In positions other than word- initial, Awngi contrasts geminate and non-geminate consonants. The contrast between geminate and non-geminate consonants does not show up for the following consonants: .
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In positions other than word-initial, Xamtanga contrasts geminate and non-geminate consonants. With most consonants, the difference between a geminate and a non-geminate is simply one of length, but the cases of are more complex. When not word- initial, non-geminate is realized as a bilabial or labiodental fricative , and and are realized as affricates: . Their geminate equivalents may be realized as prolonged , or can simply be short .
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The following consonants can be geminate: , , , , , , , and . The following cannot be geminate: , and the fricatives. Two vowels cannot occur together at syllable boundaries. Epenthetic consonants, e.g.
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Proto-Western Numic changed the nasal-stop clusters of Proto-Numic into voiced geminate stops. In Mono and all dialects of Northern Paiute except Southern Nevada, these voiced geminate stops have become voiceless.
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It is used in Slovak to represent the geminate syllabic r, IPA: .
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Preaspiration occurs before geminate (long or double consonants) p, t and k. It does not occur before geminate b, d or g. Pre-aspirated tt is analogous etymologically and phonetically to German and Dutch cht (compare Icelandic ', ' with the German ', ' and the Dutch ', ').
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Moreover, the 'kaf' consonant is geminate in classical (but not modern) Hebrew. Adapting the classical Hebrew pronunciation with the geminate and pharyngeal can lead to the spelling Hanukkah, while adapting the modern Hebrew pronunciation with no gemination and uvular leads to the spelling .
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In word-initial position, geminate consonants do not occur, and /b t q/ are realized as plosives.
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Geminate timing in Lebanese Arabic: The relationship between phonetic timing and phonological structure. Laboratory Phonology, 5(2), 231-269.
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It has been argued that grapheme-color synesthesia for geminate consonants also provides evidence for ideasthesia.Weaver, D.F., Hawco C.L.A. (2015) Geminate consonant grapheme-colour synaesthesia (ideaesthesia). BMC Neurology, 15:112. In pitch-color synesthesia, the same tone will be associated with different colors depending on how it has been named; do-sharp (i.e.
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Gerunds will also regularly contain geminate consonants, for example: faîs'sie (doing, making); chant'tie (singing); tith'thie (shooting); brîng'gie (sweeping); gângn'nie (winning).
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Hittite had two series of consonants, one which was written always geminate in the original script, and another that was always simple. In cuneiform, all consonant sounds except for glides could be geminate. It has long been noticed that the geminate series of plosives is the one descending from Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops, and the simple plosives come from both voiced and voiced aspirate stops, which is often referred as Sturtevant's law. Because of the typological implications of Sturtevant's law, the distinction between the two series is commonly regarded as one of voice.
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Many intervocalic clusters are reduced, becoming either a geminate consonant or a simple consonant with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel.
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In all Finnic languages featuring gradation, geminate stops and single stops that are intervocalic or follow a voiced consonant undergo gradation.
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Phonetically, it is evident, for example, the predominance of vowel or similar (written a), instead of unstressed (written e). In Canzés, instead of Milanese nasalization of vowel, there is a velar nasal (written n) with abbreviation of the vowel. There are no geminate consonants in words, excepting half-geminate affricate (written z), that never change to . The final consonants are always voiceless.
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Austronesian languages in the Philippines, Micronesia, and Sulawesi are known to have geminate consonants.Blust, Robert. (2013). The Austronesian Languages (Rev. ed.). Australian National University.
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The geminate consonants were not represented as it initially and finally, though some people wrote geminate consonants medially. This is almost surely a result of Chamorro influence. The only geminates in Chamorro are medial and as a consequence only these geminates are reflected in writing. For example, pi / ppii / means sand, lepi, leppi for / leppi / means beach, sand, mile, mille for / mille / means this one.
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The major difference between Proto-Central Numic and Proto-Numic was the phonemic split of Proto-Numic geminate consonants into geminate consonants and preaspirated consonants. The conditioning factors involve stress shifts and are complex. The preaspirated consonants surfaced as voiceless fricatives, often preceded by a voiceless vowel. Shoshoni and Comanche have both lost the velar nasals, merging them with or turning them into velar nasal-stop clusters.
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The following are the phonological rules: The /f/ is always found as a geminate. The /j/ cannot be geminated, and is always found between vowels or preceded by /v/. In rare cases it can be found at the beginning of a word. The /h/ is never geminate, and can appear as the first letter of the word, between vowels, or preceded by /k/ /ɬ/ or /q/.
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Polish is one example, with both palatalized and non-palatalized laminal denti-alveolars, laminal postalveolar (or "flat retroflex"), and alveolo-palatal (). Russian has the same surface contrasts, but the alveolo-palatals are arguably not phonemic. They occur only geminate, and the retroflex consonants never occur geminate, which suggests that both are allophones of the same phoneme. Somewhat more common are languages with three sibilant types, including one hissing and two hushing.
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The phonology of the Hungarian language is notable for its process of vowel harmony, the frequent occurrence of geminate consonants and the presence of otherwise uncommon palatal stops.
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As a historical restructuring at the phonemic level, word-internal long consonants degeminated in Western Romance languages: e.g. Spanish /ˈboka/ 'mouth' vs. Italian /ˈbokka/, which continue Latin geminate /kk/.
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Michael Fontaine, Sicilicissitat (Plautus, Menaechmi 12) and Early Geminate Writing in Latin (with an Appendix on Men. 13). Mnemosyne, Volume 59, Number 1 (2006) pp. 104-5. It has been suggested that Plautus alludes to the sicilicus in the prologue to Menaechmi.Michael Fontaine, Sicilicissitat (Plautus, Menaechmi 12) and Early Geminate Writing in Latin (with an Appendix on Men. 13). Mnemosyne, Volume 59, Number 1 (2006) pp. 95-110. In Unicode, it is encoded as .
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In a geminate or long consonant, the occlusion lasts longer than in simple consonants. In languages where plosives are only distinguished by length (e.g., Arabic, Ilwana, Icelandic), the long plosives may be held up to three times as long as the short plosives. Italian is well known for its geminate plosives, as the double t in the name Vittoria takes just as long to say as the ct does in English Victoria.
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The palatal nasal was written (the geminate being one of the sound's Latin origins), but it was often abbreviated to following the common scribal shorthand of replacing an or with a tilde above the previous letter. Later, was used exclusively, and it came to be considered a letter in its own right by Modern Spanish. Also, as in modern times, the palatal lateral was indicated with , again reflecting its origin from a Latin geminate.
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The and are always geminate or preceded by a /t/. The can appear between vowels, preceded by consonants /k/ /q/ /t/ or /v/, or it can be followed by , /v/, .
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The geminate in southwestern Norway has become , while just east in southcentral Norwegian the final is lost, leaving . The same sequence has been palatalized in Northern Norway, leaving the palatal lateral .
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A process called consonant gradation then lengthened all consonants when they stood at the end of a stressed syllable, if the next syllable was open. The subsequent loss of final consonants and vowels in the later Sami languages made this process contrastive, resulting in as many as four contrastive lengths (lengthened geminate, unlengthened geminate, lengthened single, unlengthened single). The modern Sami languages have reduced this to three, by merging the unlengthened geminates with the lengthened single consonants.
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Long vowels are marked with an acute, e.g. á. For the nasals, this replaces the dot.First Grammatical Treatise: "far, fár; rȧmr, rámr" Small capitals denote a geminate consonant. Ǥ, named eng, denotes .
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There are 5 vowels in Nukuoro: . There are also lengthened vowels, for example ‘’taane’’. Double vowels are represented by writing the vowel symbol twice. The phonemic geminate is often realized phonetically as .
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Cypriot Greek, the Modern Greek dialect of Cyprus, however, preserves geminate consonants. A doubled in Attic corresponds to a in Ionic and other dialects. This sound arose from historic palatalization (see below).
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The voiced velar consonants /ɣ ŋ/ are elided between single vowels, if the first is a full vowel: /tuma-ŋi/ is pronounced tumai [tumːai] (with geminate [mː] resulting from automatic gemination; see below).
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The most difficult phonemes for young Arabic children are emphatic stops, fricatives, and the tap/trill ~. and , which are relatively rare sounds in other languages, are the most difficult geminate consonants to acquire.
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Every phoneme except "o" and "h" can occur initially, medially, or finally; "o" and "h" are never word-final. Clusters of two obstruents, geminate consonant pairs, and clusters of a sonorant followed by an obstruent are all common. Consonant clusters ending in a sonorant usually don't occur except in geminate pairs or when they occur initially through the use of one of the personal pronoun prefixes. Clusters of three consonants can occur, and are almost always of the form CsC.
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Inuktitut syllabics has a series of trigraphs for ŋ followed by a vowel. For geminate ŋŋ, these are form tetragraphs with n: :ᙱ ŋŋi, ᙳ ŋŋu, ᙵ ŋŋa These are literally nnggi, nnggu, nngga.
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The sin dot distinguishes between the two values of . A dagesh indicates a consonant is geminate or unspirantized, and a raphe indicates spirantization. The mappiq indicates that is consonantal, not silent, in syllable-coda position.
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Groves, C (2013). Suppression of geminate charge recombination in organic photovoltaic devices with a cascaded energy heterojunction. Energy and Environmental Science 6: 1546-1551.Jankus, Vygintas, Chiang, Chien-Jung, Dias, Fernando & Monkman, Andrew P. 2013.
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The stress is always on the first syllable in Finnish. For example, Yrjö Kääriäinen is pronounced . Double letters always stand for a geminate or longer sound (e.g., Marjaana has a stressed short followed by an unstressed long ).
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Most adjectives have two syllables, and a geminate middle consonant: e.g. àppa "big", fùkka "red", lecka "sweet". Some have three syllables: dàkkure "solid". Adverbs can be derived from adjectives by addition of the suffix -ndì or L-n, e.g.
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In a compound word, the pitch accent is lost on one of the elements of the compound (the one with weaker or secondary stress), but the erstwhile tonic syllable retains the full length (long vowel or geminate consonant) of a stressed syllable.
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In West Iberian languages, former Latin geminate consonants often evolved to new phonemes, including some instances of nasal vowels in Portuguese and Old Galician as well as most cases of and in Spanish, but phonetic length of both consonants and vowels is no longer distinctive.
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Maldivian, like English, has intonation, but its patterns are very different from those of English. In Maldivian, the general tendency is to stress the first syllable of a word. Maldivian has geminate consonants. For example, the two 's' sounds in vissaara (rain) fall into adjoining syllables: vis-saa-ra.
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The most significant consonant changes affecting Vulgar Latin were palatalization (except in Sardinia); lenition, including simplification of geminate consonants (in areas north and west of the La Spezia–Rimini Line, e.g. Spanish digo vs. Italian dico 'I say', Spanish boca vs. Italian bocca 'mouth'); and loss of final consonants.
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Dahalo words are commonly 2–4 syllables long. Syllables are exclusively of the CV pattern, except that consonants may be geminate between vowels. As with many other Afroasiatic languages, gemination is grammatically productive. Voiced consonants partially devoice, and prenasalized stops denasalize when geminated as part of a grammatical function.
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While Philippine languages like Tagalog and Ilocano write or when spelling Spanish loanwords, still survives in proper nouns. However, the pronunciation of is simply rather than . Hence the surnames Llamzon, Llamas, Padilla and Villanueva are respectively pronounced /, , and /. Furthermore, in Ilocano represents a geminate alveolar lateral approximant , like in Italian.
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Non-initial sequences of identical oral consonants, other than , geminate: : → : → The sequence can surface as . Thus, may surface as or . When follows any segment except and precedes any unstressed segment, it deaffricates to : surfaces as , but surfaces as . For less conservative speakers, can surface as before any unstressed segment other than .
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There is a similar character for women called or . The origin of the name comes from and , because the character is blowing fire with a bamboo pipe, hence the shape of the mouth. Local dialects transformed it into Hyottoko (ひょっとこ), palatalizing hio to hyo and making the /t/ geminate.
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The phenomenon of consonant gradation in Finnic languages is also a form of lenition. An example with geminate consonants comes from Finnish, where geminates become simple consonants while retaining voicing or voicelessness (e.g. → , → ). It is also possible for entire consonant clusters to undergo lenition, as in Votic, where voiceless clusters become voiced, e.g.
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45(1): 50–68. (HTML abstract) (2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon (Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement 14: 77-86. PDF fulltext The bluelashed butterflyfish is found in seaward and lagoon reefs in areas with rich coral growth.
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The presence in Tuscany and elsewhere below the line of a small percentage but large number of voiced forms both in general vocabulary and in traditional toponyms also challenges its absolute integrity. The criterion of preservation vs. simplification of Latin geminate consonants stands on firmer ground. The simplification illustrated by Spanish boca /boka/ 'mouth' vs.
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This fact has been claimed by Campbell to be diagnostic for the position of Nawat in a genetic classification, on the assumption that this /t/ is more archaic than the Classical Nahuatl reflex, where the direction change has been > saltillo. One other characteristic phonological feature is the merger in Nawat of original geminate with single .
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45(1): 50–68. (HTML abstract) (2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon (Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement 14: 77-86. PDF fulltext C. oxycephalus is found in coral- rich areas and clear waters of seaward reefs at 10–40 m depth.
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The antepenultimate syllable is stressed in words with more than four syllables that are all light. In words with many heavy syllables, syllables with long vowels are considered heavier than syllables before a consonant cluster.Bjørnum (2003) pp. 23–26 Geminate consonants are pronounced long, almost exactly with the double duration of a single consonant.
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Over three- quarters of the world's fish species inhabit this region.(2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon(Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement14: 77–86. The environment C. ornatissimus lives in is marine, inshore, tropical (30°N - 30°S, 77°E - 124°W) and reef associated.
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45(1): 50–68. (HTML abstract) (2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon (Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement 14: 77-86. PDF fulltext Chaetodon vagabundus are found in reef flats, lagoons and seaward reefs, and sometimes in turbid waters subject to freshwater runoff.
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45(1): 50–68. (HTML abstract) (2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon (Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement 14: 77-86. PDF fulltext The Scrawled Butterflyfish is found at depths between 2 and 25 m in coral-rich areas of clear seaward and lagoon reefs.
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In Arabic, this gemination occurs when the word to which al- is prefixed begins with one of the fourteen sun letters. Twelve of these letters (including lām) are originally designed to geminate. Ḍād and shīn have been included due to their similarities in pronunciation with lām and ţā, respectively. For example, the word ' 'the man' is actually pronounced "".
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The recognition of Beonna as a historical figure leaves the 'Hun' element in the word Hunbeanna detached. Beanna is itself a hypocoristic form of a two-part name,Page, An Introduction to English Runes, p. 129. and the 'nn' in the name has been interpreted as representing a geminate consonant.Hegedüs and Fodor, English Historical Linguistics, p. 83.
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These, and perhaps other subgenera, would use Megaprotodon as genus name if Chaetodon is split up. (2007): Molecular phylogenetics of the butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae): Taxonomy and biogeography of a global coral reef fish family. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 45(1): 50–68. (HTML abstract) (2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon (Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups.
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Long (geminate or double) consonants are pronounced exactly like short consonants, they occur between vowels and they are marked with a shaddah if needed, e.g. كَتَّب or kattab "he made (someone) write" vs. كَتَب katab "he wrote". They can occur phonemically at the end of the words as well but they are pronounced as a single consonant not geminated, e.g.
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Certain Finnish dialects also have quantity-sensitive main stress pattern, but instead of moving the initial stress, they geminate the consonant, so that e.g. light-heavy CV.CVV becomes heavy-heavy CVCCVV, e.g. the partitive form of "fish" is pronounced kalaa in the quantity- insensitive dialects but kallaa in the quantity-sensitive ones (cf. also the examples under the "Length" section).
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Growing to a height of up to , P. juliflora has a trunk diameter of up to . Its leaves are deciduous, geminate-pinnate, light green, with 12 to 20 leaflets. Flowers appear shortly after leaf development. The flowers are in 5–10 cm long green-yellow cylindrical spikes, which occur in clusters of 2 to 5 at the ends of branches.
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Subscript NA and SIGN AA do not similarly ligate, e.g. ((), encoded ) The geminate consonant is encoded separately because the word (, encoding ) has an appearance very different from , but one may have occasion to fold the final syllable to . Indeed, in 2019 to 2020 there was a campaign to establish the latter as its standard spelling. By contrast, the geminate consonant is encoded as the conjunct , even though some of its glyphs may resemble the hypothetical conjunct .
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In Norwegian, each stressed syllable must contain, phonetically, either a long vowel or a long (geminate) consonant (e.g. male , "to paint" vs malle , "catfish") . In Danish, there are no phonologically long consonants, so the opposition is between long and short vowels ( vs ). Both languages have a prosodic opposition between two "accents", derived from syllable count in Old Norse and determined partly phonologically, partly morphologically and partly lexically.
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The voiceless bidental fricative is a rare consonantal sound used in some languages. The only natural language known to use it is the Shapsug dialect of Adyghe. It is also used for a geminate voiceless glottal fricative (so phonemically ) in the original version of the constructed language Ithkuil,The Phonology of Ithkuil, see section 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions its offshoot Ilaksh,The Phonology of Ilaksh, see section 1.2.
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The letters u and v were often confused, so one can assume the name was divvelenheim. The geminate vv stands for w, which was not commonly used at that time. Therefore, we theorize that the name has an origin in the name of a Frankish founder named Diwelo. After going through many changes, the spelling we see today, Dielheim, first appears in the 17th century.
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The apse is opened by large bays of Gothic style. The geminate central one represents Jesus the Saviour IHS. From an ancient transept, only one of the two arms on the north side subsists, used as a strong bell tower, from which the walls are pierced with ogival bays. Thus, this part of the church may be dated of the fourteenth or the fifteenth century.
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In Cyrillic used for languages of the Caucasus, there are tetragraphs as doubled digraphs used for 'strong' consonants (typically transcribed in the IPA as geminate), and also labialized homologues of trigraphs. is used in Kabardian for , the labialized homologue of , in turn unpredictably derived from ejective . is used in Avar for , the 'strong' homologue of , the ejective () homologue of . It is often substituted with .
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In phonetics, a trill is a consonantal sound produced by vibrations between the active articulator and passive articulator. Standard Spanish as in , for example is an alveolar trill. A trill is made by the articulator being held in place and the airstream causing it to vibrate. Usually a trill vibrates for 2–3 contacts, but may be up to 5, or even more if geminate.
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The forewing is strongly marked with lines, much mixed with ferruginous ochreous in the distal area or at least in the vicinity of the geminate dark spots, the median band differently shaped, often of a brighter or lighter red (less purplish), never black, the hindwing darker distally than proximally the under surface strongly mixed with ochreous. It is very variable. - ab. confixaria H.-Sch.
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In addition to hard and soft , the digraph represents when followed by or (as in crescendo and fascia). Meanwhile, in Italian represents , not , but English-speakers commonly mispronounce it as due to familiarity with the German pronunciation. Italian uses to indicate the gemination of before , , or before or . English does not usually geminate consonants and therefore loanwords with soft are pronounced with as with cappuccino, pronounced .
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They have elongated, geminate capsids with two incomplete T=1 icosahedra joined at the missing vertex. The capsids range in size from 18–20 nm in diameter with a length of about 30 nm. Geminiviruses constitute a large family of phytopathogens (Geminiviridae). The family geminiviridae have been classified into four genera, namely Begomovirus, Curtovirus, Topocuvirus and Mastrevirus, depending on their genomes, mode of transmission and host range.
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However, initial violates Esperanto phonotactics, and by 1970 there was an alternative spelling, vatto. This was also unsatisfactory, however, because of the geminate , and by 2000 the effort had been given up, with now the advised spelling for both "watt" and "cotton- wool". Some recent dictionaries no longer even list initial in their index. Likewise, several dictionaries now list a newer spelling for Washington.
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Double (geminated) consonants were reduced to single ones. This took place after open syllable lengthening; the syllable before a geminate was a closed syllable, hence vowels were not lengthened before (originally) doubled consonants. The loss of gemination may have been stimulated by its small functional load--by this time there were few minimal pairs of words distinguished solely by the single vs. double consonant contrast.
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In phonetics and phonology, gemination (), or consonant lengthening (from Latin geminatio 'doubling', itself from gemini 'twins'), is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant. It is distinct from stress. Gemination is represented in many writing systems by a doubled letter and is often perceived as a doubling of the consonant.William Ham, Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Geminate Timing, p.
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The C. auriga species group shares the characteristic pattern of two areas of ascending and descending oblique lines; species differ conspicuously in hindpart coloration. (2007): Molecular phylogenetics of the butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae): Taxonomy and biogeography of a global coral reef fish family. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 45(1): 50–68. (HTML abstract) (2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon (Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups.
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Any vowel, including a geminate vowel (a reduplicated vowel which emphasises the meaning) can occur with any other vowel within the same syllable. In terms of consonants, labial consonants /pw/, /bw/ and /mw/ only occur before non- rounded vowels. See the examples below:Lynch, Ross, & Crowley, 2002, p. 539 (1) bwabwa ‘hole, cave’ (2) mwatawa ‘ocean’ (3) pwakepwake ‘boar’ There is both partial and full reduplication that is present in Longgu.
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In parts of southern Spain, the only feature defined for appears to be voiceless;Isogloss map for s aspiration in the Iberian Peninsula it may lose its oral articulation entirely to become or even a geminate with the following consonant ( or from 'same'). In Eastern Andalusian and Murcian Spanish, word- final , and (phonetically ) regularly weaken, and the preceding vowel is lowered and lengthened: : > e.g. mis ('my' pl) : > e.g. mes ('month') : > e.g.
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Falling tones can be heard in syllables which have two morae, e.g. those with a long vowel (okukóoká 'to sing'),Dutcher & Paster (2008), p.125. those with a short vowel followed by a geminate consonant (okubôbbá 'to throb'), those with a vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant (Abagândá 'Baganda people'), and those following a consonant plus semivowel (okulwâlá [okulwáalá] 'to fall sick'). They can also be heard on final vowels, e.g.
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The values for consonants are generally correct. However, the lack of similar sounds in Modern French means that the spiritus asper is not pronounced in France; it is pronounced in French- speaking Belgium and possibly Switzerland because of the proximity of Dutch- and German-speaking regions, respectively. Also, and are pronounced and , and is pronounced . Under the influence of French, and are both pronounced , but French editors generally edit geminate as .
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Among consonants, only , , and are certain to have changed from Classical Greek. Consonants , and are assumed to have changed, too, but there is some disagreement amongst scholars over evidence for these. The consonant , which had probably a value of in Classical Attic, note 115 (though some scholars have argued in favor of a value of , and the value probably varied according to dialects – see Zeta (letter) for further discussion), acquired the sound that it still has in Modern Greek, seemingly with a geminate pronunciation at least between vowels. Attic inscriptions suggest that this pronunciation was already common by the end of the 4th century BC. Horrocks agrees with Gignac on finding evidence that geminate consonants tended to simplify beginning from the 3rd century BC, as seen in their arbitrary use in less literate writing.e.g. for , Horrocks (2010: 171, 175)Gignac (1976: 154-165) However, degemination was not carried out universally, as seen where the South Italian, south-eastern and some Asia Minor dialects preserve double consonants.
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Most Sami languages contrast three different degrees of consonant length. These often contrast in different forms within a single inflectional paradigm, as in Northern Sami goarˈrut "let's sew!" versus goarrut "to sew, we sew" versus goarut "you (sg.) sew". Often, progressively longer consonants correspond to a progressively shorter preceding vowel. In Proto-Samic, the common ancestor of the Sami languages, there was already a contrast between single and geminate consonants, inherited from Proto-Uralic.
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Except in the red-tailed butterflyfish, there is at least a vestigial form of the "raccoon" mask, with a white space between the dark crown and eye areas. (2007): Molecular phylogenetics of the butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae): Taxonomy and biogeography of a global coral reef fish family. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 45(1): 50–68. (HTML abstract) (2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon (Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups.
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Paral·lel in Barcelona. The ' ("flying point") is used in Catalan between two Ls in cases where each belongs to a separate syllable, for example , "cell". This distinguishes such "geminate Ls" (), which are pronounced , from "double L" (), which are written without the flying point and are pronounced . In situations where the flying point is unavailable, periods (as in ) or hyphens (as in ) are frequently used as substitutes, but this is tolerated rather than encouraged.
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All bays are fitted with coloured stained glass. Their tints are green and gold on the geminate bay of the apse and the large one over the portal, red and blue prevail on all the others. The simple observation of the joining of the choir with the nave and the bell tower, clearly marks the posteriority of the nave building. This construction without any architectural style is mainly characterised by its strength.
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Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in French secondary schools is based on Erasmian pronunciation, but it is modified to match the phonetics and even, in the case of and , the orthography of French. Vowel length distinction, geminate consonants and pitch accent are discarded completely, which matches the current phonology of Standard French. The reference Greek-French dictionary, Dictionnaire Grec-Français by A. Bailly et al., does not even bother to indicate vowel length in long syllables.
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A modern Hawaiian name for the macron symbol is kahakō (kaha 'mark' + kō 'long'). It was formerly known as mekona (Hawaiianization of macron). It can be written as a diacritical mark which looks like a hyphen or dash written above a vowel, i.e., ā ē ī ō ū and Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū. It is used to show that the marked vowel is a "double", or "geminate", or "long" vowel, in phonological terms.
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In Japanese, consonant length is distinctive (as is vowel length). Gemination in the syllabary is represented with the sokuon, a small tsu: っ for hiragana in native words and ッ for katakana in foreign words. For example, 来た (きた, kita) means "came; arrived", while 切った (きった, kitta) means "cut; sliced". With the influx of gairaigo ("foreign words") into Modern Japanese, voiced consonants have become able to geminate as well:, p.
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In many Indo-European languages, a trill may often be reduced to a single vibration in unstressed positions. In Italian, a simple trill typically displays only one or two vibrations, while a geminate trill will have three or more. Languages where trills always have multiple vibrations include Albanian, Spanish, Cypriot Greek, and a number of Armenian and Portuguese dialects. People with ankyloglossia may find it exceptionally difficult to articulate the sound because of the limited mobility of their tongues.
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Like that group, they might be separated in Megaprotodon if the genus Chaetodon is split up.Fessler, Jennifer L. & Westneat, Mark W. (2007): Molecular phylogenetics of the butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae): Taxonomy and biogeography of a global coral reef fish family. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 45(1): 50–68. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2007.05.018Hsu, Kui-Ching; Chen, Jeng-Ping & Shao, Kwang- Tsao (2007): Molecular phylogeny of Chaetodon (Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups.
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A notable feature of Luganda phonology is its geminate consonants and distinctions between long and short vowels. Speakers generally consider consonantal gemination and vowel lengthening to be two manifestations of the same effect, which they call simply "doubling" or "stressing". Luganda is also a tonal language; the change in the pitch of a syllable can change the meaning of a word. For example, the word ' means 'king' if all three syllables are given the same pitch.
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A five-vowel system like Standard Japanese , , , and is common, but some Ryukyuan languages also have central vowels and , and Yonaguni has only , , and . In most Japonic languages, speech rhythm is based on a subsyllabic unit, the mora. Each syllable has a basic mora of the form (C)V but a nasal coda, geminate consonant, or lengthened vowel counts as an additional mora. However, some dialects in northern Honshu or southern Kyushu have syllable-based rhythm.
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The laminal coronals are denti-alveolar, whereas the apicals are alveolar tending toward post-alveolar. When geminate, the epiglottals are a voiceless stop and fricative. (Thus is not pharyngeal as sometimes reported, since pharyngeal stops are not believed to be possible.) In utterance-initial position they may be a partially voiced (negative voice onset time) stop and fricative. However, as singletons between vowels, is a flap or even an approximant with weak voicing, whereas is a fully voiced approximant.
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Gemination of consonants is distinctive in some languages and then is subject to various phonological constraints that depend on the language. In some languages, like Italian, Swedish, Faroese, Icelandic, and Luganda, consonant length and vowel length depend on each other. A short vowel within a stressed syllable almost always precedes a long consonant or a consonant cluster, and a long vowel must be followed by a short consonant. In Classical Arabic, a long vowel was lengthened even more before permanently-geminate consonants.
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Sonorants show more distinct geminate-to-singleton ratios while sibilants have less distinct ratios. The bilabial and alveolar geminates are generally longer than velar ones. The reverse of gemination reduces a long consonant to a short one, which is called degemination. It is a pattern in Baltic-Finnic consonant gradation that the strong grade (often the nominative) form of the word is degeminated into a weak grade (often all the other cases) form of the word: > (burden, of the burden).
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The building was enlarged to meet the growing needs of the religious community. The original construction is mostly ruined and abandoned, although the refectory, kitchens, stairs, cloister of the cistern, yards, gardens and cemetery are identified. The main entrance of the convent is opens directly onto the street Francisco Botello. It is made with blocks of granite and consists of a geminate inverted arch, with thread cutting molding and keystones; it is aligned with and supports arch panels on flat pilasters.
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Gemination, in the languages where it occurs, is usually indicated by doubling the consonant, except when it does not contrast phonemically with the corresponding short consonant, in which case gemination is not indicated. In Jèrriais, long consonants are marked with an apostrophe: is a long , is a long , and is a long . The phonemic contrast between geminate and single consonants is widespread in Italian, and normally indicated in the traditional orthography: 'done' vs. 'fate, destiny'; 's/he, it fell' vs.
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However, lexical prenasalised geminate stops also occur. The consonants and are systematically excluded from the word-initial position. (It is likely that the glottals and clicks do not occur as geminates, although only a few words with intervocalic clicks are known, such as .) Dahalo has pitch accent, normally with zero to one high-pitched syllables (rarely more) per root word. If there is a high pitch, it is most frequently on the first syllable; in the case of disyllabic words, this is the only possibility: e.g.
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Underside: brownish grey. Forewing: a spot in cell, a transverse lunule on the discocellulars, and a transverse anteriorly inwardly curved series of eight discal spots, black; the transverse lunule and each spot encircled with a narrow white edging; the posterior two spots of the discal series geminate (paired). Beyond these are a postdiscal and a subterminal series of short transverse dusky black spots followed by an anteciliary black line; the ground colour between the discal and postdiscal series and between the latter and the subterminal series of spots posteriorly paler than on the rest of the wing. Hindwing: a transverse, subbasal, slightly sinuate line of four spots, a short, slender, lunular line on the discocellulars, and a very strongly curved discal series of eight small spots, black; the lunule and each spot encircled with a narrow edging of white; the posterior two spots of the discal series geminate as on the forewing; beyond these as on the forewing there is a double line of dusky spots, only more lunular, with between them and between the discal and postdiscal series the ground colour in the same way followed by slightly paler; an anteciliary fine black line.
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There are very few languages that have initial consonant length; among them are Pattani Malay, Chuukese, Moroccan Arabic, a few Romance languages such as Sicilian and Neapolitan as well as many High Alemannic German dialects, such as that of Thurgovia. Some African languages, such as Setswana and Luganda, also have initial consonant length: it is very common in Luganda and indicates certain grammatical features. In colloquial Finnish and spoken Italian, long consonants are produced between words because of sandhi. The difference between singleton and geminate consonants varies within and across languages.
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The so-called punt volat or middot is only used in the group (called ela or el(e) geminada, 'geminate el') to represent a geminated sound , as is used to represent the palatal lateral . This usage of the middot sign is a recent invention from the beginning of twentieth century (in medieval and modern Catalan, before Fabra's standardization, this symbol was sometimes used to note certain elisions, especially in poetry). The only (and improbable) case of ambiguity in the whole language that could arise is the pair ceŀla ('cell') vs cella ('eyebrow').
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Although closely related to other East Slavic languages, especially Ukrainian, Belarusian phonology is distinct in a number of ways. The phoneme inventory of the modern Belarusian language consists of 45 to 54 phonemes: 6 vowels and 39 to 48 consonants, depending on how they are counted. When the nine geminate consonants are excluded as mere variations, there are 39 consonants, and excluding rare consonants further decreases the count. The number 48 includes all consonant sounds, including variations and rare sounds, which may be semantically distinct in the modern Belarusian language.
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In Old English, short diphthongs and monophthongs were monomoraic, long diphthongs and monophthongs were bimoraic, consonants ending a syllable were each a mora, and geminate consonants added a mora to the preceding syllable. In Modern English, the rules are similar, except that all diphthongs are bimoraic. In English, and probably also in Old English, syllables cannot have more than four morae, with loss of sounds occurring if a syllable would have more than 4 otherwise. From the Old English period through to today, all content words must be at least two morae long.
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The long vowel in kō (indicated in katakana by a long line) is shown by moving the sign ko downward. In written kana, a consonant cluster involving y or w is indicated by writing the second kana smaller than the first; a geminate consonant by writing a small tu for the first segment. In foreign borrowings, vowels may also be written small. In manual kana, this is indicated by drawing the kana that would be written small in writing (the ya, yu, yo, wa, tu, etc.) inwards, toward the body.
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Cassava geminiviruses are transmitted in a persistent manner by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci, by vegetative propagation using cuttings from infected plants, and occasionally by mechanical means. Cassava produces its first leaves within 2–3 weeks of planting; these young leaves are then colonized by the viruliferious whiteflies. This is the key infection period for CMD geminiviruses, as they cannot infect older plants. As the genome of the viruses has two components, DNA A and B, that are encapsidated in separate geminate particles, it requires a double inoculation to cause infection.
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Indeed, the significance of the La Spezia–Rimini Line is often challenged by specialists within both Italian dialectology and Romance dialectology. One reason is that while it demarcates preservation (and expansion) of phonemic geminate consonants (Central and Southern Italy) from their simplification (in Northern Italy, Gaul, and Iberia), the areas affected do not correspond consistently with those defined by voicing criterion. Romanian, which on the basis of lack of voicing, i-plurals and palatalisation to /tʃ/ is classified with Central and Southern Italian, has undergone simplification of geminates, a defining characteristic of Western Romance, after the rhotacism of intervocalic .
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In Norton Sound, as well as some villages on the lower Yukon, /j/ tends to be pronounced as [z] when following a consonant, and geminate /jː/ as [zː]. For example, the word angyaq "boat" of General Central Yup'ik (GCY) is angsaq [aŋzaq] Norton Sound. Conversely, In the Hooper Bay- Chevak (HBC) dialect, there is no /z/ phoneme, and /j/ is used in its place, such that GCY qasgiq [qazɣeq] is pronounced qaygiq [qajɣeq]. HBC does not have the [w] allophone of /v/, such that /v/ is pronounced [v] in all contexts, and there are no labialized uvular fricatives.
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An important morphophonological process in Yucatec Maya is the dissimilation of identical consonants next to each other by debuccalizing to avoid geminate consonants. If a word ends in one of the glottalized plosives /pʼ tʼ kʼ ɓ/ and is followed by an identical consonant, the final consonant may dispose of its point of articulation and become the glottal stop /ʔ/. This may also happen before another plosive inside a common idiomatic phrase or compound word. Examples: ~ 'Yucatec Maya' (literally, "flat speech"), and náak’- (a prefix meaning 'nearby') + káan 'sky' gives 'palate, roof the mouth' (so literally "nearby- sky").
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All Begomovirus species causing cotton leaf curl disease have geminate particles, approximately 18-20 nm in diameter and 30 nm long and a circular, single- stranded DNA genome. All except Cotton leaf crumple virus have a monopartite genome, with all viral products required for replication, systemic movement and whitefly transmission encoded on a single DNA component of c. 2.75 kB (DNA A). The genome of CLCrV is bipartite. Two smaller, circular, single-stranded DNA molecules, named DNA 1 and DNA β, are associated with a range of monopartite begomoviruses from the Old World including the cotton leaf curl viruses.
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The symptoms usually start to appear 10 days after inoculation with spore formation, a large number of conidia are produced and these spores are easily spread from plant to plant by the wind, splash water, on tools, clothing of workers and also by insects. Spores are highly dependent on weather condition to germinate, thus they only geminate in water films or when the humidity level are superior than 85%, at temperature among 40° and 94 °F (4° and 34 °C). However the optimum temperature for germination is among 75° and 78 °F (24° and 26 °C).
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Japanese also prominently features geminate consonants, such as in the minimal pair 来た kita 'came' and 切った kitta 'cut'. Note that there are many languages where the features voice, aspiration, and length reinforce each other, and in such cases it may be hard to determine which of these features predominates. In such cases, the terms fortis is sometimes used for aspiration or gemination, whereas lenis is used for single, tenuous, or voiced plosives. Be aware, however, that the terms fortis and lenis are poorly defined, and their meanings vary from source to source.
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Some languages such as Japanese, Gilbertese, Slovak or Ganda also have regular pacing but are mora-timed rather than syllable-timed. In Japanese, a V or CV syllable takes up one timing unit. Japanese does not have vowel length or diphthongs but double vowels, so CVV takes twice the time as CV. A final /N/ also takes as much time as a CV syllable and, at least in poetry, so does the extra length of a geminate consonant. However, colloquial language is less settled than poetic language, and the rhythm may vary from one region to another or with time.
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This species in particular is a fish from the coral reefs of Papua New Guinea. Pomacentrus aurifrons resembles Pomacentrus smithi with a similar color scheme and physiology, and are believed to be geminate species. According to Allen, P. aurifrons can be distinguished by its "pale grey to nearly white with blue spot on head scales, vertically elongate, blue streak on most body scales, broad zone of yellow encompassing snout, forehead, and base of anterior dorsal spines, translucent fins with bluish dorsal, anal, and caudal soft rays, and narrow yellow margin on spinous dorsal fin,". In Latin, auri means "gold" and frons means "forehead".
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In Cyrillic used for languages of the Caucasus, there are a couple five-letter sequences used for 'strong' (typically transcribed in the IPA as geminate, and doubled in Cyrillic) labialized consonants. Since both features are predictable from the orthography, their pentagraph status is dubious. The pentagraph is used in Archi for : a labialized , which is the 'strong' counterpart of the pharyngealized voiceless uvular fricative (), written using the trigraph , whose graph is in turn an unpredictable derivation of () and thus a true trigraph. It occurs, for example, in an Archi word ххьIвелтIбос meaning rummage through someone else's things.
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Stress normally falls on the first syllable of a word. The stress will, however, fall on the second syllable of a two-syllable word if the vowel in the first syllable is centralised, and the second syllable contains either a diphthong, or a peripheral vowel followed by a consonant, for example 'carpenter'. Three-syllable words are stressed on the second syllable if the first syllable contains a centralised vowel, and the second syllable has either a peripheral vowel, or a centralised vowel + geminate, for example 'seventy-four'. There are exceptions to these rules and they account for minimal pairs like 'informing' and 'so much'.
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For example, secondary stress is said to arise in compound words like vacuum cleaner, where the first syllable of vacuum has primary stress, while the first syllable of cleaner is usually said to have secondary stress. However, this analysis is problematic; notes that these may be cases of full vs reduced unstressed vowels being interpreted as secondary stress vs unstressed. See Stress and vowel reduction in English for details. In Norwegian, the pitch accent is lost from one of the roots in a compound word, but the erstwhile tonic syllable retains the full length (long vowel or geminate consonant) of a stressed syllable; this has sometimes been characterized as secondary stress.
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Such scholars also argue that the 5/7/5 pattern of the haiku in modern Japanese is of morae rather than syllables. The Japanese syllable-final n is also said to be moraic, as is the first part of a geminate consonant. For example, the Japanese name for "Japan", 日本, has two different pronunciations, one with three morae (Nihon) and one with four (Nippon). In the hiragana spelling, the three morae of Ni-ho-n are represented by three characters (にほん), and the four morae of Ni-p-po-n need four characters to be written out as にっぽん.
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Similar alternations obtain for → , and → ,. Something similar occurs in Hebrew (for both voiced and voiceless stops, called begedkefet) and in Spanish (for voiced stops only). Strengthening to a geminate consonant occurs when the preceding word triggers syntactic doubling (raddoppiamento fonosintattico) so the initial consonant of pipa 'pipe (for smoking)' has three phonetic forms: in spoken as a single word or following a consonant, if preceded by a vowel as in la pipa 'the pipe' and (also transcribed ) in tre pipe 'three pipes'. Parallel alternations of the affricates and are also typical of Florentine but by no means confined to it or even to Tuscan.
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Following the orthography developed by linguist Kay Johnson in consultation with the Ske community, the consonants of Ske are b, d, g, h, k, l, m, n, ng (as in English "singer"), p, q (prenasalized [g], written ngg or ḡ in some sources), r, s, t, bilabial v, w, z, and labiovelar bw, mw, pw and vw. A notable characteristic of Ske is the dropping of unstressed vowels. This has resulted in a language rich in consonants, in contrast to related languages such as Raga. Geminate consonants occur where two identical consonants have been brought together by the historical loss of an intervening vowel, for example in -kkas "to be sweet" (compare Sowa kakas).
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The forewings are ochreous, with a reddish-brown suffusion along the dorsum extending to the end of the fold, with some sprinkling of the same colour beyond as well as along the costa, the basal half of which shows a shining steel bluish streak, fading outward. There are two elongate blackish spots in the fold, and between them, but nearer to the outer one, a patch of blackish scales rests on its upper edge and is followed by a small black spot at the end of the cell. There is also a geminate black spot on the termen. The hindwings are brownish grey, somewhat transparent, but not noticeably iridescent towards the base.
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Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in N. macrophthalma. Female upperside, forewing: costa broadly, apex and termen still more broadly brown; a narrow edging of pale brown along the dorsal margin; rest of the wing grey, shot with iridescent blue in certain lights. Hindwing: pale brown, much paler than the brown on the forewing; base very obscurely shot with iridescent blue; costal and dorsal margins brownish white; a transverse subterminal series of black spots edged inwardly and outwardly with slender white lines, two minute spots in interspace 1 geminate (paired), that in interspace 2 large, these three crowned inwardly beyond the white edging with an additional dusky spot. Underside: very similar to that of the male, ground colour paler, transverse white strigae broader.
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The modern script does not normally write short vowels or geminate (double) consonants, and for the first few centuries of the Islamic era, long vowels were also not written and many consonant letters were ambiguous as well. The Arabic script derives from the Aramaic, and not only did the Aramaic language have fewer phonemes than Arabic, but several originally distinct Aramaic letters had conflated (become indistinguishable in shape), so that in the early Arabic writings, 28 consonant phonemes were represented by only 18 letters—and in the middle of words, only 15 were distinct. For example, medial represented , and represented . A system of diacritic marks, or pointing, was later developed to resolve the ambiguities, and over the centuries became nearly universal.
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However, even today, unpointed texts of a style called ' are found, wherein these consonants are not distinguished. Without short vowels or geminate consonants being written, modern Arabic script ' could represent 'he saw', 'he compared', 'he was seen', 'he was compared', 'a glance', or 'similar'. However, in practice there is little ambiguity, as the vowels are more easily predictable in Arabic than they are in a language like English. Moreover, the defective nature of the script has its benefits: the stable shape of the root words, despite grammatical inflection, results in quicker word recognition and therefore faster reading speeds; and the lack of short vowels, the sounds which vary the most between Arabic dialects, makes texts more widely accessible to a diverse audience.
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Costa broadly, termen decreasingly from apex to tornus dark brown; rest of the wing dark shining yellow, suffused for about two thirds from base with light brown that leaves a transverse broad post discal band of the yellow ground colour prominently apparent, the inner margin of the broad, dark brown, terminal edging vandyked. Hindwing: dark brown; a subterminal series of yellow, inwardly pointed, large, cone-shaped coalescent spots; the bases of the spots rest on an anteciliary brown line and bear each a dark brown spot that is very near to and in some specimens anteriorly touches the anteciliary line, the posterior two brown spots geminate. Cilia of both forewings and hindwings white alternated with fuscous. Underside, precisely similar to that of the male.
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Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in N. macrophthalma. Female upperside forewing: costa broadly, apex and termen still more broadly brown; a narrow edging of pale brown along the dorsal margin; rest of the wing grey, shot with iridescent blue in certain lights. Hindwing: pale brown, much paler than the brown on the forewing; base very obscurely shot with iridescent blue; costal and dorsal margins brownish white; a transverse subterminal series of black spots edged inwardly and outwardly with slender white lines, two minute spots in interspace 1 geminate (paired), that in interspace 2 large, these three crowned inwardly beyond the white edging with an additional dusky spot. Underside: very similar to that of the male, ground colour paler, transverse white strigae broader.
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The reason for this change of direction was > that the most important formal criterion that had been used in order to > isolate non-Indo-European words from the rest of the lexicon – the Proto- > Germanic geminates – turned out to be significantly overrepresented in this > morphological category. > The advocates of the Leiden Substrate Theory had defined the typical > Germanic cross-dialectal interchange of singulate and geminate roots as the > prime indicator of prehistoric language contact. For this reason, this > substrate language had even been dubbed the "Language of the Geminates". > Yet, beside the fact that geminates were not at all distributed randomly > across the vocabulary, as would be expected in the case of language contact, > the interchanges proved to be far from erratic.
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Of Uralic languages, Estonian (and transcriptions to Finnish) use Š/š and Ž/ž, and Karelian and some Sami languages use Č/č, Š/š and Ž/ž. Dž is not a separate letter. (Skolt Sami has more: see below.) Č is present because it may be phonemically geminate: in Karelian, the phoneme 'čč' is found, and is distinct from 'č', which is not the case in Finnish or Estonian, for which only one length is recognized for 'tš'. (Incidentally, in transcriptions, Finnish orthography has to employ complicated notations like mettšä or even the mettshä to express Karelian meččä.) On some Finnish keyboards, it is possible to write those letters by typing s or z while holding right Alt key or AltGr key.
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Earlier Greek, represented by Mycenaean Greek, likely had a labialized velar aspirated stop , which later became labial, coronal, or velar depending on dialect and phonetic environment. The other Ancient Greek dialects, Ionic, Doric, Aeolic, and Arcadocypriot, likely had the same three-way distinction at one point, but Doric seems to have had a fricative in place of in the Classical period, and the Ionic and Aeolic dialects sometimes lost aspiration (psilosis). Later, during the Koine Greek period, the aspirated and voiced stops of Attic Greek lenited to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding in Medieval and Modern Greek. Cypriot Greek is notable for aspirating its inherited (and developed across word-boundaries) voiceless geminate stops, yielding the series /pʰː tʰː cʰː kʰː/.
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See Van den Boogert (1997:244–245). Four consonants have each two corresponding geminate or long consonants, one phonetically identical and one different: ::ḍ : ḍḍ and ṭṭ ::w : ww and ggʷ ::ɣ : ɣɣ and qq ::ɣʷ : ɣɣʷ and qqʷ In the oldest layers of the morphology, ḍ, w, ɣ, ɣʷ always have ṭṭ, ggʷ, qq, qqʷ as geminated or long counterparts: ::ɣrs "slaughter", ar iqqrs "he is slaughtering" (compare krz "plough", ar ikkrz "he is ploughing") ::izwiɣ "be red", izggʷaɣ "it is red" (compare isgin "be black", isggan "it is black") Whether a non-single consonant is realized as geminated or as long depends on the syllabic context. A geminated consonant is a sequence of two identical consonants /CC/, metrically counting as two segments, and always separated by syllable division, as in tamdda [ta.md.da.] "sparrowhawk".
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When the suffix is added to a word ending in double l, no additional l is added; for example, full becomes fully. Note also wholly (from whole), which may be pronounced either with a single l sound (like holy) or with a doubled (geminate) l. When the suffix is added to a word ending in a consonant followed by le (pronounced as a syllabic l), generally the e is dropped, the l loses its syllabic nature, and no additional l is added; this category is mostly composed of adverbs that end in -ably or -ibly (and correspond to adjectives ending in -able or -ible), but it also includes other words such as nobly, feebly, triply, and idly. However, there are a few words where this contraction is not always applied, such as brittlely.
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The upper side is blackish olive-brown, palest basally. Forewing with a transverse discal recurved series of eight yellow spots increasing in size from near the costa, the upper spots mostly rounded, the lower spots being broad and irregularly quadrate with uneven exterior; also a yellow subcostal spot between the lower subcostal veinlets and upper radial, and a smaller spot outside end of the cell above the upper median veinlet; a marginal lower row of minute yellow spots which are more or less obsolescent anteriorly. Hindwing with a transverse discal yellow irregular band, decreasing posteriorly; a submarginal row of small, yellow lunules, and a marginal row of small geminate spots, those at the anal angle being greenish-grey. The underside is lilac- grey, of a more or less pale or darker tint, but dullest at the base, and purplish-tinted externally.
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Male upperside has the ground colour pale bluish white. The forewing has the terminal margin narrowly edged with black that broadens very slightly towards the apex of the wing; the cilia are brownish black. The hindwing is uniformly coloured, except for an anteciliary black line faintly edged on the inner side by a white line within which and touching it is a row of black spots, the anterior spots very faint, the spot in interspace 2 large and well-defined, two geminate (paired) spots in interspace 1 and a very small black lunular dot in interspace 1a; cilia brown, white at the base in the interspaces. In specimens obtained in the height of the dry season the black edging to the termen of the forewing is much reduced and the subterminal series of black spots in the hindwing is altogether missing.
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A calligraphic minuscule r, known as r rotunda (ꝛ), was used in the sequence or, bending the shape of the r to accommodate the bulge of the o (as in oꝛ as opposed to or). Later, the same variant was also used where r followed other lower case letters with a rounded loop towards the right (such as b, h, p) and to write the geminate rr (as ꝛꝛ). Use of r rotunda was mostly tied to blackletter typefaces, and the glyph fell out of use along with blackletter fonts in English language contexts mostly by the 18th century. Insular script used a minuscule which retained two downward strokes, but which did not close the loop ("Insular r", ꞃ); this variant survives in the Gaelic type popular in Ireland until the mid-20th century (but now mostly limited to decorative purposes).
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There has been limited work done on Tuvaluan from an English-speaking perspective. The first major work on Tuvaluan syntax was done by Douglas Gilbert Kennedy, who published a Handbook on the language of the Tuvalu (Ellice) Islands in 1945. Niko Besnier has published the greatest amount of academic material on Tuvaluan – both descriptive and lexical. Besnier’s description of Tuvaluan uses a phonemic orthography which differs from the ones most commonly used by Tuvaluans - which sometimes do not distinguish geminate consonants. Jackson’s An Introduction to Tuvaluan is a useful guide to the language from a first contact point of view. The orthography used by most Tuvaluans is based on Samoan, and, according to Besnier, isn’t well-equipped to deal with important difference in vowel and consonant length which often perform special functions in the Tuvaluan language. Throughout this profile, Besnier’s orthography is used as it best represents the linguistic characteristics under discussion.
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Upperside, forewing: costa, apex and termen broadly brownish black, rest of the wing whitish, flushed and overlaid especially at base with metallic blue. Hindwing: costa and termen broadly fuscous or brownish black, the rest of the wing whitish flushed with metallic blue as on the forewing which, however, does not spread to the dorsal margin; a discal curved medial series of fuscous spots; a transverse, incomplete, postdiscal series of white sagittate (arrowhead shaped) lunules followed by a subterminal series of spots as follows, superposed on the brownish-black terminal border: two black geminate dots margined inwardly and outwardly with white, a large black spot crowned broadly with ochraceous inwardly and edged slenderly with white on the outer side in interspace 2, and anterior to that a transversely linear black spot encircled with white in each interspace. Cilia of forewing brown, of hindwing white traversed by a transverse medial brown line. Underside: ground colour and markings as in the male.
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Underside: greyish brown. Forewings and hindwings: two subterminal and a terminal white transverse line succeeded by an anteciliary black line on each wing, the ground colour enclosed between these lines of a slightly darker shade with the appearance of somewhat maculate (spotted) transverse bands. On the hindwing near apices of interspaces 1 a, 1 and 2 enclosed between the inner of the two subterminal white lines and the terminal white line are a large round black spot inwardly edged with ochraceous in interspace 2, two minute black geminate (paired) spots in interspace 1 and a similar single spot in interspace 1 a, the latter three spots superposed on a white ground and above the white a narrow transverse short ochraceous line. Forewing: in addition four obliquely placed, transverse, white parallel fasti as follows: two, one on either side of the discocellulars extended between the subcostal vein and the dorsum; two upper discal lines broken and sinuate, extended from just below the costa, the inner lino to vein 3, the outer line to vein 1.
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Hindwing: costal margin above a longitudinal line through the middle of the cell dusky black; posterior portion of the wing dusky bluish, veins prominently black; a comparatively well-defined transverse postdiscal series of black lunules edged inwardly and outwardly by similar series of white lunules, followed by a subterminal series of black spots with an outer edging of white and an anteciliary jet-black line; the subterminal spots decrease in size anteriorly, those in interspaces 2 and 3 the largest, the two spots in interspace 1 minute and geminate (paired); tail black tipped with white. Underside: similar to that of the male but the ground colour grey with a slight tint of brown, the transverse white strigae much broader, somewhat diffuse; on the forewing the band formed by the medial pair of strigae much more broken than in the male the posterior portion below vein 3 shifted well outwards; on the hindwing the sub-terminal black spot in interspace 2 comparatively very large and prominent. Antenna as in the male; head, thorax and abdomen brown; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen as in the male.
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Hindwing: with transverse pairs of white, inwardly fuscous-edged strigae similar to those on the forewing, but even more irregular and broken; the subbasal pair extended from costa to vein 1, below which the dorsal area is whitish, the discocellular pair extend from the costa and posteriorly coalesce with the discal pair which are as irregular and dislocated as in the forewing; terminal markings similar to those on the forewing, but the double subterminal series of dark spots more lunular and a prominent round black subterminal spot crowned with ochraceous in interspace 2. Antenna, head, thorax and abdomen dark brown; the shafts of the antennae speckled with white; beneath: the palpi fringed with black, thorax dark greyish brown, abdomen white. left Female upperside: brownish purple, sometimes fuscous. Forewings and hindwings: as in the male with anteciliary dark lines, but differ as follows: Forewing: an iridescent bluish sheen from base outwards to disc; hindwing; a slender more or less prominent white line edging the anteciliary black line on the inner side, a sub terminal geminate (paired) double black spot in interspace 1 and a similar larger single spot in interspace 2.
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Herbs, slightly woody to woody at base, few- to many-branched, 20–40 cm tall. Stems moderately to densely pubescent with multicelled unbranched erect glandular hairs ca. 0.3–0.5 mm long, these mixed with less frequent slightly longer 1–3-celled unbranched eglandular hairs. Sympodial units defoliate, solitary or more commonly geminate, the smaller leaves up to half the size of the larger ones. Leaves simple, the blades 1–4 × 1–3 cm, ovate-elliptic to cordiform, chartaceous to membranaceous, sparsely to moderately pubescent on both sides with 1–2-celled unbranched erect eglandular hairs, these denser on the primary and secondary veins; venation camptodromous, with the primary and one pair of secondary veins emerging from the leaf base (sometimes just one, in the case of an asymmetric base), the primary and secondary veins barely visible to the naked eye, slightly prominent abaxially and less visible adaxially; base attenuate to cordate, slightly decurrent into petiole; margins entire, ciliate with hairs like those of the blade; apex acute to attenuate; petioles 0.5–2.2 cm long, with pubescence similar to that of the stems but with fewer eglandular hairs.
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Underside: greyish brown. Forewing: two short white lines, one each side of the discocellulars; a minute black subcostal dot above apex of cell, another similar dot a little beyond it; two parallel, obliquely placed, transverse, upper discal white lines, followed by an inner and an outer obliquely placed, irregular, broken, subterminal line also white, the inner one somewhat lunular, and an anteciliary dark line; the posterior third from base of the wing uniform, somewhat paler than the rest. Hindwing: the following black white-encircled spots conspicuous: 4 subbasal spots in transverse order, a subcostal spot in middle of interspace 7, two minute geminate (paired) spots at the tornal angle, and a larger one in interspace 2; two transverse short white lines on either side of the discocellulars as on the forewing; a transverse, curved, catenolated, discal band of white markings, followed by a postdiscal and subterminal series of white lunules and an anteciliary dark line edged inwardly with white. Antennae dark brown, the shafts ringed with white; apex of club also white; head, thorax and abdomen dark brown, the thorax in fresh specimens with a little purplish-blue pubescence; beneath: palpi, thorax, and abdomen white.
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