the bilateral cross-cousin type, with most preferred marriages are those between a man and the daughter of his mother's brother. Multiple marriages have been common, with many Wolof households featuring two wives.David W. Ames (1955), The Economic Base of Wolof Polygyny, Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol.
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As with their ultimate body size, egg size tends to increase further away from the Equator. Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year, two being typical. Rarely, four eggs have been found in nests but these may be exceptional cases of polygyny. Eagles in captivity have been capable of producing up to seven eggs.
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Under Islamic marital jurisprudence, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, that is, they can have more than one wife at the same time, up to a total of four. Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband, is not permitted. Based on verse 30:21 of Quran the ideal relationship is the comfort that a couple find in each other's embrace: The polygyny that is allowed in the Quran is for special situations; however, it advises monogamy if a man fears he can't deal justly with them. This is based on verse 4:3 of Quran which says: There are strict requirements to marrying more than one woman, as the man must treat them equally financially and in terms of support given to each wife, according to Islamic law.
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N. B. Davies further defined it as the cost of sharing in order to be clear that the term refers to the fitness cost to females that are breeding on the same territory. Searcy and Yasukawa conducted studies on Pennsylvania red-winged blackbirds that showed that females would mate on territory already settled by another female, which indicated that there was no cost of polygyny. However, in a later study by Pribil and Picman conducted on Ontario populations of red-winged blackbirds the results indicated that there was indeed a cost of polygyny. The females in this study were given a choice between adjacent territories, one in which there was already a settled female (defined by many researchers as the primary female) and the other in which there was no female present.
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Scholars have argued that in farming systems where men do most of the agriculture work, a second wife can be an economic burden rather than an asset. In order to feed an additional wife, the husband must either work harder himself or he must hire laborers to do part of the work. In such regions, polygyny is either non- existent or is a luxury which only a small minority of rich farmers can indulge. A report by the secretariat of the UN Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) quotes: "one of the strongest appeals of polygyny to men in Africa is precisely its economic aspect, for a man with several wives commands more land, can produce more food for his household and can achieve a high status due to the wealth which he can command".
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Other writers, on the contrary, have agreed that women's status in pre-Islamic Arabia was poor, citing practices of female infanticide, unlimited polygyny, patrilineal marriage, and others. Saudi historian Hatoon al-Fassi considers much earlier historical origins of Arab women's rights. Using evidence from the ancient Arabian kingdom of Nabataea, she finds that Arab women in Nabataea had independent legal personalities.
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Cognitive scientist Steven Pinker noted in The Better Angels of Our Nature that despite the de jure abolitions of slavery by Islamic countries in the 20th century, the majority of the countries where human trafficking still occurs are Muslim-majority, while political scientists Valerie M. Hudson and Bradley Thayer have noted that Islam is the only major religious tradition that still allows polygyny.
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It was found that the population sex-investment ratio for "L. acervorum" changed from significantly female biased to significantly male biased with increasing polygyny. In polygynous colonies where multiple queens reproduce, there is a lack of worker aggression towards queens. This is likely a benefit for multiple queens that reproduce in polygynous populations as a result of dilution of relatedness.
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This may be an attempt to found their own colony solitarily or by budding, leaving the natal colony with their own workers and brood to start a new colony. Some monogynous colonies could have recently been polygynous. Thus, colonies of L. acervorum may easily switch from monogamy to polygyny as a result of adopting young queens and budding, or queen emigration.
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The extended family, in which polygyny was common, was the basic unit of society. The extended family group is referred to by the Kichwa word "ayllu", although this type of organization predates the arrival of Quechua speakers. Two political systems were built on the basis of the ayllu: the curacazgo and the cacicazgo. Each curacazgo is made up of one or more ayllu.
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Walrus herd on ice floe The mating system of pinnipeds varies from extreme polygyny to serial monogamy.Riedman, p. 176. Of the 33 species, 20 breed on land, and the remaining 13 breed on ice. Species that breed on land are usually polygynous, as females gather in large aggregations and males are able to mate with them as well as defend them from rivals.
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Female home ranges never overlap, though a male's home range often overlaps that of several females. The male aye-ayes live in large areas up to , while females have smaller living spaces that goes up to . It is difficult for the males to defend a singular female because of the large home range. They are seen exhibiting polygyny because of this.
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The story spans from the time of Fawzia's birth to the near present and her growing political career. Koofi begins the book with a description of the family into which she was born. She was the nineteenth out of twenty-three of her father's children, and the last of her mother's children. The family practiced polygyny, Fawzia's father having married seven women.
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A. maculosum uses the system polygyny as their resource defense system. Males of this species of bee fight against each other for control of rich clumps of flowering mint, Monarda pectinata. Females normally aggregate on this plant to collect pollen and nectar for their nests. The mint grows in patches, making it easy for individual male bees to defend their own patch.
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The nest is an open cup on the ground in a grassy area. While the lark buntings are socially monogamous, there is extensive extra-pair mating, observed through extra-pair paternity. In songbirds, it is suggested that social monogamy exists because of limited opportunities for polygyny. As expected, there is considerable aggression between males and between females, competing for mates.
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Holmes continued to serve after the reorganisation and was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in the same year. Before retiring from the Home Affairs Department, he had been focusing on the legislation on abolishing polygyny. Yet, such legislation was completed in October 1971, five months after his retirement from the civil service.
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Eastern gray squirrels exhibit a form of polygyny, in which the competing males will form a hierarchy of dominance, and the female will mate with multiple males depending on the hierarchy established. Eastern gray squirrel drey Normally, one to four young are born in each litter, but the largest possible litter size is eight. The gestation period is about 44 days.
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Age, food, population density, and mating system (polygyny or monogamy) all affect impregnation success rates and litter size. Higher population density leads to a higher incidence of failure in producing pups. Silver foxes have litters that typically range from 1 to 14 pups, with the average being 3 to 6 pups. Litter size generally increases with age and abundance of food.
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He also mentions that horse meat was eaten. Women held no powerful positions among the Old Prussians and, according to Peter von Dusburg, were treated like servants, forbidden to share the husband's table. Commercial marriage was widespread and after the husband's death the widow fell to the son, like other inheritance. In addition, polygyny (up to three wives) was widespread.
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They run around the area either to showcase their territory to the females or to pursue the females. The males also engage in flight to showcase their wings. They sing and call as they perform all of these displays. The species can remain monogamous for many years, but incidents of polygyny and bigamy have been reported to occur during a single bird's lifetime.
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P. sylveirae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which contains roughly 100,000 species of bees, ants, and wasps. The species belongs to the eusocial tribe Epiponini, which is characterized by complex nests, morphological differences between castes, and the occurrence of reproductive polygyny. P. sylveirae is the only species within its genus, and is most closely related to genera Polybia and Protopolybia.
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Kin terms do not distinguish between maternal and paternal relatives and polygyny is strongly frowned upon. Western influence in "peranakan" society is evidenced by the high proportion of childless couples. Those who did have children also had fewer of them than "totok" couples. Despite their break from traditional kinship patterns, "peranakan" families are closer to some traditional Chinese values than the "totok".
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Their habitat is in rain forests densely covered with undergrowth. They are diurnal and arboreal, living together in small groups led by a dominant female. The females can mate promiscuously with all the males (polyandry), but were also seen cases of polygyny and monogamy. They mainly feed on fruits and insects, but occasionally they also eat eggs and small vertebrates.
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The females in the F. rufa colonies that are monogynous separate by flight and establish new nests. Queens in polygynous nests form new nests in the vicinity of the original nest with the help of workers. Through evolution, polygyny may have arisen through monogyny. One possibility is that monogynous nests due to environmental and physiological conditions may take up new queens.
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Once he agreed, he formed a bond of kinship with all the Indians of the tribe. Polygyny, a common practice among South American Indians, was quickly adopted by European settlers. This way, a single European man could have dozens of Indian wives (temericós). Albert Eckhout: a mixed- race (Mameluco) woman (circa 1641–1644) Cunhadismo was used as recruitment of labour.
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In species such as the white-footed mouse, females give birth to litters with multiple paternities. Promiscuity leads to increased sperm competition and males tend to have larger testicles. In the Cape ground squirrel, the male's testes can be 20 percent of its head-body length. Several rodent species have flexible mating systems that can vary between monogamy, polygyny and promiscuity.
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The duty of support was found to be legally enforceable for monogamous Muslim marriages, but the issue of polygyny was left open. It was in Kahn v Kahn2005 (2) SA 272 (T). that spouses in polygynous Muslim marriages were finally held, in terms of the Maintenance Act,s2(1). to have a legally enforceable duty of support to one another.
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The Aladura, like several other breakaway churches, stress healing and fulfillment of life goals for oneself and one's family. African beliefs that sorcery and witchcraft are malevolent forces against which protection is required are accepted; rituals are warm and emotional, stressing personal involvement and acceptance of spirit possession. Theology is biblical, but some sects add costumed processions and some accept polygyny.
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Polygamy, specifically polygyny, is the norm in Mmuock Leteh. Inheritance and succession passes through the male line. A man is expected to choose a successor (Njœêndíǽ) before dying. After death, his titles and possessions go by default to the male heir, unless the deceased had made a will or specifically assigned certain possessions to other relatives, for example, which child gets what.
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Polygyny was widely practiced among Mundugumor men, the social ideal being to have as many as eight to ten wives. This socially acceptable way of marriage also created aggression from a wife towards her husband. In any creation of marriage among two individuals, conflict was present and marriage was only valued as obtainment of labor and fertility for the husband.
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The establishment of transmigration villages in the 1960s led to land shortages in certain regions. The success of the Saramakas in their lawsuit against the government of Suriname will now permit them to manage their lands with less outside interference. Complex marriage prohibitions (including bee exogamy) and preferences are negotiated through divination. Demographic imbalance, owing to labor migration, permits widespread polygyny.
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According to the Ethnographic Atlas by George P. Murdock, of 1,231 societies from around the world noted, 186 were monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry.Ethnographic Atlas Codebook derived from George P. Murdock’s Ethnographic Atlas recording the marital composition of 1231 societies from 1960 to 1980 (This does not take into account the relative population of each of the societies studied; the actual practice of polygamy in a tolerant society may actually be low, with the majority of aspirant polygamists practicing monogamous marriage.) Divorce and remarriage can thus result in "serial monogamy", i.e. multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time. This can be interpreted as a form of plural mating, as are those societies dominated by female-headed families in the Caribbean, Mauritius and Brazil where there is frequent rotation of unmarried partners.
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In 2000, the United Nations Human Rights Committee reported that polygamy violates the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), citing concerns that the lack of "equality of treatment with regard to the right to marry" meant that polygamy, restricted to polygyny in practice, violates the dignity of women and should be outlawed. Specifically, the reports to UN Committees have noted violations of the ICCPR due to these inequalities and reports to the General Assembly of the UN have recommended it be outlawed. Some countries where polygamy is legal are not signatories of ICCPR, including Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Malaysia, Brunei and South Sudan; so that ICCPR does not apply to these countries. It has been argued by the Department of Justice of Canada that polygyny is a violation of international human rights law.
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This medium-sized raptor breeds on moorland, bogs, prairies, farmland coastal prairies, marshes, grasslands, swamps and other assorted open areas. A male will maintain a territory averaging , though male territories have ranged from . These are one of the few raptorial birds known to practice polygyny – one male mates with several females. Up to five females have been known to mate with one male in a season.
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Females start mating at two years of age, and males too become sexually mature by that time. Sexual dimorphism, larger home ranges for males, and a female-biased population indicate polygyny in the species. The mountain nyala breed throughout the year, but the peak occurs in December. Prior to and during the breeding season the adult males tend to get associated with mixed sex herds.
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The mating system of these voles involves a type of polygyny for males and extra-group polyandry for females. This system increases the frequency of mating among distantly related individuals, and is achieved mainly by dispersal during the mating season. Such a strategy is likely an adaptation to avoid the inbreeding depression that would be caused by expression of deleterious recessive alleles if close relatives mated.
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Promiscuity is common in many animal species. Some species have promiscuous mating systems, ranging from polyandry and polygyny to mating systems with no stable relationships where mating between two individuals is a one-time event. Many species form stable pair bonds, but still mate with other individuals outside the pair. In biology, incidents of promiscuity in species that form pair bonds are usually called extra-pair copulations.
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They most commonly practice monogamy, though polygyny is not completely unheard of. Divorce is permitted on the grounds of infertility, adultery or mental illness of either the husband or wife. After divorce the custody over the children is most commonly given to the father. Widow remarriage is allowed and called pat, though a ceremony is only done at night or in some cases not at all.
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Family groups may consist of up to eight members. Golden lion tamarins are social and groups typically consist of 2-8 members. These groups usually consist of one breeding adult male and female but may also have 2–3 males and one female or the reverse.Dietz JM, Baker AJ. (1993) "Polygyny and female reproductive success in golden lion tamarins, Leontopithecus rosalia". Anim Behav 46(6): 1067–78.
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If this polygyny factor is controlled (e.g., through a multiple regression model), division of labor turns out to be a significant predictor of postmarital residence. Thus, Murdock's hypotheses regarding the relationships between the sexual division of labor and postmarital residence were basically correct, though, as has been shown by Korotayev, the actual relationships between those two groups of variables are more complicated than he expected.
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Tinaminae species normally practice a complex breeding strategy. This entails the males practicing simultaneous polygyny and the females practicing successive polyandry. Breeding season fluctuates with the species; however the majority of the species within the forest breed throughout the year, with an emphasis on when the food is most abundant. They are a very territorial group of birds; however sometimes only during breeding season.
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Because A. maculosum is a solitary bee, males do not go and look for emerging females. In addition, because females are dispersed widely, this makes it more difficult for males to find emerging females. He arrives at the resource first and lets the females come to him. The male takes part in polygyny to maximize fertilization because males have little genetic gain when mating with females.
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The researchers saw that each patriline had a significantly skewed proclivity for a certain caste, showing that there is considerable evidence for a genetic based caste determination amongst each patriline. These genetic components have been shown not only in Eciton burchellii, but across numerous other ant species—where queens mate with many males, known as polyandry, or where several queens lead a single colony, known as polygyny.
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Callithrix females generally gives birth to two or more infants at a time. They can ovulate and conceive within two to four weeks after giving birth, and ovulation is not inhibited by lactation. Polygyny is known to occur in several Callithrix species. Infanticide is also known to occur, at least within C. jacchus in which the dominant female kills the offspring of a subordinate female.
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Gibbons were previously reported to practice monogamous sexual relationships. They are known to form pair bonds, as well documented in the majority of gibbon species. Upon the discovery of single male, multi- female living groups, the question arose to determine if all females were mating. The observation that offspring of similar ages lived within a multi- female group confirmed that polygyny did in fact occur.
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The current hypothesis remains that both monogamous and polygamous relationships exist. There may be various selection pressures for polygyny within previously monogamous groups. Parents tend to be hostile towards maturing offspring, with males leaving the group more quickly than females do. Yet, upon tolerance by the mother, adult female offspring may remain in the group, as the group continues to forage and feed as family members.
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Primate mating systems infer both a social element and a genetic element. Therefore, a mating system should describe: (1) the interactions and resulting relationship between the mating pairs involved; and (2) the reproductive outcomes from the mating system. For instance, monogamy infers exclusive mating access and, thus, greater paternity certainty. Observed mating systems in primates include: monogamy, polyandry, polygyny and polygamy (as described below).
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Polygyny is not legal in Australia. The Marriage Act of 1961 under section 94 states that any person who knowingly marries another whose marriage is legally ongoing carries out the act of bigamy. The penalty of bigamy is up to five years of imprisonment. The Full Court of the Family Court of Australia ruled on March 6, 2016 that it is illegal to have polygamous marriages.
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"Hong Kong" , The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality Period drama and historical novels frequently refer to the former culture of polygamy (usually polygyny). An example is the Wuxia novel The Deer and the Cauldron by Hong Kong writer Louis Cha, in which the protagonist Wei Xiaobao has seven wives (In new edition of the novel, Princess Jianning was assigned as the wife, while others are concubines).
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Israel prohibits polygamy by law.Penal Law Amendment (Bigamy) Law, 5719-1959. In practice, however, the law is loosely enforced, primarily to avoid interference with Bedouin culture, where polygyny is practiced."Victims of polygamy", Haaretz Pre-existing polygynous unions among Jews from Arab countries (or other countries where the practice was not prohibited by their tradition and was not illegal) are not subject to this Israeli law.
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Similar behaviour is seen in species that practice resource-defence polygyny. The territories probably provided all the food the birds needed in addition to acting as breeding-areas, and there was probably intense competition for favourable territories. The fact that Rodrigues island shrank by 90% at the end of the Pleistocene may also have contributed to such competition over territories, and thereby furthered sexual dimorphism.
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However, this hypothesis is not consistent with the fact that increasing queen number decreases both queen production and queen longevity. Kin selection also seems unlikely given that queens have been observed to cooperate under circumstances where they are statistically unrelated. Therefore, queens experience no gain in personal fitness by allowing new queens into the colony. Parasitism of preexisting nests appears to be the best explanation of polygyny.
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Another form of polyandry is a combination of polyandry and polygyny, as women are married to several men simultaneously and the same men are married to several women. It is found in some tribes of native Americans as well as villages in northern Nigeria and the northern cameroons. Other Classifications: Equal polygamy, Polygynandry The system results in less land fragmentation, and a diversification of domestic activities.
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Polygamy (from Late Greek , polygamía, "state of marriage to many spouses".) is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, sociologists call this polygyny. When a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. A marriage including multiple husbands and wives can be called a group marriage.
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Polyandry consists of one adult female breeding with multiple males, which only breed with that female. This is rare among teleosts, and fish in general, but is found in the clownfish. In addition, it may also exist to an extent among anglerfish, where some females have more than one male attached to them. Polygyny, where one male breeds with multiple females, is much more common.
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Although house mice can be either monogamous or polygamous, they are most commonly polygamous. They generally show characteristics of mate-defense polygyny in that males are highly territorial and protective of their mates, while females are less agonistic. The communal nursing groups that result from these behaviors lead to lower numbers of infanticide since more females are able to protect greater numbers of offspring.
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As opposed to polygyny, polyandrous behavior in females is the act of breeding with several males in the same season. Variation in number of males that females mate with occurs among a population. Polyandrous behavior is a common mating pattern in the subspecies Mus musculus musculus as well as its relative Mus musculus domesticus. Polyandry occurs in 30% of all wild populations of house mice.
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However, they are devoted Muslims and their fear of persecution have prevented them from converting to other religions. The New Testament was translated into the Yalunka language by Pioneer Bible Translators's current president, Greg Pruett in 2013. The Yalunka people commonly practice polygyny. Arranged marriages are their traditional practice, and they follow the Islamic law that a man may have up to four living wives.
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Education is also linked to domestic violence. Men who have higher education in Ghana generally do not condone physically abusing their wife. A study done in the BMC Public Health journal found that it is "48% less likely for women to experience domestic violence when husbands had higher than secondary education." The practice of polygyny in Ghana also contributes to rates of domestic violence.
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This medium-sized raptor breeds on moorland, bogs, prairies, farmland coastal prairies, marshes, grasslands, swamps and other assorted open areas. A male will maintain a territory averaging , though male territories have ranged from . These, are the one of the few raptorial birds known to practice polygyny – one male mates with several females. Up to five females have been known to mate with one male in a season.
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They were largely but not completely successful in encouraging Shuar to abandon polygyny for monogamy. They were relatively unsuccessful in discouraging the practice of shamanism. By the 1950s Shuar had lost a considerable amount of land to settlers. At this time they abandoned their semi-nomadic and dispersed settlement pattern and began to form nucleated settlements of five to thirty families, called centros (Spanish for "centers").
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The Spaniards attempted to suppress this class system based on their misconception that the dependent, servile class were an oppressed group. Although they failed at completely abolishing the system, they instead worked to use it to their own advantage. Religion and marriage were also issues that the missionaries of Spain wanted to transform. Polygyny was not uncommon, but was mostly confined to wealthier chieftains.
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Polygyny and polyandry are allowed, but they are rare. Instead, divorce is commonplace in most Semang groups, especially if the couple have no children. The procedure is very simple, the couple just ceases to live together. Sometimes there are sharp conflicts on this ground, but in the majority of cases everything is peaceful, and the former spouses remain friendly, staying in the same camp.
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Monomorium pharaonis, similar to other invasive ants, is polygynous, meaning its colonies contain many queens (up to 200). It is hypothesized that polygyny leads to lower levels of nestmate recognition in comparison to monogynous species due to the expected higher levels of genetic diversity. Because these colonies lack nestmate recognition, there is no hostility between neighbouring colonies, which is known as unicoloniality. Many invasive ants display unicoloniality.
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Acromyrmex is the most complex taxon of the family Formicidae. Complexity in the reproductive caste (queens and males) account for this. Possible configurations of the reproductive caste in ant colonies are, monogyny (one queen), polygyny (multiple queens), monandry (sperm supplied by one male), polyandry (sperm supplied by multiple males), and worker reproduction. Colonies may be founded by haplometrosis (by one queen) or by pleometrosis (by multiple queens).
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The vast majority of marriages are monogamous (one husband and one wife), but both polygyny and polyandry in India have a tradition among some populations in India. Weddings in India can be quite expensive. Most marriages in India are arranged. With regard to dress, a sari (a long piece of fabric draped around the body) and salwar kameez are worn by women all over India.
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The Ticuna follow the rules of exogamy, in which members of the same moiety are not permitted to marry. In the past, it was common practice for a maternal uncle to marry his niece. Today, however, marriage generally occurs within the same generation. Due to the influence of Catholic missionaries, cross-cousin marriages and polygyny, which were acceptable and common in the past, are no longer viewed as permissible practices.
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These systems often lead to an end at some food source – often aphid colonies, where the ants extract and feed on honeydew. These tunneling systems also often exist in trees. The colonies typically include a central "parent" colony surrounded and supplemented by smaller satellite colonies.Colony Size and Polygyny in Carpenter Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Roger D. Akre, Laurel D. Hansen and Elizabeth A. Myhre Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society , Vol.
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The second breeding female will receive fewer resources from the male than the first breeding female. However, if the bigamous threshold is higher than the second female's original resource threshold, the female will enter into a polygynous mating system, since she would still benefit from acquiring more resources. The polygyny threshold model can be applied to more than two females, provided there are enough resources to support them.
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The study found that the presence of a diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital. Evolutionary psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa has argued that an important cause of intergroup conflict may be the relative availability of women of reproductive age. He found that polygyny greatly increased the frequency of civil wars but not interstate wars. Gleditsch et al.
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Sea lion mating is often polygamous as males usually mate with different females to increase fitness and success, leaving some males to not find a mate at all. Polygamous males rarely provide parental care towards the pup. Strategies used to monopolize females include the resource-defense polygyny, or occupying important female resources. This involves occupying and defending a territory with resources or features attractive to females during sexually receptive periods.
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212 Females of these species tend to aggregate less. In addition, since ice is less stable than solid land, breeding sites change location each year, and males are unable to predict where females will stay during the breeding season. Hence polygyny tends to be weaker in ice-breeding species. An exception to this is the walrus, where females form dense aggregations perhaps due to their patchy food sources.
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Laws prohibiting polygyny were adopted in Japan (1880), China (1953), India (1955) and Nepal (1963). Polyandry is illegal in most countries. The women's rights movements seek to make monogamy the only legal form of marriage. The United Nations General Assembly in 1979 adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Article 16 of which requires nations to give women and men equal rights in marriage.
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It was informed by a fraternal polygyny where possible. Kota religion was unlike mainstream Hinduism and believed in non-anthropomorphic male deities and a female deity. Since the 1940s, many mainstream Hindu deities also have been adopted into the Kota pantheon and temples of Tamil style have been built to accommodate their worship. They’ve had specialized groups of priests to propitiate their deities on behalf of the group.
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Delaporte gained the trust of the Nauruans by carrying out medical work (because there was no doctor) and by teaching. The school taught reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, German, singing, and Bible history. The Delaportes encouraged the Nauruans to dress in a more Western style including Mother Hubbard dresses, singlets (sleeveless shirt or vest), and Lavalavas (simple skirt). Polygyny was no longer allowed and traditional Nauruan dances were discouraged.
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In addition, most marriages reportedly occurred by "wife stealing" or elopement, rather than by arrangement. In the past, males had to wait for marriage until they had saved an adequate sum for the bride-price, occasionally until their mid-twenties; with its abolition, they seemed to be marrying earlier. Hmong women typically marry between fourteen and eighteen years of age. The Hmong practice polygyny, although the government officially discourages the custom.
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The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a grihapati. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts.
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Gamble, Lynn H. The Chumash World at European Contact Power, Trade, and Feasting among Complex Hunter-gatherers. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008. One way that chiefs have been identified is if they were in polygynous relationships with two or three women because the commoners tended to only have one spouse. This tradition stopped after the colonization of the Spanish because polygyny was deemed a sin by the Catholic church.
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Islamic polygyny is permitted. Judicial corporal punishment is common in Qatar due to the Wahhabi interpretation of Sharia Law, although in Qatar it had originally been a Hanbali school of mainstream Sunnism. Flogging is employed as a punishment for alcohol consumption or illicit sexual relations. Article 88 of Qatar's criminal code declares that the penalty for adultery is 100 lashes, and in 2006, a Filipino woman was sentenced that punishment.
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A Jamaican fruit bats hanging from a tree When in their roosts, the Jamaican fruit bat has a reproductive system known as "resource defensive polygyny". That is, males will claim an area as a territory and females select the best territories to roost and mate in. Subadult males may remain in their natal roosts while females may leave to gather with other females elsewhere.Morrison D. W., C. O. Handley Jr. 1991.
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Agelenopsis aperta are mostly monogamous in respect to their mating. Monogamy was more likely in situations where the males have high costs to travel to their mate or if the female was much less responsive after the first mating. There are some cases of polygyny seen as well, in about 10% of spiders. Males are much more likely to mate with multiple females than the other way around.
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The vixen's oestrus period lasts three weeks, during which the dog-foxes mate with the vixens for several days, often in burrows. The male's bulbus glandis enlarges during copulation, forming a copulatory tie which may last for more than an hour. The gestation period lasts 49–58 days. Though foxes are largely monogamous, DNA evidence from one population indicated large levels of polygyny, incest and mixed paternity litters.
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Ca. 1815 French satire on cuckoldry, which shows both men and women wearing horns. Sexual relations with multiple males are termed polyandry. It has a more specific meaning in zoology, where it refers to a type of mating system, and in anthropology, where it refers to a type of marriage. Sexual relations with multiple females are termed polygyny, but in zoology it can only be applied to heterosexual relations.
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This way, they feel less tied but also less responsible. But still, in the 1970s, it was in no way unusual to make agreements regarding newborns about eventual marriages. However, when these promises of marriage became due, fifteen or twenty years later, they were taken less and less seriously. Before Christianizing (referred to as Siqqitiq by the Inuit), polygamy, more often polygyny, less so polyandry, were not unusual among the Inuit.
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Other mating systems also exist within dunnock populations, depending on the ratio of male to females and the overlap of territories. When only one female and one male territory overlap, monogamy is preferred. Sometimes, two or three adjacent female territories overlap one male territory, and so polygyny is favored, with the male monopolising several females. Polygynandry also exists, in which two males jointly defend a territory containing several females.
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Nests with multiple dealated queens are often found, suggesting that M. smithii is a polygynous species. This appears to be a case of secondary polygyny, and the queens may be daughters of the foundress. A detailed study of many M. smithii populations across their geographic distribution range (Mexico to Argentina) showed that some M. smithii populations in the Brazilian Amazon reproduce sexually. This was demonstrated using highly variable genetic markers.
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When males are able to disproportionately control resources, they may be able to support more than one female partner. Polyandry is the practice of a female partnering with multiple males. It is not as common in humans as polygyny, due in part to the constraints of female reproduction. While a female may only reproduce once at a time, a male may be able to contribute to multiple concurrent pregnancies.
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When asked, spouses reported similar happiness levels to each other. The data also shows the spouses' happiness level fluctuates similarly to one another. If the husband is having a bad week, the wife will similarly report she had a bad week. There is little data on alternatives like polyamory, although one study stated wife order in polygyny did not have a substantial effect on life or marital satisfaction over all.
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This permission is given to such women in verse 4:24 of Quran. The verse also emphasizes on transparency, mutual agreement and financial compensation as prerequisites for matrimonial relationship as opposed to prostitution; it says: Muhammad was monogamously married to Khadija, his first wife, for 25 years, until she died. After her death, he married multiple women, mostly widows,"Prophet Muhammad and polygyny", IslamWeb. for social and political reasons.
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It has been said that P. snelleni goes by the mode of serial polygyny, however this was disproven because by the time new reproductive females are ready to reproduce, the season is ending. So, only a few queen replacements can occur. There are usually 1-2 laying workers that are elderly in these orphan colonies. The dominant laying workers in a nest have a monopoly over ovipositions by selectively egg-eating.
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This permission is given to such women in verse 4:24 of Quran. The verse also emphasizes on transparency, mutual agreement and financial compensation as prerequisites for matrimonial relationship as opposed to prostitution; it says: Muhammad was monogamously married to Khadija, his first wife, for 25 years, until she died. After her death, he married multiple women, mostly widows,"Prophet Muhammad and polygyny", IslamWeb. for social and political reasons.
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Southern yellowjackets have a polygynous mating system: a colony has more than one queen. In other Vespula species, polygyny tends to be found in mild climates where the colony can last more than a year. Given that many of this species live in temperate or subtropical environments, perennial nests have been observed. Polygynous perennial colonies occur when reproductive females (queens) reproduce in the colony instead of leaving it.
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In Islam, polygyny is allowed with certain religious restrictions, despite that, an overwhelming majority of Muslims traditionally practice monogamy. It is forbidden in Islam for parents or anyone else: to force, coerce, or trick either man or woman into a marriage that is contrary to the individual will of any one of the couples. It is also necessary for all marriages to commence with the best of intentions.
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Polygamy is the practice of having more than one spouse. Specifically, polygyny is the practice of one man taking more than one wife while polyandry is the practice of one woman taking more than one husband. Polygamy is a common marriage pattern in some parts of the world. In North America, polygamy has not been a culturally normative or legally recognized institution since the continent's colonization by Europeans.
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Both males and females were observed to be very aggressive toward same-sex intruders that come to their territory to accost their partners. However, several biological and ecological factors also enforce monogamy in these cleaner gobies. Elacatinus species reproduce asynchronously, which makes polygyny unfavorable. Furthermore, although it differs among species, cleaner gobies tend to live in environments of low population density where distance between potential mates is rather far.
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It usually builds its nests in holes on oak trees. This species practices polygyny, usually bigamy, with the male travelling large distances to acquire a second mate. The male will mate with the secondary female and then return to the primary female in order to help with aspects of child rearing, such as feeding. The European pied flycatcher is mainly insectivorous, although its diet also includes other arthropods.
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Adult female at the Kochelsee, Schlehdorf, Germany The third hypothesis asserts that females settle for polygyny because it is hard to find unmated males. This theory assumes that there is aggression between females to find mates and asserts that polyterritoriality actually helps to alleviate this aggression, allowing the second female a place to settle and breed peacefully.Davies, Nicholas B., John R. Krebs, and Stuart A. West. An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology.
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In 1140 AD, after the death of Bhujavir Deva, his son Kshetra Pal ascended the throne. Raja Kshetra Pal also practised polygyny and had two wives; Ratnavati and Surama. During his reign, an earthquake took place which changed the country's contour and topography. It is said that a new river emerged in the town, which the King named after his second and favourite wife, Rani Surama, as the Surma River.
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The adaptive value of this nonaggression among colonies has to do with avoiding unnecessary injury and allowing proper resource allocation, ensuring success for all the colonies. Low nestmate recognition, caused in part by polygyny, also has a biochemical basis in M. pharaonis. Cuticular hydrocarbons are compounds, often found on antennae, that allow for communication in many social insects. In ant species, these compounds play an especially key role in nestmate recognition.
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Subsequently, the lands of the Radimichs became a part of the Chernihiv and Smolensk principalities. In the Primary Chronicle, it is recorded that the Radimichs, Vyatichi, and Severians "had the same customs", all lived violent lifestyles, "burned their dead and preserved the ashes in urns set upon posts beside the highways", and they did not enter monogamous marriages but practiced polygamy, specifically polygyny, instead. The Radimichs were last mentioned in a chronicle in 1169.
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Group of Topi The topi has what is possibly the most diverse social organization of the antelopes. Topi herds can take the form of "perennially sedentary-dispersion", "perennially mobile-aggregated" or something in between. This depends on the habitat and ecology of the areas they are in. In addition, the reproductive organization ranges between the traditional territorial system or resource defense polygyny herds to gatherings that contain short-lasting territories to lek systems.
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Milner and Harris reported that they were unable to determine the mating system but speculated that it may be facultative monogamy/polygyny. After a gestation period of 7 months, 1–2 young are born. At birth they are well developed and they weigh between 170–200 grams. In rescue conditions they can put on around 4% weight gain per day on a cows milk formula, however some youngsters do not thrive on this formula.
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During a stay at Quimiri, Bohórquez and his men abused the local Asháninka people, some of whom had been converted to Christianity by the Franciscans. In 1673, the Franciscans returned again to the Cerro de la Sal area, but in 1674 a convert named Mangoré killed 5 missionaries with arrows. Mangoré opposed the Franciscan's attempt to abolish polygyny. Mangoré's attempts to wipe out the Christians ended when Christian converts killed him at Quimiri.
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Polygyny was common among Vikings, rich and powerful Viking men tended to have many wives and concubines. Viking men would often buy or capture women and make them into their wives or concubines. Concubinage for Vikings was connected to slavery; the Vikings took both free women and slaves as concubines. Researchers have suggested that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands.
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Extra-pair copulations are a strategy used by females to avoid the sexual conflict caused by polygyny, allowing them access to better mate choice. Unlike in males, extra-pair copulations are advantageous for females because they present females with more mate choice as well as increase the genetic diversity of the community. Extra-pair copulations exemplify sexual conflict, a situation in which one behavior is advantageous for one sex, but disadvantageous for the other.
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Verses of the Rigveda, such as 3.44-45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility: The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the Rigveda. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position.
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Most had not been living as slaves to the Native Americans before the war. They lived —as their descendants still do— in and around Wewoka, Oklahoma, the community founded in 1849 by John Horse as a black settlement. Today it is the capital of the federally recognized Seminole Nation of Oklahoma. Following the Civil War, some Freedmen's leaders in Indian Territory practiced polygyny, as did ethnic African leaders in other diaspora communities.
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The newly mated queens will either fly off or walk some distance away from their parent nest to establish a new colony. Founding queens may temporarily work together in a phenomenon known as pleometrosis, but true polygyny has never been observed in mature colonies in the wild. Queens are fully claustral and do not venture out to feed when founding, instead solely relying on their fat reserves and wing muscles for sustenance.
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The Republic of Afghanistan, which is an Islamic Republic under Sharia Law, allows for polygyny. Afghan men may take up to four wives, as Islam allows for such. A man must treat all of his wives equally; however, it has been reported that these regulations are rarely followed. While the Qur’an states that a man is allowed a maximum of four wives, there is an unspecified number of women allowed to be his ‘concubines’.
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Despite the historical and cultural history of polygyny among Muslim South Africans, polygynous unions are officially illegal on the federal level in South Africa. After 1994, various laws such as the freedom of religion in the South African Constitution, the ratification of the UN's Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women and a proposed Draft Bill on Muslim Marriages have tackled the issue of Islamic polygynous unions in South Africa.
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The Genesis creation account tells the story of when God instituted marriage. This took place after the creation of the first woman, Eve, from Adam, the first man. Polygyny, or men having multiple wives at once, is one of the most common marital arrangements represented in the Old Testament, yet scholars doubt that it was common among average Israelites because of the wealth needed to practice it.Gene McAfee "Sex" The Oxford Companion to the Bible.
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Rape is a crime punishable by imprisonment, but a prevalent culture of silence has resulted in few rapists being apprehended. Police officials have been directly implicated in the widespread sexual violence against women. Polygyny, the custom of paying a ‘bride price’ to obtain a bride, is a recurring problem, as is using women as compensation between tribes to settle disputes. The courts have ruled that such settlements have denied the women their constitutional rights.
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Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband at the one time, is much less prevalent than polygyny and is now illegal in virtually every country in the world. It takes place only in remote communities.¿Está demostrado que el ser humano es monógamo por naturaleza? Polyandry is believed to be more common in societies with scarce environmental resources, as it is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival.
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This is recorded in sculpins, sunfish, darters, damselfish and cichlids where multiple females may visit a territorial male that guards and takes care of eggs and young. Polygyny may also involve a male guarding a harem of several females. This occurs in coral reef species, such as damselfishes, wrasses, parrotfishes, surgeonfishes, triggerfishes and tilefishes. Lek breeding, where males congregate to display to females, has been recorded in at least one species Cyrtocara eucinostomus.
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A supplementary feeding experiment on the Orkney islands showed that rates of polygyny were influenced by food levels; males provided with extra food had more breeding females than 'control' males that received no extra food. The nest is built on the ground or on a mound of dirt or vegetation. Nests are made of sticks and are lined inside with grass and leaves. Four to eight (exceptionally 2 to 10) whitish eggs are laid.
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Julidochromis species are secretive biparental substrate spawners, retreating to caves or rock crevices. Pairs are largely monogamous, however the largest male may maintain harems (polygyny) and the largest females may mate with multiple males at multiple nesting sites (polyandry). This has been recorded in both the wild and the aquarium. If a pair-bond is broken, the larger fish will drive the smaller fish out of the territory, sometimes killing him in the process.
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Finally, the groom applied kumkum to the bride's forehead and tied a knot that would remain intact for 3–10 days, after which they would rub themselves with turmeric, bathe, and untie the knot. Sex before marriage was not considered taboo, but it was understood that if the girl became pregnant she would marry the father of the child. The Bhumij recognise polygyny, barrenness of first wife is the main reason. Polyandry is unknown.
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Two practices that together lent a peculiarly Slobbovian twist to dynastic intrigue were those of polygamy (both polygyny and polyandry) and adult adoption. A Slobb was theoretically allowed up to five spouses, corresponding to the five Major Saints of the Sativan church. (Polygamy was introduced first by the second emperor, Breht the Barbarian. Objections by his wives resulted in the adoption of polyandry with the result that extremely complex collateral relationships of in-laws developed.
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The following terminology is commonly used among myrmecologists to describe the behaviors demonstrated by ants when founding and organizing colonies: ;Monogyny: Establishment of an ant colony under a single egg-laying queen. ;Polygyny: Establishment of an ant colony under multiple egg-laying queens. ;Oligogyny: Establishment of a polygynous colony where the multiple egg-laying queens remain far apart from one another in the nest. ;Haplometrosis: Establishment of a colony by a single queen.
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When the soil becomes exhausted, Yanomami frequently move to avoid areas that have become overused, a practice known as shifting cultivation. Yanomami women in Venezuela Children stay close to their mothers when young; most of the childrearing is done by women. Yanomami groups are a famous example of the approximately fifty documented societies that openly accept polyandry,Starkweather and Hames, 2012 though polygyny among Amazonian tribes has also been observed. Many unions are monogamous.
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In species with non-defense polygyny, males are not territorial and wander widely in search of females to monopolize. These males establish dominance hierarchies, with the high-ranking males having access to the most females. This occurs in species like Belding's ground squirrels and some tree squirrel species. A mating plug in a female Richardson's ground squirrel Promiscuity, in which both males and females mate with multiple partners, also occurs in rodents.
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Polygyny is common in the adzuki bean borer. Males of the species mate multiply and are polygynous although the females of the species mate only once and are monandrous. Males follow the many traces of female pheromones and land close to females before performing a courtship ritual and mating (transferring spermatophores to the female). This results in the majority of parental care being provided by the female of the species since male desertion is common.
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The Southern African Vlei Rat is mainly promiscuous in mating, although some populations are polygynous. Females in polygyny mating systems can terminate their pregnancy, which may be a counter-strategy to infanticide. Males and females preferably mate within their own population and discriminate between individuals of another population through their odor. Females may give birth up to four times a year, producing 1-4 offspring, with a gestation period of five to six weeks.
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Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half to three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive lives, though the period can be as short as one year. Females are in estrus for about 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days. Females are sometimes reported as monogamous, but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common.
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Polygamy (a practice that overlaps heavily with polyamory) is the practice of legally marrying more than one person. It is against the law to marry more than one person in the United States; however, there are many countries around the world where polygamy and/or polyamorous relationships are not unusual. For example, it is not uncommon in many middle eastern cultures for men to have multiple wives. This type of polyamorous relationship is known as polygyny.
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Early theories explaining the determinants of postmarital residenceFor example, Lewis Henry Morgan, Edward Tylor, or George Peter Murdock connected it with the sexual division of labor. However, to date, cross-cultural tests of this hypothesis using worldwide samples have failed to find any significant relationship between these two variables. However, Korotayev's tests show that the female contribution to subsistence does correlate significantly with matrilocal residence in general. However, this correlation is masked by a general polygyny factor.
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Polygyny in great reed warblers: a long- term study of factors contributing to male fitness. Ecology, 79(7), 2376-2390. Also, female grayling butterflies (Hipparchia semele) choose males based on their performance in flight competitions, where the winning male settles in the territory best for oviposition. Female Coquerel's sifaka (Propithecus coquereli) mate with the winners of battles for the harem because the male has shown that he is stronger than another, potentially offering more protection from predators.
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Information about the breeding of this family is incomplete, with many species having never been studied. In all the species studied the cuckooshrikes are territorial; in species that do not migrate these territories are maintained year-round. Cuckooshrikes are monogamous, with the pair bonds apparently lasting throughout the year. Only one instance of non-monogamous breeding has been recorded, an instance of polygyny in white-winged trillers in Australia, where one male aided two females in raising their young.
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This is called the Male Compromise Theory. Such serial monogamy may effectively resemble polygyny in its reproductive consequences because some men are able to utilize more than one woman's reproductive lifespan through repeated marriages. Serial monogamy may also refer to sequential sexual relationships, irrespective of marital status. A pair of humans may remain sexually exclusive, or monogamous, until the relationship has ended and then each may go on to form a new exclusive pairing with a different partner.
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After a short battle with 24, Glesni regained her nest. Blue 24 did not retreat entirely, but only to an empty nest platform on the Cors Dyfi nature reserve, and Monty was observed mating with both females on a regular basis - an interesting case of polygyny. On Sunday 17 April, Blue 24 was observed incubating on the spare nest platform, indicating an egg had been laid. The following day, Glesni laid the first of three eggs.
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The small red ant, Leptothorax acervorum, has colonies that switch from monogyny to polygyny as a result of seasonal fluctuations. The little fire ant Wasmannia auropunctata produces unique kinds of meiotic oocytes with a drastic reduction in recombination. These oocytes may either fuse together for gyne production (automictic parthenogenesis with central fusion) or be fertilized by male gametes for the production of workers. In the wasp species Apoica flavissima queens display distinct morphological differences from the sterile worker class.
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USAID (February 2005). Vulnerability to HIV infection in Mali is associated with a variety of factors, including poverty, poor health conditions, certain cultural practices, and low literacy levels. Cultural factors related to HIV vulnerability may include male dominance of women, the early onset of sexual activity among females, and polygamy, while poverty may result in increased prostitution. In addition to polygyny, another cultural factor widely accepted among much of the population is multiple sex partners outside of marriage.
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She thus constructs through her descriptions how the reader perceives the second wife and the husband. The second wife, Hajila, is seen as a rival and is reduced through Isma's portrayals to body parts that are disassociated from Hajila as a whole person. This reveals Isma's lack of respect for Hajila and the process of "othering" that Isma uses to degrade Hajila. Hence, the idea that polygyny creates a sense of solidarity between wives is shown to be flawed.
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Colonies of A. flavissima can rotate between polygyny (multiple queens) and monogyny (one queen). Due to this, the relatedness of workers to the queen or queens varies through time. Large nests typically have more queens, so relatedness between individuals could correlate with the size of the nest. Since it is often believed that workers rear the young of the queen altruistically due to relatedness of females, this fluctuation may lead to conflicts between castes in large nests.
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The Mwera people have had a Traditional Religion that existed through the 19th century. With the arrival of the German colonial rule of Tanzania, the German Christian missionaries introduced Christianity among the Mwera, and gained converts. However, after the World War I, the British colonial rule of Tanzania began, which expelled all German missionaries. The Mwera missions were abandoned, Islamic missionaries filled the gap particularly in the coastal regions, gained Muslim converts and introduced polygyny among the Mwera people.
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Although some women did not like the job, many said they thought it was an easy way to get pleasure and money. The men stated they would have preferred it if their wives did not have to work as prostitutes, but they nonetheless were happy that they themselves did not have to work. Both the men and the women held their clients in "infinite contempt" and often referred to them as "the dogs". Polygyny was common in the group.
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The elder sister of the deceased Desdemona, Eleonora Rohaida Tan then became his second wife. His third and fourth wives are Tarhata Ibrahim and Maimona Palalisan. His fifth wife comes from the tribe of Subanen, while Sherry Rahim became his sixth wife. As per polygyny, Islam allows men to marry up to four wives currently alive at the same time, thought Misuari already have six wives, this does not include his first wife who have been deceased.
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In the European rabbit's mating system, dominant bucks exhibit polygyny, whereas lower-status individuals (both bucks and does) often form monogamous breeding relationships. Rabbits signal their readiness to copulate by marking other animals and inanimate objects with an odoriferous substance secreted though a chin gland, in a process known as "chinning".Gonzalez-Mariscal, G., M. E. Albonetti, et al. (1997). "Transitory inhibition of scent marking by copulation in male and female rabbits." Animal Behavior 53:323-333.
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A mating system is a way in which a group is structured in relation to sexual behaviour. The precise meaning depends upon the context. With respect to animals, the term describes which males and females mate under which circumstances. Recognised systems include monogamy, polygamy (which includes polygyny, polyandry, and polygynandry), and promiscuity, all of which lead to different mate choice outcomes and thus these systems affect how sexual selection works in the species which practice them.
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Two records of female Cooper's Hawks courting two different males in neighboring urban territories. Journal of Raptor Research, 51(1), 83-84. In Grand Forks, North Dakota, a single male has been recorded to successfully mate with two nearby females, with similar records from New Mexico. However, the breeding efforts in Grand Forks were found to be disproportionately producing males, seven to one.Driscoll, T. G. (2015). Polygyny leads to disproportionate recruitment in urban Cooper’s Hawks (Accipiter cooperii).
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Members of the royal family of the Owamboland are known as aakwanekamba, ovakwaluvala, ovakwamalanga, ovakwaanime, aakwanyoka and many more; only those who belong to this family by birth, through the maternal line, have a claim to chieftainship. The tribes figure their descent by a matrilineal kinship system, with hereditary chiefs arising from the daughter's children, not the son's. Polygyny is accepted, with the first wife recognized as the senior. Ovambo brew a traditional liquor called ombike.
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Some, like Ali, argue that the overall condition of women who lived in the jahiliyya improved with the advent of Islam. These scholars cite a general establishment of order and protection provided by the Qur'anic verses, espousing the view that "the position of women was ameliorated to a greater degree by the mission of Muhammad." Nefarious practices of infanticide-particularly that of female newborns- capricious divorces, and unlimited license of polygyny all were social phenomena eradicated by the revelation of Qur'anic verses relating to the question of polygyny. Moulavi Chiragh Ali summarizes this view, stating, "The Qur’an gradually improved and elevated the degraded condition of women [in the jahiliyya] by curtailing, in the first place, the unlimited number of wives to four...and, in the second place, declaring it impossible to deal equitably with more than one wife even if men ‘would fain to do so,’ and thus virtually abolishing polygamy." Conversely, those of Ahmed's perspective would argue that with the arrival of Qur’anic law came the loss of sexual autonomy for women.
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Polyandry is notably more rare than polygyny, though less rare than the figure commonly cited in the Ethnographic Atlas (1980) which listed only those polyandrous societies found in the Himalayan Mountains. More recent studies have found 53 societies outside the 28 found in the Himalayans which practice polyandry. It is most common in egalitarian societies marked by high male mortality or male absenteeism. It is associated with partible paternity, the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father.
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While the majority of Wagogo have only one wife at any given time, most found polygyny to be highly valued and carrying a high priority. It was the prerogative of older, well-established men. A reasonably prosperous man could hope to have two and sometimes three wives, and sometimes together. Most marriages took place within a day's walking distance after agreement is reached on the number of livestock to be included in the bridewealth, only then is the transfer made.
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Edith's checkerspot (Euphydryas editha) is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is a resident species of western North America and among the subspecies, entomologists have long been intrigued by their many phenotypic variations in coloration, wing length, and overall body size. Most populations are monophagous and rely on plants including Plantago erecta and Orthocarpus densiflorus as its host species in developing from eggs through to larvae, pupae, and mature butterflies. Males exhibit polygyny whereas females rarely mate more than once.
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The term pair bond originated in 1940 in reference to mated pairs of birds; referring to a monogamous or relatively monogamous relationship. Whilst some form of monogamy may characterise around 90% of bird species, in mammals long- term pairing (beyond the brief duration of copulation itself) is rare, at around 3% (see animal monogamy). The incidence of monogamy in primate species is similarly low in contrast with polygyny (one male mating with two or more females), the most common pattern.Holland, Maximilian.
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Initial uxorilocal residence combined with the sequential establishment of separate households by each older sibling frequently leaves the youngest daughter and her husband to care for the aged parents and ultimately to inherit the house. All the children divide lands and other valuables. Polygyny is traditionally allowed but uncommon since the LPDR government outlawed it shortly after coming to power. Further, having multiple wives generally was restricted to the elite because it required the ability to maintain a larger household.
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This is known as resource defense polygyny when the male controls resources such as food to monopolize females. Also, because males are larger than females, they are more successful in harassing females into mating with them as can be seen by the method of copulation. In other cases, in order for the female to extract the pollen or nectar, she has to land on the flower and crawl into the corolla and in this position she is vulnerable to attack by the male.
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On top of secular activities, the lineage head is also the chief priest. He leads many of the ceremonies and serves as the link between the living and dead as all religious offerings are presented to him. The smallest unit within a lineage is a hut; this is either a wife and her unmarried children or the same with the husband as well. There is a practice of polygyny although a small percentage of men actually have more than one wife.
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Polygyny varies according to a woman's age, religion and educational experience. Research conducted in the city of Ibadan, the second largest city in Nigeria, show that non-educated woman are significantly higher (58%) to be in a polygynous union compared to college educated women (4%). Followers of traditional African religions are expected to have as many wives as they can afford. Muslim men are allowed up to 4 women and only the basis he can care for and treat them equally.
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Muslim leaders such as Talgat Tadzhuddin also pushed for the legal recognition of polygynous marriage. Polygyny was legalized and documented in unrecognised Chechen Republic of Ichkeria but Russian authorities had annulled these polygynous marriages after they regained control over territory of Ichkeria. Later Ramzan Kadyrov, President of the Chechen Republic, has been quoted on radio as saying that the depopulation of Chechnya by war justifies legalizing polygamy."I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do: The Economic Case for Polygamy", Pilegesh.
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In this version, Nyambe is shown to be the founder of the Lozi nation. Nyambe and his wife Nasilele had a daughter Mwambwa (which means "one who is being talked about"). In a variation on this theme, Nyambe is said to have created many wives for himself and had children by all of them. (This story also legitimises polygyny in the Lozi nation.) When Mwambwa had grown up, Nyambe fell in love with her and had incestuous sexual intercourse with her.
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Male daffodil cichlids are facultatively polygynous. Polygyny is regarded as a beneficial mating strategy for males, whereas females often suffer a reduction in pair male contributions. Some males hold only one territory with one breeding female while other males hold multiple territories, each one with its own breeding female. Polygynous males are larger in size, body-scraped less (they suffered less from ectoparasites), have larger testes (when controlled for body mass), and have higher circulating levels of 11-ketotestosterone than monogamous males.
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When the Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese, the concubines of others were added to the list of inappropriate partners. Polyandry in Tibet was common traditionally, as was polygyny, and having several wives or husbands was never regarded as having sex with inappropriate partners. Most typically, fraternal polyandry is practiced, but sometimes father and son have a common wife, which is a unique family structure in the world. Other forms of marriage are also present, like group marriage and monogamous marriage.
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Co-wives are often sistersDescola 1994: 9 (see sororal polygyny). The standard Achuar home is settled near a river or lake, but at some distance from major waterways because of mosquitoes and to protect the household against raids by canoe.Descola 1994: 111 It is shaped as a large oval, commonly without outer walls to allow ventilation, with a high roof with straight sides. The roof is often made out of palm tree fronds while two types of palm are used for house beams.
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MacDonald, John F., Matthews, R. W. "Nesting Biology of the Southern Yellowjacket, Vespula squamosa (Hymenoptera: Vespidae): Social Parasitism and Independent Founding", "Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society", January 1984. The colonies may be either annual or perennial depending on the climate, and in many perennial nests, polygyny takes place. In addition, this species uses pheromones both as a sexual attractant and an alarm signal.Landoldt, P. J. and Heath, R. R. "Alarm Pheromone Behavior of Vespula Squamosa (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)", "Florida Entomologist".
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Healing by the laying on of hands; strict observance of the law of Moses; the destruction of fetishes; the repudiation of sorcery, magic, charms, and witches; and the prohibition of polygyny were all part of his original message. The extent of his success caused increasing alarm among both church and state authorities. Numerous preachers and sages appeared, many of them professing to be his followers. Some of these preachers and possibly some of Kimbangu's own disciples introduced anti-European elements in their teachings.
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Most monogamous family are formed by Christians, and small groups among Muslims and adherents of traditional beliefs allows Polygyny. The Manggarai people to this day are divided into three social groups namely, aristocrats (), community members () and descendants of slaves. The traditional settlement has a circular layout, and the modern () is an ordinary one. In the center of the settlement is a round public space on which is a large tree; usually of the Ficus genus and megalithic structures are found.
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F. exsecta is a eusocial species, displaying a dominance hierarchy among its individual colony members. Amongst the narrow-headed ant species, the two different types of colony structure are: monogyny, one queen per colony, and polygyny, more than one queen per colony. Most commonly, one of these two different types is prevalent within a population. These two types of colonies differ not only in the queen’s mating system, but also in the organization of types of offspring and its hierarchy system.
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These events were seen then and now as more exception than rule, with interfaith relations deemed very good, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom.Islam is thriving in impoverished Niger. 6 December 1997 (Reuters) Divorce and Polygyny are unremarkable, women are not secluded, and head coverings are not mandatory—they are often a rarity in urban areas.Dossier 17: The Muslim Religious Right ('Fundamentalists') and Sexuality .
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Painted buntings are mostly monogamous and are solitary or in pairs during the breeding season, but sometimes exhibit polygyny. The breeding season begins in late April and lasts through to early August, with activity peaking mid-May through to mid- July. The male arrives about a week before the female and starts to establish a small territory. The nest is typically hidden in low, dense vegetation and is built by the females and woven into the surrounding vegetation for strength.
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Polygyny has been a historic practice usually limited to the chief or a wealthy family. The traditional religious beliefs of the Chokwe center around ancestor spirits worship. In groups where chiefs exist, they are considered the representative of god Kalunga or Nzambi, therefore revered and called Mwanangana or "overseer of the land." There is a sometimes perceived to be a spiritual connection between works of arts such as handicrafts and carved objects and ancestors, as well as god Kalunga or Nzambi.
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This model does not predict a genetic benefit; rather, the reward is more mates. In a study done on great reed warblers, models based on the polygyny threshold and sexy- son hypotheses predict that females should gain evolutionary advantage in either short-term or long-term in this mating system. Although the importance of female choice was demonstrated, the study did not support the hypotheses. Other studies, such as those conducted on long-tailed widowbirds, have demonstrated the existence of female choice.
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It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher fertility rates and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with polygyny which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections.
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The de facto form of polygyny is found in other parts of the world as well (including some Mormon sects and Muslim families in the United States). In some societies such as the Lovedu of South Africa, or the Nuer of the Sudan, aristocratic women may become female 'husbands.' In the Lovedu case, this female husband may take a number of polygamous wives. This is not a lesbian relationship, but a means of legitimately expanding a royal lineage by attaching these wives' children to it.
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The Severians were a patriarchial culture ruled by clan or tribal leaders, who held political authority in the commune (zadruga) and convened tribal councils. The centers of political power were the fortified grady, which were built in forests or on elevations, around which villages developed. Some Saltovo-Mayaki forts were situated on Severian land. In the Primary Chronicle, it is recorded that the Drevlians, Radimichs, Vyatichi, and Severians all lived violent lifestyles, and they did not enter monogamous marriages but practiced polygamy, specifically polygyny, instead.
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When Sadiq was in England, the second Ahmadi caliph directed him to establish the first Ahmadiyya mission in America. Sadiq sailed from England on January 26, 1920, and reached Philadelphia in the second week of February. The immigration department blocked his entry into the USA on the grounds that he was not allowed to polygyny in an effort to stop him to preach in America. He faced the situation with courage and patience and filed an appeal to the Department of Justice in Washington for entry.
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Polygyny often is associated with many social insect species, and usually is characterized by limited mating flights, small queen size, and other characteristics. However, carpenter ants have "extensive" mating flights and relatively large queens, distinguishing them from polygynous species. Carpenter ants are described as oligogynous because they have a number of fertile queens which are intolerant of each other and must therefore spread to different areas of the nest. Some aggressive interactions have been known to take place between queens, but not necessarily through workers.
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In 1977, Stephen T. Emlen and Lewis W. Oring created a mating systems model that shows how resource distribution affects female living patterns and subsequently, mating systems. In a mating system, the limiting sex (usually females) is the one that the limited sex (usually males) tries to monopolize. The combination of resource distribution, parental care, and female breeding synchrony determines what mating strategies the limited sex will employ. Polygyny will occur when resources are localized and females form clusters, making it easier for males to control them.
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In socially polygynous birds, EPP is only half as common as in socially monogamous birds. Some ethologists consider this finding to be support for the 'female choice' hypothesis of mating systems in birds. A polygynous leader male will always be the best mating choice before he is beaten by another male, so it is harder for females to find a partner better than their mate in polygyny as compared to monogamy. This might reduce the number of females at risk for EPC once their mate finds out.
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For instance, the Nuer of Sudan and the Brahmans of Nepal practice polygyny, where one man has several marriages to two or more women. The Nyar of India and Nyimba of Tibet and Nepal practice polyandry, where one woman is often married to two or more men. The marital practice found in most cultures, however, is monogamy, where one woman is married to one man. Anthropologists also study different marital taboos across cultures, most commonly the incest taboo of marriage within sibling and parent-child relationships.
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Also in contrast with both fraternal and associated systems, the men who visited a single woman could not be brothers, nor could a man have sexual relations with two women of the same household. That is, fraternal polyandry and sororal polygyny were prohibited. Reclining Nayar Woman (1902) by Raja Ravi Varma shows a Nair lady, identified as the character Indulekha, a main character from a Malayalam novel of the same name. The novel had criticized the Nair matrilocal and matrilineal system; notably the relationships with Nambudiri Brahmins.
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It is clear that this quote was revealed out of compassion towards women, and not as a means to please male sexuality, which is a common modern interpretation of such verses. Putting the verses regarding polygyny into the broader Qur'anic context by examining the nature of marriage in Islam helps understanding them. The Quran [4:21- "And how could ye take it when ye have gone in unto each other, and they have Taken from you a solemn covenant?"] refers to marriage as a mithaq, i.e.
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Thus, polygyny was allowable for charitable and honorable purposes. Islamic feminists point out that "a recognition that gender inequality in the old world was assumed and that perceptions of women in Christian and Jewish texts are not that different from those of Islamic texts" is lacking from common understandings of Islam. Two leading feminist Muslim scholars who are seeking to increase women's rights through the reinterpretation of religious texts are Amina Wadud and Asma Barlas. Both women embrace Islam as a religion that preaches gender equality.
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Their marriage was allegedly a ménage à trois, involving Luiza's sister Ana. Rumors also had it that the two other Wirth sisters, Carlotta, who was Queen Elisabeth's music tutor, and Emilia, wife of Romanian Army General Staff Chief Nicolae Dona, were also V. A. Urechia's lovers. Such claims of sororal polygyny were notably popularized by Eminescu, who once described Urechia as a "poor fellow who has two keep two sisters as his wives." Story has it that Dona's son, officer Alexandru Guriţă, was Urechia's illegitimate son.
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Some females also benefit from polygyny because extra pair copulations in females increase the genetic diversity with the community of that species. This occurs because the male is not able to watch over all of the females and some will become promiscuous. Eventually, the male will not have the proper nutrition which makes the male unable to produce sperm. For instance, male amphipods will deplete their reserves of glycogen and triglycerides only to have it replenished after the male is done guarding that mate.
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The breeding season of the cinereous tinamou is year-round due to the perfect climate that they live in; however there is a period of preferred mating, which is August through October, except in Colombia, where it is in June. Like the majority of the tinamou family, the males practice simultaneous polygyny and the females practice successive polyandry. To initiate courtship, the males will usually call out to attract the females. It is believed that the courtship ritual is similar to that of others in their family.
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But Mizrahi Jews are not permitted to enter into new polygamous marriages in Israel. However polygamy may still occur in non-European Jewish communities that exist in countries where it is not forbidden, such as Jewish communities in Yemen and the Arab world. Karaite Jews, who do not adhere to Rabbinic interpretations of the Torah, do not practice polygyny. Karaites interpret to mean that a man can only take a second wife if his first wife gives her consentKeter Torah on Leviticus, pp. 96–97.
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Thus, it has been observed that the most dimorphic species tend to polygyny and a social organization based on male dominance, whereas in the less dimorphic species, monogamy and family groups are more common. Fleagle et al. (1980) and Kay (1982), on the other hand, have suggested that the behavior of extinct species can be inferred on the basis of sexual dimorphism and, e.g. Plavcan and van Schaick (1992) think that sex differences in size among primate species reflect processes of an ecological and social nature.
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Owning a territory tends to lead to more copulations although the territory itself does not hold any resources or nests. The defense of these territories represents a lek polygyny mating system that is not based on resources. But rather, females perhaps incentivize males to compete for territories by restricting mating to these territories; this way, females know that the territorial males they choose to mate with are strong, healthy males. To attract females to the territories, males can rub their abdomens across the territories to apply pheromones.
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Another form of extradyadic sex is polyamory, a "non-possessive, honest, responsible and ethical philosophy and practice of loving multiple people simultaneously". There are various types of relationships in polyamory such as intentional family, group relationship, and group marriage. One type of group relationship can be a triad involving a married couple and an additional person who all share sexual intimacy, however, it is usually an addition of a female. Unlike polygyny or polyandry, both men and women may have multiple partners within the confines of polyamory.
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It also occurs or has occurred in Nigeria, the Nymba, and some pre- contact Polynesian societies,Goldman I., 1970, Ancient Polynesian Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press' though probably only among higher caste women. It is also encountered in some regions of Yunnan and Sichuan regions of China, among the Mosuo people in China (who also practice polygyny as well), and in some sub-Saharan African such as the Maasai people in Kenya and northern TanzaniaThe Last of the Maasai. Mohamed Amin, Duncan Willetts, John Eames. 1987.
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For such reasons, senior wives sometimes work hard or contribute from their own resources to enable their husbands to accumulate the bride price for an extra wife. Polygyny may also result from the practice of levirate marriage. In such cases, the deceased man's heir may inherit his assets and wife; or, more usually, his brothers may marry the widow. This provides support for the widow and her children (usually also members of the brothers' kin group) and maintains the tie between the husbands' and wives' kin groups.
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Also important is the vertical line drawn from the intersection of the line with the bigamy curve to the monogamy curve above. This represents the fitness gain of a female who chooses monogamy over bigamy due to, here, resource holding differences. Orians predicted that animals exhibiting resource defence polygyny, such as the fish Neolamprologus pulcher would fit to this model when living in successive habitats, where territory quality is very variable. Using the territory quality to decide whether to pursue a monogamous or polygynous mating relationship.
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Christianity has influenced this modern trend in current marriage system among Bikpakpaam. Another prominent phenomenon that is waning in Bikpakpaam marriage system is polygyny. Formerly, a typical ukpakpanja could marry more than one wife, depending on his social and financial strength. Now due to Christianity, economic hardship, rivalry and modernity, the polygamy is fading out and most men now marry just one wife and a maximum of two except biborb (chiefs) who still marry many wives betrothed onto them by clans and well wishers.
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"The Poetics of Creation: Urarina Cosmology and Historical Consciousness." Latin American Indian Literatures Journal 1994 10:22-45 It is based on ayahuasca shamanism, which is based in part on the profoundly ritualized consumption of Brugmansia suaveolens. The Urarina customarily practice brideservice,Dean, Bartholomew. "Forbidden fruit: Infidelity, affinity and brideservice among the Urarina of Peruvian Amazonia," Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute March 1995, Vol. 1 Issue 1, p87, 24pHirschfeld Archive for Sexology, citing Dean 1995 uxorilocal patterns of post-nuptial residence, and sororal polygyny.
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Over a period of several years, Patmah has worked to help her husband Tamin build his book- selling business into a large printing house. However, in the early 1940s, after the business begins to succeed Tamin takes on a younger wife. Outraged at her husband's polygyny, Patmah abandons him and goes to work as a nurse, leaving their four-year-old daughter Nuraini with her friend, Tinah. During the Japanese occupation, Patmah is promised that she can receive further training as a nurse in Tokyo.
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Under the Penal Law Amendment (Bigamy) Law, 5719 (1959), it is illegal to marry in Israel while currently married, regardless of religion.The English Law of Bigamy in a Multi-Confessional Society: The Israel Experience by P Shifman. Since 1977, attempting to take a second spouse can be punished by up to five years in jail, although the law is rarely enforced. Polygyny is nevertheless still practiced by Muslim Negev Bedouins; according to a 2013 Knesset report, 30% of Negev Bedouin men have more than one wife.
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The social dominance hierarchy for B. atratus is in large part due to the polygyny colony cycling. Dominant queens that have ascended the dominance scale have much greater access to nest territories on the brood clump. Less dominant queens are often forced to the outside of the brood clump and sometimes are forced out of the nest/brood clump area entirely. While subordinate queens become the equivalent of workers, dominant queens have the most reproductive success and also usually live longer than their subordinate counterparts.
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Love marriages, or choice marriages, existed, but these were all but arranged because there were usually few eligible partners. A young woman was eligible for marriage after puberty, but a man had to prove he was efficient enough in hunting to support a family before he could marry. Inuit marriages rarely included large ceremonies; couples were often considered married after the birth of their first child. There were monogamous and polygamous marriages, but polygyny was rare because few men could afford to support multiple wives.
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American black bears mating at the North American Bear Center The mating system of bears has variously been described as a form of polygyny, promiscuity and serial monogamy. During the breeding season, males take notice of females in their vicinity and females become more tolerant of males. A male bear may visit a female continuously over a period of several days or weeks, depending on the species, to test her reproductive state. During this time period, males try to prevent rivals from interacting with their mate.
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Like other Indonesian works from the period, Di Bawah Lindungan Ka'bah is didactic and attempts to educate the reader based on the writer's viewpoint. However, this is less predominant than in other works, such as Marah Rusli's Sitti Nurbaya (1922). Jassin writes that Hamka used the novel to educate readers about Islamic fundamentals and undermine the power of local tradition. Di Bawah Lindungan Ka'bah does not touch on polygyny, a topic much debated in Indonesian literature in the early 20th century; this is a trend found throughout Hamka's works.
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In British Celtic law, women had in many respects (for instance marriage law) a better position than Greek and Roman women. According to Irish and Welsh law, attested from the Early Middle Ages, a woman was always under the authority of a man, first her father, then her husband, and, if she was widowed, her son. She could not normally give away or pass on her property without their agreement. Her marriage was arranged by her male relatives, divorce and polygyny (the marriage of one man to several women) were controlled by specific rules.
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Two L. acervorum queens fighting each other Leptothorax acervorum is a model organism to investigate the social structure of multiple-queen colonies. Leptothorax acervorum is a facultatively polygynous ant, meaning that colonies with one or more than one queen occur, and these colonies acquire extra queens by adoption—thus polygyny is secondary. Electrophoretic allozyme analysis showed that cohabiting queens are close relatives. This reinforces the assumption that the queens in L. acervorum colonies form mother-daughter-sister groups, which arise from adopting newly mated queens into their natal nests.
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In her early work, she produced the first ethnography of modern-day Mormon polygyny in her masters' thesis. For her dissertation, she explored the factors contributing to female conversion patterns and investigating the intimacies between co- wives in the holy wedding ceremony which bonds women to each other and to one man. She also contributed to several chapters in books. Her examination of the atrocities following the Texas raid on the YFZ Ranch, where 460 children were removed from their homes is found in Cardell Jacobson's anthology and in her Mellen book.
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More contradictions exists with Latin Canon Law, such as in the Collectio canonum Hibernensis (Irish Collection of Canons), than with Vernacular Church law. Brehon law allows polygyny (albeit while citing the authority of the Old Testament) and divorce, among other actions that canon law expressly forbids.Binchy 1978, p ix At the same time it is clear that the two legal systems have borrowed from each other. Much Latin terminology has entered into Old Irish and into the legal system, such as a type of witness teist from Latin testis.
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881–884 in Perrin, Würsig and Thewissen (2009). Several species have male-biased sexual dimorphism that correlates with the degree of polygyny in a species: highly polygynous species like elephant seals are extremely sexually dimorphic, while less polygynous species have males and females that are closer in size. In lobodontine seals, females are slightly larger than males. Males of sexually dimorphic species also tend to have secondary sex characteristics, such as the prominent proboscis of elephant seals, the inflatable red nasal membrane of hooded seals and the thick necks and manes of otariids.
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Both the Babylonian and Assyrian families were monogamous in principle but not entirely so in practice since polygyny was frequently practiced by the rulers. In the patriarchal society of Mesopotamia the nuclear family was called a "house". In order "to build a house" a man was supposed to marry one woman and if she did not provide him with offspring, he could take a second wife. The Code of Hammurabi states that he loses his right to do so if the wife herself gives him a slave as concubine.
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Christianity adopted a similar attitude (cf. 1 Tm 3:2,12; Tt 1:6), which conformed with Jesus' approach. Michael Coogan, in contrast, states that "Polygyny continued to be practised well into the biblical period, and it is attested among Jews as late as the second century CE." Under Judges and the monarchy, old restrictions went into disuse, especially among royalty, though the Books of Samuel and Kings, which cover entire period of monarchy, do not record a single case of bigamy among commoners — except for Samuel's father. The wisdom books e.g.
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The principle most often associated with Mormon fundamentalism is plural marriage, a form of polygyny first taught in the Latter Day Saint movement by the movement's founder, Smith. A second and closely associated principle is that of the United Order, a form of egalitarian communalism. Mormon fundamentalists believe that these and other principles were wrongly abandoned or changed by the LDS Church in its efforts to become reconciled with mainstream American society. Today, the LDS Church excommunicates any of its members who practice plural marriage or who otherwise closely associate themselves with Mormon fundamentalist practices.
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The surprisingly close parallels between the early medieval Irish and Welsh laws where sexual unions are concerned,Charles-Edwards 1980 and the similarity between the most prestigious union described in them with the Gaulish marriage as described by Caesar,b.g. 6.19.1–3 indicate that the treatment of different sexual unions was quite similar over wide areas of western Europe from late prehistory well into the medieval period. We also know that, at least amongst the Gaulish and the early medieval Irish nobility, polygyny was a widespread practice.b.g. 1.53.4, 6.19.
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Regarding sexual dimorphism among primates, humans falls into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large testes. This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in a group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males compared to exclusive polygyny and monogamy but frequent sperm competition. Other means of sperm competition could include improving the sperm itself or its packaging materials (spermatophore). The male black-winged damselfly provides a striking example of an adaptation to sperm competition.
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In some monogamous pair-bonded species there have been observations of extra-pair copulations, wherein a male or female member and a partner of the opposite sex, other than the so-called mate, have been witnessed mating. Polyandry, or a polyandrous mating system, is when one reproductive adult female mates with two or more different adult males. In this mating system, the adult males mate exclusively with the adult female. Polygyny, or a polygynous mating system, is when one adult male mates with two or more adult females.
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However, when some of the media presented an exaggerated take on the progressive bill, Manhouchehrian had to leave Tehran until the publicity died down, and possible threats to her safety subsided. As a consequence, the family law articles on polygamy and child custody were not addressed until 1975. Nonetheless the Family Protection Law abolished extrajudicial divorce, greatly limited polygyny, and established special Family Courts for dealing with matters relating to the new personal status legislation. The conservative clergy were vehemently opposed to the Family Protection Act and its goals.
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Marmosets are highly active, living in the upper canopy of forest trees, and feeding on insects, fruit, leaves, tack, sap and gum. They have long lower incisors, which allow them to chew holes in tree trunks and branches to harvest the gum inside; some species are specialised feeders on gum. Marmosets live in family groups of three to 15, consisting of one to two breeding females, an unrelated male, their offspring, and occasionally extended family members and unrelated individuals. Their mating systems are highly variable and can include monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry.
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Therefore, repudiation was replaced with divorce while woman had to consent to their marriages, suppression paternal agreement. In addition, Polygyny was prohibited and equality between fathers and mothers but also between children was part of the law. Bourguiba also reformed the judicial system, suppressing religious courts and initiating governmental ones. On the second anniversary of his return to Tunisia, on 1 June 1957, Bourguiba wanted to proclaim a Republic system, but the French-Tunisian relation crisis because of the suspension of the financial aid from France, adjourned the event.
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Studies of the Ngwa group in eastern Nigeria shows that on average, women in polygynous unions are 22-26% less fertile then women in monogamous unions. Data shows that the greater the intensity of polygyny, the lower the fertility of successive wives: 15 percent deficit for first wives; a 37% deficit for second wives; and a 46% deficit for third or more wives. Studies show that seems to exist because of the widening age gap between the successive order of wives and because of the decreasing exposure to coitus, if all coitus occurs in marriage.
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One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the wife can set a condition, in the marriage contract, that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage. In such a case, the husband cannot marry another woman as long as he is married to his wife. According to traditional Islamic law, each of those wives keeps their property and assets separate; and are paid mahar and maintenance separately by their husband.
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Nest entrance guard Stingless bees, such as M. quadrifasciata, are highly eusocial bees that are characterized by having perennial colonies that are typically headed by a single-mated queen. The average number of adult workers and queens within a colony is 300-400. There has been a novel case of temporal polygyny within a colony of M. quadrifasciata, where eight egg-laying queens were found to be coexisting in a single colony. New colonies are established in a slow process, when the number of worker bees exceed 500 or 600 individuals in the parent colony.
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Other fragments in the Buddhist scripture seem to treat polygamy unfavorably, leading some authors to conclude that Buddhism generally does not approve of itThe Ethics of Buddhism, Shundō Tachibana, Routledge, 1992, or alternatively regards it as a tolerated, but subordinate, marital model.An introduction to Buddhist ethics: foundations, values, and issues, Brian Peter Harvey, Cambridge University Press, 2000, Thailand legally recognized polygamy until 1955. Myanmar outlawed polygyny from 2015. In Sri Lanka, polyandry was legal in the kingdom of Kandy, but outlawed by British after conquering the kingdom in 1815.
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One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the wife can set a condition, in then marriage contract, that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage. In such a case, the husband cannot marry another woman as long as he is married to his wife. According to traditional Islamic law, each of those wives keeps their property and assets separate; and are paid mahar and maintenance separately by their husband.
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Canada has taken a strong stand against polygamy, and the Canadian Department of Justice has argued that polygyny is a violation of International Human Rights Law, as a form of gender discrimination. In Canada, the federal Criminal Code applies throughout the country. It extends the definition of polygamy to having any kind of conjugal union with more than one person at the same time. Also anyone who assists, celebrates, or is a part to a rite, ceremony, or contract that sanctions a polygamist relationship is guilty of polygamy.
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His study of a small brown bird, the dunnock, linked detailed behavioural observations of individuals to their reproductive success, using DNA profiles to measure paternity and maternity, and revealed how sexual conflicts gave rise to variable mating systems including: monogamy, polygyny, polyandry and polygynandry. His studies of cuckoos and their hosts have revealed an evolutionary arms race of brood parasite adaptations and host counter-adaptations. Other studies include: territory economics in pied wagtails; contest behaviour and mate searching in butterflies and toads; parent-offspring conflict and the transition to independence in young birds.
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However, tensions between Mormons and non-Mormons again escalated, and in 1844 Smith was killed by a mob, precipitating a succession crisis. The largest group of Mormons (LDS Church) accepted Brigham Young as the new prophet/leader and emigrated to what became the Utah Territory. There, the church began the open practice of plural marriage, a form of polygyny which Smith had instituted in Nauvoo. Plural marriage became the faith's most sensational characteristic during the 19th century, but vigorous opposition by the United States Congress threatened the church's existence as a legal institution.
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Thus, the queen is usually the mother of all of the first males laid. Workers eventually begin to lay male eggs later in the season when the queen's ability to suppress their reproduction diminishes. Because of the reproductive competition between workers and the queen, bumblebees are considered "primitively eusocial". Although a large majority of bumblebees follow such monogynous colony cycles that only involve one queen, some select Bombus species (such as Bombus atratus) will spend part of their life cycle in a polygynous phase (have multiple queens in one nest during these periods of polygyny).
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In these patrilineal societies where the domestic group includes the man, his wife or wives, their children, and perhaps several dependent relatives, the wife was brought into closer proximity to the husband and his paternal family. Her male children also assured her of more direct access to wealth accumulated in the marriage with her husband. Today, marriage dynamics generally vary between rural and urban areas. Polygyny is more common in rural areas, and a married woman is usually supported by large groups of relatives as well as co-wives.
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The term adultery, rather than extramarital sex, implies a moral condemnation of the act; as such it is usually not a neutral term because it carries an implied judgment that the act is wrong. Adultery refers to sexual relations which are not officially legitimized; for example it does not refer to having sexual intercourse with multiple partners in the case of polygamy (when a man is married to more than one wife at a time, called polygyny; or when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, called polyandry).
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Queens exiting a nest for nuptial flight Like all ants, banded sugar ants begin life as eggs. If the egg is fertilised, the ant becomes a female; if not, it will become a male. They develop through complete metamorphosis, meaning that they pass through a larval and pupal stage before emerging as adults. Although most banded sugar ant colonies are monogynous (a nest that contains a single queen), some have been found to be polygynous, where a colony will have multiple queens; this is the fourth Camponotus species that is recognized as exhibiting polygyny.
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Shrikes are generally monogamous breeders, although polygyny has been recorded in some species. Co- operative breeding, where younger birds help their parents raise the next generation of young, has been recorded in both species in the genera Eurocephalus and Corvinella, as well as one species of Lanius. Males attract females to their territory with well-stocked caches, which may include inedible but brightly coloured items. During courtship, the male performs a ritualised dance which includes actions that mimic the skewering of prey on thorns, and feeds the female.
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In some species, especially in ants, more than one queen can be found in the same colony, a condition called Polygyny. In this case, another advantage of maintaining a hierarchy is to prolong the colony lifespan. The top ranked individuals may die or lose fertility and "extra queens" may benefit of starting a colony in the same site or nest. This advantage is critical in some ecological contexts, such as in situations where nesting sites are limited or dispersal of individuals is risky due to high rates of predation.
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The haplodiploid genetic system creates asymmetry in relatedness of most Hymenoptera species. R. marginata, however, have increasingly unrelated workers and broods because of "simultaneous production of several different patrilines and matrilines within a colony." Serial polygyny works against the inclusive fitness benefits workers have of caring for broods because of reduced relatedness. Gadagkar devised a unified model that makes predictions about what proportion of the population of R. marginata "should opt for a selfish solitary nesting strategy and what proportion should opt for an altruistic worker strategy" (853).
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If the woman still lives in the home of the father, the gifts must include him. If the woman accepts, she settles down in man's encampment; if they have a child then they are considered a formal pair, which establishes mutual relations of kinship, expressed in rights and duties of reciprocity. A man can marry several wives, although a single wife is most common, and examples of three or more are rare. This polygyny coexists with a temporal polyandry during the pregnancy in order to improve the qualities of the baby.
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The second strategy is for a female to mate with a fewer number of males, and stay close to the natal colony with other females who have mated with a fewer number of males. In the case of polygyny, it has been observed that there is one dominating queen who is more sexual reproductive than the others. Formica also is observed to have a paternity skew, meaning that the mated males offspring are not represented equally in the population. Whether this is because of internal selection or sperm competition is unclear.
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In Christian Europe, the Catholic Church originally had a monopoly on the authority to sanction marriage. Its teachings forbid polygamy and state divorce is an impossibility per se. Consequently, in Europe, given morbidity and infertility succession could not be assured solely by direct male descendants or even direct male or female progeny. In Islamic and Asian cultures, religious officials and customs either sanctioned polygyny, use of consorts, or both, or they had no authority of marriage; monarchs could consequently ensure sufficient numbers of male offspring to assure succession.
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This implies that members of a tribe which commands a certain territory have a native right to take land under cultivation for food production and in many cases also for the cultivation of cash crops. Under this tenure system, an additional wife is an economic asset that helps the family to expand its production. The economist Michèle Tertilt concludes that countries that practice polygyny are less economically stable than those that practice monogamy. Polygynous countries usually have a higher fertility rate, fewer savings reserves, and a lower GDP.
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Fertility would decrease by 40%, savings would increase by 70%, and GDP would increase by 170% if polygyny was banned. Monogamous societies present a surge in economic productivity because monogamous men are able to save and invest their resources due to having fewer children. Polygynous societies have a higher concentration of men investing into methods of mating with women, whereas monogamous men invest more into their families and other related institutions. Despite the expenses of polygynous marriages, men benefit from marrying multiple wives through the economic and social insurance that kinship ties produce.
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Evolutionary psychology has proposed several evolutionary explanations for gender differences in aggressiveness. Males can increase their reproductive success by polygyny which will lead the competition with other males over females. If the mother died, this may have had more serious consequences for a child than if the father died in the ancestral environment since there is a tendency for greater parental investments and caring for children by females than by males. Greater caring for children also leads to difficulty leaving them in order to either fight or flee.
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A view of the FLDS ranch in Eldorado, Texas At the time of his death, church leader Rulon Jeffs was confirmed to have married 22 women and fathered more than 60 children. It was estimated in 2018 that Warren Jeffs might have over 79 wives. Because the type of polygamy which is practiced is actually polygyny, critics of this lifestyle claim that the practice of it inevitably leads to bride shortages, child marriages, incest, and child abuse. Critics of the church point out that its members violate laws when they practice polygamy.
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Kesava is also recognised for heavily improving the kingdom's infantry, cavalry, navy and elephant power. He practiced polygyny and had two sons, Jadava and Kangsa from his first wife, Kamala. After invading the kingdom of Kuchunia to his north ruled by Uraj Mardan, he also married Mardan's daughter Chandana and had a son with her named Ishan Deva. After the death of Srichandra of eastern Bengal's Chandra dynasty, Kesava took advantage and conquered the southern parts of the Sylhet region; extending the Gour kingdom south of the Kushiyara River.
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One evening, after Hiralal and Manisha return from the cinema, Kajaal confronts her father-in-law as to why he is favoring the house-maid over his own daughter-in-law; out of anger, Kajaal attempts to throw Manisha out of the house. Arun intervenes and then declares that Manisha has just as much as right to this house as she does, and even more right to be with Rinku than Kajaal - as his wife and Rinku's biological mother. The story concludes with everyone accepting the situation of polygyny and living together.
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Customary marriages are now valid and in all respects equal in status to civil marriage,Robinson et al 44. so that the Act is similar in its consequences and regulations to the Marriage Act and Civil Union Act, although the requirements for a valid marriage are different. South African law, generally speaking, does not permit polygamous marriages. The Act provides the only exception to this rule, in that it allows for polygyny, but only if it has been concluded under customary law and complies with the provisions of the Act.
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The count of the KAMS's registered members is about 90,000, which ranks it amongst the top-most women's organisations in India when it comes to numbers of registered members. But, Rahul Pandita, in 2011, claimed that the members of the KAMS are estimated to number around 100,000. The KAMS concentrates on addressing various social issues faced by the women. The members of the KAMS crusades against the evil practises against women in the society like abducting the women and forcing them to marry against their will, polygyny, etc.
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"At this point real male dominance polygyny begins, for males may produce quantitatively or qualitatively individual pheromonal signals that may reflect their fitness, and the female could react correspondingly by selecting among the males". The use of pheromonal signals allows males to relocate their territories from resource sites to prominent sites such as hilltops, various protrusions, or trees. At this point, pheromones may direct the female into the territory founded by males. Short-range marking of the signal by the female bee attracts them to male territory just before copulation will occur.
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The variegated tinamou has an asymmetrical sex ratio, with more females than males In most tinamou species, the males practice simultaneous polygyny and the females sequential polyandry. This is not invariable; ornate tinamous form stable pairs, and spotted nothuras are monogamous when young and polygamous when older. There are larger numbers of females than males; for example, the variegated tinamou has a female to male ratio of 4:1. The breeding season varies from species to species; those that live in tropical forests, where there is little seasonal change, may breed at any time, though there is usually a preferred period.
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Today, it is possible to buy god pots made by the Lacandón specifically for tourists. These pots are not painted and have not been given “souls” and therefore are not alive and can be sold. Jon McGee (2002) notes that increased participation in a monetary economy because of tourists has decreased the need for subsistence agriculture and with it the religious rites associated with agriculture. Other changes include the simplification of god pot designs, the non-existence of once very important pilgrimages to particular sites (because they have been desecrated), disappearance of bloodletting, and rarity of polygyny.
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Born in Vernon, Utah, Bennion received her B.A. in Anthropology at the Utah State University, an M.A. in Social Organization at Portland State University, and her Ph.D. in Cultural Anthropology at the University of Utah. She splits her time between her home in Vermont and a cabin in the Beartooth Mountains of Montana. In 1994, Bennion received a Dean’s Scholarship Award for her ethnography, published by Oxford University Press, Women of Principle: Female Networking in Contemporary Mormon Polygyny. At the time of book's publication, Bennion was an assistant professor of anthropology at the Utah Valley University.
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In temperate areas, most Nylanderia species produce reproductives during the summer, which overwinter in the nest to then emerge early the following spring; Nylanderia species are typically among the first ant reproductives to fly after Prenolepis. However, little is known about the reproductive biology of many Nylanderia species, especially those inhabiting the tropics. Cases of polygyny have been noted among Nylanderia species, but how widespread this condition is within the genus remains unclear. At least one species, N. flavipes, is somewhat unusual among ants in having populations that are both monogynous (single queen) and polygynous (multiple queens).
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Polygyny traditionally has been allowed, but it is rare, because few men can afford a second wife. Whereas a Lamet man may marry two sisters, this practice is prohibited among the Kammu; a widow may marry her husband's brother in either culture. If he chooses not to marry her, however, the brother is still responsible for her support. Initial residence after marriage is usually patrilocal, but if the groom is unable to pay the full agreed-upon bride-price, he may be obligated to live and work in his in-laws's household for several years in lieu of the bride- price.
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After six to seven weeks, pups are weaned and begin to hunt independently. Weddell seal pup with its grey natal coat, Deception Island Baby Weddell seal Weddell seals show moderate polygyny and genetic analyses of mating success have suggested how factors such as size, diving ability, site-specific experience enhances success in male Weddell seals. Additionally, fast ice breeding grounds causes females to cluster in large aggregations, making it easier for males to take control over his own harem. The mating season occurs during austral spring between late November and December after pups are weaned and females begin ovulating.
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Occasionally, instead of completely abandoning the nest after seven months, a female may remain in the same nest and start another colony cycle. This female effectively replaces the previously dominant female as the most dominant individual in the nest, since the dominant female left before the original cycle ended. This succession of queens in the same nest is known as serial polygyny. This is not a very common occurrence when compared to complete nest abandonment, and in the periods between queens, egg and larvae quantity decreased as a result of no care being provided to them.
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Hilali was an adherent of the Zahirite school of Islamic law according to his children and students. Administrators of his website edited his biography to remove all references to his adherence to the school, with which modern-day Zahirites took issue. Hilali practiced polygyny, having married five women during his international travel. He married an Algerian woman, two Saudi women while living in Mecca, an Iraqi woman during the first time he lived in Iraq, a German woman whose first husband was Jewish and whom he protected from the Nazis while he lived in Germany, three Moroccan women.
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Customary law, one of the three legal systems in operation in Nigeria (the other two being Nigerian common law and Sharia law) allows for the legal marriage of more than one woman by a single man. Unlike those marriages recognized by Sharia, there is no limit to the number of legal wives allowed under customary law. Currently polygyny is most common within royal and noble families within the country, and is largely practiced by the tribes native to its north and west. Although far less popular there, it is nonetheless also legal in Nigeria's east and south.
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While polygyny is legal in the Central African Republic, it has been reported that the more well-educated women living in the nation have tended to oppose it, favoring a monogamous marriage instead. The country's legal code allows a man to take up to four wives, but he must decide on the nature of his future marriages before is allowed to contract his first. In other words, if a man plans to marry one to three more women in the future, he must make this clear: otherwise, he will not be allowed to marry additional women if he later changes his mind.
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After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad participated in nine years of polygyny, marrying at least nine further wives. Muhammad's subsequent marriages were depicted purely as political matches rather than unions of sexual indulgence. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's and Hafsa's fathers, Abu Bakr and ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb, respectively. Aisha's marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned woman of her time.
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The challenge hypothesis outlines the dynamic relationship between testosterone and aggression in mating contexts. It proposes that testosterone promotes aggression when it would be beneficial for reproduction, such as mate guarding, or strategies designed to prevent the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders. The pattern between testosterone and aggression was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions.
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Acromyrmex heyeri workers construct the colonies nest by thatching together cut grass. At temperatures ranging from 20–30 °C, workers created more openings in the nest thatch as the internal nest temperature goes up as a method of temperature regulation for the colony. The workers will close openings in the nest thatch as the air humidity surrounding the nest decreases to reduce water loss for the colony. Studies using isoenzyme systems MDH, a-GPDH, and AMY show the occurrence of monogyny and polygyny associated or not with polyandry, which indicates that the social organization is colony-specific.
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The feminist theorist Obioma Nnaemeka, herself strongly opposed to FGM, argued in 2005 that renaming the practice female genital mutilation had introduced "a subtext of barbaric African and Muslim cultures and the West's relevance (even indispensability) in purging [it]". According to Ugandan law professor Sylvia Tamale, the early Western opposition to FGM stemmed from a Judeo-Christian judgment that African sexual and family practices, including not only FGM but also dry sex, polygyny, bride price and levirate marriage, required correction. African feminists "take strong exception to the imperialist, racist and dehumanising infantilization of African women", she wrote in 2011. Commentators highlight the voyeurism in the treatment of women's bodies as exhibits.
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Non-resident males can also be accepted in harems, but some species, such as the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), may be more strict. Some mammals are perfectly monogamous, meaning that they mate for life and take no other partners (even after the original mate's death), as with wolves, Eurasian beavers, and otters. There are three types of polygamy: either one or multiple dominant males have breeding rights (polygyny), multiple males that females mate with (polyandry), or multiple males have exclusive relations with multiple females (polygynandry). It is much more common for polygynous mating to happen, which, excluding leks, are estimated to occur in up to 90% of mammals.
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The priests repeatedly tried to emphasize the importance of monogamy in their religion, which may have led to the initial general non-acceptance of the religion. Polygyny was seen by the male Lacandón as a way to ensure labor and economic power, retain ritual knowledge in food preparation, and maintain fertility among wives at different times. The Christian religion provided somewhat of a break for Lacandón women because there was no need for the exhaustive process and knowledge base of preparing ritual foods for ceremonies. Because of this, and their exclusion from the traditional ceremonies other than cooking, many Lacandón women asked their husbands to convert to Christianity.
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More danico permitted polygyny (serial or simultaneous), but is not synonymous with it. The "putting away" of a more danico wife could apparently be done at the mere wish of the husband; the rights of the wife are unclear. Often the putting away was done with the intention of marrying a still higher- ranking woman more christiano; but since there are numerous instances of the husband returning to the more danico wife, it is possible that the relationship had merely been deactivated or kept in the background. The union could also be fully dissolved, so that the wife was free to marry another man.
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Among men who can afford it, the preferred form of marriage appears to be polygyny with matrilocal residence. Although possible, the first marriage is formally initiated with the grand marriage when possible, subsequent unions involve much simpler ceremonies. The result is that a man will establish two or even more households and will alternate residence between them, a reflection, most likely, of the trading origins of the Shirazi elite who maintained wives at different trading posts. Said Mohamed Djohar, elected president in 1990, had two wives, one in Njazidja and the other in Nzwani, an arrangement said to have broadened his appeal to voters.
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These indicate a mating system known as scramble competition polygyny, where males cannot defend females or the resources that might attract them. The gestation period varies within lemurs, ranging from 9 weeks in mouse lemurs and 9–10 weeks in dwarf lemurs to 18–24 weeks in other lemurs. The smaller, nocturnal lemurs, such as mouse lemurs, giant mouse lemurs, and dwarf lemurs, usually give birth to more than one infant, whereas the larger, nocturnal lemurs, such as fork-marked lemurs, sportive lemurs, and the aye-aye usually have one offspring. Dwarf and mouse lemurs have up to four offspring, but both average only two.
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By all accounts, Dara and Nadira were devoted to each other and Dara's love for Nadira was so profound that unlike the usual practice of polygyny prevalent at the time, he never contracted any other marriage. The imperial couple had seven children together, with two sons, Sulaiman Shikoh and Sipihr Shikoh and a daughter Jahanzeb Banu Begum, surviving to play important roles in future events. A great patron of the arts, Dara ordered for the compilation of some refined artwork into an album which is now famous by the name of 'Dara Shikhoh Album.' This album was presented by Dara to his 'dearest intimate friend' Nadira in 1641.
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The story's plotline revolves around the relationships between Yusuf Raza and his two wives, Maqbool and Mehr Jabeen. Yusuf Raza remarries when he realizes that his first wife is so uneducated that she does not know how to properly take care of her children or the household. At first, Maqbool is resentful of Mehr Jabeen, but eventually she recognizes Mehr Jabeen's kind and friendly nature, and the two become friends. This happy outcome reflects Begum's belief that polygyny in Islam can be justified when marriages are seen as incompatible and could benefit from a second wife who could help around the house and thus ease tensions.
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3; Kelly 1988, 70–3. Given the detail given to different kinds of sexual union in early medieval Welsh law, it seems reasonable to assume that polygyny was also common in Wales some time before the law-texts were put into writing.Charles-Edwards 1980. Given that the main focus in the early medieval Irish laws where sexual unions are concerned are with the contribution to and division of assets of the union in case of divorce, as well as the responsibilities towards children resulting from these unions, it is quite likely that similar provisions also were at the core of earlier Celtic laws' treatments of the matter of sexual unions.
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Polygyny, whereby a husband has more than one wife, is explicitly permitted under Islam. However, a woman can specify in the marriage contract whether or not her husband can take additional wives during the couple's marriage, and if the husband does so in violation of that marriage contract then she can petition for a divorce.Palestinian Marriage Laws There are also the classical injunctions that a man must treat all co-wives equitably and provide them with separate dwellings, and a man must declare his social status in the marriage contract.Laws of Jordan Polyandry, whereby a wife has more than one husband, is not permitted.
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The pre-Columbian religions had permitted polygyny and the taking of concubines, and when Natives were converted the question arose as to which were legitimate wives and which were concubines, and whether any of the marriages had been valid at all. The Franciscans knew that certain rites were observed for certain unions, and that in some cases, where separation or divorce was desired, it was necessary to obtain the consent of the authorities, while in other cases the consent of the interested parties sufficed. These customs, they argued, meant that there were valid marriages among the Indians. Others denied that this was the case.
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Polygyny in South Africa is typically seen among the Muslim community, although polygynous unions overall are not widely practiced in South Africa among all religious and ethnic groups. Polygynous marriages of individuals over the age of 15 accounts for approximately 30,000 (0.1%) people in 2001. Both Islamic law and cultural family laws create a system in which Muslim men are encouraged to take up to four wives. Several factors for this include infertility or long-term illness of the first wife, excessive wealth on the part of the husband enabling him to support widowed or divorced mothers, and the economic benefits of large families.
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Unlike what might be expected for such large colonies, there is no polyandry or polygyny in Trigona spinipes, such as can be found in honeybees. The sperm limitation hypothesis for the evolution of polyandry postulates that polyandry – the behavior of a queen mating with multiple males – evolved partly as a way for the queen to obtain enough sperm to fertilize her eggs. A positive correlation has been found between polyandry and colony size across a variety of insects including ants, bees, and wasps. Polyandry also has the advantage of promoting genetic diversity in large colonies, which promotes disease resistance, as has been shown in other bee species that are usually monandrous.
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In Islamic marital jurisprudence, under reasonable and warranted conditions, a Muslim man may have more than one wife at the same time, up to a total of four. Muslim women are not permitted to have more than one husband at the same time under any circumstances. Based on verse 30:21 of Quran the ideal relationship is the comfort that a couple find in each other's embrace: The polygyny that is allowed in the Quran is for special situations. There are strict requirements to marrying more than one woman, as the man must treat them equally financially and in terms of support given to each wife, according to Islamic law.
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In 2000, the United Nations Human Rights Committee reported that polygamy violates the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), citing concerns that the lack of "equality of treatment with regard to the right to marry" meant that polygamy, restricted to polygyny in practice, violates the dignity of women and should be outlawed. Specifically, reports to UN Committees have noted violations of ICCPR due to these inequalities and reports to the UN General Assembly have recommended it be outlawed. ICCPR does not apply to countries that have not signed it, which includes many Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Malaysia, Brunei, Oman, and South Sudan.
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The intersection of the vertical dotted line on the left with the monogamous curve indicates the biological fitness of a female who chooses a monogamous male with a lower environmental quality. The intersection of the vertical dotted line on the right with the bigamous curve indicates the biological fitness of a female who enters into a bigamous relationship with the male of a higher environmental quality. The difference between these two intersection points, labeled PT, is the polygyny threshold. It is the gain of environmental quality for the female when she chooses the bigamous relationship and thus the minimum environmental quality difference necessary to make bigamy beneficial for the female.
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Historically, in most cultures, laws against adultery were enacted only to prevent women—and not men—from having sexual relations with anyone other than their spouses, since women were deemed their husbands' property, with adultery being often defined as sexual intercourse between a married woman and a man other than her husband. Among many cultures the penalty was—and to this day still is, as noted below—capital punishment. At the same time, men were free to maintain sexual relations with any women (polygyny) provided that the women did not already have husbands or "owners". Indeed, בעל (ba`al), Hebrew for husband, used throughout the Bible, is synonymous with owner.
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The challenge hypothesis outlines the dynamic relationship between plasma testosterone levels and aggression in mating contexts in many species. It proposes that testosterone is linked to aggression when it is beneficial for reproduction, such as in mate guarding and preventing the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels in a species are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders. This pattern between testosterone and aggression was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, such as the song sparrow, where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions.
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Herodotus says that the bigamy of Anaxandridas II, who married a second wife because his first had not been able to produce an heir, was un-Spartan,Herodotus, Histories, V.40.2 but Polybius wrote that it was common at his time, and a time-honoured practice.Polybius XII.6b.8 Andrew Scott suggests that polygyny would have been more common in ancient Sparta in the early 4th century BC, when the number of Spartan citizen men sharply decreased. Along with plural marriage, Xenophon states that older men with younger wives were encouraged to allow younger, more fit men impregnate their wives, in order to produce stronger children.
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Sexual selection has continued to be suggested as a possible explanation for geographical variation in appearance within the human species; in modern hypotheses, marriage practices are proposed as the main determinant of sexual selection. John Manning suggests that where polygyny is common, men face intense competition for wives and are more likely to be completely unsuccessful in reproducing, and the result is strong selection of males for traits which are adaptive for successful reproduction. He proposes a link to skin color through selection of males for testosterone-mediated traits which confer an ability to successfully compete for females. He suggests testosterone makes the human immune system less competent to resist pathogens.
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Typically, H. ergaster / H. erectus is considered to have been the first human to have lived in a monogamous society, and all preceding hominins were polygynous. However, it is highly difficult to speculate with any confidence the group dynamics of early hominins. The degree of sexual dimorphism and the size disparity between males and females is often used to correlate between polygyny with high disparity and monogamy with low disparity based on general trends (though not without exceptions) seen in modern primates. Rates of sexual dimorphism are difficult to determine as early hominin anatomy is poorly known, and are largely based on few specimens.
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Three sermons of Jacob are recorded in the Book of Mormon which include preaching of central as well as specific doctrinal truths. In them, Jacob preaches many core LDS doctrines, including humanity's fallen nature and subsequent need of an infinite atonement, the salvation of repentant individuals through the Atonement of Christ, and so forth. He also sternly and definitely preaches against specific practices such as pride, racism, and polygyny (excepting only when we commanded by the Lord so as to "raise up a people unto me"). Jacob also speaks favorably of the blessings associated with humble righteousness, such as the bright future of the Lamanite people due to their marital and familial love for each other.
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CIA 2010 The Hausa are overwhelmingly Muslim, though followers of traditional religions do exist. Muslim Hausas practice cousin marriage preferentially, and polygyny is allowed if the husband can support multiple wives.Swanson The book Baba of Karo presents one prominent portrayal of Hausa life: according to its English coauthor, it is unknown for Hausa women to be unmarried for any great length of time after around the age of 14.Karo 1982, p. 268 Divorce can be accomplished easily by either the male or the female, but females must then remarry.Karo 1982, p. 9 Even for a man, lacking a spouse is looked down upon.Karo 1982, p. 264 Baba of Karo's first of four marriages was to her second cousin.
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The Vyatichs or more properly Vyatichi or Viatichi () were a native tribe of Early East Slavs who inhabited the Oka river, Moskva river and Don river. The Vyatichi had for a long time no princes, but the social structure was characterized by democracy and self-government. Like various other Slavic tribes, the Vyatichi people built kurgans on territory which belongs now to the modern Russian state. In the Primary Chronicle, it is recorded that the Vyatichi, Radimichs and Severians "had the same customs", all lived violent lifestyles, "burned their dead and preserved the ashes in urns set upon posts beside the highways", and they did not enter monogamous marriages but practiced polygamy, specifically polygyny, instead.
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Knowledge about the early history of Kurdish women is limited by both the dearth of records and the near absence of research. In 1597 (16th century), Prince Sharaf ad-Din Bitlisi wrote a book titled Sharafnama, which makes references to the women of the ruling landowning class, and their exclusion from public life and the exercise of state power. It says that the Kurds of the Ottoman Empire, who follow Islamic tradition, took four wives and, if they could afford it, four maids or slave girls. This regime of polygyny was, however, practiced by a minority, which included primarily the members of the ruling landowning class, the nobility, and the religious establishment.
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In Malaysia, polygyny has been considered a topic that is not fit to be brought up in public, but recently it has begun to enter public discourse. This change came about through the passage of a new Islamic family law, which supports polygynous practices by making them easier for men to take part in. This has created a "debate between Islamic fundamentalists who dominate the burgeoning Islamic Affairs Department that administers Shariah law and mostly Western-educated Muslim feminists who say the department, in its overzealous interpretation of the Qur’an, has gone overboard in making new laws that discriminate against women and children." The campaign against this law was very popular, but the law was still passed.
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Isma also describes Hajila in unflattering terms that distance her from the attentions of the husband they share and of other men. This is in contrast to Isma's depiction of herself as constantly being the object of male desire, creating a sense that sisterhood between the two women is out of the question. However, Isma's diction also creates a relationship between herself and Hajila in which neither can exist without the other; "they are locked in a sorority created, in a way, in tandem with the patriarchal force that remains a threat to their very existence." Therefore, Djebar's portrayal of polygyny is multifaceted and conflicting: it has the ability to create both rivalry and solidarity.
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Another Indonesian movie that tackles the subject of polygyny is Berbagi Suami (Husband for Share), which came out in 2006. The director, Nia Dinata, was inspired by her experiences in Indonesia with women who were in polygynous relationships. She acknowledges that every woman reacted in different ways to their marriage but ultimately all felt isolated and saddened by the addition of a new wife. Three stories are told within the movie and all three leading actresses learn to at least outwardly accept their situations, whether they are the first wife finding about the existence of other women or the new addition to the family who has to situate herself in the household hierarchy.
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In most mammalian species the result is a system of rank or sexual competition that results in either polygyny, or lifelong pair-bonding between two individuals who live relatively independent of other adults of their species; in both cases male aggression plays an important role in maintaining sexual access to mate(s). What is uniquely characteristic about human societies is what required symbolic cognition, which consequently leads to the evolution of culture: "cooperative, mixed-sex social groups, with significant male care and provisioning of offspring, and relatively stable patterns of reproductive exclusion." This combination is relatively rare in other species because it is "highly susceptible to disintegration." Language and culture provide the glue that holds it together.
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Traditionally, the imperial throne was passed on under custom which resembled the rule of agnatic seniority. Theoretically, any male or female with patrilineal lineage to early Japanese monarchs, who descended in direct male line from the first emperor, Jimmu, could come to hold the throne. In practice, preference was given to first-born male offspring of a preceding male monarch, followed by his brothers, sons, other males of the immediate male-line family, and ultimately male members of the Shinnōke houses, cadet branches distantly related to the reigning monarch. Because there existed no restrictions on remarriage or polygyny in historical Japan, there existed usually many male relatives who could take over the throne.
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In various species, gamergates reproduce in addition to winged queens (usually upon the death of the original foundress), while in other species the queen caste has been completely replaced by gamergates. In gamergate species, all workers in a colony have similar reproductive potentials, but as a result of physical interactions, a dominance hierarchy is formed and only one or a few top-ranking workers can mate (usually with foreign males) and produce eggs. Subsequently however, aggression is no longer needed as gamergates secrete chemical signals that inform the other workers of their reproductive status in the colony. Depending on the species, there can be one gamergate per colony (monogyny) or several gamergates (polygyny).
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But in other societies, a deceased spouse's sibling was considered the ideal person to marry. The Hebrew Bible forbids a man from marrying his brother's widow with the exception that, if his brother died childless, the man is instead required to marry his brother's widow so as to "raise up seed to him" (per ). Some societies have long practiced sororal polygyny, a form of polygamy in which a man marries multiple wives who are sisters to each other (though not closely related to him). In Islamic law, marriage among close blood relations like parents, stepparent, parents in-law, siblings, stepsiblings, the children of siblings, aunts and uncles is forbidden, while first or second cousins may marry.
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Polygynous relationships in Viking society may have led to a shortage of eligible women for the average male, this is because polygyny increases male-male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men who are willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex seeking behaviors. Due to this, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. The concept was expressed in the 11th century by historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin in his semi imaginary History of The Normans. The Annals of Ulster depicts raptio and states that in 821 the Vikings plundered an Irish village and "carried off a great number of women into captivity".
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Further work by David de la Croix includes a study of childlessness, where, together with Thomas Baudin and Paula Gobbi, he lists a series of causes of childlessness (natural, poverty driven, opportunity driven) and proposes a methodology to identify their respective importance based on a structural model. Policy implications of this theory are non negligible, in particular when considering that avoidable involuntary childlessness reduces the capability set of poor people. With Fabio Mariani, de la Croix is interested in understanding the economic determinants of changes in marriage laws in the very long run. Changes in income level and in its distribution are key to understand the switch from polygyny to strict monogamy that happened during the Urban Revolution in Europe.
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Despite the very low number of physicians in Mali (8 physicians per 100,000 people), study has shown that most women in Mali seek medical treatment when giving birth. This was especially prevalent in the urban regions of Mali. Also, a woman's social indicators, including her status and type of marriage (widowed, married, or engaged in a male polygyny), her social power regarding other members of the community, and her connections throughout different regions and a variety of people were the defining characteristics of her status of health as well. There is a strong correlation between a woman's social status and health status, as women of more esteemed social status sought more medical treatment and care than those of lesser status who tried to fight through illnesses themselves.
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In its first presidential election during its statehood year, Utah – with its large reserves of silver – had voted five-to-one for Democrat/Populist William Jennings Bryan, who ran on a platform of monetizing silver. However, with a revived economy, Utah moved much closer to the national mainstream in the ensuring 1900 election, as pre-statehood Republican Party hostility to the dominant LDS church gradually disappeared after the outlawing of polygyny in 1890.Balmer, Randall and Riess, Janet (editors); Mormonism and American Politics (Religion, Culture, and Public Life), pp. 135-137 In between Utah’s second and third presidential elections, newly elected but unseated senator and Mormon apostle Reed Smoot went much further towards reversing the nineteenth-century hostility of the Republican Party to the Latter Day Saints.
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There have been a number of studies about the mitochondrial DNA haplogroups (mtDNA) in Europe. In contrast to Y DNA haplogroups, mtDNA haplogroups did not show as much geographical patterning, but were more evenly ubiquitous. Apart from the outlying Saami, all Europeans are characterised by the predominance of haplogroups H, U and T. The lack of observable geographic structuring of mtDNA may be due to socio-cultural factors, namely the phenomena of polygyny and patrilocality. Genetic studies suggest some maternal gene flow to eastern Europe from eastern Asia or southern Siberia 13,000 – 6,600 years BP. Analysis of Neolithic skeletons in the Great Hungarian Plain found a high frequency of eastern Asian mtDNA haplogroups, some of which survive in modern eastern European populations.
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In the area of women's legal rights within the family, the Iran's Family Protection Law, as revised in 1975, gave women the right to ask for divorce on the same grounds and conditions as men, left decisions regarding child custody and alimony up to a special family court, recognized the mother as the legal guardian of her child in case of the father's death, practically eliminated polygyny by stipulating exceptional conditions and, limited legal marriages to a second wife only with the permission of the first, and increased the minimum age of marriage to eighteen for women and twenty-one for men. Abortion was made legal with the consent of the husband. Unmarried women could have abortions on demand up to the eighth week of pregnancy.
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In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's (Arabic: الله Allāh) immutable divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its human scholarly interpretations. Polygyny is more widespread in Africa than on any other continent,Clignet, Remi, Many Wives, Many Powers, Northwestern University Press, Evanston (1970), p. 17. especially in West Africa, and some scholars see the slave trade's impact on the male-to-female sex ratio as a key factor in the emergence and fortification of polygynous practices in regions of Africa. Anthropologist Jack Goody's comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas demonstrated an historical correlation between the practice of extensive shifting horticulture and polygamy in the majority of sub-Saharan African societies.
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He refrained from judging the patriarchs, but did not deduce from their practice the ongoing acceptability of polygyny. On the contrary, he argued that the polygamy of the Fathers, which was tolerated by the Creator because of fertility, was a diversion from His original plan for human marriage. Augustine wrote: "That the good purpose of marriage, however, is better promoted by one husband with one wife, than by a husband with several wives, is shown plainly enough by the very first union of a married pair, which was made by the Divine Being Himself."On Marriage and Concupiscence, I,10 Augustine taught that the reason patriarchs had many wives was not because of fornication, but because they wanted more children.
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Compared with Cameroon's Christian and animist south, breast ironing is less common in the Muslim north, where only 10 percent of women are affected. Some hypothesize that this is related to the practice of early marriage, which is more common in the north, making early sexual development irrelevant or even preferable. Research suggests that 16% of girls, particularly in the far North regions where child marriages are highly common, try to flatten their own breasts in an attempt to delay early sexual maturity and early marriage. A 2007 journal suggested that social norms in Cameroon result in women lacking bodily autonomy, as Cameroonian women are not socialized to negotiate safer sex practices, while Cameroonian men are encouraged to engage in polygyny and to take concubines.
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The group maintains a vegan diet, citing Genesis 1:29, "And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat."King James Version They practice abstinence from alcohol, other than the naturally fermented wine which they make themselves, as well as abstinence from both illegal and pharmaceutical drugs, so as to stay within the "cycles of life". The group grows much of its own food and its members are authorized organic growers with the Israel Bio- Organic Agricultural Association. The group practices "polygyny", meaning that a man can marry several wives (up to six).
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Regarding sexual dimorphism, humans fall into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large testes. This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in a group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males compared to exclusive polygyny and monogamy but frequent sperm competition. Evolutionary psychology and sociobiology have also discussed and produced theories for some specific forms of male aggression such as sociobiological theories of rape and theories regarding the Cinderella effect. Another evolutionary theory explaining gender differences in aggression is the Male Warrior hypothesis, which explains that males have psychologically evolved for intergroup aggression in order to gain access to mates, resources, territory and status.
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Polygyny too is now rare, many marriages end in divorce or separation, and a large number of young women remain single and raise their children in small (and often very poor) female-headed households. But new forms of domestic co-operation have come into being, often between brothers and sisters, or matrilineally linked relatives. Previously the oldest son of a household within a polygynous family would inherit the house-property of his mother, including its cattle, and was supposed to act as custodian of these goods for the benefit of the household's other children. With the decline of cattle-keeping and the sharp increase in land-shortage, this has switched to a system of last-born inheritance, primarily of land.
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In some cases, there is a large age discrepancy (as much as a generation) between a man and his youngest wife, compounding the power differential between the two. Tensions not only exist between genders, but also within genders; senior and junior men compete for wives, and senior and junior wives in the same household may experience radically different life conditions, and internal hierarchy. Several studies have suggested that the wive's relationship with other women, including co- wives and husband's female kin, are more critical relationships than that with her husband for her productive, reproductive and personal achievement. In some societies, the co-wives are relatives, usually sisters, a practice called sororal polygyny; the pre-existing relationship between the co-wives is thought to decrease potential tensions within the marriage.
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Since males are generally able to escape female attacks after copulation, they are able to mate again. Furthermore, while males do not seem to discriminate between virgin and non- virgin females in courting, females are unlikely to mate a second time and exhibit aggressive behavior towards males after their first copulation. Evidence from field observations in Alberta, Canada (mating behaviors may vary based on location) suggests that D. triton is protandrous, meaning that males that emerge earlier have greater access to the limited resource of virgin females, a mating system that resembles ‘scramble competition polygyny,’ where competition for mates takes the form of a race between competitors. Furthermore, males gain an advantage if they are able to copulate more quickly, allowing them to move on to another female.
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Wiyaala is outspoken on the male-dominated culture and polygyny of some African countries and to stand up for women's rights and against family violence in her native Ghana. Her song "Tinambayai" in Sisaala language has been regarded as a protest against the exploitation of women in Africa. Wiyaala has featured on BBC talking about early child marriage and has expressed sympathy for feminism as a means to encourage young girls into completing their education so that they can be the ones that make the choices in their lives and also declared her success would serve as an example to her community that there was a future for young women beyond an early forced marriage. "Make Me Dance" has been included in the top of feminist songs for the 2013 winter by Bitch feminist magazine.
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In the wasp Polistes carolina, the dominant queen amongst female wasps is determined by whoever arrives at the nest first rather than the largest foundress, who is expected to be the best at fighting (wasp). In a study of the bird Prunella collaris, the close proximity and sharing of ranges on the mountain tops of the French Pyrenees led to a polygynandrous mating system, where two to four males would mate with a range of two to four females within the same vicinity. Polygynandry is another way to describe a multi-male and multi-female polygamous mating system. When females have multiple mating partners, it is known as polyandry, and when males have multiple mating partners, it is known as polygyny; and each sex has their benefits in being promiscuous.
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In the study, differences in mates and the qualities of the territories were slight and therefore not considered, since they lead to no advantages for females to choose between the territories belonging to monogamous or already-mated males. The results of the study suggest that the males can control multiple territories and are thus able to deceive females into accepting polygyny, while the females do not have enough time to discover the marital status of the males. In terms of male parental care to clutches, the rate of male incubation feeding was directly related to the physical condition of the males, and negatively correlated with the ambient temperature. Polygynously mated females also received far less feeds than monogamously mated females, despite having no difference in the food delivery rates by the male.
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In Ramayana and Political Imagination in India (1993), written against the backdrop of the demolition of the Babri Masjid and attendant sectarian violence in Ayodhya, Pollock seeks to explain how the Ramayana, a text commonly viewed as a "narrative of the divine presence" in the world could serve as a basis for a divisive contemporary political discourse. He asserts that there is a long history of relationship between the Ramayana and political symbology, with the protagonist, Rama depicted as the "chief of the righteous," and Ravana, in opposition, as the one "who fills all the world with terror." Pollock calls the Ramayana fundamentally a text of "othering" as outsiders in the epic are "othered" by being represented as sexual, dietetical, and political deviants. Ravana, is not only "other" due to his polygyny but is presented as a tyrant.
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The simplest principles of natural and > moral Law, the social relationships that create a family amongst men: > everything is ignorance, everything is misery amongst these unfortunate > people. When Medeiros took over the missions, the priests set out evangelizing and combating "anti-Christian" institutions, and were fervent in their targeting of the barlake (Portuguese: barlaque) system in which the chiefs of ruling houses would exchange wives as gifts. "The Devil," as one priest dubbed it, was "always seeking the loss of souls," a "superstitious" institution that was seen by the missionaries as the main threat to the establishment of Christianity as the mainstream faith of Timorese society, because it encouraged polygyny and concubinage. To combat this, Medeiros sent written instructions to his missionaries emphasizing the need to celebrate marriages and baptisms amongst the families of the tribal elite.
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Polygyny, or men having multiple wives at once, is one of the most common marital arrangements represented in the Hebrew Bible; another is that of concubinage (pilegesh) which was often arranged by a man and a woman who generally enjoyed the same rights as a full legal wife (other means of concubinage can be seen in Judges 19-20 where mass marriage by abduction was practiced as a form of punishment on transgressors). Today Ashkenazi Jews are prohibited to take more than one wife because of a ban instituted on this by Gershom ben Judah (Died 1040). Among ancient Hebrews, marriage was a domestic affair and not a religious ceremony; the participation of a priest or rabbi was not required. Betrothal (erusin), which refers to the time that this binding contract is made, is distinct from marriage itself (nissu'in), with the time between these events varying substantially.
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Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies between the male-dominated intensive plough-agriculture common in Eurasia and the extensive shifting horticulture found in sub-Saharan Africa. In some of the sparsely-populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa, women do much of the work. This favours polygamous marriages in which men seek to monopolize the production of women "who are valued both as workers and as child bearers". Goody however, observes that the correlation is imperfect and varied, and also discusses more traditionally male-dominated though relatively extensive farming systems such as those that exist in much of West Africa, especially in the West African savanna, where more agricultural work is done by men, and where polygyny is desired by men more for the generation of male offspring whose labor is valued.
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In his 2008 candidacy for Congress, as an anarcho-capitalist, Larson advocated doing away with government at all levels, saying: "All government functions could be better performed by the private sector". Endorsed by the Libertarian Party of Virginia, he stated in its newsletter that the primary aim of his candidacy was introducing libertarian ideas; he focused on transportation, proposing that the US highway and rail systems be auctioned off to private owners who would compete to offer toll-based services, and also that private property rights be extended to Chesapeake Bay. In 2017, as a self-described "red pill Libertarian", his platform for election to the Virginia House included legalizing child pornography and polygyny, eliminating state funding for girls' and women's education, and repealing the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which gave women the vote. Larson's 2018 online political manifesto, which has been taken down, advocates "benevolent white supremacy" and names Adolf Hitler as a "white supremacist hero".
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A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately 10,000 to 5,000 years ago in Europe and Asia, and more recently in Africa and the Americas. A further study drawing on the Ethnographic Atlas showed a statistical correlation between increasing size of the society, the belief in "high gods" to support human morality, and monogamy. A survey of other cross-cultural samples has confirmed that the absence of the plough was the only predictor of polygamy, although other factors such as high male mortality in warfare (in non-state societies) and pathogen stress (in state societies) had some impact. Woman farming, using a digging stick in the Nuba Mountains, southern Sudan Betzig postulated that culture/society can also be a source of social monogamy by enforcing it through rules and laws set by third-party actors, usually in order to protect the wealth or power of the elite.
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Prior to the emergence of Islam, the Arabian Peninsula was characterized by a wide range of marriage practices—both polygynous and polyandrous alike, as well as monogamous. As Leila Ahmed states in her work, Women and Gender in Islam, "evidence suggests that among the types of marriage practiced was matrilineal, uxorilocal marriage, found in Arabia, including Mecca, about the time of the birth of Muhammad (circa 570)--the woman remaining with her tribe, where the man could visit or reside with her, and the children belonging to the mother's tribe--as well as polyandrous and polygamous marriages." Thus, it is widely accepted that polygyny was not the only type of matrimony practiced during the jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era), but one part of a highly variegated and diverse pool of matrimony types. Noteworthy was the fact that it was customary for men to marry women without limit, a practice that ended with the advent of the Qur'an and its divine revelation.
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Therefore, studying and understanding the age-related changes in fecundity is easier in natural fertility populations in compare to controlled fertility populations. Natural fertility populations deliver an easier platform to study the reproductive behavior which may affect the levels of fertility such as pregnancy loss, time for conception, and length of breastfeeding. In Pennsylvania and Ohio states in the United States, the Amish settlements have been studied to understand the age of marriage, the age of first birth, birth intervals, the age at last birth, and total fertility rate as they are natural fertility population due to their religious belief. The Dogon population in Mali, West Africa are a natural fertility population with high fertility rate and they have been studied to understand the role of the age of wife, the age of husband, nutritional status, breastfeeding status, sex of last child, economic status, and polygyny on the waiting time to conception.
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In Islam, polygyny is allowed while polyandry is not, with the specific limitation that a man can have no more than four legal wives at any one time and an unlimited number of female slaves as concubines who may have rights similar wives, with the exception of not being free unless the man has children with them, with the requirement that the man is able and willing to partition his time and wealth equally among the respective wives and concubines (this practice of concubinage, as in Judaism, is not applicable in contemporary times and has been deemed by scholars as invalid due to shifts in views about the role of slavery in the world). For a Muslim wedding to take place, the bridegroom and the guardian of the bride (wali) must both agree on the marriage. Should the guardian disagree on the marriage, it may not legally take place. If the wali of the girl her father or paternal grandfather, he has the right to force her into marriage even against her proclaimed will, if it is her first marriage.
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As the type of polygamy practiced is primarily polygyny, critics of the early LDS Church argue that polygamy may have caused a shortage of brides in the early LDS community, citing quotes by church leader Heber C. Kimball who is purported to have said (addressing departing missionaries): On another occasion, he said "You are sent out as shepherds to gather sheep together; and remember that they are not your sheep ... do not make selections before they are brought home and put into the fold." The first quote above is not attested in any Mormon source, but first appeared in a derisive article in the New York Times on May 15, 1860.Hirshson's cited source of the first quote is an April 17, 1860 New York Times article: FairMormon, an LDS apologetics organization, considers the "prettiest women" statement to be apocryphal, but that it may be a paraphrase of Kimball's Journal of Discourses statement, which is authentic. In the paragraph immediately following the above quote, Kimball said: The precise number who participated in plural marriage is not known, but studies indicate a maximum of 20 to 25 percent of Latter-day Saint adults were members of polygamist households.
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