One Chinese academic has suggested allowing polyandry (ie, letting women take more than one husband).
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Occasionally, as in many of the 80-plus societies known to have practiced polyandry, several husbands exercised power over one wife.
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As Andromeda's name suggests, polyandry can contain elements of goddess worship, as well as men's rights activists' worst fear: female superiority.
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One thing the sites are not intended to do is to help women seek out multiple husbands — a practice known as polyandry.
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In Kazakhstan, a bill failed in 2008 after a female MP included an amendment stipulating that polyandry (women taking multiple husbands) also be allowed.
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Polyandry, the female-focused version of polygamy, is technically illegal in the United States; thus, those who practice it do so without literally getting married.
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But there are many cultures where a husband can have more than one wife ( polygyny) or, less commonly, a wife can have more than one husband ( polyandry).
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"I would say [polyandry] is when a woman has many male partners," says Dr. Denise Renye, a San Francisco-based psychologist who specializes in sex and intimacy.
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The hook of the story, that many of these men could share wives, is actually something that King picks up from the Qing Dynasty when impoverished rural villages used to practice polyandry to save resources.
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Fraternal polyandry (from the Latin frater—brother), also called adelphic polyandry (from the Greek '—brother), is a form of polyandry in which a woman is married to two or more men who are brothers. Fraternal polyandry was (and sometimes still is) found in certain areas of Tibet, Nepal, and Northern India, central African cultures where polyandry was accepted as a social practice.Levine, Nancy, The Dynamics of Polyandry: Kinship, domesticity and population on the Tibetan border, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. The Toda people of southern India practice fraternal polyandry, but monogamy has become prevalent recently.
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Polyandry (especially fraternal polyandry) is also common among Buddhists in Bhutan, Ladakh, and other parts of the Indian subcontinent.
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Polyandry in Tibet was a common practice and continues to a lesser extent today. A survey of 753 Tibetan families by Tibet University in 1988 found that 13% practiced polyandry. Polyandry in India still exists among minorities, and also in Bhutan, and the northern parts of Nepal. Polyandry has been practised in several parts of India, such as Rajasthan, Ladakh and Zanskar, in the Jaunsar-Bawar region in Uttarakhand, among the Toda of South India.
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Barbosa, M., Dornelas, M. & Magurran, a E. Effects of polyandry on male phenotypic diversity. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 23, 2442–52 (2010). Specific types of polyandry have also been classified, such as classical polyandry in pipefishColeman, S. W. & Jones, A. G. Patterns of multiple paternity and maternity in fishes. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 103, 735–760 (2011).
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Polyandry and polygamy were prevalent in Kerala till the late 19th century and isolated cases were reported until the mid-20th century. Castes practicing polyandry were Nairs, Thiyyas, Ezhavas, Kammalans , Nadar, and a few of the artisan castes.A Study of Polyandry – Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark (1963) The Hague: Moulton. Open Library ID OL15135517M. p. 159.
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Polyandry is less rare than this figure suggests, as it considered only those examples found in the Himalayan mountains (28 societies). More recent studies have found more than 50 other societies practicing polyandry.
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Unlike what might be expected for such large colonies, there is no polyandry or polygyny in Trigona spinipes, such as can be found in honeybees. The sperm limitation hypothesis for the evolution of polyandry postulates that polyandry – the behavior of a queen mating with multiple males – evolved partly as a way for the queen to obtain enough sperm to fertilize her eggs. A positive correlation has been found between polyandry and colony size across a variety of insects including ants, bees, and wasps. Polyandry also has the advantage of promoting genetic diversity in large colonies, which promotes disease resistance, as has been shown in other bee species that are usually monandrous.
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Therefore, polyandry results in a decreased risk of extinction in the population.
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Classical polyandry occurs when the evolution of sex role reversal has occurred and a female copulates with multiple males.Andersson, M. Current Issues – Perspectives and Reviews. Evolution of classical polyandry: three steps to female emancipation. Ethology 23, 1–24 (2005).
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A number of mating variations have been observed: monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, or polygynandy.
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Polyandry has been found in both oviparous and viviparous bony fish and sharks.Portnoy, D. S., Piercy, A. N., Musick, J. a, Burgess, G. H. & Graves, J. E. Genetic polyandry and sexual conflict in the sandbar shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus, in the western North Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Molecular ecology 16, 187–97 (2007). General examples of polyandry occur in fish species, such as green swordtails and Trinidadian guppies.
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Some male sharks can also mate multiple times with these females, which is referred to as a polygynandry mating system. Overall, polyandry is the dominant mating system in lemon sharks and sandbar sharks. However, geography can play a role in mating systems. For example, western north Atlantic sandbar sharks exhibit polyandry as the dominant mating system whereas in the Central Pacific, sandbar sharks do not have a dominant polyandry mating system.
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Toda men and a woman. Nilgiri Hills, 1871. Todas are tribal people residing in the Nilgiri hills in South India who for several centuries practiced polyandry. They practiced a form of polyandrous relationship which is considered to be a classic example of polyandry.
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However, in the same epic, when questioned by Kunti to give an example of polyandry, Yudhishthira cites Gautam-clan Jatila (married to seven Saptarishis) and Hiranyaksha's sister Pracheti (married to ten brothers), thereby implying a more open attitude toward polyandry in Vedic society.
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The anglerfish Haplophryne mollis is polyandrous. This female is trailing the atrophied remains of males she has encountered. Polyandry occurs when one female gets exclusive mating rights with multiple males. In some species, such as redlip blennies, both polygyny and polyandry are observed.
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Polyandry is in practice in many villages of Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. Fraternal polyandry (where husbands are related to each other) is mainly in practice in villages, where the societies are male dominated and which still follow ancient rituals and customs. There are many forms of polyandry which can be found here. Most often, all the brothers are married to a woman and sometimes the marriage to brothers happens at a later date.
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However, polyandry among Nairs is a contested issue with opinion divided between ones who support its existence and ones who do not support it based on the fact that no stable conjugal relationship is formed in Nair polyandry.Ezhavas of Kerala also practised polyandry. The custom of Fraternal polyandry was common among Thiyyas of Malabar. According to Cyriac Pullipally, some female members of the Thiyya community associated with English men as their concubines.
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The Zo'e tribe in the state of Pará on the Cuminapanema River, Brazil, also practice polyandry.
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Polyandry, was not regarded without censure by the society spoken of in the epic. The Vedic texts have not discriminated between polyandry and polygamy but usually, the women of royal families were allowed to indulge in polyandry for expansion of progeny, although polygamy was more common among men of higher social ranks. Her marriage to five men was controversial for political reasons as that was an advantage for Prince Duryodhana to get the throne of Bharat Varsha. However, when questioned by Kunti to give an example of polyandry, Yudhishthira cites Gautam-clan Jatila (married to seven Saptarishi) and Hiranyaksha's sister Pracheti (married to ten brothers).
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A fact demonstrated by the presence of polygamy and polyandry in the local traditions, with richer practising polygamy, while their poor counterparts, choose to share a wife (polyandry), though the husbands should be brothers,United Provinces The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 24, p. 168. a fact which is often connected to, the five Pandava brothers in the Mahabharata, marrying Draupadi, from whom Jaunsaries trace their ethnic origin.JaunsarisAnthropology Pahari Polyandry: A Comparison American Anthropologist by Gerald D. Berreman, 1962, Vol.
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Combined marriage is a form of polyandry that existed in the pre-Islamic period in the Arabian peninsula.
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Kimathanka was one of the areas of Nepal that had traditionally practiced polyandry, however that practice is fading.
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There is clear scope for studies utilising experimental evolution to make progress exploring why polyandry evolves from monandry.
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Polyandry could also pose genetic fitness consequences. Polyandry does not always result in the spread of the most adaptive genes. For example, some individuals may appear to be attractive due to genes that code for increased pheromone production. As a result, attractive individuals are more likely to reproduce more often.
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Prairie dogs are excellent models for a study of polyandry because they are easy to livetrap, mark, and observe.
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In modern countries that permit polygamy, polygyny is typically the only form permitted. Polygyny is practiced primarily (but not only) in parts of the Middle East and Africa; and is often associated with Islam, however, there are certain conditions in Islam that must be met to perform polygyny. Polyandry is a form of marriage whereby a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Fraternal polyandry, where two or more brothers are married to the same wife, is a common form of polyandry.
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58, 2332–2342 (2013). Females can also receive cloacal injuries caused by the male's sexual organ. Strong evidence for female indirect benefits has not yet been determined, suggesting one reason for convenience polyandry. Since there do not seem to be any direct benefits for females, polyandry could be driven for male benefits.
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Deogarh, Dashavatara Hindu Temple. There is at least one reference to polyandry in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata. Draupadi married the five Pandava brothers, as this is what she chose in a previous life. This ancient text remains largely neutral to the concept of polyandry, accepting this as her way of life.
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Some Kinaauris claim that this practice has been inherited from the Pandavas, who they identify as their ancestors . The Garhwali people similarly identify their practice of polyandry with their descent from the Pandavas. Polyandry is also seen in South India among the Todas tribes of Nilgiris, Nanjanad Vellala of Travancore. and some Nair castes.
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Polyandry, though, is the most common mating system of dunnocks found in nature. Depending on the population, males generally have the best reproductive success in polygynous populations, while females have the advantage during polyandry. Studies have illustrated the fluidity of dunnock mating systems. When given food in abundance, female territory size is reduced drastically.
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Polyandry was traditionally practiced in areas of the Himalayan mountains, among Tibetans in Nepal, in parts of China and in parts of northern India. Polyandry is most common in societies marked by high male mortality or where males will often be apart from the rest of the family for a considerable period of time.
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Similarly, evidence of polyandry and alloparenting was found in a nest in western Montana where the four offspring of the female owl had two fathers, one of which was related to the female.Marks, J. S., Dickinson, J. L., & Haydock, J. (2002). Serial polyandry and alloparenting in Long-eared Owls. The Condor, 104(1), 202-204.
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Fertilization is internal and occurs after a male lemon shark holds a female, bites her, and inserts his clasper into her cloaca. Female lemon sharks are polyandrous and sperm competition occurs due to their ability to store sperm in an oviducal gland for several months. Several studies suggest that polyandry in female lemon sharks has adapted out of convenience, rather than indirect genetic benefits to offspring. This type of polyandry is termed as convenience polyandry because females are believed to mate multiple times to avoid harassment by males.
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In Tibet the practice was particularly popular among the priestly Sakya class. The female equivalent of fraternal polyandry is sororate marriage.
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Although Islamic marital law allows men to have up to four wives, polyandry is not allowed in Islam. Polyandrous marriages were practiced in pre-Islamic Arabian cultures, but were outlawed during the rise of Islam. Nikah Ijtimah was a pagan tradition of polyandry in older Arab regions which was condemned and abolished during the rise of Islam.
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However, when colonies engage in polygyny, having more than one queen, the rates of polyandry drop. It is assumed that colonies utilize either polyandry or polygyny, to increase the genetic diversity of the colony. Therefore, two different strategies can be employed. One strategy is that a female mates with many males and then disperses to start a new colony.
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They also frequently practiced polyandry in marriage and other practices to maintain a single marriage per generation and avoid parceling land holdings.
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Fertilization is internal, and multiple males usually mate with a single female. This polyandry does not provide the offspring with any special advantages.
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Fraternal polyandry exists among the Khasa of Dehradun; and among the Gallong and Memba of Arunachal Pradesh, the Mala Madessar, the Mavilan, etc. of Kerala. Non- fraternal polyandry exists among the Kota; and among the Karvazhi, Pulaya, Muthuvan, and Mannan in Kerala. In the 1911 Census of India, E.A. Gait mentions polyandry of the Tibetans, Bhotias, Kanets of Kulu valley, people of state of Bashahr, Thakkars and Megs of Kashmir, Gonds of Central Provinces, Todas and Kurumbas of Nilgiris, Kallars of Madurai, Tolkolans of Malabar, Ezhavas, Kaniyans and Kammalans of Cochin, Muduvas of Travancore and of Nairs.
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Polyandry was practised in Jaunsar-Bawar in Uttarakhand. A distinct group of people called Paharis live in the lower ranges of Himalayas in Northern India from southeastern Kashmir all the way through Nepal. Polyandry has been reported among these people in many districts but studied in great detail in Jaunsar-Bawar. It is a region in Dehradun district in Uttarakhand.
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Females of different geographic regions—and subsequently, different genetic backgrounds—often show great variation in mating behavior. Certain strains of females avoid multiple mating events while other strains of female engage in higher degrees of polyandry. This variation suggests that polyandry can be advantageous in some populations but not in others. Female beetles vary in which males they choose to copulate with.
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Polyandry, in general, may have a few fitness consequences. Densely populated areas may have lower rates of polyandry due to environmental restraints such as geographic location and limited resources. This can greatly limit the survival and reproduction of offspring. Therefore, in population dense areas, polyandrous behavior may actually be a fitness consequence since the environment significantly controls the number of offspring that survive.
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Polyandry is often seen in cases when there are more males in a society than females, or when males are considered to be unavailable.
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Most Christian denominations in the Western world strongly advocate monogamous marriage, and a passage from the Pauline epistles () can be interpreted as forbidding polyandry.
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Tibetans used to practice polyandry widely.Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization (1922). English edition with minor revisions in 1972 Stanford University Press, pp. 97-98. (cloth); .
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Fraternal polyandry was a common custom among Saka. Brothers had one wife in common and the children were considered as belonging to the oldest brother.
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Pp. 86-87. Camerapix Publishers International. and American indigenous communities. The Guanches, the first known inhabitants of the Canary Islands, practiced polyandry until their disappearance.
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Polyandry is a rare marital arrangement in which a woman has several husbands. In Tibet, those husbands are often brothers; "fraternal polyandry". Concern over which children are fathered by which brother falls on the wife alone. She may or may not say who the father is because she does not wish to create conflict in the family or is unsure who the biological father is.
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Apis dorsata exhibit high degrees of polyandry, with many drones mating with the queen. In fact, Apis dorsata fabricius is known to have the highest levels of polyandry among all social insects. In general, this bee population experiences extreme multiple matings. This may be attributed to the short duration of flight times for mating. During mating, the drones fly to “drone congregation areas” (DCAs).
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The lifestyles of the Lahauli and Spiti Bhot are similar, owing to their proximity. Polyandry was widely practiced by the Lahaulis in the past, although this practice has been dying out. The Spiti Bhot do not generally practice polyandry any more, although it is accepted in a few isolated regions. Divorces are accomplished by a simple ceremony performed in the presence of village elders.
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One reason for why polyandry remains, despite its negative effect on female's health, is because it is very beneficial to males. Males may chance upon only one or two mates in their entire lifetime. Polyandry in Stegodyphys lineatus avoids inbreeding and reduces the genetic incompatibilities with matings of related individual. The increased genetic diversity that results from polyandrous behaviour carry genetic benefits that outweigh the costs.
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Another form of polyandry is a combination of polyandry and polygyny, as women are married to several men simultaneously and the same men are married to several women. It is found in some tribes of native Americans as well as villages in northern Nigeria and the northern cameroons. Other Classifications: Equal polygamy, Polygynandry The system results in less land fragmentation, and a diversification of domestic activities.
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Fuller (1976) p128 Gough has gone further than Fuller with regard to the interpretation of events in the north, believing that there is no evidence of polyandry in that area at all. She argues that all European travelogues describing polyandry came from the region of Central Kerala. Gough notes the differing personal experiences of earlier Nair commentators and that this could go some way to explaining the varied pronouncement: Panikkar, who queries the existence of polyandry, comes from the northern Travancore region; that A. Aiyappan, who acknowledges its existence, comes from Central Kerala; and that both have based their writings on customs they grew up with in their very different environs.
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Crook, J.H. and S. Crook. 1988. Tibetan polyandry: problems of adaptation and fitness. In: L. Betzig, M. Borgerhof Mulder and P. Turke (Eds). Human Reproductive Behaviour. Cambridge.
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Convenience polyandry occurs when females mate with multiple males to avoid to coercive breeding harassment from these males. This type of polyandry was found throughout a variety of elasmobranch fish, or cartilaginous fish, such as sharks.Veríssimo, A., Grubbs, D., McDowell, J., Musick, J. & Portnoy, D. Frequency of multiple paternity in the spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias in the western north Atlantic. The Journal of heredity 102, 88–93 (2011).
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B. pratorum mate infrequently and do not exhibit polyandry. It was hypothesized that because Bombus bees are parasitized they may have developed polyandry, but this is not the case. Instead they mate singly with a low mating frequency. B. pratorum do not appear to require multiple matings to produce enough sperm to fertilize eggs because as it is, only a couple hundred of the workers contribute sperm anyway.
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If presented with the opportunity, female European corn borers, like most moths, mate with multiple males in a reproductive strategy known as polyandry. Polyandry confers several benefits to the females. For example, multiple matings increase female fecundity and longevity, because female moths receive both nutritional resources and multiple spermatophores from males. Furthermore, mating with multiple males ensures that the female receives enough sperm to completely fertilize her eggs.
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Myanmar outlawed polygyny from 2015. In Sri Lanka, polyandry was legal in the kingdom of Kandy, but outlawed by British after conquering the kingdom in 1815. When the Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese, the concubines of others were added to the list of inappropriate partners. Polyandry in Tibet was common traditionally, as was polygyny, and having several wives or husbands was never regarded as having sex with inappropriate partners.
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According to inscriptions describing the reforms of the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash (ca. 2300 BC), the earlier custom of polyandry in his country was abolished, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands being stoned upon which her crime is written.Engaging the powers: discernment and resistance in a world of domination p. 40 by Walter Wink, 1992 An extreme gender imbalance has been suggested as a justification for polyandry.
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Eka Gei Sokari (Polyandry with Sokari) () is a 2020 Sri Lankan Sinhala drama film directed by Jackson Anthony and produced by Creative Helanka (Pvt) Ltd. It stars Udari Warnakulasooriya and Akhila Dhanuddara in lead roles along with Sajitha Anuththara and Wilson Gunaratne. Music composed by Chinthaka Jayakody. The movie is based on an ancient Lankan marital tradition known as Eka gei Kaema (means "fraternal polyandry") as well as dance tradition Sokari.
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Jenni, D.A. and Collier, G. (1972). "Polyandry in the American Jacana (Jacana spinosa). " The Auk 89:743-765. If water levels remain constant, jacanas can breed year round.
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Inbreeding depression increases genetic incompatibilities, levels of homozygosity, and the chance of expression of deleterious recessive alleles. Polyandry has been shown to increase offspring survival compared to monandry.
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Polyandry in India refers to the practice of polyandry, whereby a woman has two or more husbands at the same time, either historically on the Indian subcontinent or currently in the country of India. An early example can be found in the Hindu epic Mahabharata, in which Draupadi, daughter of the king of Panchala, is married to five brothers. Polyandry was mainly prevalent in the Kinnaur Region, a part of Himachal in India which is close to the Tibet or currently the Indo-China border. As mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, the Pandavas were banished from their kingdom for thirteen years and they spent the last year hiding in this hilly terrain of Kinnaur.
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Polyandry in certain Tibetan autonomous areas in modern China remains legal. This however only applies to the ethnic minority Tibetans of the region and not to other ethnic groups.
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Seabra, S. G., et al. (2013). Molecular evidence of polyandry in the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). PLoS ONE 8(7), e68241. A variety of natural enemies exist.
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In his memoirs about his life in Tibet in the 1940s, Austrian writer Heinrich Harrer reports encountering nomads practising polyandry: "We were astonished to find polyandry practised among the nomads." "When several brothers share the same wife, the eldest is always the master in the household and the others have rights only when he is away or amusing himself elsewhere."Harrer, Heinrich. Seven Years in Tibet, with a new epilogue by the author.
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In addition to polyandry, lemon sharks are one of the shark species that engage in philopatry, or the practice of females returning to sites where they have given birth to previous offspring.DiBattista, J. D., Feldheim, K. a, Thibert-Plante, X., Gruber, S. H. & Hendry, A. P. A genetic assessment of polyandry and breeding-site fidelity in lemon sharks. Molecular ecology 17, 3337–51 (2008). Females were found to have stronger loyalties to philopatry than males.
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Polyandry in India: Demographic, economic, social, religious, and psychological concomitants of plural marriages in women - Manis Kumar Raha and Palash Chandra Coomar (1987) Gian Pub. House. . p. 432. 074531693 In the case of Nairs and other related castes, a man's property is inherited by his sister's children and not his own. The imperial gazetteer of India by William Wilson Hunter. Under Nair polyandry, the only conceivable blood-relationship could be ascertained through females.
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Goldstein, "Pahari and Tibetan Polyandry Revisited" in Ethnology 17(3): 325–327 (1978) (The Center for Research on Tibet; accessed October 1, 2007). For example, polyandry in the Himalayan mountains is related to the scarcity of land. The marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots.
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Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband at the one time, is much less prevalent than polygyny and is now illegal in virtually every country in the world. It takes place only in remote communities.¿Está demostrado que el ser humano es monógamo por naturaleza? Polyandry is believed to be more common in societies with scarce environmental resources, as it is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival.
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Two practices that together lent a peculiarly Slobbovian twist to dynastic intrigue were those of polygamy (both polygyny and polyandry) and adult adoption. A Slobb was theoretically allowed up to five spouses, corresponding to the five Major Saints of the Sativan church. (Polygamy was introduced first by the second emperor, Breht the Barbarian. Objections by his wives resulted in the adoption of polyandry with the result that extremely complex collateral relationships of in-laws developed.
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Many women practice polyandry. One or more husbands may be "learning husbands"; young men learning how to be good spouses, in exchange for hunting for the rest of the family.
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The landless peasants (mi-bo) were not obligated to and did not have any heritable rights to land. Like the householders, they tended to have less polyandry than the taxpayer families.
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Polyandry is practiced in parts of Tibet. This is usually done to avoid division of property and provide financial security.Stein (1978), pp. 97–98. However, monogamy is more common throughout Tibet.
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Studies have attempted to explain the existence of polyandry in Tibet. One reason put forward in traditional literature is that by not allowing land to be split between brothers, Tibetan families retained farms sufficiently large to continue supporting their family. Another reason for polyandry is that the mountainous terrain makes some of the farm land difficult to farm, requiring more physical strength. Women take multiple husbands because they are strong and able to help tend their land.
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Consequently, males can more easily monopolise the females. Thus, the mating system can be shifted from one that favours female success (polyandry), to one that promotes male success (monogamy, polygynandry, or polygyny).
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Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband (even temporarily, after payment of a sum of money to the man or the man's family), by contrast, is not permitted.
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Illustrated that all the Pandavas were polygamy. Whereas the original version, Draupadi polyandry with five Pandavas. Similarly, in the story of Ramayana. Hanuman has two fathers, namely King Kesari Maliawan and God Bayu.
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Polyandry is notably more rare than polygyny, though less rare than the figure commonly cited in the Ethnographic Atlas (1980) which listed only those polyandrous societies found in the Himalayan Mountains. More recent studies have found 53 societies outside the 28 found in the Himalayans which practice polyandry. It is most common in egalitarian societies marked by high male mortality or male absenteeism. It is associated with partible paternity, the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father.
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The explanation for polyandry in the Himalayan Mountains is related to the scarcity of land; the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife (fraternal polyandry) allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In Europe, this was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance (the dis-inheriting of most siblings, some of whom went on to become celibate monks and priests).
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Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. It is associated with partible paternity, the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father.. Several ethnic groups practicing polyandry in India identify their customs with their descent from Draupadi, a central character of the Mahabharta who was married to five brothers, although local practices may not be fraternal themselves. Polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources. It is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival.
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When the Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese, the concubines of others were added to the list of inappropriate partners. Polyandry in Tibet was common traditionally, as was polygyny, and having several wives or husbands was never regarded as having sex with inappropriate partners. Most typically, fraternal polyandry is practiced, but sometimes father and son have a common wife, which is a unique family structure in the world. Other forms of marriage are also present, like group marriage and monogamous marriage.
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The grey foam- nest tree frog mates in what is described as the most extreme example of polyandry of all vertebrates. The simultaneous polyandry begins when a female begins releasing eggs onto a tree branch. Up to 12 males then cluster around her and fertilise the eggs by producing sperm which they whip into a foamy 'nest' with their hind legs. The female will leave temporarily to rehydrate before returning to the nest, as the entire ordeal can last several hours.
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Polyandry (; from poly-, "many" and ἀνήρ anēr, "man") is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives" participants of each gender, then it can be called polygamy, group or conjoint marriage. In its broadest use, polyandry refers to sexual relations with multiple males within or without marriage. Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas, 186 were found to be monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry.Ethnographic Atlas Codebook derived from George P. Murdock’s Ethnographic Atlas recording the marital composition of 1,231 societies from 1960 to 1980.
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Women own businesses, and both polyandry and polygyny are socially accepted, with polygyny being more prevalent. Sometimes a prospective groom will work in the bride's family's household to earn the right to marry her.
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H. cydno females are known to mate multiply, thus engaging in polyandry. There are many possible benefits to females mating multiply that may conclude more robust progeny, more allocation of resources, or other benefits.
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Some shark species, such as catsharks, Scyliorbinus carnicula, exhibit a different form of convenience polyandry. These sharks fertilize internally, but then lay their fertilized eggs onto algae or rocky surfaces. Catsharks tend to have a prolonged mating season, allowing females to store sperm and lay eggs hundreds of days after copulation from multiple males, displaying a high frequency of multiple paternity within a single clutch. Several viviparous shark species, where females give birth to live offspring that develop internally within the mother, also engage in polyandry.
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The origin of polyandry in nature and its adaptive value is a subject of ongoing controversy in evolutionary biology, partly due to the seemingly numerous costs it places on females - additional energetic and temporal allocation to reproduction, increased risk of predation, increased risk of sexually transmitted diseases and increased risk of physical harm caused by copulation/sexual coercion – for eusocial insects, the effects polyandry has on the colony member's coefficient of relatedness is also important, as reducing the relatedness of workers limits the power of kin selection to maintain the ultracooperative behaviours which are vital to a colonies' success. One hypothesis for the evolution of polyandry draws on the disease resistance that increased genetic diversity supposedly brings for a group, and a growing body of evidence from insect taxa supports this hypothesis, some of it discussed above.
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Kirori Singh Bainsla fought and lost at BJP ticket. In early 2000s (decade), the Gurjar community in Dang region of Rajasthan was also in news for the falling sex ratio, unavailability of brides, and the resulting polyandry.
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Polyandry declined rapidly in the first decade after the establishment of Tibet Autonomous Region, and was banned during the Cultural Revolution as part of the "Four Olds". However, it regained popularity in the 1980s as the policies relaxed and the people's commune system broke down. A 1988 survey by the Tibet University throughout Tibet found that 13.3% of families were polyandric, and 1.7% were polygynous. Currently, polyandry is present in all Tibetan areas, but particularly common in some rural regions of Tsang and Kham that are faced with extreme living conditions.
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In Digambara Jain scriptures like Harivamsa Purana, polyandry of Draupadi has been rejected and it is suggested that she was married only to Arjuna. Hemachandra, a Svetambara Jain monk, accepts the polyandry in his work Triṣaṣṭi and further suggests that Draupadi was Nagasri in one of her previous lives and had poisoned a Jain monk. Therefore, she had to suffer in hell and animal incarnations for several lives before being born as woman who later became a Jain nun. After her death, she was reborn as Draupadi and was married to five pandavas.
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Allobates femoralis Bibron's toadlet Anuran mating systems are promiscuous: females and males breed with multiple mates and females exhibit sequential polyandry when one female is fertilized by more than one male at different times. Anurans are external fertilizers so there is no sperm competition. Polyandry has benefits for females such as fertility insurance, paternal care insurance and dispersal of mortality risk. Female anurans have a high risk of mating with sperm depleted males due to frequent mating and tend to select the same few males displaying fitness qualities.
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Females can mate with multiple males (with as many as five), but it is not necessarily advantageous, because unnecessary matings waste time and energy. Polyandry may contribute to outbreeding if females preferentially mate with unrelated males. Polyandry can occur if the benefits of mating more than once are greater than the costs. It can also occur if males force female spiders to mate again through infanticide because females can lay multiple clutches, even though mating multiple times is against the female's interests because it generally reduces the female's fitness.
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Primogeniture maintained family estates intact over generations by permitting only one heir per generation. Fraternal polyandry also accomplishes this, but does so by keeping all the brothers together with just one wife so that there is only one set of heirs per generation. This strategy appears less successful the larger the fraternal sibling group is. Some forms of polyandry appear to be associated with a perceived need to retain aristocratic titles or agricultural lands within kin groups, and/or because of the frequent absence, for long periods, of a man from the household.
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The breeding behaviors of many Rallidae species are poorly understood or unknown. Most are thought to be monogamous, although polygyny and polyandry have been reported.Horsfall & Robinson (2003): pp. 209–210 Most often, they lay five to 10 eggs.
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Even though it is currently illegal, after collective farming was phased out and the farmed land reverted in the form of long-term leases to individual families, polyandry in Tibet is de facto the norm in rural areas.
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Cooperative polyandry occurs when inferior males potentially share paternity and offspring care with a dominant male.Kohda, M. et al. Living on the wedge: female control of paternity in a cooperatively polyandrous cichlid. Proceedings: Biological Sciences 276, 4207–14 (2009).
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Major caruncle, 5. Beard. During sexual behavior, these structures enlarge or become brightly colored. Animal sexual behaviour takes many different forms, including within the same species. Common mating or reproductively motivated systems include monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, polygamy and promiscuity.
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This male limitation allows females to increase their fitness by developing eggs for multiple males. These females can then mate with multiple males, which leads to increased female fecundity and supports the second step of the evolution of classical polyandry.
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Melvyn C. Goldstein (born 8 February 1938) is an American social anthropologist and Tibet scholar. His research focuses on Tibetan society, history and contemporary politics, population studies, polyandry, studies in cultural and development ecology, economic change and cross-cultural gerontology.
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Utah prairie dog shows polyandry behavior, and lays only one litter per year, which generally consists of 1 to 8 litter size.Hoogland, J. L. 2013. Why do female prairie dogs copulate with more than one male?—Insights from long-term research.
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Nuptial gift consumption influences female remating in a scorpionfly: male or female control of mating rate?. Evolutionary Ecology, 21(1), 49 -61. Polyandry results in a high incidence of sperm competition, and males compete for the ability to mate with females.
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Norzang and his brother Rinchen Palzang married the Phagmodrupa princess Yeshe Tsogyal, daughter of Sangye Rinchen, thus following the Tibetan practice of polyandry. He or his brother sired three sons in this marriage, namely Upasika (b. 1444), Kunzang (1445–c.
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Haplometrosis and pleometrosis in the ant Acromyrmex striatus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Insectes Sociaux, 43(1), 47-51. while it is sunny. Therefore, polyandry, which is the behavior of multiple fathers contributing their sperm, plays an important role in maintaining genetic diversity.
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Males have been known to travel unusually large distances to mate with females, the longest found being 7.2 kilometers (4.5 miles). Eclectus parrots are unusual among parrots because they exhibit both polyandrous mating (females mate with multiple males) and polygynandrous mating (males mate with multiple females and females mate with multiple males). Even more unusual, these birds exhibit a form of polyandry known as cooperative polyandry, in which multiple males breed with a single female, and all the males work together to help the female raise the chicks, rather than compete with each other. They are the only parrot known to do this.
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This type of polyandry has been demonstrated by analyzing the genetic composition of Gulf pipefish, Sygnathus scovelli and straightnose pipefish, Nerophis ophidion, which shows that males only mate once during their pregnancy, whereas females mate multiple times. This extreme form of polyandry indicates that this species has a much stronger intensity of sexual selection on females than on males, in which females tend to be larger and more adorned than males. Evidence for stronger sexual selection in females in Gulf pipefish, Syngnathus scovelli, include having secondary sexual characteristics, such as longer abdomens and stripes that are not found in males.
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Monogyny is one of several mating systems observed in nature, in which a male mates only once; females, however, may mate with multiple males. It is important to emphasize the distinctions between monogyny and polyandry, and monogyny and monogamy. Polyandry is a mating system by which a female mates with more than one male; the male, in turn, can also mate with more than the one female. In a monogamous setting, both male and female consent to having only one mate at any one time and thus mate only with that partner for that time period.
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Fraternal polyandry was traditionally practiced among nomadic Tibetans in Nepal, parts of China and part of northern India, in which two or more brothers would marry the same woman. It is most common in societies marked by high male mortality. It is associated with partible paternity, the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father. Non-fraternal polyandry occurs when the wives' husbands are unrelated, as among the Nayar tribe of India, where girls undergo a ritual marriage before puberty,Nayar - Marriage and Family and the first husband is acknowledged as the father of all her children.
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Females reduce the risk of losing all of their offspring because it is likely that some of the males they mated with make good parents. Sequential polyandry will allow females to have a multiple clutches in different nest sites, reducing the risk of abiotic factors, such as temperature, or biotic factors like predators affecting development of the offspring. as cited by Some male behaviors that may have led to polyandry are displacement, where a male is gripped onto and mating with a female, another male may make an effort to mate as well and displace the male that was originally copulating; forced copulation, where there is a high density of aggressive males, and female abandonment, where a female but spots a better one to mate with and abandons the less favorable one. This can lead to sequential polyandry if the male leaves before the entire clutch is released and an additional male fertilizes these eggs as well.
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Polyandry is unknown altogether. Widows or widowers can remarry. Customary law allows divorces, but they are not very common. It is also customary for a groom’s parents or guardians to pay bride price – mostly nominal – to the parents or guardians of the bride.
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The evolution of infertility: Does the hatching rate in birds coevolve with female polyandry? Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 15:702-709. In some species, polyspermy is allowed to happen to result in more than one sperm entering the egg creating viable offspring without detrimental effects.
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Polyandry is also practiced. However, today this practice is usually abandoned. A woman marries not just her husband but the entire age group. Men are expected to give up their bed to a visiting age-mate guest; however, today this practice is usually abandoned.
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Polyandry, the practice of one woman having multiple husbands, is traditionally considered by Han as immoral, prohibited by law, and uncommon in practice. However, historically there have been instances in which a man in poverty rents or pawns his wife temporarily. However amongst other Chinese ethnicities polyandry existed and exists, especially in mountainous areas. In a subsistence economy, when available land could not support more than one family, dividing it between surviving sons would eventually lead to a situation in which none would have the resources to survive; in such a situation a family would together marry a wife, who would be the wife of all the brothers in the family.
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The younger children could have sambandha (temporary relationship) with Kshatriya or Nair women. This is no longer practiced, and in general the Nambudiri Brahmin men marry only from the Nambudiri caste and Nair women prefer to be married to Nair men. Tibetan fraternal polyandry (see Polyandry in Tibet) follows a similar pattern, in which multiple sons in a family all marry the same wife, so the family property is preserved; leftover daughters either become celibate Buddhist nuns or independent households. It was formerly practiced in Tibet and nearby Himalayan areas, and while it was discouraged by the Chinese after their conquest of the region, it is becoming more common again.
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It is omnivorous. Pairs are largely monogamous, though instances of polyandry, with the female taking more than one mate, have been recorded in both the wild and the aquarium. It is a secretive biparental substrate spawner, retreating to caves or rock crevices for protection and breeding.
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The mating system of A. manicatum is unlike those of most other bees. Females exhibit polyandry and continuously mate throughout their reproductive life. The interval of time between copulations amongst different males can be as short as 35 seconds in length. Males exhibit resource defense polygyny.
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Some Christians actively debate whether the New Testament or Christian ethics allows or forbids polygamy and there are several Christian views on the Old Covenant. This debate focuses almost exclusively on polygyny (one man having more than one wife) and not polyandry (one woman having more than one husband).
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Zehr, J. L. NIH Public Access. 41, 101–112 (2005). Immobilization of the female also occurs in muscovy ducks. Grasping and/or grappling mating situations have also been documented in Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis haemorrhoidalis (Odonata),Rivera, a C. & Andrés, J. a Male coercion and convenience polyandry in a calopterygid damselfly.
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In the morning, the captain counted those who departed. All the participants in the trip described Polynesian Sexual customs (meaning guest marriages and polyandry). However, Langsdorf was the one who noticed that only women of lower social status served as seafarers. Krusenstern and Ratmanov were disappointed by their appearance.
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The northern jacana is unusual among birds in having a polyandrous society. A female jacana lives in a territory that encompasses the territories of 1-4 males.Betts, B.J. and Jenni, D.A. (1991). "Time budgets and the adaptiveness of polyandry in the Northern Jacana." Wilson Bulletin 103 (4): 578-597.
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Polygamy in red flour beetles is a behavior common to both males and females of this species. Polyandry is thus polygamy in the female members of a population as discussed in the section above. On the other hand, polygyny refers to polygamy practiced by males in a population.
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Obtaining a greater amount of sperm is especially important since many sexually active male red flour beetles are non-virgins and may be sperm-depleted. The species engages in polyandry to obtain a greater amount of sperm from males, not to increase the likelihood of finding genetically compatible sperm.
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Polyandry, described in the novel,Wittig, Monique, trans. David Le Vay, Les Guérillères (1985, © 1969), op. cit., p. 112 (probably equivalent to pp. 160–161 in French original, per Laurence M. Porter, op. cit., p. 267). is interpreted by Laurence M. Porter as part of "militant feminist autonomy".
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The level of polyandry in the ruff is the highest known for any avian lekking species and for any shorebird. More than half of female ruffs mate with, and have clutches fertilised by, more than one male, and individual females mate with males of both main behavioural morphs more often than expected by chance. In lekking species, females can choose mates without risking the loss of support from males in nesting and rearing chicks, since the males take no part in raising the brood anyway. In the absence of this cost, if polyandry is advantageous, it would be expected to occur at a higher rate in lekking than among pair-bonded species.
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Zeh, J. A. & Zeh, D. W. Current Issues – Perspectives and Reviews. Toward a new sexual selection paradigm: polyandry, conflict, and incompatibility. Conflict 950, 929–950 (2003). The Trinidadian guppy, Poecilia reticulata has a resource-free mating system, meaning males do not provide during mating or defend their territories against other males.
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Mating systems include all costs and benefits, pre- and postcopulatory competitions, displays and mate choice. Butterfly mating systems have great variation, including strict monandry, one male and one female, to polyandry, having many mates of the opposite sex. Typically Ornithoptera tend to be polygamous, mating with more than one individual.
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In Bibron's toadlet (Pseudophryne bibronii) females spread out their eggs across the nests of two to eight males, with those who exhibited higher levels of polyandrous behavior having higher mean offspring survivorship, showing that insurance against nest failure and dispersal of mortality risk is related to the evolution of polyandry.
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The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila serrata, Drosophila pseudoobscura, Drosophila melanogaster, and Drosophila neotestacea. Polyandry is a prominent mating system among Drosophila. Females mating with multiple sex partners has been a beneficial mating strategy for Drosophila. The benefits include both pre and post copulatory mating.
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Polyandry has been observed in B. dorsalis. For females, there is typically a re-mating refractory period. The length of this period does not vary based on whether the female is mating with a virgin or non-virgin male. However, when there was a refractory period, females lay more eggs.
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Both sexes incubate during the day, but only the female at night. The male feeds the female, but holds the prey items while the female tears off pieces. Lesser honeyguides and greater honeyguides parasitise up to a quarter of nests. This species is usually monogamous, but polyandry has been recorded.
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This multiple mate system allows new combinations of genes to come together, which results in more genetic variation in the population. It also allows females to avoid mating with infertile males. Two mechanisms that allow polyandry to be advantageous agents for increasing males' fitness are sperm competition and male guarding behavior.
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The death rate was so high that polyandry—one woman being married to several men at the same time—developed as a common form of marriage among the slaves. As slaves had no legal rights, rape by planters, their unmarried sons, or overseers was a common occurrence on the plantations.
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These sharks included lemon sharks,DiBattista, J. D., Feldheim, K. a, Gruber, S. H. & Hendry, A. P. Are indirect genetic benefits associated with polyandry? Testing predictions in a natural population of lemon sharks. Molecular ecology 17, 783–95 (2008). sandbar sharks,Portnoy, D. S., Mcdowell, J. R., Thompson, K., Musick, J. a.
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Other mating systems, including polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity, also occur. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances. Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male.
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Sperm competition that arises from polygamy favors males with faster, more motile sperm in higher numbers, increasing male fitness. The competitive aspect of insemination increases the frequency of polyandrous events and fertilizations. Polyandry has evolved to increase reproductive success. Male mating behavior is also affected in response to the practice of polygamous behavior.
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Usage of liquor and prostitution were strictly prohibited in his administration. Usage and agriculture of drug such as Cannabis etc were also prohibited. Polyandry in Kerala was prohibited by Tipu Sultan. He granted all women the permission to cover their breast, which were not possible earlier by system of Kerala in that era.
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Gryllus bimaculatus exhibit polygamy, in which one individual has many different mates. Variation of polygamous behavior occurs between males and females, within a population of Gryllus bimaculatus. Both females and males continuously seek mates with whom they can spread their seed. Polyandry is the most common form of polygamy practiced in G. bimaculatus.
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The polygyny and polyandry observed are likely to be responsible for the great genotypic diversity of the species colonies. The average inbreeding coefficient per colony is higher in Acromyrmex striatus than in Acromyrmex heyeri, which may reflect the different patterns of production of sexual individuals and nuptial flight of those two species.
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Furthermore, when a single male mates with a female, there is a 90–95% chance that fertilization will be successful, while there is only a 64% chance of success when three to five males mate with one female. Often this drop is due to fights that arise when other males join in an existing act of copulation, reducing the likelihood of successful sperm transfer. Therefore, there is no benefit to polyandry in terms of offspring survival to offset the high cost of reduced fertilization success and occasional female mortality. It is thus unclear why polyandry is prevalent in this species, although it could possibly be due to males wanting to increase their chances of procreation with a limited number of females.
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Polyandry in fish is a mating system where females mate with multiple males within one mating season.Simmons, L. W., Beveridge, M. & Evans, J. P. Molecular evidence for multiple paternity in a feral population of green swordtails. The Journal of heredity 99, 610–5 (2008). This type of mating exists in a variety of animal species.
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Maklakov, A. a. & Lubin, Y. Indirect genetic benefits of polyandry in a spider with direct costs of mating. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 61, 31–38 (2006). In Argiope aurantia males can lose legs in combat, with the loss more prevalent in smaller males, evidence that larger males are favored in male-to-male competition.
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This skit illuminates a field of study within the archaeological/anthropological realm of marriage. This skit brings up the question of what is the "proper" form of marriage. Many cultures around the world have different definitions of a marriage and who may be married. Some other types of marriage practices include: monogamy, polygamy, polyandry.
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Fraternal polyandry is practiced among Tibetans in Nepal and parts of China, in which two or more brothers are married to the same wife, with the wife having equal "sexual access" to them.Gielen, U. P. (1993). Gender Roles in traditional Tibetan cultures. In L. L. Adler (Ed.), International handbook on gender roles (pp. 413-437).
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Females prefer to mate with certain males more than others. Females show a distinct preference for mating with new males. Female G. bimaculatus mate with at least two males before zygote production occurs. Polyandry is a costly reproductive system for females because they put a lot of time, energy and resources into producing eggs.
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These are left behind by the female on the male to allow for sensory-differentiation. This self-referent chemosensory signaling is both a reliable and simple means for a female to maximize the benefits of polyandry. Females can also use palpation and antennation before mating to deduce whether or not a mate is novel.
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If taxpayer sons married that created succession for the family corporation and bound them to the estate for patrimonial and land reasons. Householder marriages did not incur that responsibility, and they generally married for love and were more often monogamist. The small number of polyandry cases within the householder class were limited to only the wealthier families.
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Vast majority of Charadriidae have a socially monogamous mating system. Some, such as Northern lapwings, are polygynyous, others, such as mountain plovers have a rapid multiple-clutch system that can be accompanied by sequential polyandry. In Eurasian dotterels, females compete for males and males provide all parental care. While breeding, they defend their territories with highly visible aerial displays.
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Acta Theriologica. 48(3): 335-346. However the most marked effect on mating system is population density and these effects can take place both inter and intra- specifically Male voles are territorial and tend to include territories of several female voles when possible. Under these conditions polyandry exists and males offer little parental care.Ostfeld, R. 1986.
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They practiced both fraternal and sequential polyandry. The males who shared one or two wives were almost always full or half-brothers. A Toda woman when married was automatically married to her husband's brothers. When the wife became pregnant, one husband would ceremonially give a bow and arrow to the wife, and would be the father of that child.
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The nestlings start out light buff, but in five to six days turn a rich brown. Very often, there will be three hawks attending one nest: two males and one female. Whether or not this is polyandry is debated, as it may be confused with backstanding (one bird standing on another's back). The female does most of the incubation.
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Later the Pandavas, Kunti and newly wed Draupadi returned to Hastinapura. There, they faced many controversies including Draupadi's polyandry and problem of having two crown princes of Hastinapura. On the advice of Bhishma, Pandavas were given their own land to rule which later was called Indraprastha. However Kunti remained in Hastinapura with are sister in law, Gandhari.
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In the Indian version, Five Pandavas have one wife, Draupadi. This means that the concept of polyandry. Walisongo change this concept by telling that Draupadi was the wife of Yudhishthira, the eldest brother. Werkudara or Bima has a wife namely Arimbi, who later he married again with Dewi Nagagini who have children Ontorejo and Ontoseno, and so on.
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Small herds of up to four members are common; males defend their group's territory, large. The oribi is primarily a grazer, and prefers fresh grasses and browses occasionally. A seasonal breeder, the time when mating occurs varies geographically. Unlike all other small antelopes, oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems, depending on the habitat – polyandry, polygyny and polygynandry.
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In contrast, very poor persons not owning land were less likely to practice polyandry in Buddhist Ladakh and Zanskar. In Europe, the splitting up of land was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance. With most siblings disinherited, many of them became celibate monks and priests. Polyandrous mating systems are also a common phenomenon in the animal kingdom.
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She was harassed and insulted on a daily basis because of her black face veil. Illi was an advocate of polygamy, the practice of having multiple wives, but she rejected polyandry, having multiple husbands. She was married to the computer scientist, Qaasim Illi, who also worked for the Islamic Central Council of Switzerland. They had six children.
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Moustached tamarins practice a variety of mating systems: polyandry, polygyny or polygynandry. The mothers often receive help from up to 4 or 5 other members of the group. In polyandrous groups, the alpha male tolerates the presence of other males who can provide infant-care. Not having enough helpers can sometimes lead to infanticide by the mother.
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Continually occupied nest structures may reach up to two metres in height. Nests can be as wide as 2 meters and weighing about 135 kg. Generally, eastern ospreys reach sexual maturity and begin breeding around the age of three to four years. Eastern ospreys usually mate for life, although polyandry has been recorded in several instances.
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The recently independent country of Southern Sudan also recognizes polygamy. Polyandry is de facto the norm in rural areas of Tibet, although it is illegal under Chinese family law. Polygamy continues in Bhutan in various forms as it has since ancient times. It is also found in parts of Nepal, despite its formal illegality in the country.
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In March 1779 the British forces won Mahé ("Mahey") from the French; the Nairs ("Nayhirs"), a Hindu community that was ruled by matriarchs and (to some extent) practiced polyandry, took this opportunity to rebel against Haidar Ali's rule. The uprising was supported, if not instigated, by the British but suppressed, and the French retook Mahé in 1780 with Haidar Ali's aid.
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Evans, J. P. & Gasparini, C. The genetic basis of female multiple mating in a polyandrous livebearing fish. Ecology and evolution 3, 61–6 (2012). Females who engage in polyandry obtain certain advantages such as shorter gestation times, larger broods, and the production of offspring with better phenotypes and abilities. Females prefer phenotypically bright colored males that are usually orange, red, yellow, or blue.
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Scientists toy with a conspiracy of intellectuals to override the expected repression of research by governments. In countries around the world, angry mobs lynch Irish, English, Libyans, and anyone too closely resembling them. The plague also has major social repercussions. The book implies near the end that polyandry will necessarily become mandatory, potentially giving women involved in such marriages enhanced power.
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There are many women of high born classes or royal class like Princess Mādhavi who had 4 husbands, the only daughter of King Yayati. Polyandry was but common in the royal class but under the strict guidance of the Vedic sages exactly like polygamous marriages of ancient Indian kings were under strict supervision and guidance of the Vedic laws and Vedic sages.
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Wishing to avoid the Himalayan winter, they moved to South India and spent time with the Toda people. They visited the Nilgiris district, Madras, Kalimpong and finally Ceylon. Throughout the entire journey, Peter focused his attention on the study of polyandry – an interest that may have resulted from the Oedipus complex. While in Madras, Peter decided to officialise his relationship with Ovtchinnikova.
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Female ruby-throated hummingbird on nest As typical for their family, ruby-throated hummingbirds are thought to be polygynous. Polyandry and polygynandry may also occur. They do not form breeding pairs, with males departing immediately after the reproductive act and females providing all parental care. Males arrive at the breeding area in the spring and establish a territory before the females arrive.
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The fitness of females increases in polyandrous lines due to more genetic diversity and greater litter size. Due to polyandry, males can be confused by the identity of new offspring. Multiple mating by females and paternity confusion can decrease rates of infanticide. If the males are uncertain if the offspring are theirs, they are less likely to kill the offspring.
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Larger males have a competitive advantage in displacing the sperm of other males, enhancing the likelihood of their sperm fertilizing the eggs. This phenomenon is termed sperm competition. In response, females have evolved larger spermathecae, spermicides, and an enhanced ability to select sperm based on the fitness of male suitors. Scathophaga stercoraria displaying either polyandry or monogamy differ in female fitness.
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Their habitat is in rain forests densely covered with undergrowth. They are diurnal and arboreal, living together in small groups led by a dominant female. The females can mate promiscuously with all the males (polyandry), but were also seen cases of polygyny and monogamy. They mainly feed on fruits and insects, but occasionally they also eat eggs and small vertebrates.
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Females who were exposed to two males continuously without a refractory period in between lay fewer eggs, but still lay more eggs than females with only one male. Therefore, there appears to be a reproductive benefit for females with polyandry. Reproductive senescence does appear to be present in this species, as male and female age correlates negatively with the rate of fertilization.
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In charadriiform birds, recent research has shown clearly that polyandry and sex-role reversal (where males care and females compete for mates) as found in phalaropes, jacanas, painted snipe and a few plover species is clearly related to a strongly male-biased adult sex ratio. Those species with male care and polyandry invariably have adult sex ratios with a large surplus of males, which in some cases can reach as high as six males per female. Male-biased adult sex ratios have also been shown to correlate with cooperative breeding in mammals such as alpine marmots and wild canids.Allainé, Dominique; Brondex, Francine; Graziani, Laurent; Coulon, Jacques and Till-Bottraud, Irène; "Male- biased sex ratio in litters of alpine marmots supports the helper repayment hypothesis" This correlation may also apply to cooperatively breeding birds, though the evidence is less clear.
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Placental fish Heterandria formosa offspring from females who mate with multiple males, have a longer maturation time, leading to potentially higher levels of fatality in slower developing offspring.Ala-Honkola, O., Friman, E. & Lindström, K. Costs and benefits of polyandry in a placental poeciliid fish Heterandria formosa are in accordance with the parent-offspring conflict theory of placentation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 24, 2600–10 (2011).
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The mating system of these voles involves a type of polygyny for males and extra-group polyandry for females. This system increases the frequency of mating among distantly related individuals, and is achieved mainly by dispersal during the mating season. Such a strategy is likely an adaptation to avoid the inbreeding depression that would be caused by expression of deleterious recessive alleles if close relatives mated.
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Promiscuity is common in many animal species. Some species have promiscuous mating systems, ranging from polyandry and polygyny to mating systems with no stable relationships where mating between two individuals is a one-time event. Many species form stable pair bonds, but still mate with other individuals outside the pair. In biology, incidents of promiscuity in species that form pair bonds are usually called extra-pair copulations.
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Tinaminae species normally practice a complex breeding strategy. This entails the males practicing simultaneous polygyny and the females practicing successive polyandry. Breeding season fluctuates with the species; however the majority of the species within the forest breed throughout the year, with an emphasis on when the food is most abundant. They are a very territorial group of birds; however sometimes only during breeding season.
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However, she became the common wife of the Pandavas because of her mother-in-law's misunderstanding. After facing problems created by her polyandry, she became the empress of Indraprastha. She had five sons, one from each Pandava, who were collectively addressed as the Upapandavas. After Yudhishthira, the emperor of Indraprastha, performed the Rajasuya Yajna, he was invited to play a game of dice in Hastinapura.
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Female turtles control the process. A few populations practice polyandry, although this does not seem to benefit hatchlings. After mating in the water, the female moves above the beach's high tide line where she digs a hole with her hind flippers and deposits her eggs. Litter size depends on the age of the female and species, but green turtle clutches range between 100 and 200.
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A few populations practice polyandry, although this does not seem to benefit hatchlings. After mating in the water, the female moves above the beach's high tide line, where she digs a hole 11-22 inches in depth with her hind flippers and deposits her eggs. The hole is then covered up again. Clutch size ranges between 85 and 200, depending on the age of the female.
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When numerous men die in combat, having more than one wife boosts the population. A person’s status in society and wealth became associated with the number of wives a man had. On the contrary, polyandry was a way of limiting a population with few resources and too many people. A woman can only conceive and birth so many children, no matter how many husbands she has/had.
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While polyandrous unions have disappeared from the traditions of many of the groups and tribes, it is still practiced by some Paharis, especially in the Jaunsar-Bawar region in Northern India. Recent years have seen the rise in fraternal polyandry in the agrarian societies in Malwa region of Punjab to avoid division of farming land."Draupadis bloom in rural Punjab" The Times of India. 16 July 2005.
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The researchers saw that each patriline had a significantly skewed proclivity for a certain caste, showing that there is considerable evidence for a genetic based caste determination amongst each patriline. These genetic components have been shown not only in Eciton burchellii, but across numerous other ant species—where queens mate with many males, known as polyandry, or where several queens lead a single colony, known as polygyny.
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The most extreme known species of accipitrid in terms of sociality is the Harris's hawks (Parabuteo unicinctus), which up to seven fully-grown birds may hunt, nest and brood cooperatively, with the additional birds typically being prior years' offspring of the two most mature hawks.Bednarz, J. C. (1987). "Pair and group reproductive success, polyandry, and cooperative breeding in Harris' Hawks." The Auk 393-404.
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Pygmy falcon territories are occasionally inhabited by groups, where there are more than two adults living together and tending nestlings. There are four potential reasons for this behaviour: defence, co-operative polyandry, delayed dispersal of offspring and cooperation, and thermoregulation (warmth). Corroboration for the last is that in winter African pygmy falcons nest further inside the nest of sociable weavers, where there is better insulation.
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Primate mating systems infer both a social element and a genetic element. Therefore, a mating system should describe: (1) the interactions and resulting relationship between the mating pairs involved; and (2) the reproductive outcomes from the mating system. For instance, monogamy infers exclusive mating access and, thus, greater paternity certainty. Observed mating systems in primates include: monogamy, polyandry, polygyny and polygamy (as described below).
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Polygamy (from Late Greek , polygamía, "state of marriage to many spouses".) is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, sociologists call this polygyny. When a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. A marriage including multiple husbands and wives can be called a group marriage.
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Polyandry consists of one adult female breeding with multiple males, which only breed with that female. This is rare among teleosts, and fish in general, but is found in the clownfish. In addition, it may also exist to an extent among anglerfish, where some females have more than one male attached to them. Polygyny, where one male breeds with multiple females, is much more common.
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As opposed to polygyny, polyandrous behavior in females is the act of breeding with several males in the same season. Variation in number of males that females mate with occurs among a population. Polyandrous behavior is a common mating pattern in the subspecies Mus musculus musculus as well as its relative Mus musculus domesticus. Polyandry occurs in 30% of all wild populations of house mice.
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Charles William Beebe: A monograph of the pheasants, New York Zoological Society, 1918-1922, Bd. 3, S. 197 Koklass are boreal adapted species which separate into three distinct species groups. They are one of the few galliforms that regularly fly uphill and are capable of sustained flights of many miles. They are monogamous with a slight tendency toward social polyandry. Both parents rear the chicks.
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Pre-copulatory strategies are the behaviours associated with mate choice and the genetic contributions, such as production of gametes, that are exhibited by both male and female Drosophila regarding mate choice. Post copulatory strategies include sperm competition, mating frequency, and sex-ratio meiotic drive. These lists are not inclusive. Polyandry among the Drosophila pseudoobscura in North America vary in their number of mating partners.
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After cremation was discontinued, the Sekani revived an old custom, probably never entirely abandoned, of covering the dead man with the brush hut that had sheltered him during his last days and then deserting the locality for a period. Persons of influence were buried in coffins raised on platforms or trees. They were said to have practiced polyandry before large scale conversion to Catholicism.
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These colonies may be more fit than genetically uniform colonies perhaps because they are able to tolerate a wider range of environmental conditions. In such cases, A. florea may use genetically based task specialization, in which highly related daughters of a haploid male have genetic predispositions to undertake certain tasks. This could explain why polyandry has evolved and been maintained.Page, Robert E., and Gene E. Robinson.
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Polygyny and polyandry are allowed, but they are rare. Instead, divorce is commonplace in most Semang groups, especially if the couple have no children. The procedure is very simple, the couple just ceases to live together. Sometimes there are sharp conflicts on this ground, but in the majority of cases everything is peaceful, and the former spouses remain friendly, staying in the same camp.
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It is not as costly for males because they can produce a larger amount of sperm for less time, energy and resources. Males can also fertilize many eggs in one mating. However, polyandry is still evolved in crickets because it provides benefits that outweigh the costs. It allows females to mate with males that have more desirable traits than previous mates, which is beneficial to offspring success.
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Acromyrmex is the most complex taxon of the family Formicidae. Complexity in the reproductive caste (queens and males) account for this. Possible configurations of the reproductive caste in ant colonies are, monogyny (one queen), polygyny (multiple queens), monandry (sperm supplied by one male), polyandry (sperm supplied by multiple males), and worker reproduction. Colonies may be founded by haplometrosis (by one queen) or by pleometrosis (by multiple queens).
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The vast majority of marriages are monogamous (one husband and one wife), but both polygyny and polyandry in India have a tradition among some populations in India. Weddings in India can be quite expensive. Most marriages in India are arranged. With regard to dress, a sari (a long piece of fabric draped around the body) and salwar kameez are worn by women all over India.
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The Tinamiformes are one of the least studied orders of birds despite tinamous exhibiting rare and little understood behavioral patterns. They have male parental care which is not always associated with polyandry or sex-role reversal. Their varied mating systems and diverse habitats have the potential, through comparative studies, to explain how ecological differences affect mating strategies. In some species, females cooperate in assembling clutches of eggs for different males.
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As has been seen, fraternal polyandry was a form of marriage that was prevalent among the tre-ba class. Traditionally, marriages were arranged by the parents, often when the children were still very young. As tre-ba marriages were decided for patrimonial reasons, the brides' and bridegrooms' personal preferences were of no consequence. In polyandrous conjugal family, the eldest brother was, more often than not, the dominant person in the household.
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Laws prohibiting polygyny were adopted in Japan (1880), China (1953), India (1955) and Nepal (1963). Polyandry is illegal in most countries. The women's rights movements seek to make monogamy the only legal form of marriage. The United Nations General Assembly in 1979 adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Article 16 of which requires nations to give women and men equal rights in marriage.
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Kunti thought he was referring to alms found in the forest or to some great prize unknown to her. She tells Arjuna that the find must be shared with his brothers, as they had always shared such things in the past. This misunderstanding, combined with motherly command, leads to agreement that all five brothers marry her. This is one of the rare examples of polyandry in Sanskrit literature.
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The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a grihapati. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts.
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Polygamy and polyandry are practiced but separation is not allowed nor is marrying nearest relatives. When a couple wants to have only 1 or 2 children the wife, after giving birth, eats an herb called benayan. For birth spacing she eats 2 herbs, and if no more children are desired she eats more. Another type of birth control is practiced by the midwife who "manipulates" the woman after delivery.
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The reproductive strategy of this species is best described as facultative polyandry, in that a single female is typically linked with two or three males that form a pride of sorts. These males are likely to be siblings. The female pairs with the alpha male of the pride and nests high off the ground. Her eggs are highly variable in colour, but generally are cream with a yellow or pink tint.
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The male then exhibits submissive behavior by rolling his tail between his legs, chattering softly, and baring his teeth in a grimace before quickly leaping out of her way. When mating, Coquerel's sifaka commonly practices polyandry. A female may choose to mate with only one male, but most often she mates with several, from other visiting groups, as well as from her own. Males compete for access to sexually receptive females.
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Ca. 1815 French satire on cuckoldry, which shows both men and women wearing horns. Sexual relations with multiple males are termed polyandry. It has a more specific meaning in zoology, where it refers to a type of mating system, and in anthropology, where it refers to a type of marriage. Sexual relations with multiple females are termed polygyny, but in zoology it can only be applied to heterosexual relations.
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As a social species, V. maculifrons colonies depend on collaboration. However, polyandry tends to create subfamilies with lower relatedness, which can lead to conflict within the colony. Yet, V. maculifrons queens, and many other species’ queens, mate multiply. This occurrence is explained because potential conflict between subfamilies is offset by the reproductive success of queens; the mate number of queens is correlated to the number of queen cells a colony creates.
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This way, they feel less tied but also less responsible. But still, in the 1970s, it was in no way unusual to make agreements regarding newborns about eventual marriages. However, when these promises of marriage became due, fifteen or twenty years later, they were taken less and less seriously. Before Christianizing (referred to as Siqqitiq by the Inuit), polygamy, more often polygyny, less so polyandry, were not unusual among the Inuit.
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When males are able to disproportionately control resources, they may be able to support more than one female partner. Polyandry is the practice of a female partnering with multiple males. It is not as common in humans as polygyny, due in part to the constraints of female reproduction. While a female may only reproduce once at a time, a male may be able to contribute to multiple concurrent pregnancies.
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Unlike fraternal polyandry where a woman will receive a number of husbands simultaneously, a woman will acquire one husband after another in sequence. This form is flexible. These men may or may not be related. And it may or may not incorporate a hierarchical system, where one husband is considered primary and may be allotted certain rights or privileges not awarded to secondary husbands, such as biologically fathering a child.
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In contemporary Hindu society, polyandrous marriages in agrarian societies in the Malwa region of Punjab seem to occur to avoid division of farming land.Draupadis bloom in rural Punjab Times of India, Jul 16, 2005. Fraternal polyandry achieves a similar goal to that of primogeniture in 19th-century England. Primogeniture dictated that the eldest son inherited the family estate, while younger sons had to leave home and seek their own employment.
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Some pre-Christian Celtic pagans were known to practice polygamy, although the Celtic peoples wavered between it, monogamy and polyandry depending on the time period and area. In some areas this continued even after Christianization began, for instance the Brehon Laws of Gaelic Ireland explicitly allowed for polygamy,Jan Fries, Cauldron of the Gods, page 192.Seán Duffy, Medieval Ireland, An Encyclopedia, page 74. especially amongst the noble class.
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It nests in crevices in rocks or walls, laying four to five eggs. Rock sparrows exhibit a variety of mating patterns, most notably monogamy and sequential and simultaneous polyandry; however, social monogamy is the most abundant mating pattern. The frequencies of these various mating patterns most likely vary with numerous ecological and social factors. Many studies have shown that both males and females prefer a mate with a larger yellow patch.
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Small male bluegill sunfishes cuckold large males by adopting sneaker strategies. Alternative male strategies which allow small males to engage in cuckoldry can develop in species such as fish where spawning is dominated by large and aggressive males. Cuckoldry is a variant of polyandry, and can occur with sneak spawners. A sneak spawner is a male that rushes in to join the spawning rush of a spawning pair.
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In Talmudic literature, the ancient Egyptians are known for their liberal sexual lifestyles and are often used as the prime example of sexual debauchery. Rashi describes an Egyptian practice for women to have multiple husbands. Maimonides refers to lesbianism as "the acts of Egypt". While polyandry and lesbianism are characteristics of the ancient Egyptians according to religious Jewish discourse, male-male homosexual relationships are usually attributed to Sodom, Gomorrah, and Amalek.
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Polygamy is the practice of having more than one spouse. Specifically, polygyny is the practice of one man taking more than one wife while polyandry is the practice of one woman taking more than one husband. Polygamy is a common marriage pattern in some parts of the world. In North America, polygamy has not been a culturally normative or legally recognized institution since the continent's colonization by Europeans.
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Tipu escaped in the general panic whilst Mendes was captured and killed by the Nairs, who mistook him for Tipu. In 1783, the Kodavas erupted in revolt against Tipu and threw their forces out of Coorg. In 1785, he marched into Mercara the capital of Coorg and addressed them. He showed racial and religious bias by stating that the Kodavas were guilty of polyandry in a speech before a gathering of Kodavas.
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Copulation requires a substantial amount of energy and females that mate with multiple males causes a negative effect on their overall fitness. Female lemon sharks give birth to four to eighteen pups every two years. This two-year reproductive cycle usually occurs in lemon sharks, sandbar sharks, and nurse sharks. One hypothesis states that females can engage in polyandry to find genetically dissimilar and therefore compatible males to produce high quality offspring.
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Verses of the Rigveda, such as 3.44-45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility: The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the Rigveda. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position.
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However, the winner of a fight will not necessarily be the one she selects for breeding. The criteria by which she chooses a mate are evidently more complex. In some other animals, polyandrous mating is thought to raise the chances of successful fertilization, but this does not appear to be the case in Coquerel's sifaka. Instead, polyandry is thought to be advantageous because when paternity is confused, the likelihood of male infanticide decreases.
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Unlike bees in the Apini tribe where the queen exhibits polyandry, queens in P. remota are monandrous. The males will crowd around the entrance to the colony since this will increase the male's chances of mating with the virgin queen. The male will attempt to mate with the queen as she tries to leave the nest. The male that mated with the queen will then leave a mating plug to deter further chances of mating.
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However, single births occur 16% of the time and triplet births 8% of the time. The pygmy marmoset is usually monogamous though there is some variation within the species in terms of breeding systems. Polyandry also occurs as male marmosets are responsible for carrying the infants on their backs. Having a second male to carry the offspring can be beneficial as marmoset litters are often twins and decreases the cost to any particular male.
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Retrieved 1 October 2007 For example, in the Himalayan Mountains polyandry is related to the scarcity of land; the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In Europe, this outcome was avoided through the social practice of impartible inheritance, under which most siblings would be disinherited.
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However, the woman may never cohabit with that man, taking multiple lovers instead; these men must acknowledge the paternity of their children (and hence demonstrate that no caste prohibitions have been breached) by paying the midwife. The women remain in their maternal home, living with their brothers, and property is passed matrilineally. A similar form of matrilineal, de facto polyandry can be found in the institution of walking marriage among the Mosuo tribe of China.
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Julidochromis species are secretive biparental substrate spawners, retreating to caves or rock crevices. Pairs are largely monogamous, however the largest male may maintain harems (polygyny) and the largest females may mate with multiple males at multiple nesting sites (polyandry). This has been recorded in both the wild and the aquarium. If a pair-bond is broken, the larger fish will drive the smaller fish out of the territory, sometimes killing him in the process.
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Finally, the groom applied kumkum to the bride's forehead and tied a knot that would remain intact for 3–10 days, after which they would rub themselves with turmeric, bathe, and untie the knot. Sex before marriage was not considered taboo, but it was understood that if the girl became pregnant she would marry the father of the child. The Bhumij recognise polygyny, barrenness of first wife is the main reason. Polyandry is unknown.
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When the soil becomes exhausted, Yanomami frequently move to avoid areas that have become overused, a practice known as shifting cultivation. Yanomami women in Venezuela Children stay close to their mothers when young; most of the childrearing is done by women. Yanomami groups are a famous example of the approximately fifty documented societies that openly accept polyandry,Starkweather and Hames, 2012 though polygyny among Amazonian tribes has also been observed. Many unions are monogamous.
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A. manicatum display extreme polyandry, which is linked to male territoriality and resource defence of flowering plants. Males claim patches of floral plants, aggressively ward off conspecific males, bees, and other resource competitors, and mate with the females who forage in their territories. Copulations occur repeatedly and regularly in both sexes. Males that are unable to defend their own territory (usually because of their relatively small size) utilize an alternative ‘sneaking’ tactic.
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The bowerbird puts on one of the most elaborate displays: a hut-like construction, completed by a collection of objects designed to impress. Competition among males can be fierce and in Scotland, Attenborough observes rival capercaillies engaging in battle — after one of them chases the presenter. Avian polyandry is not widespread, but is illustrated by the superb fairy-wren, where the male's family can easily comprise young that it did not father.
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Male offspring from polyandrous mating tend to be more colorful than offspring from monogamous mating, which contain more black spots rather than multiple colors. Brightly colored males tend to display stronger sigmoidal displays, correlating sperm production rate with courtship intensity and body size. Offspring were more phenotypically diverse than their parents, suggesting a diversified selection that allows offspring to cope better with the environment and have variability in mating. However, there are also costs associated with polyandry.
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In response to this polyandry, the female produces mating plugs of her own to prevent too many males from copulating with her. The mating plugs transferred to females by the males are believed to be a possible cause of monogyny. For example, in the spider species Argiope aurantia, males will sometimes plug a female with both pedipalps to prevent sperm competition. When this occurs, the male loses his ability to mate with more than one female.
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In the Feltar males first time breeding with both females, he did not bring food to the younger female. However, when older female disappeared the following year, the male and younger female producing 4 young, but disappeared the subsequent year altogether in 1975. There are also unconfirmed cases of polyandry, with 1 female being fed by 2 males. Snowy owls can breed once per year but when food is scarce many do not even attempt to breed.
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The religious and funerary rites provide the social context in which complex poetic songs about the cult of the buffalo are composed and chanted., Encyclopædia Britannica. (2007) Fraternal polyandry in traditional Toda society was fairly common; however, this practice has now been totally abandoned, as has female infanticide. During the last quarter of the 20th century, some Toda pasture land was lost due to outsiders using it for agriculture or afforestation by the State Government of Tamil Nadu.
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Under certain conditions, however, it is advantageous for the female to be polyandrous. This is because the costs of monogamy are greater than the costs of polyandry. If mating only takes a short time, this can reduce the cost of multiple copulations. It is advantageous for the female to be polyandrous when she is trying to forage because males normally guard resource rich sites, so females get access to these territories when she mates with these males.
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This land is so unexplored that many religious and archeological relics are still intact at many places in Tsum. People in Tsum Valley still practise polyandry system and they have unique culture, tradition and a dialect of their own. Their unique festivals observed here are Lhosar, Dhacyhang, Saka Dawa, Faning among others. The residents of Tsum valley are called Tsumbas. Many of the claimed sightings or encounters with Mehti, more commonly referred as the ‘Yeti’, have come from Tsumbas.
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"Polyandry and population growth in a Historical Tibetan Society", History of the Family, pp.423–428 Scholar Geoff Samuel further argued that Tibet even in the early 20th century did not constitute a single state but rather a collection of districts and a legal system of Lhasa with particular land and tax laws did not extend over the entire country.Samuel, Geoffrey (Feb., 1982) Tibet as a Stateless Society and Some Islamic Parallels The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.
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A mating system is a way in which a group is structured in relation to sexual behaviour. The precise meaning depends upon the context. With respect to animals, the term describes which males and females mate under which circumstances. Recognised systems include monogamy, polygamy (which includes polygyny, polyandry, and polygynandry), and promiscuity, all of which lead to different mate choice outcomes and thus these systems affect how sexual selection works in the species which practice them.
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Polyandry, was practiced in Kandyan provinces until it was banned by the British in 1859. The practice known as eka-ge-kema meaning eating in one house, provided for a wife to have several husbands from the same family. In most cases these husbands would be brothers. The practice predates the Kandyan era and was even common among Royalty as King Vijayabahu VII of Kotte had cohabited his first wife Anula Kahatuda with his brother Sri Rajasinghe.
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This suggests fierce competition for access to females, with a polygynous mating system, though polyandry and promiscuity cannot be excluded. In captivity, courtship and mating foreplay have been documented. The male takes the initiative by nibbling the fins of the female, but reacts aggressively if the female is not receptive. A high frequency of copulations in a couple was observed; they used three different positions: contacting the womb at right angles, lying head to head, or head to tail.
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In Pampa's version, Arjuna is the only husband of Draupadi. As polyandry is not considered a virtue, this goes well with the story. On the other hand, to please his king, he refers to Arjuna with the titles of Arikesari at some places. The titles Chalukya Vamshodbhavam "of the Chalukyas" and Samanta Choodamani "jewel among the feudatories" among others to the greatest archer of the world from the Kuru clan does not seem to go well.
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The Layap are known for their tradition of polyandry, practiced to keep families and property together, although the custom now in decline. The Layap also have a tradition of child marriage, with brides as young as 10 years old. Layap women speaking to media anticipate the increase in schooling among their daughters will result in a decline in child marriages. Many Layap women find healthcare difficult to access during pregnancy due to isolated settlements and nomadic lifestyles.
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A 2008 study of several villages in Xigaze and Qamdo prefectures found that 20-50% of the families were polyandric, with the majority having two husbands. For some remote settlements, the number was as high as 90%. Polyandry is very rare among urban residents or non-agricultural households. A regulation issued by government of Tibet Autonomous Region in 1981 approved all polygamous marriages before the date of implementation, but not those formed after the date, with no prosecution for violating the regulation.
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These males raise their own progeny without any help from females. This mating system is hypothesized to occur in three steps. The first step, which is an important prerequisite step in classical polyandry, involves the evolution of male care for eggs. In the second step, females have the ability to produce more clutches than a male can handle, leading to an increase in female fecundity because these females need to find other males to mate with for the remaining eggs they produced.
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The third step occurs as females compete to lay a clutch into a nest for the next male while the original male is caring for the initial clutch. More successful females tend to produce greater amounts of offspring. Male pregnancy is a common feature in the family Syngnathidae, which includes pipefish, seahorses, and sea dragons.Jones, a G., Walker, D. & Avise, J. C. Genetic evidence for extreme polyandry and extraordinary sex-role reversal in a pipefish. Proceedings: Biological Sciences 268, 2531–5 (2001).
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Female brood location choice can intercede the effects of sexual conflict over group membership because it allows multiple males to protect each clutch, rather than having these males compete for their own clutch to mate with females. Even though some cichlid species display cooperative polyandry in crevices, other cichlid species are mouth brooders, where females carry eggs in their mouths that have been fertilized by multiple males. Typically, a maximum of six males can fertilize a single clutch of cichlid offspring.
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Matrubhoomi: A Nation Without Women (Hindi: मातृभूमि, translation: Motherland) is a 2003 Indian dystopian tragedy film written and directed by Manish Jha. The film examines the impact of female foeticide and female infanticide on the gender balance and consequently the stability and attitudes of society. Its storyline bears some resemblance to real-life instances of gender imbalance and economics resulting in fraternal polyandry and bride buying in some parts of India.Draupadis bloom in rural Punjab Times of India, 16 July 2005.
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The daily range of the pygmy marmoset, however, is relatively small, which decreases the rate of polyandry. Male and female pygmy marmosets show differences in foraging and feeding behavior, although male and female dominance and aggressive behavior varies within the species. Males have less time to search out food sources and forage due to the constraints of their infant caring responsibilities and predator vigilance. Without an infant to carry, female pygmy marmosets have greater freedom to forage, giving them an apparent feeding priority.
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Commentators vary as to whether Kunti thought he was referring to alms found in the forest or to some great prize unknown to her. She tells him that the find must be shared with his brothers, as they had always shared such things in the past. This misunderstanding, combined with the protocol that the oldest of the brothers, Yudhishthira, should marry first, leads to agreement that all five brothers marry her. This is one of the rare examples of polyandry in Sanskrit literature.
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Queen honey bees are created when worker bees feed a single female larvae an exclusive diet of a food called "royal jelly". Queens are produced in oversized cells and develop in only 16 days; they differ in physiology, morphology, and behavior from worker bees. In addition to the greater size of the queen, she has a functional set of ovaries, and a spermatheca, which stores and maintains sperm after she has mated. Apis queens practice polyandry, with one female mating with multiple males.
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Other sources make him the son of either of the rulers Karma Tseten or Karma Tensung.Tsepon W.D. Shakabpa, One Hundred Thousand Moons, Leiden 2010, p. 283. The law code issued by his son Karma Tenkyong vaguely says that Karma Thutob Namgyal and his brothers had Karma Phuntsok Namgyal as their son, suggesting the Tibetan practice of polyandry. The same text asserts that he was 25 years old in 1611, which in the Tibetan system would indicate 1587 as his year of birth.
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Chinese women migrated less than Javanese and Indian women as indentured coolies. The number of Chinese women as coolies was "very small" while Chinese men were easily taken into the coolie trade. In Cuba men made up the vast majority of Chinese indentured servants on sugar plantations and in Peru non-Chinese women married the mostly male Chinese coolies. Polyandry was a common practice amongst Indian coolies. Between 1845 and 1917, twenty-five percent of all Indians brought to the Caribbean were women.
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Many species exhibit polyandry, a breeding system in which one female mates with two or more males. This tends to occur with greater frequency in internal-brooding species of pipefishes than with external-brooding ones due to limitation in male brood capacity. Polyandrous species are also more likely to have females with complex sexual signals such as ornaments. For example, the polyandrous Gulf pipefish (Syngnathus scovelli) displays considerable sexual dimorphic characteristics such as larger ornament area and number, and body size.
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In an essay titled Parva Baredaddu (How I wrote Parva),Essay titled, Parva Baredaddu (How I wrote Parva) Naaneke Bareyuttene, Sahitya Bhandara, Bangalore Bhyrappa provides detailed information about how he wrote Parva. Bhyrappa's friend, Dr. A Narayanappa initially urged the author to write his conception of the Mahabharata as a novel. The author recounts that he finalized the decision to write Parva during a tour in the Garhwal region of the Himalayas. He stayed at a village where polyandry was practiced.
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In the D. pseudoobscura population, some males have a harmful chromosome called sex ratio (SR), where an inactive Y-chromosome is transmitted. If an SR male mates with a female, the female will produce only daughters. Monandry allows the spread of SR and increases the extinction risk in species having SR genes because the SR driver can spread quickly, enriching populations for females. Polyandry decreases the SR gene frequency because the non-SR male sperm outcompete the SR male sperm.
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Shan is filling out and getting stronger thanks to the care of Ade and Aras. She finds that she has feelings for both men and Aras, whose people practice polyandry, finds this acceptable and would like a house brother but fears that Shan will come to prefer Ade because of their shared homeworld. Ade is having a harder time contemplating a polyandric relationship but is coping as best he can. As Shan gets stronger she begins getting involved in the politics and the goings-on of F'nar.
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North African Arabian women have reported that they have engaged in sex with more than one man at one time. This act not only conflicts with the Western belief of a monogamous sexual partner, but questions the Western philosophy of two men having sex with the same female as homosexual. This thought is cemented with evidence of Arabian and Egyptian dancers having gaping vaginal orifices. This lust for polyandry is also evident in Arabian women engaging in copulation with several males at once in erotic parlor games.
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Small male bluegill sunfishes cuckold large males by adopting sneaker or satellite strategies Female groupers change their sex to male if no male is available An anemone fish couple guarding their anemone. If the female dies, a juvenile male moves in, and the resident male changes sex. Alternate male strategies which allow small males to engage in cuckoldry can develop in species where spawning is dominated by large and aggressive males. Cuckoldry is a variant of polyandry, and can occur with sneak spawners (sometimes called streak spawners).
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For instance, the Nuer of Sudan and the Brahmans of Nepal practice polygyny, where one man has several marriages to two or more women. The Nyar of India and Nyimba of Tibet and Nepal practice polyandry, where one woman is often married to two or more men. The marital practice found in most cultures, however, is monogamy, where one woman is married to one man. Anthropologists also study different marital taboos across cultures, most commonly the incest taboo of marriage within sibling and parent-child relationships.
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Also in contrast with both fraternal and associated systems, the men who visited a single woman could not be brothers, nor could a man have sexual relations with two women of the same household. That is, fraternal polyandry and sororal polygyny were prohibited. Reclining Nayar Woman (1902) by Raja Ravi Varma shows a Nair lady, identified as the character Indulekha, a main character from a Malayalam novel of the same name. The novel had criticized the Nair matrilocal and matrilineal system; notably the relationships with Nambudiri Brahmins.
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As women became extinct, the film allowed him to bring to light issues like polyandry, bride buying and rape. Matrubhoomi's lead actress Tulip Joshi had refused the film after the first reading, but eventually decided to take it up. As she added, "But I'm glad I took it up finally, even though there was a point when I felt disgusted." The film was shot on a tight budget of Rs. 2 crore, in Renai, a remote village in Harda district of Madhya Pradesh in 29 days.
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The breeding season of the cinereous tinamou is year-round due to the perfect climate that they live in; however there is a period of preferred mating, which is August through October, except in Colombia, where it is in June. Like the majority of the tinamou family, the males practice simultaneous polygyny and the females practice successive polyandry. To initiate courtship, the males will usually call out to attract the females. It is believed that the courtship ritual is similar to that of others in their family.
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Another form of extradyadic sex is polyamory, a "non-possessive, honest, responsible and ethical philosophy and practice of loving multiple people simultaneously". There are various types of relationships in polyamory such as intentional family, group relationship, and group marriage. One type of group relationship can be a triad involving a married couple and an additional person who all share sexual intimacy, however, it is usually an addition of a female. Unlike polygyny or polyandry, both men and women may have multiple partners within the confines of polyamory.
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Post-copulatory mechanisms may also be present within fungi through polyandry in which zygote-level sexual selection might occur. Within multicellular ascomycete fungi, a haploid mycelium produces a fruiting body which in turn produces many offspring that are also haploid. Each fruiting body has the potential to be fertilized by more than one male gamete. Laboratory experiments have shown that multiple matings are possible and the female has the ability to selectively abort fruiting bodies that have been inappropriately fertilized by a closely related yet incompatible species.
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Females utilize paternity confusion to reduce the likelihood that a male she has mated with will kill her offspring. There are several ways this is accomplished including concealed ovulation. Female catarrhine primates such as Hanuman langurs have evolved an extended estrous state with variable ovulation in order to conceal the paternity of the fertilization. Another important situation in which paternity confusion can arise is when females mate with multiple males; this includes mating patterns such as polyandry and promiscuity in multi-male multi-female groups.
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For the matriarchal castes in turn Sambandhams with Brahmins were a matter of prestige and social status. Thus Sambandham was in both ways a gain to the castes involved. Namboodiri- Kshatriya and Namboodiri-Nair Sambandhams may also be considered morganatic marriages for while the husband was of higher social status and the mother of relatively lower status, the children were still considered legitimate although they did not inherit the titles or wealth of their fathers. However Gough recognises that there is little evidence that polyandry was practiced.
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For Spartans, all activities involving marriage revolved around the single purpose of producing strong children and thus improving their military. Spartan marriages could also be arranged based on one's wealth and status. The evidence for the role of kyrioi (male guardians) in arranging Spartan women's marriages is not decisive, though Cartledge believes that, like their Athenian (and unlike their Gortynian) counterparts, it was the responsibility of the kyrios to arrange a Spartan woman's marriage. There is some evidence in ancient sources that the Spartans practiced polyandry.
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He mistook the patrilineal patriarchal Kodavas to be a sub-group of matriarchal Nairs. He threatened that he would not revile or molest a single individual among them, but instead make Ahmadis (Muslims) out of the whole of them; transplanting them from their homeland in the Coorg to Seringapatam. This inflammatory speech with false accusations of polyandry and an open threat angered the Kodavas who thereafter hated Tipu and again revolted against him. Tipu seized nearly 70,000 Hindus of Coorg along with their king, Dodda Vira-Rajendra, and held them captive at Seringapatam.
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The species for which information is known are normally monogamous, mating for life, or are serially monogamous; however, occasional exceptions have been recorded for helmeted and Kenya crested guineafowl, which have been reported to be polygamous in captivity.(Madge and McGowan, p. 345–352) All guineafowl are social, and typically live in small groups or large flocks. Though they are monogamous, species of the least-derived genera Guttera, Agelastes and Acryllium tend toward social polyandry, a trait shared with other primitive galliformes like roul roul, and Congo peafowl.
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Within these species the anis breed as groups of monogamous pairs, but the guira cuckoos are not monogamous within the group, exhibiting a polygynandrous breeding system. This group nesting behaviour is not completely cooperative; females compete and may remove others' eggs when laying hers. Eggs are usually only ejected early in the breeding season in the anis, but can be ejected at any time by guria cuckoos. Polyandry has been confirmed in the African black coucal and is suspected to occur in the other coucals, perhaps explaining the reversed sexual dimorphism in the group.
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This type of polyandry occurs in eight fish species, including cichlids. Females can potentially direct the paternity of dominant, or alpha males and subordinate, or beta males by techniques such as cryptic female choice and sneaky copulation with subordinate males. Although dominant males potentially provide alleles which code for superior phenotypic traits, females also choose to mate with subordinate males because they provide more brood care than the larger dominant males. Subordinate males, or nest-helpers, can gain benefits from protecting the clutch such as food, protection, and successful paternity.
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Cooperative polyandry occurs in the cichlid species, Chalinochromis brichardi and Julidochromis transcriptus from Lake Tanganyika and the Neolamprologus pulcher. The cooperatively breeding cichlids tend to exhibit a size order of the alpha male being the largest, followed by the female, and the beta males being the smallest of the group. However, in some cases, females can be the largest, followed by the alpha male, and then beta males. Females can use their body size and wedge-shaped crests as copulation sites to direct male paternity when both alpha and beta males are present.
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Female and male adults of an ornamental strain Guppies have the mating system called polyandry, where females mate with multiple males. Multiple mating is beneficial for males because the males' reproductive success is directly related to how many times they mate. The cost of multiple mating for males is very low because they do not provide material benefit to the females or parental care to the offspring. Conversely, multiple mating can be disadvantageous for females because it reduces foraging efficiency and increases the chances of predation and parasitic infection.
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After Vali's death, Sugriva acquires Vali's kingdom as well as Tara. The Ramayana does not record any formal marriage or any ritual purification—like the trial by fire Sita had to undergo when she is reacquired by Rama from Ravana—that Tara must undertake to marry Sugriva or return to Vali following his return from the dead.Sharma p.48 The lack of the description of formal marriage suggests, according to some critics, that Tara's relationship to Sugriva is neither widow re-marriage nor polyandry, but simply appropriation by Sugriva.
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128 Different villages practice different marriage customs (strict monogamy, non-strict monogamy, or polyandry), worship different local "godlings", and specialise in various local handcrafts and foodstuffs, but share the common values of the New Cretan civilisation and devotion to the Goddess. Some of the social customs are somewhat matriarchal. There is no poverty in New Crete (money has been abolished) and little dissatisfaction. War is only known in the form of controlled local one-day conflicts between neighbouring villages, similar to the old game of village football or Shrovetide football.
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The prologue introduces the setting, a future North America divided between rival criminal gangs the Syndic on the East Coast and the Mob in Chicago, who have driven the federal government into exile in Iceland, Ireland and other North Atlantic islands. Life has more or less returned to normal in Syndic territory – as long as protection money is paid on time. The rest of the world has collapsed into either peasant life or tribalism. Attitudes to sex are generally tolerant, with free sex outside of marriage and both polygamy and polyandry accepted.
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In some monogamous pair-bonded species there have been observations of extra-pair copulations, wherein a male or female member and a partner of the opposite sex, other than the so-called mate, have been witnessed mating. Polyandry, or a polyandrous mating system, is when one reproductive adult female mates with two or more different adult males. In this mating system, the adult males mate exclusively with the adult female. Polygyny, or a polygynous mating system, is when one adult male mates with two or more adult females.
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Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark (; 3 December 1908 – 15 October 1980) was a Greek prince, soldier and anthropologist specialising in Tibetan culture and polyandry. Born in Paris and high in the line of succession to the Greek throne, Prince Peter was deemed to have forfeited his succession rights by marrying a twice-divorced Russian commoner, Irina Aleksandrovna Ovtchinnikova. Following his first scientific voyage to Asia, Peter served as an officer of the Greek army during the Second World War. The Prince returned to Asia several more times for his research of Tibetan culture.
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Chinese immigrant with his three wives and fourteen children, Cairns, Australia, 1904 Polygamy is a marriage that includes more than two partners. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny; and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be called polyamory, group or conjoint marriage. Polygyny is a form of plural marriage, in which a man is allowed more than one wife .
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Marmosets are highly active, living in the upper canopy of forest trees, and feeding on insects, fruit, leaves, tack, sap and gum. They have long lower incisors, which allow them to chew holes in tree trunks and branches to harvest the gum inside; some species are specialised feeders on gum. Marmosets live in family groups of three to 15, consisting of one to two breeding females, an unrelated male, their offspring, and occasionally extended family members and unrelated individuals. Their mating systems are highly variable and can include monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry.
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A male (left) and small group of females The oribi is diurnal (active mainly during the day), though some activity may also be observed at night. The animal rests in cover during rain events. Unlike all other small antelopes, oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems, depending on the habitat – polyandry, polygyny and polygynandry; polygyny tends to prevail as the female-to-male ratio increases. A study suggested that polygyny is preferred in areas of high predator risk, as it leads to formation of groups as an anti-predator measure.
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The Hebrew Bible contains no examples of women married to more than one man,Coogan, Michael D., A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 264, Bromiley, Geoffrey W., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1980, p. 262, but its description of adultery clearly implies that polyandry is unacceptableFuchs, Esther, Sexual Politics in the Biblical Narrative: Reading the Hebrew Bible as a Woman, Continuum International, 2000, p. 122, Satlow, Michael L., Jewish Marriage in Antiquity, Princeton University Press, 2001, p.
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Other fragments in the Buddhist scripture seem to treat polygamy unfavorably, leading some authors to conclude that Buddhism generally does not approve of itThe Ethics of Buddhism, Shundō Tachibana, Routledge, 1992, or alternatively regards it as a tolerated, but subordinate, marital model.An introduction to Buddhist ethics: foundations, values, and issues, Brian Peter Harvey, Cambridge University Press, 2000, Thailand legally recognized polygamy until 1955. Myanmar outlawed polygyny from 2015. In Sri Lanka, polyandry was legal in the kingdom of Kandy, but outlawed by British after conquering the kingdom in 1815.
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His study of a small brown bird, the dunnock, linked detailed behavioural observations of individuals to their reproductive success, using DNA profiles to measure paternity and maternity, and revealed how sexual conflicts gave rise to variable mating systems including: monogamy, polygyny, polyandry and polygynandry. His studies of cuckoos and their hosts have revealed an evolutionary arms race of brood parasite adaptations and host counter-adaptations. Other studies include: territory economics in pied wagtails; contest behaviour and mate searching in butterflies and toads; parent-offspring conflict and the transition to independence in young birds.
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Females, especially those with genetically 'inferior' social partners, have the chance to increase the genetic quality of their offspring, while males are able to fertilize the eggs of many other mates. Essentially, the ideal mating behavior for males is to be promiscuous rather than monogamous (when they only have one mating partner), because this leads to multiple offspring, and these males monopolize their female partners by physically preventing them from copulating with other males. On the other hand, females benefit through polyandry, as they have more sired offspring.
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Parsons and Helen wrote to them to defend their mentor but Germer ordered him to stand down; Parsons was appointed as temporary head of the Lodge. Some veteran Lodge members disliked Parsons' influence, concerned that it encouraged excessive sexual polyandry that was religiously detrimental, but his charismatic orations at Lodge meetings assured his popularity among the majority of followers. Parsons soon created the Thelemite journal Oriflamme, in which he published his own poetry, but Crowley was unimpressedparticularly due to Parsons' descriptions of drug useand the project was soon shelved.
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The term adultery, rather than extramarital sex, implies a moral condemnation of the act; as such it is usually not a neutral term because it carries an implied judgment that the act is wrong. Adultery refers to sexual relations which are not officially legitimized; for example it does not refer to having sexual intercourse with multiple partners in the case of polygamy (when a man is married to more than one wife at a time, called polygyny; or when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, called polyandry).
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If the woman still lives in the home of the father, the gifts must include him. If the woman accepts, she settles down in man's encampment; if they have a child then they are considered a formal pair, which establishes mutual relations of kinship, expressed in rights and duties of reciprocity. A man can marry several wives, although a single wife is most common, and examples of three or more are rare. This polygyny coexists with a temporal polyandry during the pregnancy in order to improve the qualities of the baby.
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Ezhuthachan(Kadupattan) worshipping his deity Though there are little differences in customs locally, Nearly Tamil practices followed. According to William logan's Malabar manual this caste followed a Modified Makkathayam (Patriarchy / Patrilineal system of inheritance) in which the property descends from father to son but not from father to daughter. At the wedding ceremonies there are rituals like Ganapathy homam(ritual dedicated to Lord Ganesha, performed to seek his blessings), Dhakshina giving(Give donation to elders and seek blessings) and Panigrahanam(The groom holds the hand of the bride). There was no Polygamy and Polyandry prevailed, but widow remarried.
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The variegated tinamou has an asymmetrical sex ratio, with more females than males In most tinamou species, the males practice simultaneous polygyny and the females sequential polyandry. This is not invariable; ornate tinamous form stable pairs, and spotted nothuras are monogamous when young and polygamous when older. There are larger numbers of females than males; for example, the variegated tinamou has a female to male ratio of 4:1. The breeding season varies from species to species; those that live in tropical forests, where there is little seasonal change, may breed at any time, though there is usually a preferred period.
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McLennan undertook the article on "Law" for the eighth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. It looked back to the Scottish tradition of Adam Ferguson and Adam Smith; but in it he speculated also on the custom of collusive abduction seen in classical antiquity. Via conjectural steps involving the form of polyandry as it might have evolved, he found the topic that led on to his major work. It has been suggested that McLennan was motivated by disagreement with Henry Maine, on questions of legal reform, to examine Maine's Ancient Law; McLennan wrote attacks on Maine that were not published in his own lifetime.
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Three years later, in the Fortnightly Review for 1869–70, he developed his ideas on totemism from indications in the earlier essay. A reprint of Primitive Marriage, with Kinship in Ancient Greece and some other essays not previously published, appeared in 1876, under the title of Studies in Ancient History; the new essays included The Divisions of the Irish Family, and On the Classificatory System of Relationship. A Paper on The Levirate and Polyandry, following up the line of his previous investigations (Fortnightly Review, 1877), was the last work he was able to publish. McLennan also wrote a Life of Thomas Drummond (1867).
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Polyandry, where a female raises two broods with two separate males, has also been reported in the West Indian woodpecker. Another unusual social system is that of the acorn woodpecker, which is a polygynandrous cooperative breeder where groups of up to 12 individuals breed and help to raise the young. Young birds from previous years may stay behind to help raise the group's young, and studies have found reproductive success for the group goes up with group size, but individual success goes down. Birds may be forced to remain in groups due to a lack of habitat to disperse to.
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Snàporaz wakes up during a train ride and has a brief fling with a woman in the bathroom, but it's cut short when the train suddenly stops and the woman gets off. Snàporaz follows her into the woods, through the wilderness and into a Grand Hotel overrun with women in attendance for a surrealistic feminist convention. He winds up in a conference about polyandry, where his presence is rejected. A frightened Snàporaz retreats to the hotel lobby, but the exit is blocked; instead he seeks refuge inside an elevator with a girl, Donatella, who offers her assistance.
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Katherine I. Wright, Archaeology and Women, 2007, p.206. During the second year of Urukagina's reign, his wife presided over the lavish funeral of his predecessor's queen Baranamtarra, who had been an important personage in her own right. In addition to such changes, two of Urukagina's other surviving decrees, first published and translated by Samuel Kramer in 1964, have attracted controversy in recent decades: # Urukagina seems to had abolished the former custom of polyandry in his country, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands being stoned with rocks upon which her crime was written.The Powers p.
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"Good genes" theory proposes that females select males seen to have genetic advantages that increase offspring quality. Increased viability of offspring provides compensation for any lower reproductive success that results from their being "picky". The good-gene hypothesis for polyandry proposes that when females encounter better males than their previous mates, they re-mate in order to fertilize their eggs with the better male's sperm. Dung beetles who have selected mates with better genetics tend to have offspring that survive longer and are more able to reproduce than those that do not pick mates with genetic quality.
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Sambandham was a form of relationship practiced by the Nair caste. Anthropologist Christopher Fuller has said that, "The Nayars' marriage system has made them one of the most famous of all communities in anthropological circles". Thomas Nossiter has commented that their system, which included the pre-pubertal thalikettu kalyanam rite and permitted both hypergamy and a form of polyandry, "was so loosely arranged as to raise doubts as to whether 'marriage' existed at all." Men and women could both have several partners, and they could both break away from those partners and take other partners with a minimum of effort.
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The territorial mating behaviour of male A. manicatum occurs when foraging resources are amassed, allowing for monopolization and defence of territories by individual males. Resource defence, as exhibited by male A. manicatum, has been thought to benefit females by reducing foraging competition for pollen and nectar. The rate a female visits a territory is highly correlated with the number of flowers in that area. If females forage in sites that are being defended by males and the cost of additional matings is low for female members, then male resource defence and female polyandry may co-evolve.
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Acromyrmex heyeri workers construct the colonies nest by thatching together cut grass. At temperatures ranging from 20–30 °C, workers created more openings in the nest thatch as the internal nest temperature goes up as a method of temperature regulation for the colony. The workers will close openings in the nest thatch as the air humidity surrounding the nest decreases to reduce water loss for the colony. Studies using isoenzyme systems MDH, a-GPDH, and AMY show the occurrence of monogyny and polygyny associated or not with polyandry, which indicates that the social organization is colony-specific.
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Social behaviour in Birds and Mammals: Essays on the Social Ethology of Animals and Man. Academic. London. as Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University in California introduced him to the new techniques of humanistic psychotherapy. On return to Bristol, his students requested him to demonstrate these methods, leading to the creation of the Bristol Encounter Centre and to his teaching of the subject widely in the UK, especially based on workshops run at his retreat centre in mid Wales. In 1977 Crook led an expedition to Zanskar in the Himalayas of Ladakh, a pilot study focussing on polyandry.
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Non-resident males can also be accepted in harems, but some species, such as the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), may be more strict. Some mammals are perfectly monogamous, meaning that they mate for life and take no other partners (even after the original mate's death), as with wolves, Eurasian beavers, and otters. There are three types of polygamy: either one or multiple dominant males have breeding rights (polygyny), multiple males that females mate with (polyandry), or multiple males have exclusive relations with multiple females (polygynandry). It is much more common for polygynous mating to happen, which, excluding leks, are estimated to occur in up to 90% of mammals.
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The Lanoh were once nomadic; a lifestyle that carried into open marriage practices where one man would marry a woman and have children, and then move on to another place and marry another woman and have children and continues to do so as they move from place to place. Lanoh women are also known to practice polyandry, a practice that is not much known to other Semang groups. But many of them now live in permanent villages in the Hulu Perak district of Perak State, near the Kelantan borders. Following European contact, the Lanoh were hunter-gatherers using caves, many within the state of Perak, as shelters during hunting trips.
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Feminist kinship relations are dependent on the liberation of women, LGBTQ persons, youth, the elderly, and intersex (hermaphroditic and pseudohermaphroditic) individuals. To extend liberation into daily home life, a participatory society aims to provide the means for traditional couples, single parents, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual, transgender, and intersex parents, communal parenting, polygamy (especially polyandry), polyamorous and multiple parenting arrangements to develop and flourish. It is believed that within the home and the community, the task of raising children must be elevated in status. Highly personalised interaction between children and adults should be encouraged, and responsibilities for these interactions must be distributed equitably throughout society without segregating tasks by gender.
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Quote:The nature of the Nayar system was that just as a woman was involved in marital relationships with a number of men, a man was married to a number of women. Nayar women and their husbands traditionally did not live together in the same household. Husbands were obliged to present their wives certain gifts at specified times, but their relationship had little significance beyond the sexual liaison and the provision of legitimacy to children produced in the marriage. Since the men resided separately and were not ranked in any way, Nayar co-husbandship cannot be typified by the hierarchy characteristic of associated marriage or the solidarity of fraternal polyandry.
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While females may gain some benefits from multiple matings, polyandry is costly, and mated females are often aggressive towards males (see below). An increase in the number of matings for an individual is disadvantageous for a female's health because it decreases the number of offspring they can have. Having a male in their web also causes females to catch less prey because they repair their web less often and forage less while the male is present; the male also eats some of the captured prey. Males often stay two to three days in a female's nest, but have been known to stay up to 18 days.
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He assembled a list of Tibetan noble families and, along with his wife, established biographical notes about a number of refugees (most notably about women who practised polyandry, "something really at variance with our way of conducting family affairs"), and described Tibetan Muslims. Having registered their songs, sagas, everyday conversations, oracle prophecies and religious ceremonies, Peter took more than 3,000 photographs of Tibetans. When he asked them if they had body hair (an important piece of information in anthropology), the relatively hairless Tibetans roared with laughter. They were excited when he showed them his own chest hair, and exclaimed that he must be a monkey.
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Polygyny, whereby a husband has more than one wife, is explicitly permitted under Islam. However, a woman can specify in the marriage contract whether or not her husband can take additional wives during the couple's marriage, and if the husband does so in violation of that marriage contract then she can petition for a divorce.Palestinian Marriage Laws There are also the classical injunctions that a man must treat all co-wives equitably and provide them with separate dwellings, and a man must declare his social status in the marriage contract.Laws of Jordan Polyandry, whereby a wife has more than one husband, is not permitted.
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Ng has stated that "trying to avoid excessive inequality [is] a very important issue, and likely the third most important public issue after environmental protections and peacekeeping". He is also a proponent of generous immigration policies, stating that "immigrants bring in factors complementary to the local ones and make the economy more vibrant". In 2020, Ng provoked controversy after writing a column which suggested that allowing polyandry could be a way for China to reduce problems arising from the male-skewed gender ratio in the country. Ng also stated his intention to write a follow-up column discussing the pros and cons of legalizing prostitution.
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Worldwide, different societies variously encourage, accept or outlaw polygamy. In societies which allow or tolerate polygamy, in the vast majority of cases the form accepted is polygyny. According to the Ethnographic Atlas Codebook (1998), of 1,231 societies noted, 588 had frequent polygyny, 453 had occasional polygyny, 186 were monogamous and 4 had polyandryEthnographic Atlas Codebook derived from George P. Murdock's Ethnographic Atlas recording the marital composition of 1231 societies from 1960 to 1980 \- although more recent research suggests that polyandry may occur more commonly than previously thought. In cultures which practice polygamy, its prevalence among that population often correlates with class and socioeconomic status.
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The right curve, labeled bigamous, shows the fitness of the same female entering into a relationship with a different male who already has one female mate but who has defended more resources. The second curve is roughly the first curve shifted to the right some amount. The given shapes of the curve will change with other intrinsic factors like genetic quality and male paternal investment. It is important to note that the designation "female" and "male" here are oft accurate; however, in some mating systems the operational sex ratio leans towards females, who then have motivation to engage in resource defence polyandry (provided the requirements of economic defendability are met).
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Jack jumper ant workers are gamergates, having the ability to reproduce in colonies with or without queens. Colonies are mainly polygynous with polyandrous queens, but polyandry in jack jumper colonies is low in comparison to other Myrmecia ants, but it is comparable to M. pyriformis ants. In 1979, Craig and Crozier investigated the genetic structure of jack jumper ant colonies, and although queens are unrelated to each other, the occurrence of related queens in a single colony was possible. During colony foundation, suggestions exist of dependent colony foundation in jack jumper queens, although independent colony foundations can occur, as the queens do have fully developed wings and can fly.
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Zina Diantha Huntington Young (January 31, 1821 – August 28, 1901) was an American social activist and religious leader who served as the third general president of the Relief Society of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1888 until her death. She practiced polyandry as the wife of Joseph Smith, and later Brigham Young, each of whom she married while she was still married to her first husband, Henry Jacobs. She is among the most well documented healers in LDS Church history (male or female), at one point performing hundreds of washing, anointing, and sealing healing rituals every year.
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The name derives from the Greek word ἀνήρ (anēr), genitive ἀνδρός (andrós), that refers to man as opposed to woman (whereas man in the sense of human being is ἄνθρωπος, ánthropos). The original male Greek name, Andréas, represents the hypocoristic, with endearment functions, of male Greek names composed with the andr- prefix, like Androgeos (man of the earth), Androcles (man of glory), Andronikos (man of victory). The same root ἀνδρ-, andr- denoting the male gender is found e.g. in misandry (the hatred of the male sex), andrology (male physiology), androgens (male hormones) and polyandry (the practice of taking more than one husband at the same time).
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Polyandry (the marriage of one woman to several men) was unusual, although some Celtologists conclude that it sometimes occurred from the Irish saga Longas mac nUislenn (The Exile of the Sons of Uislius). Caesar provides an example of the subordinate position of women: according to him, men had the power of life and death over their wives, as they did over their children, in a similar manner to the Roman pater familias. If the head of a high ranking family died, his relatives would gather and interrogate the wives as well as the slaves, when the death seemed suspicious. Should they consider their suspicions to be correct, they would burn the wives, after torturing them in every possible way.
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Unlike other parts of erstwhile matrilineal-Kerala, polyandry was a strict taboo in North Malabar and exceptional customs such as Putravakaasham (purse/estate grants to children of male members) were occasionally allowed.The Marumakkattayam And Aliyasantana System - Author - Manita Doshi Landlords in Malabar during colonial and pre- colonial times were the largest landlords of Kerala and during this time political authority remained decentralized in contrast to that of the southern principalities. The royal position of Kolathiri, although immensely respected, was politically titular. In North Malabar, the Kolathiri Kings had the ritualistic status of Perumaal such that their official designates or sthanis retained their jurisdiction all over Kerala except for the Rajarajashwara Temple at Taliparamba.
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Bronze-winged jacanas, like other jacanas, show a reversal of sex- roles with the female being larger, territorial, polyandrous, and competing with other females to maintain harems of males to incubate their clutches of eggs. Each female's territory encompasses one to four males and their individual territories. Heavier males defend their territories from other males and the degree of polyandry of females is a trade-off based on the sizes of the male territories and the number of males in the harems. Females mate with multiple males, leading to intense sperm competition, and the male that receives (termed as receivers) a clutch of eggs for incubation may destroy clutches in which their paternity is in doubt.
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Once the offspring in the first nest have developed their feathers the mother will leave the father to care for them and go find another male to reproduce with. This type of mating is sequential polyandry. They compete with boreal owls, starlings and squirrels for nest cavities and their nests may be destroyed or eaten by those creatures as well as nest predators such as martens and corvids. Saw-whet owls of all ages may be predated by any larger species of hawks or owls, of which there are at least a dozen that overlap in range including Accipiter hawks, which share with the saw-whet owls a preference for wooded habitats with dense thickets or brush.
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Parsons attracted controversy in Pasadena for his preferred clientele. Parsonage resident Alva Rogers recalled in a 1962 article for an occultist fanzine: "In the ads placed in the local paper Jack specified that only bohemians, artists, musicians, atheists, anarchists, or any other exotic types need to apply for rooms—any mundane soul would be unceremoniously rejected". Some veteran Lodge members disliked Parsons' influence, concerned that it encouraged excessive sexual polyandry that was religiously detrimental, but his charismatic orations at Lodge meetings assured his popularity among the majority of followers. Parsons soon created the Thelemite journal Oriflamme, in which he published his own poetry, but Crowley was unimpressedparticularly due to Parsons' descriptions of drug useand the project was soon shelved.
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During the breeding season, male testes increase significantly in size, facilitating sperm competition due to female promiscuity. Studies with the gray mouse lemur have shown that the optimal insemination period, during which a male is most likely to sire offspring, occurs early during a female's receptivity. Only during the mating season does male mortality rise above that of female mortality. Although the gray mouse lemur displays multi-male, multi-female mating patterns, studies have shown that females do exhibit indirect mate selection (a form of selected polyandry). During the study, females would mate with 1–7 males up to 11 times during their single night of receptivity, but would avoid or counteract males that attempted to monopolize mating.
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In 2075, the Moon (Luna) is used as a penal colony by Earth's government, with three million inhabitants (called "Loonies") living in underground cities. Most Loonies are criminals, political exiles, or their descendants, and men outnumber women two to one, so that polyandry and many forms of polygamy are the norm. Due to the low surface gravity of the Moon, people who stay longer than six months undergo "irreversible physiological changes" and can never again live comfortably under normal gravity, making escape back to Earth impractical. Although the Earth-appointed "Warden" holds power through the Lunar Authority, his only real responsibility is to ensure the delivery of vital wheat shipments to Earth.
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Men and women wear bakhus, while for women only this is accompanied by a hongu (blouse) around which they tie a woolen cloth around their waist called pangden if they are married. On special occasions they wear a scarf called a khada, which has become common feature in the Sikkimese society and culture even among the Nepalese of Sikkim. Historically, the Bhutia practiced polyandry before the nineteenth century; during the nineteenth century, wife-sharing among male siblings was also practiced, however, neither tradition survives today. Marriage rituals are traditionally elaborate and festive, officiated by a village chief as opposed to Buddhist lamas; late marriage and divorce are not uncommon practices among the Bhutia.
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Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny, and there is no marriage bond between the wives; and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry, and there is no marriage bond between the husbands. If a marriage includes multiple husbands or wives, it can be called group marriage. A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately 10,000 to 5,000 years ago in Europe and Asia, and more recently in Africa and the Americas.
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Many sandpipers form monogamous pairs, but some sandpipers have female-only parental care, some male-only parental care, some sequential polyandry and other compete for the mate on the lek. Sandpipers lay three or four eggs into the nest, which is usually a vague depression or scrape in the open ground, scarcely lined with soft vegetation. In species where both parents incubate the eggs, females and males share their incubation duties in various ways both within and between species. In some pairs, parents exchange on the nest in the morning and in the evening so that their incubation rhythm follows a 24-hour day, in others each sex may sit on the nest continuously for up to 24 hours before it is exchanged by its partner.
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According to the parental investment theory, mothers are inclined to provide optimal care for their offspring due to the certainty of a genetic relationship. In regards to this, polyandry is rare in most societies as women will not take more than one husband in order to ensure the father with knowledge of the child's paternity and assistance with future care of their child from the father.Fisher, Helen, "Lust, Attraction, Attachment", "Journal of Sex Education and Therapy", pages 96-104 Brain circuitry also evolved to favor monogamous attachment around the same time that our ancestors developed upright bipedal abilities. The development of upright movement led to the development of females caring for their children by carrying infants in their arms instead of on their backs.
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In turn, this creates a self-fulfilling cycle of limiting females domestically and continually importing them and there is no end to the cycle of female feticide if these acts can continue and importation is an option. The imported brides are known as "paros" and are treated like slaves because they have no cultural, regional, or familial ties to their husbands before being brought into their homes. One of the field studies in Haryana revealed that more than 9000 married women are bought from other Indian states as imported brides. This act also results in wife sharing and polyandry by family members in some areas of Haryana, Rajasthan, and Punjab, which maintains the gender imbalance if one family can make do with only one female.
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The fifth chapter, Clans, describes the social functions of matrilineal clans spread out over a number of villages. The sixth chapter, Marriage: I. The Private Wife and Private Family, discusses the polygynous system of household marriage, concentrating control of marriageable women in the hands of older men, the special status accorded to fathers and grandfathers, the social obligations of sons-in-law, notions of sexual pollution, and mother-daughter relationships. The seventh chapter, Marriage: II. The Communal Village-Wife and Communal Family, considers a system of polyandry, outlawed by the Belgian colonial authorities, to provide a "village wife" as a communal resource for otherwise unmarried men. While this was regarded by missionaries as little better than a form of prostitution, Douglas describes the honour attendant on being "married to the village".
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Gough's research in India were primarily in the Malabar district from 1947 to 1949 and in the Tanjore district from 1950 to 1953. Her efforts were groundbreaking and she published five papers in the 1950s. She contributed over half of the content published as Matrilineal Kinship in 1961, of which Heike Moser and Paul Younger say that "Her analysis is a brilliant example of the structural- functionalist anthropology associated with Britain in her day, and everyone since has begun from her explanations or matriliny of marumukatayam as descent through the female line. ... The debates that raged about matriliny, marriage ceremonies, hypergamy, and polyandry after these definitive studies were complex." She returned to India in 1976 and it was after this visit that most of her research work on India was published.
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Under Islamic marital jurisprudence, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, that is, they can have more than one wife at the same time, up to a total of four. Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband, is not permitted. Based on verse 30:21 of Quran the ideal relationship is the comfort that a couple find in each other's embrace: The polygyny that is allowed in the Quran is for special situations; however, it advises monogamy if a man fears he can't deal justly with them. This is based on verse 4:3 of Quran which says: There are strict requirements to marrying more than one woman, as the man must treat them equally financially and in terms of support given to each wife, according to Islamic law.
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Woman wearing traditional Ladakhi hat A feature of Ladakhi society that distinguishes it from the rest of the state is the high status and relative emancipation enjoyed by women compared to other rural parts of India. Fraternal polyandry and inheritance by primogeniture were common in Ladakh until the early 1940s when these were made illegal by the government of Jammu and Kashmir. However, the practice remained in existence into the 1990s especially among the elderly and the more isolated rural populations. Another custom is known as khang-bu, or 'little house', in which the elders of a family, as soon as the eldest son has sufficiently matured, retire from participation in affairs, yielding the headship of the family to him and taking only enough of the property for their own sustenance.
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One of his earliest projects was the publication of the journals of Joseph Smith, Jr.. His commentary at times has been faulted for poor and misleading readings of the text, and his summary provided by Signature Books has been criticized for being overly harsh on Smith. On the other hand, Faulring later wrote with Richard Lloyd Anderson a review of Todd Compton's In Sacred Loneliness, in which they jointly affirmed their faith in Smith as a prophet of God and criticized Compton's use of second-hand sources and even more heavily his use of the term polyandry. Faulring has also edited a collection of documents on Oliver Cowdery and a book on the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. Faulring has also published material with the Mormon Historic Sites Foundation.
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In the wasp Polistes carolina, the dominant queen amongst female wasps is determined by whoever arrives at the nest first rather than the largest foundress, who is expected to be the best at fighting (wasp). In a study of the bird Prunella collaris, the close proximity and sharing of ranges on the mountain tops of the French Pyrenees led to a polygynandrous mating system, where two to four males would mate with a range of two to four females within the same vicinity. Polygynandry is another way to describe a multi-male and multi-female polygamous mating system. When females have multiple mating partners, it is known as polyandry, and when males have multiple mating partners, it is known as polygyny; and each sex has their benefits in being promiscuous.
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Despite undergoing traditional marriage rituals, trafficked brides struggle to be fully accepted in the community and regularly face discrimination due to the ambiguity regarding their marital status and are deprived of property rights which they would have otherwise been entitled to. Bride shortages have seen re-emergence of fraternal polyandry where one woman is shared with of the husband.Alix Dolson "Intergenerational Prostitution in India: How a Cultural Practice Constitutes Sex Trafficking" in Margaret Alston (ed) Women, Political Struggles and Gender Equality in South Asia (Pagrave MacMillan, UK, 2014). Karewa (widow remarriage) refers to the practice of marrying off the bride to the brother (or sometimes the father) of a deceased husband.M Shafiqur Khan "Bride Trafficking within India" in Veerendra Mishra (ed) Human Trafficking: The Stakeholders’ Perspective (SAGE, India, 2013) 47 at 85.
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The "helpers" were thought to be perhaps a recent phenomenon, possibly due to the destruction of foraging areas, and many non-breeding birds consequently being displaced to other areas, creating an unsustainable excess in the populations there. In the late 1990s, it was reported that the echo parakeet is perhaps not monogamous, but has a tendency for polyandry, where breeding groups consist of multiple males and a single female (though monogamous pairs were also observed). It was also shown that the sex ratio in the population is consistently biased towards males according to historical counts. A 2008 genetic study by the British biologists Tiawanna D. Taylor and David T. Parkin showed that the sex ratio was equal among echo parakeet chicks and embryos and that the male-biased sex ratio among adults is therefore not due to, for example, inbreeding.
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Males have been shown to punish females that partake in mating polyandry, forcing them into mating monogamously. Populations of salamanders tend to be heavily male-biased, which results in a higher number of males vying for access to the lesser number of females. Males will use different tactics in an effort to keep other males away from the female of interest and ensure their own paternity and reproductive success, such as sexual defense, which is used to steal other males spermatophore, which may have already deposited into the female, and sexual interference, when a male pushes the female away from another courting male, such as sperm capping, whereby a competing male lays his spermatophore directly on top of those previously deposited by another male. Females also participate in sexual interference: a rival female places herself between the courting male and the female he is courting, and attempts to engage the male in their own courtship dance, a tactic for avoiding sperm competition.
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In Islam, polygyny is allowed while polyandry is not, with the specific limitation that a man can have no more than four legal wives at any one time and an unlimited number of female slaves as concubines who may have rights similar wives, with the exception of not being free unless the man has children with them, with the requirement that the man is able and willing to partition his time and wealth equally among the respective wives and concubines (this practice of concubinage, as in Judaism, is not applicable in contemporary times and has been deemed by scholars as invalid due to shifts in views about the role of slavery in the world). For a Muslim wedding to take place, the bridegroom and the guardian of the bride (wali) must both agree on the marriage. Should the guardian disagree on the marriage, it may not legally take place. If the wali of the girl her father or paternal grandfather, he has the right to force her into marriage even against her proclaimed will, if it is her first marriage.
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Tyagi was President of the Dehra Dun District Congress Committee in 1931 (See Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vol 5, p. 211n) After Tyagi had served out his sentence for participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930, he was arrested again in Dehra Dun on 17 January 1932 with the resumption of Civil Disobedience and sentenced to two and a half years' imprisonment (Garhwali, Dehra Dun, 23 January 1932) In the decade before Indian independence he became a legislator in the United Provinces. In this capacity, he was, in 1939, a member of the Jaunsar-Bawar Enquiry Committee which heralded social and land reform in the tribal area of Jaunsar Bawar in Dehradun district of Uttar Pradesh (an area now forming part of Uttarakhand state). The committee recommended, inter alia, occupancy rights in land for tenants and the prohibition of forced labour. (A summary of the committee's recommendations is available in D N Majumdar, Himalayan Polyandry, Bombay,1962, pp 13–17) When arrested in the Individual Satyagraha in November 1940, Tyagi was taken to Dehra Dun Jail where Jawaharlal Nehru was already lodged.
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