Of those regions, only the caudate and putamen had already been shown to be smaller in ADHD patients.
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In the second, located in the caudate nucleus, we make a mental list of the different landmarks we encounter every day.
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The researchers determined that five brain regions—the accumbens, amygdala, caudate, hippocampus, and putamen—are all slightly smaller in people with ADHD.
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One study used MRI imaging to study activity in the caudate nucleus, a brain area associated with the expectation of a reward.
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"Dogs that scored lower on tests of aggressiveness had a caudate response that was really tuned just to their owner," he says.
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Among the structural differences, Posner noted that two regions -- the caudate and putamen, part of the basal ganglia -- have been implicated in ADHD for some time.
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We found that the dogs who were the best candidates had more activity in the brain region that has the most dopamine receptors, the caudate nucleus.
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A 2015 neuroimaging study about odor processing in a dog's brain found that when dogs smelled their owners, the "reward center" of their brains (called the caudate nucleus) lit up.
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In one of his most striking experiments, Berns found that when dogs sniffed a rag soaked in their owner's scent, activity spiked in their caudate nucleus — a reward center involved in emotional attachment.
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Within these studies, MRI scans measured each participant's overall brain volume plus the volume of seven brain regions thought to be linked to ADHD: the pallidum, thalamus, caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus.
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As the animal drew close, Delgado pressed two buttons on his radio transmitter: The first triggered the bull's caudate nucleus and slowed the animal to a halt; the second made it turn and trot off toward a wall.
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And while there's plenty of jargon most of us won't understand, the takeaway was that two parts of the brain were seemingly dictating the subjects' maze strategy: hippocampal activation predicting shortcuts, while those with higher caudate readings largely opted to follow instruction.
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He found that professional writers relied on a region of the brain that did not light up as much in the scanner when amateurs wrote—the left caudate nucleus, a tadpole-shaped structure ( cauda means "tail" in Latin) in the midbrain that is associated with expertise in musicians and professional athletes.
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An M.R.I. showed nothing, except some other things, which had nothing to do with concussions or my symptoms, and which I'd probably have preferred not to know about: White matter intensity is generally preserved, however a solitary probable chronic lacunar infarction is present in the right caudate head, and trace probable microangiopathy is present in the parietal region on the left.
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A 2002 study draws a relationship between caudate asymmetry and symptoms related to ADHD. The authors used MR images to compare the relative volumes of the caudate nuclei (as the caudate is a bilateral structure), and drew a connection between any asymmetries and symptoms of ADHD: "The degree of caudate asymmetry significantly predicted cumulative severity ratings of inattentive behaviors." This correlation is congruent with previous associations of the caudate with attentional functioning. A more recent 2018 study replicated these findings, and demonstrated that the caudate asymmetries related to ADHD were more pronounced in the dorsal medial regions of the caudate.
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The amygdala sends direct projections to the caudate nucleus. Both the amygdala and the caudate nucleus have direct and indirect projections to the hippocampus. The influence of the amygdala on memory processing in the caudate nucleus has been demonstrated with the finding that lesions involving the connections between these two structures "block the memory-enhancing effects of oxotremorine infused into the caudate nucleus". In a study involving rats given water-maze training, the caudate nucleus was discovered to enhance memory of visually cued training after amphetamine was infused post-training into the caudate.
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Due to its association with damage to the caudate, this movement demonstrates the inhibitory nature of the caudate nucleus. The "motor release" observed as a result of this procedure indicates that the caudate nucleus inhibits the tendency for an animal to move forward without resistance.
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The caudate works with the putamen to receive the input from cerebral cortex. Collectively, they can be considered the "entrance" to the basal ganglia. Projections from the putamen reach the caudate directly via the caudolenticular grey bridges. The putamen and caudate are jointly connected with the substantia nigra, however the caudate outputs more densely to the substantia nigra pars reticulata while the putamen sends more afferents to the internal globus pallidus.
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It was found that HIV+ patients showed less activity within the ventral prefrontal cortex (PFC) and left dorsolateral PFC. There was reduced connectivity between the left caudate and ventral PFC and between the left caudate and dorsolateral PFC compared to healthy controls. Additionally, there was hypoactivation of the left caudate in the HIV+ patients. In the control group, there was correlation between caudate activity and executive functioning as shown by performance on neuropsychological testing.
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The caudate nucleus, is a region of the brain that is highly responsive to dopamine. The caudate nucleus is another component of the reward pathway. Research has suggested the role of the caudate nucleus anticipates the possibility of and is in anticipation of reward of exploratory behavior and gathered information, thus contributing to factors of curiosity.
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Caudate nucleus within the skull Together with the putamen, the caudate forms the dorsal striatum, which is considered a single functional structure; anatomically, it is separated by a large white matter tract, the internal capsule, so it is sometimes also referred to as two structures: the medial dorsal striatum (the caudate) and the lateral dorsal striatum (the putamen). In this vein, the two are functionally distinct not as a result of structural differences, but merely due to the topographical distribution of function. The caudate nuclei are located near the center of the brain, sitting astride the thalamus. There is a caudate nucleus within each hemisphere of the brain.
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Additionally, studies of human caudate nuclei volume in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) subjects established a correlation between CCHS and a significant reduction in left and right caudate volume. CCHS is a genetic disorder that affects the sleep cycle due to a reduced drive to breathe. Therefore, the caudate nucleus has been suggested to play a role in human sleep cycles.
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Individually, they resemble a C-shape structure with a wider "head" (caput in Latin) at the front, tapering to a "body" (corpus) and a "tail" (cauda). Sometimes a part of the caudate nucleus is referred to as the "knee" (genu). The caudate head receives its blood supply from the lenticulostriate artery while the tail of the caudate receives its blood supply from the anterior choroidal artery. MR image The head and body of the caudate nucleus form part of the floor of the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle.
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The caudate nucleus integrates spatial information with motor behavior formulation. Selective impairment of spatial working memory in subjects with Parkinson's disease and the knowledge of the disease's impact on the amount of dopamine supplied to the striatum have linked the caudate nucleus to spatial and nonspatial mnemonic processing. Spatially dependent motor preparation has been linked to the caudate nucleus through event-related fMRI analysis techniques. Activity in the caudate nucleus was demonstrated to be greater during tasks featuring spatial and motoric memory demands than those that involved nonspatial tasks.
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The ventral striatum is believed to play a role in reward and other limbic functions. The dorsal striatum is divided into the caudate and putamen by the internal capsule while the ventral striatum is composed of the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle. The caudate has three primary regions of connectivity, with the head of the caudate demonstrating connectivity to the prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex and amygdala. The body and tail show differentiation between the dorsolateral rim and ventral caudate, projecting to the sensorimotor and limbic regions of the striatum respectively.
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A 2013 study has suggested a link between Alzheimer's patients and the caudate nucleus. MRI images were used to estimate the volume of caudate nuclei in patients with Alzheimer's and normal volunteers. The study found a "significant reduction in the caudate volume" in Alzheimer's patients when compared to the normal volunteers. While the correlation does not indicate causation, the finding may have implications for early diagnosis.
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The quadrate and caudate lobe lie superior and inferior to this line respectively.
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The DRD1 gene expresses primarily in the caudate putamen in humans, and in the caudate putamen, the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle in mouse. Gene expression patterns from the Allen Brain Atlases in mouse and human can be found here.
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In short, "these and other findings with bilingual patients suggest that the left caudate is required to monitor and control lexical and language alternatives in production tasks." Local shape deformations of the medial surface of the caudate have been correlated with verbal learning capacity for females and the number of perseverance errors on spatial and verbal fluency working memory tasks for males. Specifically, a larger caudate nucleus volume has been linked with better verbal fluency performance. A neurological study of glossolalia showed a significant reduction in activity in the left caudate nucleus during glossolalia compared to singing in English.
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Now it is known that not only the basal ganglia and caudate affect category learning.
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Specifically, spatial working memory activity has been observed, via fMRI studies of delayed recognition, to be greater in the caudate nucleus when the activity immediately preceded a motor response. These results indicate that the caudate nucleus could be involved in coding a motor response. With this in mind, the caudate nucleus could be involved in the recruitment of the motor system to support working memory performance by the mediation of sensory-motor transformations.
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The dorsal-prefrontal cortex subcortical loop involving the caudate nucleus has been linked to deficits in working memory, specifically in schizophrenic patients. Functional imaging has shown activation of this subcortical loop during working memory tasks in primates and healthy human subjects. The caudate may be affiliated with deficits involving working memory from before illness onset as well. Caudate nucleus volume has been found to be inversely associated with perseverative errors on spatial working memory tasks.
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It is well documented that the caudate nucleus is involved in degenerative diseases of the central nervous system such as Huntington disease. In a case study of 32 acute caudate stroke patients, 48% were found to be experiencing abulia. Most of the cases where abulia was present were when the patients had a left caudate infarct that extended into the putamen as seen through a CT or MRI scan.Kumral, E., Evyapan, D., & Balkir, K. (1999).
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This moth has elongated, caudate (tapering to a long, tail-like extension at the apex) hindwings.
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This discovery could be due to the inter-related nature of the roles of the caudate nucleus and the frontal cortex in controlling levels of central nervous system activation. The cats with caudate removal, although permanently hyperactive, had a significant decrease in rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) time that only lasted for about two months. However, afrontal cats had a permanent decrease in REMS time and only a temporary period of hyperactivity. Contrasting with associations between "deep", REM sleep and the caudate nucleus, a study involving EEG and fMRI measures during human sleep cycles has indicated that the caudate nucleus demonstrates reduced activity during non- REM sleep across all sleep stages.
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The caudate is highly innervated by dopamine neurons that originate from the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). The SNc is located in the midbrain and contains cell projections to the caudate and putamen, utilizing the neurotransmitter dopamine. There are also additional inputs from various association cortices.
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Reports of human patients with selective damage to the caudate nucleus show unilateral caudate damage resulting in loss of drive, obsessive-compulsive disorder, stimulus-bound perseverative behavior, and hyperactivity. Most of these deficits can be classified as relating to approach-attachment behaviors, from approaching a target to romantic love.
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Since the great majority of caudate cells fire at very low rates, this activity almost always shows up as an increase in firing rate. Thus, eye movements begin with activation in the caudate nucleus, which inhibits the SNr via the direct GABAergic projections, which in turn disinhibits the SC.
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Comonecturoides is an extinct genus of prehistoric caudate amphibians of the Morrison Formation. It is considered nomen dubium.
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MRI shows increased T2 signal in the lateral putamen with caudate atrophy and secondary lateral ventricular dilation. Necropsy shows loss of neurons and gliosis in the caudate and globus pallidus. Similar changes may also be seen in the thalamus, substantia nigra, and putamen. The cerebellum and cerebral cortex are generally spared.
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The caudate nucleus contributes importantly to body and limbs posture and the speed and accuracy of directed movements. Deficits in posture and accuracy during paw usage tasks were observed following the removal of caudate nuclei in felines. A delay in initiating performance and the need to constantly shift body position were both observed in cats following partial removal of the nuclei. Following the application of cocaine to the caudate nucleus and the resulting lesions produced, a "leaping or forward movement" was observed in monkeys.
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Bilateral lesions in the head of the caudate nucleus in cats were correlated with a decrease in the duration of deep slow wave sleep during the sleep- wakefulness cycle. With a decrease in total volume of deep slow wave sleep, the transition of short-term memory to long-term memory may also be affected negatively. However, the effects of caudate nuclei removal on the sleep- wakefulness pattern of cats have not been permanent. Normalization has been discovered after a period of three months following caudate nuclei ablation.
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The caudate nucleus has been implicated in responses to visual beauty, and has been suggested as one of the "neural correlates of romantic love". Approach- attachment behavior and affect are also controlled by the caudate nucleus. Cats with bilateral removal of the caudate nuclei persistently approached and followed objects, attempting to contact the target, while exhibiting a friendly disposition by the elicitation of treading of the forelimbs and purring. The magnitude of the behavioral responses was correlated to the extent of the removal of the nuclei.
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The dorsal striatum is located in the subcortical region of the forebrain. In primates and other mammals it is divided by the anterior limb of a white matter tract called the internal capsule, into two parts: the caudate nucleus and the putamen. In rodents, the internal capsule is poorly developed such that the caudate and putamen are not separated but form one large entity called the caudate putamen (CPu). The majority (about 95%) of cells in the dorsal striatum are GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs) also known as spiny projection neurons (SPNs).
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The caudate nucleus is one of the structures that make up the corpus striatum, which is a component of the basal ganglia. While the caudate nucleus has long been associated with motor processes due to its role in Parkinson's disease, it plays important roles in various other nonmotor functions as well, including procedural learning, associative learning and inhibitory control of action, among other functions. The caudate is also one of the brain structures which compose the reward system and functions as part of the cortico–basal ganglia–thalamic loop.
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And while a relationship has been drawn between the caudate and Parkinson's motor deficiencies, the caudate has also been associated with Parkinson's concomitant cognitive impairments. One review contrasts the performance of patients with Parkinson's and patients that strictly suffered from frontal- lobe damage in the Tower of London test. The differences in performance between the two types of patients (in a test that, in short, requires subjects to select appropriate intermediate goals with a larger goal in mind) draws a link between the caudate and goal-directed action. However, the studies are not conclusive.
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In a 2005 study, subjects were asked to learn to categorize visual stimuli by classifying images and receiving feedback on their responses. Activity associated with successful classification learning (correct categorization) was concentrated to the body and tail of the caudate, while activity associated with feedback processing (the result of incorrect categorization) was concentrated to the head of the caudate.
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In contrast to the posterior pre-SMA, the anterior pre-SMA is connected with most of the prefrontal but not somatomotor areas. Overall, the SMA is strongly connected to the thalamus and epithalamus, the posterior pre-SMA to putamen, pallidum, and STN and anterior pre-SMA to the caudate nucleus, with the caudate showing significant hemispheric asymmetry.
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The substantia nigra contains two parts: the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr). The SNpc obtains input from the putamen and caudate, and sends information back. The SNpr also obtains input from the putamen and caudate. However, it sends the input outside the basal ganglia to control head and eye movements.
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Lithocarpus caudatifolius is a tree in the beech family Fagaceae. The specific epithet ' is from the Latin meaning "leaf with caudate apex".
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This indicates that the cerebral cortex develops later than sub-cortical structures, like the caudate nucleus, which may indicate that a small caudate nucleus can influence and inhibit the growth of the cerebral cortex. Mahone hopes to pinpoint abnormalities in the caudate nucleus of children with ADHD in an attempt to find a treatment that will promote normal development of the cerebral cortex; if treatment can help the cerebral cortex function and develop normally, higher cognitive functions may not be impaired in children with ADHD, which will allow them to function more normally than if the treatment had not been administered.
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A study using dogs that were trained to remain motionless while unsedated and unrestrained in an MRI scanner exhibited caudate activation to a hand signal associated with reward. Further work found that the magnitude of the canine caudate response is similar to that of humans, while the between-subject variability in dogs may be less than humans. In a further study, 5 scents were presented (self, familiar human, strange human, familiar dog, strange dog). While the olfactory bulb/peduncle was activated to a similar degree by all the scents, the caudate was activated maximally to the familiar human.
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Specifically, the caudate nucleus is particularly affected by early environmental factors and its volume correlates with IQ. In an experiment by Isaacs et al., infants born prematurely were either assigned a standard or high-nutrient diet during the weeks directly after birth. When the individuals were assessed later in adolescence, it was found that the high-nutrient group had significantly larger caudate volumes and scored significantly higher on verbal IQ tests. This study also found that the extent to which the caudate volume size related selectively to verbal IQ was much greater in male participants, and not very significant in females.
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H&E-LFB; stain. The putamen is a structure in the forebrain. Along with the caudate nucleus it forms the dorsal striatum. The caudate and putamen contain the same types of neurons and circuits – many neuroanatomists consider the dorsal striatum to be a single structure, divided into two parts by a large fiber tract, the internal capsule, passing through the middle.
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The bract is broadovate, with a caudate end. Perianth lobes are broadoval and long with a round end and green midrib on the underside.
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It exhibits peramorphosis to a degree unknown in any other caudate, in the case of a few characters even unknown in any other lissamphibian.
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Components of the basal ganglia, shown in two cross-sections of the human brain. Blue: caudate nucleus and putamen. Green: globus pallidus. Red: subthalamic nucleus.
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Further analysis of the pathways in the HIV+ group involving left caudate showed reduced functional connectivity between the left caudate and globus pallidus (basal ganglia output nucleus). This dysfunction with the basal ganglia and PFC may explain the executive function and semantic event sequencing task impairments noted in HIV+ patients included in this study. The study by Melrose et al. (2008) also investigated parietal activation.
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While a large body of translational evidence exists to support DAT hypofunction, in vivo evidence is limited to one study reporting reduced DAT binding in the caudate.
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It is lateral to the caudate nucleus and thalamus, and is seen only in sections of the hemisphere. It is bounded laterally by a lamina of white substance called the external capsule, and lateral to this is a thin layer of gray substance termed the claustrum. Its anterior end is continuous with the lower part of the head of the caudate nucleus and with the anterior perforated substance.
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The bull charged Delgado, who pressed a remote control button which caused the bull to stop its charge. Always one for theatrics, he taped this stunt and it can be seen today. The region of the brain Rodríguez Delgado stimulated when he pressed the hand-held transmitter was the caudate nucleus. This region was chosen to be stimulated because the caudate nucleus is involved in controlling voluntary movements.
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It is also possible to measure the cranio-caudal dimension, which is normally up to 15 cm in adults. This can be measured together with the ventro-dorsal dimension (or depth), which is normally up to 13 cm. Also, the caudate lobe is enlarged in many diseases. In the axial plane, the caudate lobe should normally have a cross-section of less than 0.55 of the rest of the liver.
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MIT Press. pp. 103–. . Retrieved 4 January 2013. In contrast, the caudate nucleus, within the basal ganglia, was found to be larger in the right hemisphere.Watkins, K. (2001).
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It has been theorized that the caudate nucleus may be dysfunctional in persons with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), in that it may perhaps be unable to properly regulate the transmission of information regarding worrying events or ideas between the thalamus and the orbitofrontal cortex. A neuroimaging study with positron emission tomography found that the right caudate nucleus had the largest change in glucose metabolism after patients had been treated with paroxetine. Recent SDM meta-analyses of voxel- based morphometry studies comparing people with OCD and healthy controls have found people with OCD to have increased grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular nuclei, extending to the caudate nuclei, while decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial frontal/anterior cingulate gyri. These findings contrast with those in people with other anxiety disorders, who evince decreased (rather than increased) grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular / caudate nuclei, while also decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial frontal/anterior cingulate gyri.
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For non affective tasks, hyperactivity was observed in the insula, ACC, and head of the caudate/putamen, while hypoactivity was observed in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and posterior caudate. Affective tasks were observed to relate to increased activation in the precuneus and posterior cingulate cortex(PCC), while decreased activation was found in the pallidum, ventral anterior thalamus and posterior caudate. The involvement of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical loop in OCD as well as the high rates of comorbidity between OCD and ADHD have led some to draw a link in their mechanism. Observed similarities include dysfunction of the anterior cingulate cortex, and prefrontal cortex, as well as shared deficits in executive functions.
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The horn lilts inferiorly towards its lateral edge. As a continuation of the interior side of the ventricular curve, the floor of the body of the ventricle becomes the roof of the inferior horn, hence the tail of the caudate nucleus forms the lateral edge of the inferior horn's roof, until, at the extremity of the ventricle, the caudate nucleus becomes the amygdala. The stria terminalis forms the remainder of the roof, which is much narrower than at the body - the choroid plexus moves to the medial wall. The tapetum for the temporal lobe comprises the lateral boundary of the inferior horn, on its way to join the main tapetum above the body of the ventricle (passing over the Caudate Nucleus as it does so).
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Neuroimaging studies reveal that people who can communicate in multiple languages activate exactly the same brain regions regardless of the language. A 2006 publication studies this phenomenon and identifies the caudate as a center for language control. In perhaps the most illustrative case, a trilingual subject with a lesion to the caudate was observed. The patient maintained language comprehension in her three languages, but when asked to produce language, she involuntarily switched between the three languages.
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Dopamine as a neurotransmitter has a dominant role in the putamen, most of it is supplied from the substantia nigra. When a cell body of a neuron (in the putamen or caudate nuclei) fires an action potential, dopamine is released from the presynaptic terminal. Since projections from the putamen and caudate nuclei modulate the dendrites of the substantia nigra, the dopamine influences the substantia nigra, which affects motor planning. This same mechanism is involved in drug addiction.
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Species of this genus have a more or less elongated, caudate hindwings and a peculiar wing shape, characterized by the anal lobe of the males. They lack of a frenulum (in both sexes).
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A white matter, nerve tract (the internal capsule) in the dorsal striatum separates the caudate nucleus and the putamen. Anatomically, the term striatum describes its striped (striated) appearance of grey-and-white matter.
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Simultaneously, in the indirect pathway, the motor cortices send activating signals to the caudate and putamen. The cells of the indirect pathway in the caudate and putamen that receive these signals are inhibitory and, once activated, they send inhibitory signals to the globus pallidus externus, reducing the activity in that nucleus. The globus pallidus externus normally sends inhibitory signals to the subthalamic nucleus. On activation of the indirect pathway, these inhibitory signals are reduced, which allows more activation of the subthalamic nucleus.
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The internal capsule is a white matter structure situated in the inferomedial part of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain. It carries information past the basal ganglia, separating the caudate nucleus and the thalamus from the putamen and the globus pallidus. The internal capsule contains both ascending and descending axons, going to and coming from the cerebral cortex. It also separates the caudate nucleus and the putamen in the dorsal striatum, a brain region involved in motor and reward pathways.
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Projections from the caudate nucleus to the superior colliculus also modulate saccadic eye movement. Altered patterns of pars reticulata firing such as single-spike or burst firing are found in Parkinson's disease and epilepsy.
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5HT1D receptors are found at low levels in the basal ganglia (globus pallidus, substantia nigra, caudate putamen), the hippocampus, and in the cortex.Hoyer, D., 2019. Serotonin receptors nomenclature. The Serotonin System, pp.63-93.
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Structurally, genetic influences explain 77–88% of the variance in the thickness of the mid-sagittal area of the corpus callosum, the volume of the caudate nucleus, and the volumes of the parietal and temporal lobes.
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Ten percent of the axons from the nucleus raphe dorsalis of the rat have been shown to project to the amygdala, while only medium cells seem to project to the caudate and putamen and olfactory bulb.
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In 2006, her MRI research, which showed that the ventral tegmental area and the caudate nucleus become active when people are in love, was featured in the (February) National Geographic cover-page article, "Love – the Chemical Reaction".
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As a result, damage to this area can also cause hemiballistic movements to be seen as it is also part of the chain in movement. Caudate nucleus The caudate nucleus is the portion of the basal ganglia that helps control voluntary movement. Damage to this area can also result in hemiballismus as it is directly related to voluntary movement. Cortical structures While the majority of damage that causes hemiballismus occurs within the basal ganglia, there are still cases that have been documented on which damage to cortical structures has caused hemiballistic movements.
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The brain structures that show the greatest improvements in gray matter volume in response to aerobic exercise are the prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and hippocampus; less significant increases in gray matter volume occur in the anterior cingulate cortex, parietal cortex, cerebellum, and nucleus accumbens. The prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and anterior cingulate cortex are among the most significant brain structures in the dopamine and norepinephrine systems that give rise to cognitive control. Exercise-induced neurogenesis (i.e., the increases in gray matter volume) in the hippocampus is associated with measurable improvements in spatial memory.
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Parkinson's disease is likely the most studied basal ganglia disorder. Patients with this progressive neurodegenerative disorder often first experience movement related symptoms (the three most common being tremors at rest, muscular rigidity, and akathisia) which are later combined with various cognitive deficiencies, including dementia. Parkinson's disease depletes dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal tract, a dopamine pathway that is connected to the head of the caudate. As such, many studies have correlated the loss of dopaminergic neurons that send axons to the caudate nucleus and the degree of dementia in Parkinson's patients.
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The area of brain most damaged in early Huntington's disease is the striatum made up of the caudate nucleus and the putamen. HD affects the whole brain, but certain areas are more vulnerable than others. The most prominent early effects are in a part of the basal ganglia called the striatum, which is composed of the caudate nucleus and putamen. Other areas affected include the substantia nigra, layers 3, 5 and 6 of the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, purkinje cells in the cerebellum, lateral tuberal nuclei of the hypothalamus and parts of the thalamus.
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An ALE meta analysis of various functional neuroimaging paradigms observed various abnormalities during Go/no go, interference, and task switching paradigms. Decreased likelihood of activation in right putamen and cerebellum was reported during Go/no go. During interference tasks, likelihood of activation was reported in the left superior frontal gyrus, right precentral gyrus, and left cingulate gyrus, to be decreased, and in the right caudate to be increased. Task switching was associated with extensive decreased likelihood of activation in the middle, medial, inferior, superior frontal gyri, caudate, cingulate and precuneus.
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January 28, 2009 Both the temporal lobe and the caudate nucleus were found to be enlarged. The hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobe, is involved in the encoding of declarative memory (memory for facts and events), while the temporal cortex is involved in the storage of such memory. The caudate nucleus is primarily associated with procedural memory, in particular habit formation, and is, therefore, intrinsically linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Parker and colleagues speculated that a defective frontostriatal circuit could be responsible for the observed executive function deficits in hyperthymesia.
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Many of these illnesses can cause aggressive and violent behavior, especially when located in the frontal cortex, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the amygdaloid body, the medial mammillary, the nucleus, the habenular nuclei, the hippocampus and the caudate nucleus.
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""Caudate sonnet," The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Ed. Alex Preminger and T.V.F. Brogan. Princeton UP, 1993. Gerard Manley Hopkins used the form in a less satirical mood in his "That Nature is a Heraclitean Fire.
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When divided horizontally, it exhibits, to some extent, the appearance of a biconvex lens, while a coronal section of its central part presents a somewhat triangular outline. It is shorter than the caudate nucleus and does not extend as far forward.
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The striatum is divided into a ventral striatum, and a dorsal striatum, subdivisions that are based upon function and connections. The ventral striatum consists of the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle whereas the dorsal striatum consists of the caudate nucleus and the putamen. The putamen and the globus pallidus lie separated from the lateral ventricles and thalamus by the internal capsule, whereas the caudate nucleus stretches around and abuts the lateral ventricles on their outer sides. At the deepest part of the lateral sulcus between the insular cortex and the striatum is a thin neuronal sheet called the claustrum.
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Importantly, the scent of the familiar human was not the handler, meaning that the caudate response differentiated the scent in the absence of the person being present. The caudate activation suggested that not only did the dogs discriminate that scent from the others, they had a positive association with it. Although these signals came from two different people, the humans lived in the same household as the dog and therefore represented the dog's primary social circle. And while dogs should be highly tuned to the smell of items that are not comparable, it seems that the “reward response” is reserved for their humans.
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Meditation often stimulates a large network of cortical regions including the frontal and parietal regions, lateral occipital lobe, the insular cortex, thalamic nuclei, basal ganglia, and the cerebellum region in the brain. These parts of the brain are connected with attention and the default network of the brain which is associated to day dreaming. In addition, both meditation and yoga have been found to have impacts on the brain, specifically the caudate. Here, there is greater connectivity to the caudate, as well as the interaction of basal ganglia cortico-thalamic feedback loops within meditation and yoga practice.
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An increase in dopamine in the caudate and putamen have been found in binge eaters,Wang, G.J., Volkow, N.D., Thanos, P.K., & Fowler, J.S. (2004). Similarity between obesity and drug addiction as assessed by neurofunctional imaging: a concept review. J. Addict. Dis. 23, 39e53.
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There are three distinct larval stages. The first larval stage is a caudate-mandibulate type. The second larval stage is an acaudate and lives in the host haemocoele. The third larval stage is also acaudate and eventually emerges from the host organism.
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The fruits are in length and are subglobose, obovoid, red and pilose. It calyx lobes are caudate, erect, and sparsely pilose, while the nutlets are with sometimes red apex. The flowers bloom from May to June, while fruits ripe from in November.
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Neuroimaging studies across diagnoses associated with anhedonia have reported reduced activity in the OFC and ventral striatum. One meta analysis reported anhedonia was associated with reduced neural response to reward anticipation in the caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC).
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Kv3.1 and Kv3.2 channels are prominently expressed in neurons that fire at high frequency. Kv3.2 channels are prominently expressed in brain (fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons of the neocortex, hippocampus, and caudate nucleus; terminal fields of thalamocortical projections), and in retinal ganglion cells.
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Charcot–Bouchard aneurysms are aneurysms in the small penetrating blood vessels of the brain. They are associated with hypertension. The common artery involved is the lenticulostriate branch of the middle cerebral artery. Common locations of hypertensive hemorrhages include the putamen, caudate, thalamus, pons, and cerebellum.
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In a 2003-human behavioral study, a similar process was repeated, but the decision this time was whether or not to trust another person when money was at stake. While here the choice was far more complex––the subjects were not simply asked to press a lever, but had to weigh a host of different factors––at the crux of the study was still behavioral selection based on changing values of outcomes. In short, neuroimagery and anatomical studies support the assertion that the caudate plays a role in executive functioning, while behavioral studies deepen our understanding of the ways in which the caudate guides some of our decision-making processes.
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The basal ganglia include groups of motor nuclei located deep within the cerebral hemispheres, including the corpus striatum, which contains two nuclei named the caudate and putamen, and also the pallidum, which contains the globus pallidus and substantia nigra pars reticulate. The corpus striatum is the main input center of the basal ganglia, specifically upper neurons of motor areas in the frontal lobe that control eye movement link to neurons in the caudate, while upper neurons from pre-motor and motor cortices in the frontal lobe connect to neurons in the putamen. The main neurons found within these structures are named medium spiny neurons.
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After experimentation researchers found Wrch1 was upregulated by repeat cocaine injections in the caudate putamen in D1 receptor mutants. There was no change in wild type mice, leading them to believe that Wrch1 may inhibit cocaine-induced and D1 receptor mediated behavioral changes. A key member of the Wnt signaling pathway, β-catenin, was thought to be induced by chronic cocaine administration (which had been true in the nucleus accumbens) but acute cocaine reduced expression in the caudate putamen whereas chronic cocaine injections decreased expression even in the NAc in D1 receptor mutants. This pathway influences Wrch1, so it can also influence cocaine- induced neuroadaptations.
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The Vogts greatly contributed to the analysis of what is known today as the basal ganglia system. Their main interest was on the striatum, that after Foix and Nicolesco they proposed (1941) to name so. This was including the caudate nucleus, the putamen and the fundus.
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The column of Burdach or fasciculus cuneatus, the lateral portion of the dorsal funiculus of the spinal cord is named for him.The American Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 1938. He differentiated the caudate nucleus from the putamen and identified the globus pallidus and its inner and outer segments.
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Two sides of romantic rejection. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection. (pp. 55-72). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Romantic rejection is a painful, emotional experience that appears to trigger a response in the caudate nucleus of the brain, and associated dopamine and cortisol activity.
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When shown a film of people smoking cocaine, cocaine users showed greater activation of the anterior cingulate cortex, the right inferior parietal lobe, and the caudate nucleus than did non-users. Conversely, the cocaine users showed lesser activation when viewing a sex film than did non-users.
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The FPN is primarily composed of the rostral lateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (especially the middle frontal gyrus) and the anterior inferior parietal lobule. Additional regions include the middle cingulate gyrus and potentially the dorsal precuneus, posterior inferior temporal lobe, dorsomedial thalamus and the head of the caudate nucleus.
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The ganglionic eminence (GE) is a transitory structure in the development of the nervous system that guides cell and axon migration. It is present in the embryonic and fetal stages of neural development found between the thalamus and caudate nucleus.Encha-Razavi & Sonigo. (2003). Features of the developing brain.
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The olfactory system is made up in part of the RMS which stretches from the subventricular zone in the wall of the lateral ventricle, through the basal forebrain, to the olfactory bulb (OB). VONS is the name given to this pathway, and it consists of the subventricular zone, the RMS, the olfactory tract and the olfactory bulb. Developing neurons leave the subventricular zone and enter the RMS and travel caudally and ventrally along the undersurface of the caudate nucleus; this is referred to as the descending limb. Upon reaching the ventral side of the caudate nucleus, the neurons follow the rostral limb and travel ventrally and rostrally, entering the anterior olfactory cortex (AOC).
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The involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in OCD is shared with bipolar disorder and may explain their high degree of comorbidity. Decreased volumes of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex related to executive function has also been observed in OCD. People with OCD evince increased grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular nuclei, extending to the caudate nuclei, with decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial frontal/anterior cingulate gyri. These findings contrast with those in people with other anxiety disorders, who evince decreased (rather than increased) grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular / caudate nuclei, as well as decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial frontal/anterior cingulate gyri.
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The anterolateral central arteries (antero-lateral ganglionic branches or lenticulostriate arteries) are a group of small arteries arising from the anterior part of the circle of Willis and supply the basal ganglia. They arise at the commencement of the middle cerebral artery and are arranged in two sets: # Internal striate: passes upward through the inner segments of the lentiform nucleus and supplies the lentiform nucleus, caudate nucleus, and internal capsule; # External striate: ascends through the outer segment of the lentiform nucleus and supplies the caudate nucleus. More modern texts divide the anterolateral central arteries into lateral and medial striate arteries. The lenticulostriate arteries originate from the initial segment of middle cerebral artery (MCA).
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The subthalamus develops efferent (output) connections to the striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) in the telencephalon, to the dorsal thalamus (medial and lateral nuclear groups) in the diencephalon, and to the red nucleus and substantia nigra in the mesencephalon. It receives afferent (input) connections from the substantia nigra and striatum.
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The subcortical volumes of the accumbens, amygdala, caudate, hippocampus, and putamen appears smaller in individuals with ADHD compared with controls. Inter-hemispheric asymmetries in white matter tracts have also been noted in children with ADHD, suggesting that disruptions in temporal integration may be related to the behavioral characteristics of ADHD.
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A study of the percentage of striatal axons from the sensorimotor (dorsolateral putamen) and associative striatum (caudate nucleus and ventromedial putamen) to the globus pallidusFrançois et al., 1994 found important differences. The GPe for instance receives a large input of axons from the associative areas. The GPi is strongly sensorimotor connected.
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Based upon Northern blot and in situ hybridization, DRD1 mRNA expression in the central nervous system is highest in the dorsal striatum (caudate and putamen) and ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle). Lower levels of DRD1 mRNA expression occur in the basolateral amygdala, cerebral cortex, septum, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
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The flowers are triangular and occur singly or in racemose inflorescences. They are characterized by a showy calyx and reduced corolla. The sepals are fused at the base and frequently caudate. The petals flank the semiterete column and the tongue-shaped lip is flexibly hinged to a free column foot.
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The leaves are simple, spirally arranged, obovate, 10–16 cm long and 5–8 cm wide. The base is acutely acuminate, long cuneate, apex rounded caudate. Glossy and dark green, the petioles are short with short soft hairs. Fruits are in capsule form in flat circular outline containing four large winged seeds.
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A 2014 study found Type I Bipolar patients had relatively higher volume of gray and white matter in the caudate nucleus and other areas associated with reward processing and decision making, compared to controls and Bipolar II subjects. Overall the amount of gray and white matter in Bipolar patients was lower than controls.
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A small tree < 5 m high, typically intermediate between its parents, the generally obovate leaves 7-8 cm long, asymmetric at the base, with apices acuminate to caudate and an average of 31 teeth. The petioles are 6-8 mm long. The obovate samarae are < 20 mm long by 16 mm wide.
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Striatum is a subcortical part of the forebrain. It is the major input station of the basal ganglia system. The striatum, in turn, gets input from the cerebral cortex. ; Dorsal Striatum The putamen and caudate nucleus together form the dorsal striatum which contributes directly to decision-making, especially to action selection and initiation.
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When the pre-frontal region of the cerebral cortex, which is generally involved in decision making and planning, determines that a particular motor activity will be executed, it sends activating signals to the motor cortices. The motor cortices send signals through the basal ganglia to refine the choice of muscles that will participate in the movement and to amplify the activity in the motor cortices that will drive the muscle contractions. In the direct pathway, the motor cortices send activating signals to the caudate and putamen (which together form the dorsal striatum). The cells of the direct pathway in the caudate and putamen that receive these signals are inhibitory and, once they become activated, send inhibitory signals to the GPi and SNpr and stop activity there.
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Some parts of the brain showing abnormal activity in OCD Functional neuroimaging during symptom provocation has observed abnormal activity in the orbitofrontal cortex, left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, right premotor cortex, left superior temporal gyrus, globus pallidus externus, hippocampus and right uncus. Weaker foci of abnormal activity were found in the left caudate, posterior cingulate cortex and superior parietal lobule. However, an older meta analysis of functional neuroimaging in OCD reported the only consistent functional neuroimaging findings have been increased activity in the orbital gyrus and head of the caudate nucleus, while ACC activation abnormalities were too inconsistent. A meta analysis comparing affective and non affective tasks observed differences with controls in regions implicated in salience, habit, goal-directed behavior, self-referential thinking and cognitive control.
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Magnetic resonance images (MRIs) and computed tomography (CT) neuroradiographs showing lesions in brains of three children with eastern equine encephalitis: A) Results of noncontrast CT scan of the brain of patient 12 on hospital day 2; the neuroradiograph shows subtle hypoattenuation of the left caudate head (arrow) and diencephalic region. B) Axial fluid attenuated inversion recovery image from brain MRI scan of patient 14 on hospital day 2; the image shows abnormal T2 hyperintense regions of the bimesial temporal regions (thick arrows) with accompanying abnormal T2 hyperintense regions of the dorsal pontomesencephalic regions (thin arrows). C, D) FLAIR images from brain MRI scan of patient 15 on hospital day 3. C) Abnormal T2 hyperintense caudate and thalamic nuclei, most prominent on the right (arrow).
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Between the inferior horn and the main body of the ventricle is the putamen, which emerges from the head of the caudate nucleus, and sits above the tapetum; a small number of further connections passing through the occipital tapetum to join the putamen to portions of the caudate nucleus tail adjoining the anterior horn. Below the putamen sits the globus pallidus, with which it connects. These structures bounding the lateral ventricles form a frame curving around the thalamus, which itself constitutes the main structure bounding the third ventricle. Were it not for the choroid plexus, a cleft-like opening would be all that lay between the lateral ventricle and the thalamus; this cleft constitutes the lower part of the choroid fissure.
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Reassessing morphine effects in cats: Protracted effects on sleep-wakefulness and EEG. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, vol 21, pp 922–928, 1984.Harris, Cynthia, Villablanca, J. R., Burgess, J. Wesley, and de Andres, Isabel. Reassessing morphine effects in cats: Responses of intact, caudate nuclei-lesioned and hemispherectomized animals following chronic administration and precipitated withdrawal.
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Abnormalities in the caudate nucleus are noted in OCD, but there is no evidence to support that these abnormalities can also be linked to trichotillomania. One study has shown that individuals with trichotillomania have decreased cerebellar volume. These findings suggest some differences between OCD and trichotillomania. There is a lack of structural MRI studies on trichotillomania.
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For example, 5-HT1E receptors are abundant in the hippocampus but are not detectable in the striatum (caudate and putamen of the human brain), while the opposite is true for the 5-HT1F receptor. Thus, conclusions about the function of the 5-HT1E receptor cannot be ascribed to the function of the 5-HT1F receptor, and vice versa.
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Quercus annulata is the accepted name of a tree species in the Asian sub-genus of 'ring-cupped oaks' and the family Fagaceae; there are no known subspecies. This oak tree has oblong, caudate leaves, 100–120 mm with glaucous undersides.Phạm Hoàng Hộ (2003) Cây Cỏ Việt Nam: an Illustrated Flora of Vietnam vol. II publ.
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The nature and distribution of PPT-1 has been studied in the human basal ganglia. The protein is expressed evenly throughout the caudate and putamen, and 80 to 85% of it exists in the beta-PPT isoform. 15-20% of the protein is in the gamma- PPT isoform, while no alpha-PPT was detected at all.
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After the body travels briefly towards the back of the head, the tail curves back toward the anterior, forming the roof of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle. This means that a coronal (on a plane parallel to the face) section that cuts through the tail will also cross the body and head of the caudate nucleus.
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Leaves have biserrate margins, with caudate to acuminate apices and rounded bases, mounted on a 1cm pubescent petiole. P. himalaica inflorescences are umbellate with one or two flowers attached by 3.5 to 4.5cm pubescent pedicels. The glabrous hypanthia are about 1cm long, and the ovate and glandular-serrate 0.4cm sepals are often reflexed. Petals are a pale pink.
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The direction of complex movement is based from the substantia nigra to the putamen and caudate nucleus, which then relay signals to the rest of the brain. This pathway is controlled via dopamine-using neurons, which MPTP selectively destroys, resulting over time in parkinsonism. MPTP causes Parkinsonism in primates including humans. Rodents are much less susceptible.
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When non-motor cerebral cortex excites the striate body, the caudate and putamen specifically inhibit neurons in the globus pallidus and subthalamus. This specific disinhibition enables movement initiation, by releasing excitatory thalamic neurons. ; Ventral striatum Functionally strongly associated with emotional and motivational aspects of behavior. Strongly innervated by dopaminergic fibers from the ventral tegmental area (VTA).
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The anterior cerebral artery supplies a part of the frontal lobe, specifically its medial surface and the upper border. It also supplies the front four–fifths of the corpus callosum, and provides blood to deep structures such as the anterior limb of the internal capsule, part of the caudate nucleus, and the anterior part of the globus pallidus.
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Eugenia mooniana, is a species of plant in the family Myrtaceae which is native to Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka. It is an 8m tall tree with terete branchlets. Leaves are simple, opposite; lamina elliptic to narrow elliptic; apex caudate-acuminate with blunt tip; base acute to rounded with entire margin. Flowers are white colored.
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By turning his attention to ADHD in preschoolers, Mahone aims to prevent the 4th grade failures that many untreated students with ADHD may experience. Through his research on preschool children, Mahone hopes to understand more about brain development in children with ADHD, as wells as earlier identification and ways to treat disorder. In his studies, Mahone has found that the caudate nucleus is significantly smaller in preschool children with symptoms of ADHD, which may predict the severity of the disorder later in life (the caudate nucleus is essential to the development of attention and cognitive control). He found that the cerebral cortex of preschoolers with ADHD is normal compared to that of preschoolers without ADHD, which is an important finding since older children with ADHD have been found to have a smaller cerebral cortex.
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Neuroimaging techniques, such as structural and functional MRI, found no significant differences between individuals with SLI and normal controls. However, more subtle and sophisticated techniques, such as voxel-based morphometry studies have allowed researchers to identify bilateral abnormalities in neural volume in areas of the brain associated with motor functions, such as the caudate nucleus, in the affected members of the KE family when compared to the unaffected family members. This volume reduction showed a high correlation between reduced volume and tests of oral praxis, supporting the idea that odd development of the caudate nucleus is related to the problems in motor control observed in the KE family. Due to the vague nature of the diagnosis of expressive language disorder, there is little specific scientific research that we can currently locate.
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The lentiform nucleus, or lenticular nucleus, comprises the putamen and the globus pallidus within the basal ganglia. With the caudate nucleus, it forms the striatum. It is a large, lens-shaped mass of gray matter just lateral to the internal capsule. Increased volume of the lentiform nuclei has been observed in obsessive-compulsive disorder, with decreased volume conversely observed in other anxiety disorders.
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Higher physical fitness scores, as measured by VO2 max, are associated with better executive function, faster information processing speed, and greater gray matter volume of the hippocampus, caudate nucleus, and nucleus accumbens. Long-term aerobic exercise is also associated with persistent beneficial epigenetic changes that result in improved stress coping, improved cognitive function, and increased neuronal activity ( and BDNF signaling).
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Cannabidiol (CBD) is non-psychotropic. Recent evidence shows that the compound counteracts cognitive impairment associated with the use of cannabis. Cannabidiol has little affinity for CB1 and CB2 receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists. It was found to be an antagonist at the putative new cannabinoid receptor, GPR55, a GPCR expressed in the caudate nucleus and putamen.
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The striatum is one mass of grey matter that has two different parts, a ventral and a dorsal part. The dorsal striatum contains the caudate nucleus and the putamen, and the ventral striatum contains the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle. The internal capsule is seen as dividing the two parts of the dorsal striatum. Sensorimotor input is mostly to the putamen.
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Different alleles of the 5-HT2A receptor have been associated with schizophrenia and other psychoses, including depression. Higher concentrations of 5-HT2A receptors in cortical and subcortical areas, in particular in the right caudate nucleus have been historically recorded. Typical antipsychotics are not particularly selective and also block dopamine receptors in the mesocortical pathway, tuberoinfundibular pathway, and the nigrostriatal pathway.
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For extracellular signaling molecules, they looked at expression of the genes IGFBP6 and SDF1. Both of these were induced in the caudate putamen in wild type mice, but attenuated in the D1 receptor mutants. This suggests that IGFBP6 and SDF1 can be induced by repeat cocaine administration, and also that this interaction is partially dependent on a functional D1 receptor.
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Immediately below the tail of the caudate nucleus, the next portion of the lateral edge is formed by the comparatively narrow stria terminalis, which sits upon the superior thalamostriate vein. The main part of the fornix of the brain forms the next narrow portion of the lateral boundary, which is completed medially by a choroid plexus, which serves both ventricles.
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The globus pallidus contains two parts: the globus pallidus pars externa (GPe) and the globus pallidus pars interna (GPi). Both regions acquire input from the putamen and caudate and communicate with the subthalamic nucleus. However, mostly the GPi sends GABAergic inhibitory output to the thalamus. The GPi also sends projections to parts of the midbrain, which have been assumed to affect posture control.
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The lentiform nucleus is made up of the larger putamen, and the smaller globus pallidus. In primates, the striatum is divided into a ventral striatum, and a dorsal striatum, subdivisions that are based upon function and connections. The ventral striatum consists of the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle. The dorsal striatum consists of the caudate nucleus and the putamen.
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With the use of positron emission tomography (PET), research has shown that brain regions active during translation are outside classical language areas. Translating from L1 to L2 and vice versa activates the anterior cingulate and bilateral subcortical structures (i.e. putamen and head of caudate nucleus). This pattern is explained in terms of the need for greater coordination of mental operations.
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The caudate nucleus has not been associated with self-reference before, however, Fossati and colleagues found activity while participants were retrieving self-relevant trait adjectives.Fossati, P., Hevenor, S. J., Lepage, M., Graham, S. J., Grady, C., Keightley, M. L., et al. (2004). Distributed self in episodic memory: Neural correlates of successful retrieval of self- encoded positive and negative personality traits. Neuroimage, 22(4), 1596–1604.
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The prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in mediating executive functions. Planning involves activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate cortex, angular prefrontal cortex, right prefrontal cortex, and supramarginal gyrus. Working memory manipulation involves the DLPFC, inferior frontal gyrus, and areas of the parietal cortex. Inhibitory control involves multiple areas of the prefrontal cortex, as well as the caudate nucleus and subthalamic nucleus.
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José Rodríguez Delgado authored 134 scientific publications within two decades (1950-1970) on electrical stimulation on cats, monkeys and patients - psychotic and non-psychotic. In 1963, New York Times featured his experiments on their front page. Rodríguez Delgado had implanted a stimoceiver in the caudate nucleus of a fighting bull. He could stop the animal mid-way that would come running towards a waving red flag.
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This is seen in anterior (ventral) horn cells or certain cranial nerve nuclei. Whereas the extrapyramidal system centers around the modulation and regulation through indirect control of anterior (ventral) horn cells. The extrapyramidal subcortical nuclei include the substantia nigra, caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, thalamus, red nucleus and subthalamic nucleus. The traditional thought was that the extrapyramidal system operated entirely independently of the pyramidal system.
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An associative input goes to the caudate nucleus and possibly to the nucleus accumbens. There are two different components of the striatum differentiated by staining – striosomes and a matrix. Striosomes are located in the matrix of the striatum and these contain μ-opioid receptors and dopamine receptor D1 binding sites. The striatopallidal fibers give a connection from the putamen to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra.
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The leaves themselves are usually ovate but sometimes lobed, coming to a narrow point, making them somewhere between caudate and acuminate. The leaves are retuse to slightly cordate, having a small lobe at the base. The leaves are shortly serrated, with each tooth narrowing to a thin point, making them apiculate. The leaves are dark green, with a paler underside covered in fine hairs.
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The acute syndrome presents with rapidly progressive severe upper abdominal pain, yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of the eyes, liver enlargement, enlargement of the spleen, fluid accumulation within the peritoneal cavity, elevated liver enzymes, and eventually encephalopathy. The fulminant syndrome presents early with encephalopathy and ascites. Liver cell death and severe lactic acidosis may be present as well. Caudate lobe enlargement is often present.
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The receptor is located in the alimentary tract, urinary bladder, heart and adrenal gland as well as the central nervous system (CNS). In the CNS the receptor appears in the putamen, caudate nucleus, nucleus accumbens, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra, and to a lesser extent in the neocortex, raphe, pontine nuclei, and some areas of the thalamus. It has not been found in the cerebellum.
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An activation likelihood estimate (ALE) meta analysis of PET/SPECT resting state studies reported reduced activity in the left insula, pregenual and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and elevated activity in the thalamus, caudate, anterior hippocampus and amygdala. Compared to the ALE meta analysis of PET/SPECT studies, a study using multi-kernel density analysis reported hyperactivity only in the pulvinar nuclei of the thalamus.
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The porta hepatis or transverse fissure of the liver is a short but deep fissure, about 5 cm long, extending transversely beneath the left portion of the right lobe of the liver, nearer its posterior surface than its anterior border. It joins nearly at right angles with the left sagittal fossa, and separates the quadrate lobe in front from the caudate lobe and process behind.
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Rule-based tasks are learned via hypothesis-testing dependent on working memory. Information-integration tasks are ones wherein the accuracy is maximized when information from two sources are integrated at a pre-decisional stage, which follows a procedural- based system. Seven participants with basal ganglia lesions were used in the experiment, along with nine control participants. It is important to note that the caudate was not affected.
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Carne et al., 2006 The gender differences in size vary by more specific brain regions. Studies have tended to indicate that men have a relatively larger amygdala and hypothalamus, while women have a relatively larger caudate and hippocampi. When covaried for intracranial volume, height, and weight, Kelly (2007) indicates women have a higher percentage of gray matter, whereas men have a higher percentage of white matter and cerebrospinal fluid.
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Lhermitte first coined the term Utilization Behavior (UB). He observed six patients with unilateral and bilateral lesions in the frontal lobe while the patients were enticed to grab objects. The patients with the frontal lobe lesions grasped the objects and started to use them appropriately even if it was not the appropriate time. Lhermitte used this study to attribute UB to damage of the orbital frontal structures and the caudate nuclei.
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P.I) axons up into layer III (multiform layer). These cells also project into the nucleus accumbens and caudate putamen, thus linking the olfactory tubercle with the pallidum. Other medium-size cells reside in layers II and III of the olfactory tubercle as well. These include the spine-poor neurons and spindle cells and they differ from the medium-size dense spine cells because they have sparse dendritic trees.
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The majority of dopamine in the mammalian brain is synthesized by nuclei located in the mesencephalon. The substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the retrorubral field (RRF) contains dopaminergic neurons expressing tyrosine hydroxylase (Th, i.e. the rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis). The nigro-striatal pathway originates from SNpc and irradiate its principal rostral target, the Caudate- Putamen (CPu) through the median forebrain bundle (MFB).
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KORs are widely distributed in the brain, spinal cord (substantia gelatinosa), and in peripheral tissues. High levels of the receptor have been detected in the prefrontal cortex, periaqueductal gray, raphe nuclei (dorsal), ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra, dorsal striatum (putamen, caudate), ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercle), amygdala, bed nucleus stria terminalis, claustrum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, midline thalamic nuclei, locus coeruleus, spinal trigeminal nucleus, parabrachial nucleus, and solitary nucleus.
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There are extensive homologs to BTBD9 which allow for the use of animal models in deciphering its functions and interactions. The BTBD9 homolog Btbd9 is extensively expressed in the central nervous system of adult mice including the thalamus, sub-thalamic nuclei, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, and caudate nucleus. The Drosophila homolog dBTBD9, was shown to regulate dopamine levels in the Drosophila brain and iron regulation in human cell- lines.
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The most commonly affected region of the brain is the lenticular nucleus and in particular the internal globus pallidus. Calcifications in the caudate, dentate nuclei, putamen and thalami are also common. Occasionally calcifications begin or predominate in regions outside the basal ganglia. Calcification seems to be progressive, since calcifications are generally more extensive in older individuals and an increase in calcification can sometimes be documented on follow up of affected subjects.
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In 1355 the Viceroy of Valencia try to buy the western part of the valley, leaving the Ontinyent portion the property of Caudete. But Villena never allowed the sale of its part. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) Caudate supported the Archduke Charles of Austria while Villena supported Philip of Bourbon. After the Bourbon victory, Villena accused Caudete of treason and claimed the valley of Alhorines.
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Also involved in the CREB-Fos protein pathways is the dopamine D1 receptor (DRD1), expressed in neurons in the nucleus accumbens and caudate putamen regions. Zhang et al. focused on this receptor, as it is known to mediate the effects of cocaine. When stimulated, it increases cAMP levels, in turn leading to CREB activation. They had observed previous cocaine injections led to a direct increase in D1 receptor sensitivity.
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Conversely, an increase of CREB was shown to decrease the rewarding effects of cocaine. Zhang et al. also used microarrays to identify specific genes induced by chronic cocaine use, which depend on a functional D1 receptor 24 hours after cocaine withdrawal. There were 109 genes identified that were either up or down regulated by 1.2 fold or more in the caudate putamen D1 receptor mutant mice after repeat injections.
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The putamen (; from Latin, meaning "nutshell") is a round structure located at the base of the forebrain (telencephalon). The putamen and caudate nucleus together form the dorsal striatum. It is also one of the structures that compose the basal nuclei. Through various pathways, the putamen is connected to the substantia nigra, the globus pallidus, the claustrum, and the thalamus, in addition to many regions of the cerebral cortex.
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Together, these findings corroborate results from imaging and electrical studies about the variety of functions attributed to the ACC. There is evidence that this area may have a role in obsessive–compulsive disorder due to the fact that what appears to be an unnaturally low level of glutamate activity in this region has been observed in patients with the disorder, in contrast to many other brain regions that are thought to have excessive glutamate activity in OCD. Recent SDM meta-analyses of voxel-based morphometry studies comparing people with OCD and healthy controls has found people with OCD to have increased grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular nuclei, extending to the caudate nuclei, while decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial frontal/anterior cingulate cortex. These findings contrast with those in people with other anxiety disorders, who evince decreased (rather than increased) grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular / caudate nuclei, while also decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial frontal / anterior cingulate gyri.
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The 5HT6 receptor is expressed almost exclusively in the brain. It is distributed in various areas including, but not limited to, the olfactory tubercle, cerebral cortex (frontal and entorhinal regions), nucleus accumbens, striatum, caudate nucleus, hippocampus, and the molecular layer of the cerebellum. Based on its abundance in extrapyramidal, limbic, and cortical regions it can be suggested that the 5HT6 receptor plays a role in functions like motor control, emotionality, cognition, and memory.
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The book details the techniques that Berns and his team developed to train and test two dogs, including Berns' feist Callie, to undergo the imaging procedure. It also describes a study that the team conducted using this method, which observed increases in caudate activity in response to hand signals associated with food rewards. A later study replicated the procedure and results in a larger sample of dogs, and further supported the reliability of the technique.
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The second functional face of BmTx3 blocks the hERG (human Ether-à-go-go) channel (KD = 2 μM), a characteristic belonging to γ-KTx peptides. BmTx3 binding site seems essentially localized in neurons but could also be present in glial cells, endothelial cells and/or arterial smooth muscle cells. The distribution of BmTx3 binding sites is heterogeneous; a high density is found in the caudate–putamen and accumbens nucleus, thalamus, hippocampal formation and cerebellum.
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Sex is genetically determined in amphibians. Temperature-induced sex reversal has been documented in some species of anuran and caudate amphibians. Temperature only can have an effect on sex differentiation during a window period called thermosensitive period (TSP) which varies among species. Tadpoles or larvae exposed to specific higher or lower temperatures, depending on the temperature thresholds of the species, can differentiate gonads that do not align with their primary sexual fate.
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NeuroReport 16, 607–610 The left caudate nucleus has been associated with control of in-use language,Crinion, J., Turner, R., Grogan, A., Hanakawa, T., Noppeney, U., Devlin, J.T., et al, 2006. Language control in the bilingual brain. Science 312, 1537–1540 and the left mid-prefrontal cortex is responsible for monitoring interference and suppressing competing responses between languages.,Rodriquez-Fornells, A., van der Lugt, A., Rotte, M., Britti, B., Heinze, H.J., Munte, T.F., 2005.
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Structural imaging studies have consistently reported differences in the size and structure of certain brain areas in schizophrenia. The largest combined neuroimaging study with over 2000 subjects and 2500 controls has replicated these previous findings. Volumetric increases were found in the lateral ventricles (+18%), caudate nucleus and pallidum, and extensive decreases in the hippocampus (-4%), thalamus, amygdala and nucleus accumbens. Together, this indicates that extensive changes do occur in the brains of people with schizophrenia.
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Below the cerebral cortex, the precuneus is connected with the dorsalmost nuclei of the thalamus, including the ventral lateral nucleus, the central and anterior nuclei of the intralaminar nuclear group, and the lateral pulvinar. Other connections include the claustrum, the dorsolateral caudate nucleus, putamen, and the zona incerta. It also has links with the brainstem areas such as the pretectal area, the superior colliculus, the nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis, and the basis pontis.
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High-amplitude gamma wave synchrony can be self-induced via meditation. Long-term practitioners of meditation such as Tibetan Buddhist monks exhibit both increased gamma-band activity at baseline as well as significant increases in gamma synchrony during meditation, as determined by scalp EEG. fMRI on the same monks revealed greater activation of right insular cortex and caudate nucleus during meditation. The neurobiological mechanisms of gamma synchrony induction are thus highly plastic.
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Midbrain dopaminergic neurons play a critical role in multiple brain functions, and abnormal signaling through dopaminergic pathways has been implicated in several major neurologic and psychiatric disorders. One well studied target for the actions of dopamine is DARPP32. In the densely dopamine- and glutamate-innervated rat caudate-putamen, DARPP32 is expressed in medium-sized spiny neurons that also express dopamine D1 receptors. The function of DARPP32 seems to be regulated by receptor stimulation.
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Reserpine causes almost full loss of dopamine from the striatum by disrupting vesicle storage. The repletion of dopamine after reserpine administration is slower than AMPT. Additionally, administration of reserpine when dopamine is maximally depleted causes neurotoxic effects, which does not occur with AMPT treatment. AMPT’s role in addiction has also been studied via changes in dopamine binding to D2 and D3 receptors in the striatum (caudate, putamen, and ventral striatum) after the administration of AMPT.
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Numerous imaging studies have demonstrated that the caudate nucleus and globus pallidus (striatum) which contain a high density of DA receptors are smaller in ADHD than in control groups, ADHD groups have smaller posterior brain regions (e.g.,occipital lobes) and areas involved in coordinating activities of multiple brain regions (e.g., rostrum and splenium of corpus collosum and cerebellar vermis). These volumetric differences between the two groups correlate with severity of ADHD and its symptoms.
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The ligamentum venosum is the fibrous remnant of the ductus venosus of the fetal circulation. Usually, it is attached to the left branch of the portal vein within the porta hepatis. It may be continuous with the round ligament of liver. It is invested by the peritoneal folds of the lesser omentum within a fissure on the visceral/posterior surface of the liver between the caudate and main parts of the left lobe.
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This area of the basal ganglia receives input from another area, called the striatum, which has two parts, the caudate nucleus and the putamen. This data is routed to the thalamus, either directly or indirectly. In the case of the interna, one area of the globus pallidus, the structure can feed directly to the thalamus. The externa, which lies on the outside of this structure, feeds information to the interna, where it can be passed on to the thalamus.
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In a study by Joo et al., the researchers performed interictal studies, meaning they scanned the patient's brain between attacks to find an underlying abnormality, rather than ictal scans, which look at the abnormalities that present themselves during an attack. The researchers found interictally decreased cerebral blood flow in the posterior parts of the bilateral caudate nucleus. However, the literature does state that although this could be a cause of PKD, it could also be a result of PKD.
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Abnormalities in these circuits may be responsible for tics and premonitory urges. The caudate nuclei may be smaller in subjects with tics compared to those without tics, supporting the hypothesis of pathology in CSTC circuits in Tourette's. The ability to suppress tics depends on brain circuits that "regulate response inhibition and cognitive control of motor behavior". Children with TS are found to have a larger prefrontal cortex, which may be the result of an adaptation to help regulate tics.
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Connectivity diagram showing excitatory glutamatergic pathways as red, inhibitory GABAergic pathways as blue, and modulatory dopaminergic as magenta. glutamatergic pathways, red arrows refer to inhibitory GABAergic pathways and turquoise arrows refer to dopaminergic pathways that are excitatory on the direct pathway and inhibitory on the indirect pathway. The basal ganglia is a collective group of structures in the brain. These include the striatum, (composed of the putamen and caudate nucleus), globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and the subthalamic nucleus.
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Patients with schizophrenia may have some gray matter volume loss in both hemispheres of the brain. The most significant losses are typically in the left thalamus and right caudate, and this loss extends into the cerebrum, parahippocampal gyrus, and the hippocampus. There are increases in the temporal and parietal lobes, along with the anterior cerebellum. When patients with schizophrenia are compared to healthy participants, there is a decrease in gray matter volume in prefrontal and temporal regions.
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Excessive dopamine in the mesolimbic pathways of the brain produces psychotic symptoms. Antipsychotic medications block dopamine D2 receptors in the caudate and putamen as well as in limbic target areas, they can also block or partially block serotonin. Therapy with AMPT could prove to be more specific to dopamine and therefore eliminate some of the negative side effects of antipsychotic drugs. Cocaine and Methamphetamines- The dopamine transporter (DAT) is a principal site of action for cocaine.
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Cryotips were used in male rats to cool the caudate putamen (CP) to study consumption behaviors. The shaft of the cryotips were not insulated, so overlying tissue including meninges and cortex overlying the CP were also cooled. All three regions were subsequently cooled in combinations and separately to determine which areas contribute to consumption reduction. Cooling the cortex alone created a conditioned consumption reduction; consumption reduction was contingent on pairing a sucrose solution (to be consumed) with cortical cooling.
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Body of lateral ventricle shown in red. The body of the lateral ventricle, or central part is the part of the ventricle between the anterior horn and the trigone. Its roof is bound by the tapetum of the corpus callosum - and is separated medially from the other lateral ventricle by the septum pellucidum. The tail of the caudate nucleus forms the upper portion of the lateral edge, but it is not large enough to cover the whole boundary.
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The putamen is interconnected with the following structures: This is a transverse section of the striatum from a structural MR image. The striatum includes the caudate nucleus (top) and putamen (right) and the globus pallidus (left). This description is rudimentary and does not nearly exhaust even the basic established circuitry of the putamen. The cortico-subcortico-cortical circuits with putaminal involvement are dense and complicated, consisting of a wide range of axonal, dendritic, chemical, afferent, and efferent substrates.
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The dorsal striatum is composed of the caudate nucleus and the putamen. Staining can differentiate the striatum into two distinct compartments of striosomes or patches, and a surrounding matrix; this is particularly evident on the components of acetylcholinesterase and calbindin. More studies have been carried out on the dorsal striatum but the compartments have also been identified in the ventral striatum. In the dorsal striatum striosomes make up 10-15 per cent of the striatal volume.
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His name is given to the Spiegelian line (Linea semilunaris) and the Spiegelian fascia, which refers either to the combined aponeuroses of the external abdominal oblique muscle, the internal abdominal oblique muscle and transversus abdominis muscle, or just the aponeurosis of the transversus abdominis. An uncommon hernia of the Spiegelian fascia that he first described is called a "Spigelian hernia". The caudate lobe of the liver is also known as Spiegel's lobe. Spiegel also did work as a botanist.
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Three genome-wide association studies of OCD have also been completed, which have suggested potential regions of interest, including the region containing SLC1A1, 9p24. SLC1A1 is expressed in the cortex, striatum, and thalamus (the cortico-striato-thalamocortical circuit) and is related to glutamate neurotransmission.Yoshikatsu Kanai and Matthias A. Hediger, "The glutamate/neutral amino acid transporter family SLC1: Molecular, Physiological, and Pharmacological aspects," Pflügers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology 447, no. 5 (2003): 467-479. Neuroimaging, candidate gene, and animal model studies have provided evidence linking SLC1A1 and glutamate signaling to the occurrence of OCD. Neuroimaging studies have found that caudate glutamatergic concentrations are lower in the anterior cingulate and higher in the caudate in early onset OCD patients compared to controls, suggesting that glutamate transport (and in turn, the glutamate transporter gene SLC1A1) is related to the onset of OCD. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the gene SLC1A1 have consistently been found to be related to OCD. In addition to glutamate transport, EAAC1, the transporter coded by SLC1A1, has also been linked to GABA synthesis, which could promote susceptibility to OCD.
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The stria terminalis covers the superior thalamostriate vein, marking a line of separation between the thalamus and the caudate nucleus as seen upon gross dissection of the ventricles of the brain, viewed from the superior aspect. The stria terminalis extends from the region of the interventricular foramina to the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle, carrying fibers from the amygdala to the septal nuclei, hypothalamic, and thalamic areas of the brain. It also carries fibers projecting from these areas back to the amygdala.
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Particularly, one division within the ventral striatum, the nucleus accumbens core, is involved in the consolidation, retrieval and reconsolidation of drug memory. The caudate nucleus is thought to assist in learning and memory of associations taught during operant conditioning. Specifically, research has shown that this part of the basal ganglia plays a role in acquiring stimulus-response habits, as well as in solving sequence tasks. Damage to the basal ganglia has been linked to dysfunctional learning of motor and perceptual-motor skills.
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The direct pathway is involved in facilitation of wanted movements. The projections from dopamine D1 receptor containing medium spiny neurons in the caudate nucleus and putamen synapse onto tonically active GABAergic cells in the substantia nigra pars reticulata and the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi) which then project to the thalamus. Because the striatonigral / striatoentopeduncular and nigrothalamic pathways are inhibitory, activation of the direct pathway creates an overall net excitatory on the thalamus and on movement generated by the motor cortex.
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This pathway initially follows the dorsal spino-cerebellar pathway. It is arranged as follows: proprioceptive receptors of lower limb → peripheral process → dorsal root ganglion → central process → Clarke's column → 2nd order neuron → medulla oblongata (Caudate nucleus) → 3rd order neuron → VPLN of thalamus → 4th order neuron → posterior limb of internal capsule → corona radiata → sensory area of cerebrum. The anterolateral system works somewhat differently. Its primary neurons axons enter the spinal cord and then ascend one to two levels before synapsing in the substantia gelatinosa.
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The performance of Stroop and Simon tasks were monitored on 10 healthy young adults using magnetic resonance image (MRI) scanning. Functional images were acquired at specific time intervals during each subject's scan. Brain activation during the Stroop and Simon task was remarkably similar including anterior cingulate, supplementary motor cortex, visual association cortex, inferior temporal cortex, inferior parietal cortex, inferior frontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and caudate nuclei. Interference effects in the Stroop and Simon tasks activate similar brain regions at similar time distributions.
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Different types of mGluRs are distributed differently in cells. For example, one study found that Group I mGluRs are located mostly on postsynaptic parts of cells, while groups II and III are mostly located on presynaptic elements, though they have been found on both pre- and postsynaptic membranes. Also, different mGluR subtypes are found predominantly in different parts of the body. For example, mGluR4 is located only in the brain, in locations such as the thalamus, hypothalamus and caudate nucleus.InterPro.
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Brain imaging techniques are useful for examining the changes in the brain that occur as a result of damage. Metting et al. (2001) used CT scans to examine the pathophyiological damage in patients currently experiencing an episode of PTA, patients with resolved PTA, and a control group that had not experienced PTA. Bloodflow to the occipital lobe, the caudate nucleus, and the grey matter of the frontal lobe was significantly reduced in patients who were scanned during the episode of PTA.
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Abnormal PCC functional connectivity has been linked to major depression, with variable results. One study reports increased PCC functional connectivity, while another shows that untreated patients had decreased functional connectivity from the PCC to the caudate. Other studies have looked at interactions between the PCC and the sub-genual cingulate region (Brodmann area 25), a region of the brain that potentially causes depression. The anterior node of the DMN is formed, in part, by the highly connected PCC and Brodmann area 25.
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The great cerebral vein is considered as one of the deep cerebral veins. Other deep cerebral veins are the internal cerebral veins, formed by the union of the superior thalamostriate vein and the superior choroid vein at the interventricular foramina. The internal cerebral veins can be seen on the superior surfaces of the caudate nuclei and thalami just under the corpus callosum. The veins at the anterior poles of the thalami merge posterior to the pineal gland to form the great cerebral vein.
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In acute disorders, such as head injury or stroke, aphasia usually develops quickly. When caused by brain tumor, infection, or dementia, it develops more slowly. Substantial damage to tissue anywhere within the region shown in blue on the figure which is shown at the right can potentially result in aphasia. Aphasia can also sometimes be caused by damage to subcortical structures deep within the left hemisphere, including the thalamus, the internal and external capsules, and the caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia.
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This line is called Cantlie's line. Other anatomical landmarks include the ligamentum venosum and the round ligament of the liver, which further divide the left side of the liver in two sections. An important anatomical landmark, the porta hepatis, divides this left portion into four segments, which can be numbered starting at the caudate lobe as I in an anticlockwise manner. From this parietal view, seven segments can be seen, because the eighth segment is only visible in the visceral view.
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It is located close to the right of the fossa, between the bare area and the caudate lobe, and immediately above the renal impression. The greater part of the suprarenal impression is devoid of peritoneum and it lodges the right suprarenal gland. Medial to the renal impression is a third and slightly marked impression, lying between it and the neck of the gall bladder. This is caused by the descending portion of the duodenum, and is known as the duodenal impression.
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It was found that anterior parietal activation in HIV+ patients was slightly anterior to that in control participants, which follows the idea that HIV causes a reorganization of the attention network leading to cognitive impairments. Additionally, the anterior parietal activity showed a relationship with caudate functioning, which implicates a compensatory mechanism set forth when damage to the fronto-striatal system occurs. Overall, the study by Melrose et al. (2008) showed that HIV in the brain is associated with cognitive impairments.
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The hepatic veins are divided into an upper and a lower group. The upper three drain the central veins from the right, middle, and left regions of the liver and are larger than the lower group of veins. The lower group of from six to twenty smaller hepatic veins come from the right lobe and the caudate lobe, are in contact with the hepatic tissue, and are valveless. All the veins empty into the inferior vena cava at the back of the liver.
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Asphyxia directly causes basal ganglia damage due to lack of oxygen and therefore, insufficient nutrient supply. The lesions caused by asphyxia are most prominent on the caudate nucleus and the putamen. However, a less-studied consequence of the resulting hypoxia is its effect on the concentrations of the neurotransmitter dopamine within the synapses of neurons in the basal ganglia. Hypoxia leads to an increase in the extracellular dopamine levels and therefore, an increase in the activity of the dopaminergic neurons.
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AP-7 has been known to cause muscle rigidity and catalepsy in rats following bilateral microinjections (0.02-0.5 nmol) into the globus pallidus and ventral-posterior portions of the caudate-putamen. The optically pure D-(−)-2-amino-7-phosphonoheptanoic acid [D-AP7], has also been examined. In groups of hypoxia-treated rats, D-AP7 enhanced motility, exhibited anxiogenic- like effect and impaired consolidation in passive avoidance. Both AP-7 and D-AP7 function as potent, specific antagonists of the NMDA receptor.
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Parkinson's disease is characterized by severe motor problems, mainly hypokinesia, rigidity, tremors, and postural imbalance. Loss of dopamine neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway is one of the main pathological features of Parkinson's disease. Degeneration of dopamine producing neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the putamen-caudate complex leads to diminished concentrations of dopamine in the nigrostriatal pathway, leading to reduced function and the characteristic symptoms. The symptoms of the disease typically do not show themselves until 80-90% of dopamine function has been lost.
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Cells in the ganglionic eminence migrate tangentially to neocortex, giving rise to interneurons. A variety of molecular mechanisms cooperate to direct this process. Embryonic interneuronal migration to the cerebral cortex is mediated by an array of motogenic growth factors in the MGE, repulsive factors in the striatum and LGE, permissive factors in migratory corridors in the ganglionic eminence, and attractive factors in the cortex itself. Cells in the LGE migrate to the striatal domain (caudate nucleus and putamen) and parts of the septum and amygdala.
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A study examining brain activity during engagement in joint attentional tasks was able to suggest some brain areas potentially associated with joint attention. Greater activity in the ventromedial frontal cortex, the left superior frontal gyrus (BA10), cingulate cortex, and caudate nuclei were observed when individuals were engaging in joint attentional activities. Many of these brain regions have been implicated in related mental activities. The ventromedial frontal cortex has been demonstrated to be related to theory of mind type task involving the assignment of mental states to others.
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Mutations in this gene cause biotin-responsive basal ganglia disease (BBGD); a recessive disorder manifested in childhood that progresses to chronic encephalopathy, dystonia, quadriparesis, and death if untreated. Patients with BBGD have bilateral necrosis in the head of the caudate nucleus and in the putamen. Administration of high doses of biotin in the early progression of the disorder eliminates pathological symptoms while delayed treatment results in residual paraparesis, mild mental retardation, or dystonia. Administration of thiamine is ineffective in the treatment of this disorder.
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Huntington's disease is a disease characterized by minor coordination problems, jerking eye movements, and uncontrollable movement of peripheral limbs. Symptoms generally occur at the age of 40, and are often accompanied by depression and psychosis. The disease is caused by a mutation in the Huntingtin gene, on chromosome 4, which causes abnormally large numbers of glutamate residues in the protein. Via an unknown mechanism, this accumulation leads to neurodegeneration in the caudate nucleus and putamen, selectively destroying GABAnergic neurons which project to the globus pallidus.
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An fMRI study conducted in 2005 found that when mother rats were in the presence of their pups the regions of the brain involved in reinforcement, including the nucleus accumbens, were highly active. Levels of dopamine increase in the nucleus accumbens during maternal behavior, while lesions in this area upset maternal behavior. When women are presented pictures of unrelated infants, fMRIs show increased brain activity in the nucleus accumbens and adjacent caudate nucleus, proportionate to the degree to which the women find these infants "cute".
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Shape of human liver in animation, with eight Couinaud segments labelled In the widely used Couinaud system, the functional lobes are further divided into a total of eight subsegments based on a transverse plane through the bifurcation of the main portal vein. The caudate lobe is a separate structure that receives blood flow from both the right- and left-sided vascular branches. The Couinaud classification divides the liver into eight functionally independent liver segments. Each segment has its own vascular inflow, outflow and biliary drainage.
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In the centre of each segment are branches of the portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile duct. In the periphery of each segment is vascular outflow through the hepatic veins. The classification system uses the vascular supply in the liver to separate the functional units (numbered I to VIII) with unit 1, the caudate lobe, receiving its supply from both the right and the left branches of the portal vein. It contains one or more hepatic veins which drain directly into the inferior vena cava.
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The occipitofrontal fasciculus, also known as the fronto-occipital fasciculus, passes backward from the frontal lobe, along the lateral border of the caudate nucleus, and on the medial aspect of the corona radiata; its fibers radiate in a fan-like manner and pass into the occipital and temporal lobes lateral to the posterior and inferior cornua. Some sources distinguish between an inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF) and a superior fronto-occipital fasciculus (SFOF), however the latter is no longer believed to exist in the human brain.
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A separate study also reported a significant association between neuroticism scores and gray matter volume of the left amygdala. In one MRI study, Novelty Seeking correlated with increased grey matter volume in regions of the cingulate cortex, Harm Avoidance correlated with decreased grey matter volume in the orbitofrontal, occipital, and parietal cortex. Reward Dependence correlated with decreased grey matter volume in the caudate nucleus. A separate but similar line of research has used diffusion tensor imaging to measure the structural integrity of white matter in the brain.
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Rhesus monkey Taar1 and human TAAR1 share high sequence similarity, and TAAR1 mRNA is highly expressed in the same important monoaminergic regions of both species. These regions include the dorsal and ventral caudate nucleus, putamen, substantia nigra, nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, locus coeruleus, amygdala, and raphe nucleus. hTAAR1 has also been identified in human astrocytes. Outside of the human central nervous system, hTAAR1 also occurs as an intracellular receptor and is primarily expressed in the stomach, intestines , duodenum , pancreatic , and white blood cells.
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One study was done in order to specifically investigate how the basal ganglia influences the learning of sequential movements. Two monkeys were trained to press a series of buttons in sequence. The methods used were designed to be able to monitor the well-learned tasks versus the new tasks. Muscimol was injected into various parts of the basal ganglia, and it was found that "the learning of new sequences became deficient after injections in the anterior caudate and putamen, but not the middle- posterior putamen".
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The essential role of the Broca's area in speech production has been questioned since it can be destroyed while leaving language nearly intact. In one case of a computer engineer, a slow-growing glioma tumor was removed. The tumor and the surgery destroyed the left inferior and middle frontal gyrus, the head of the caudate nucleus, the anterior limb of the internal capsule, and the anterior insula. However, there were minimal language problems three months after removal and the individual returned to his professional work.
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Meta analyses of neuroimaging studies in OCD report hyperactivity in areas generally considered to be part of the orbitofrontal segment of the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop such as the caudate nucleus, thalamus and orbitofrontal cortex. OCD has been proposed to reflect a positive feedback loop due to mutual excitation of the OFC and subcortical structures. While the OFC is usually overactive during symptom provocation tasks, cognitive tasks usually elicit hypoactivity of the OFC; this may reflect a distinction between emotional and non emotional tasks, lateral and medial OFC, or simply just inconsistent methodologies.
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It can be found primarily in the elderly and many of the reported cases have come from East Asian origin, which suggests that there may be some genetic disposition to development of hemiballismus as a result of hyperglycemia. Hemiballistic movements appear when blood glucose levels get too high and then subside once glucose levels return to normal. This time scale for this is usually several hours. In patients with this type of hemiballismus, imaging reveals abnormalities in the putamen contralateral to the movements as well as the globus pallidus and caudate nucleus.
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An overwhelming number of studies have reported age- related changes in dopamine synthesis, binding sites, and number of receptors. Studies using positron emission tomography (PET) in living human subjects have shown a significant age-related decline in dopamine synthesis, notably in the striatum and extrastriatal regions (excluding the midbrain). Significant age- related decreases in dopamine receptors D1, D2, and D3 have also been highly reported. A general decrease in D1 and D2 receptors has been shown, and more specifically a decrease of D1 and D2 receptor binding in the caudate nucleus and putamen.
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Both the caudate nucleus and putamen make up the dorsal striatum and are important as part of the brain's memory system. Dopamine is required to allow these structures to perform properly and thus this is affected in individuals with binge eating disorders, however the exact mechanism is unknown. A dysregulation of the ventral limbic circuit has been found in individuals who binge eat. The ventral limbic circuit is important in the regulation of feeding behaviour and includes the amygdalae, insula, ventral striatum, ventral regions of the anterior ACC, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC).
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GAS1 protein widespread distributed in adult mammalian CNS ( central nervous system). Adult mouse brain has been described expressing GAS1 mRNA, and the experiment of Natanael Zarco et al further corroborated this description. Western blot analysis is the main method which has been used in their practical and plays an significant role in successfully determining the distribution of the protein in the adult central nervous system (CNS). Olfactory bulb, caudate-putamen, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, mesencephalon, medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and cervical spinal cord has been identified as the specific expression parts of GAS1.
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Conversely, tissues among the most lowly expressed levels of SLC46A3 include bronchial epithelial cells, caudate nucleus, superior cervical ganglion, smooth muscle, and colorectal adenocarcinoma, all with percentile ranks below 15. Immunohistochemistry supports expression of the gene in the liver and kidney, as well as in skin tissues, while immunoblotting (western blotting) provides evidence for protein abundance in the liver and tonsils, in addition to in papilloma and glioma cells. In Situ Hybridization on Mouse Spinal Column and Cervical Spine. (a)-(c) spinal column of juvenile mouse (P4) and (d) cervical spine of adult mouse (P56).
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The nigrostriatal pathway is a bilateral dopaminergic pathway in the brain that connects the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) in the midbrain with the dorsal striatum (i.e., the caudate nucleus and putamen) in the forebrain. It is one of the four major dopamine pathways in the brain, and is critical in the production of movement as part of a system called the basal ganglia motor loop. Dopaminergic neurons of this pathway release dopamine from axon terminals that synapse onto GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs), also known as spiny projection neurons (SPNs), located in the striatum.
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The indirect pathway is involved in suppressing unwanted movement. The projections from dopamine D2 receptor containing medium spiny neurons in the caudate nucleus and putamen synapse onto tonically active GABAergic cells in the external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe) which then projects to the substantia nigra pars reticulata via the excitatory subthalmic nucleus (STN). Because the striatopallidal and nigrothalamic pathways are inhibitory but the subthalamic to nigra pathway is excitatory, activation of the indirect pathway creates an overall net inhibitory effect on the thalamus and on movement by the motor cortex.
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Romantic love is described as involving an individual who pays closer attention to another individual in special ways, involving attention on traits worthy to pursue. Through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), studies have shown that the right ventral tegmental area (VTA) is stimulated when subjects are shown a picture of their beloved. As part of the reward mechanism, the VTA signals to other parts of the brain, such as the caudate nucleus to release dopamine for reward. Neuroanatomical structures involved in romantic love are closely related to structures that are involved in motivation and emotion.
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In males, the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, cingulate cortex, insula, hippocampus, thalamus, caudate, hypothalamus, and cerebellum were shown to be activated. In females, activations in the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, angular gyrus, thalamus, and cerebellum were noted. Male activations were greater in the precentral gyrus, insula, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cerebellum, while women shower greater activations in the visual cortex, angular gyrus, and thalamus. Regions in the female brain have been implicated in detection of intention, deception, and trustworthiness of others.
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This group is a population of cells immunoreactive for dopamine and tyrosine hydroxylase that are broadly distributed in the rostral forebrain, including such structures as: substantia innominata, diagonal band, olfactory tubercle, prepyriform area, striatum (at levels rostral to the anterior commissure), claustrum, and deep cortical layers of all gyri of the frontal lobe rostral to the head of the caudate nucleus; the cells are also numerous in intervening white matter, including the external capsule, extreme capsule and frontal white matter. They are found in the rodent, the macaque and the human.
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Frame for Stereotactic Thalamotomy on display at the Glenside Museum Functional neurosurgery comprises treatment of several disorders such as Parkinson's disease, hyperkinesia, disorder of muscle tone, intractable pain, convulsive disorders and psychological phenomena. Treatment for these phenomena was believed to be located in the superficial parts of the CNS and PNS. Most of the interventions made for treatment consisted of cortical extirpation. To alleviate extra pyramidal disorders, pioneer Russell Meyers dissected or transected the head of the caudate nucleus in 1939, and part of the putamen and globus pallidus.
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Increased binding potential of 11C radiolabelled raclopride in the striatum, interpreted as reflecting decreased endogenous dopamine due to competitive displacement, has also been observed. Structural neuroimaging studies have found global reductions in both gray matter and white matter, as well as increased cerebrospinal fluid volumes. Regional decreases in the left hypothalamus, left inferior parietal lobe, right lentiform nucleus and right caudate have also been reported in acutely ill patients. However, these alterations seem to be associated with acute malnutrition and largely reversible with weight restoration, at least in nonchronic cases in younger people.
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The germinal matrix is the site of proliferating neuronal and glial precursors in the developing brain, which is located above the caudate nucleus, in the floor of the lateral ventricle, and caudothalamic groove. The germinal matrix contains a rich network of fragile thin-walled blood vessels. Hence the microcirculation in this particular area is extremely sensitive to hypoxia and changes in perfusion pressure. It is most frequent before 35 weeks gestation and is typically seen in very low birth-weight (<1500g) premature infants, because they lack the ability for auto regulation of cerebral blood flow.
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Medical imaging, such as computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), can show atrophy of the caudate nuclei early in the disease, as seen in the illustration to the right, but these changes are not, by themselves, diagnostic of HD. Cerebral atrophy can be seen in the advanced stages of the disease. Functional neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), can show changes in brain activity before the onset of physical symptoms, but they are experimental tools, and are not used clinically.
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The neural bases of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adults. Development and Psychopathology, 1251-1283. Data obtained from this research suggests that three brain areas are involved with OCD: the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and the head of the caudate nucleus. Several studies have found that in patients with OCD, these areas: (1) are hyperactive at rest relative to healthy control; (2) become increasingly active with symptom provocation; and (3) no longer exhibit hyperactivity following successful treatment with SRI pharmacotherapy or cognitive-based therapy.
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Although little is known about the biological basis of autism, studies have revealed structural abnormalities in specific brain regions. Regions identified in the "social" brain include the amygdala, superior temporal sulcus, fusiform gyrus area and orbitofrontal cortex. Further abnormalities have been observed in the caudate nucleus, believed to be involved in restrictive behaviors, as well as in a significant increase in the amount of cortical grey matter and atypical connectivity between brain regions. There is a mistaken belief that some vaccinations, such as the MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) vaccine, may cause autism.
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He wrote 40 pieces on medicine with the most notable being the Qanun, a medical encyclopedia that would be a staple at universities for nearly a hundred years. He also explained phenomena such as, insomnia, mania, hallucinations, nightmare, dementia, epilepsy, stroke, paralysis, vertigo, melancholia and tremors. He also discovered a condition similar to schizophrenia, which he called Junun Mufrit, characterized by agitation, behavioral and sleep disturbances, giving inappropriate answers to questions, and occasional inability to speak. Avicenna also discovered the cerebellar vermis, which he simply called the vermis, and the caudate nucleus.
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While many of the connections in non-human primates may be present in humans, they are less well documented. Studies have shown strong reciprocal connections to medial temporal lobe memory structures, such as the entorhinal cortex and the parahippocampal gyrus, the latter being involved in associative learning and episodic memory. In humans, the PCC is also connected to areas involved in emotion and social behavior, attention (the lateral intraparietal cortex and precuneus), learning and motivation (the anterior and lateral thalamic nucleus, caudate nucleus, orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex).
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A large amount of research has been conducted on the neuroscience of sadness. According to the American Journal of Psychiatry, sadness has been found to be associated with "increases in bilateral activity within the vicinity of the middle and posterior temporal cortex, lateral cerebellum, cerebellar vermis, midbrain, putamen, and caudate." Jose V. Pardo has his M.D and Ph.D and leads a research program in cognitive neuroscience. Using positron emission tomography (PET) Pardo and his colleagues were able to provoke sadness among seven normal men and women by asking them to think about sad things.
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Long-term methylphenidate or amphetamine exposure in some species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage, but humans experience normal development and nerve growth. Magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function of the right caudate nucleus. Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long-term amphetamine use for ADHD. Controlled trials spanning two years have demonstrated continuous treatment effectiveness and safety.
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The functional connectivity, measured by regional co- activation during functional neuroimaging studies, is broadly consistent with the parallel processing models of basal ganglia function. The putamen was generally coactivated with motor areas such as the supplementary motor area, caudal anterior cingulate cortex and primary motor cortex, while the caudate and rostral putamen were more frequently coactivated with the rostral ACC and DLPFC. The ventral striatum was significantly associated with the amygdala and hippocampus, which although was not included in the first formulations of basal ganglia models, has been an addition to more recent models.
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The SC receives a strong inhibitory projection from the basal ganglia, originating in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr). Neurons in the SNr usually fire continuously at high rates, but at the onset of an eye movement they "pause", thereby releasing the SC from inhibition. Eye movements of all types are associated with "pausing" in the SNr; however, individual SNr neurons may be more strongly associated with some types of movements than others. Neurons in some parts of the caudate nucleus also show activity related to eye movements.
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The acceptance that the basal ganglia system constitutes one major cerebral system took time to arise. The first anatomical identification of distinct subcortical structures was published by Thomas Willis in 1664.Andrew Gilies, A brief history of the basal ganglia , retrieved on 27 June 2005 For many years, the term corpus striatumVieussens (1685) was used to describe a large group of subcortical elements, some of which were later discovered to be functionally unrelated. For many years, the putamen and the caudate nucleus were not associated with each other.
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The striatum, or corpus striatum (also called the striate nucleus), is a nucleus (a cluster of neurons) in the subcortical basal ganglia of the forebrain. The striatum is a critical component of the motor and reward systems; receives glutamatergic and dopaminergic inputs from different sources; and serves as the primary input to the rest of the basal ganglia. Functionally, the striatum coordinates multiple aspects of cognition, including both motor and action planning, decision-making, motivation, reinforcement, and reward perception. The striatum is made up of the caudate nucleus and the lentiform nucleus.
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The orbitofrontal cortex is reciprocally connected with the perirhinal and entorhinal cortices, the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and parts of the medial temporal lobe. In addition to these outputs, the OFC also projects to the striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus, and ventral putamen, as well as regions of the midbrain including the periaqueductal grey, and ventral tegmental area. OFC inputs to the amygdala synapse on multiple targets, including two robust pathways to the basolateral amygdala and intercalated cells of the amygdala, as well as a weaker direct projection to the central nucleus of the amygdala.
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Basal ganglia (red) and related structures (blue) The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei which are located in the medial temporal lobe, above the thalamus and connected to the cerebral cortex. Specifically, the basal ganglia includes the subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra, the globus pallidus, the ventral striatum and the dorsal striatum, which consists of the putamen and the caudate nucleus. The basic functions of these nuclei deal with cognition, learning, and motor control and activities. The basal ganglia are also associated with learning, memory, and unconscious memory processes, such as motor skills and implicit memory.
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Approximately half of these MSNs contain dopamine D1 receptors and project directly to the substantia nigra to form the direct pathway of the basal ganglia, whereas the other half express dopamine D2 receptors that project indirectly to the substantia nigra via the globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus to form the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia. The remaining 5% of cells are interneurons that are either cholinergic neurons, or one of several types of GABAergic neurons. The axons and dendrites of these interneurons stay within the striatum. The caudate nucleus and putamen receive excitatory information from all areas of the cerebral cortex.
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These glutamatergic inputs are generally topographically arranged such that the putamen takes information largely from the sensorimotor cortex whereas the caudate nucleus obtains information largely from the association cortex. In addition, the dorsal striatum receives excitatory inputs from other brain structures like the thalamus, and minor excitatory inputs from the hippocampus and amygdala. The dorsal striatum contains neurochemically defined compartments called striosomes (also known as patches) that exhibit dense μ-opioid receptor staining embedded within a matrix compartment that contains higher acetylcholinesterase and calbindin-D28K. The dopaminergic axon terminals of the nigrostriatal pathway synapse onto GABAergic MSNs in the dorsal striatum.
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The dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area of the midbrain project to the dorsolateral caudate/putamen and to the ventromedially located nucleus accumbens, respectively, establishing the mesostriatal and the mesolimbic pathways. The close proximity of these two pathways causes them to be grouped together under dopaminergic projections. Several disorders result from the disruption of these two pathways: schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Current research is examining the subtle difference between the neurons that are involved in these conditions and trying to find a way to selectively treat a specific dopamine projection.
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Inhibitory control, also known as response inhibition, is a cognitive process and more specifically, an executive function – that permits an individual to inhibit their impulses and natural, habitual, or dominant behavioral responses to stimuli ( prepotent responses) in order to select a more appropriate behavior that is consistent with completing their goals. Self-control is an important aspect of inhibitory control. For example, successfully suppressing the natural behavioral response to eat cake when one is craving it while dieting requires the use of inhibitory control. The prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and subthalamic nucleus are known to regulate inhibitory control cognition.
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These findings would pave the discovery of the endogenous analgesic system. However, while most posterior researchers focused on the role of the limbic opioid system in the modulation of pain, Lico studied the role of monoamines in other regions, including the area postrema, the caudate and the medial forebrain bundle. After James Reston, while accompanying Richard Nixon in a trip to China, was subjected to post-operative acupuncture at the Anti-Imperialist Hospital in Beijing, Lico got particularly interested in how this technique could induce the activity of endogenous analgesic system. At first, Lico studied the effects of electroacupuncture on human patients.
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Other sources consider that DLPFC is attributed anatomically to BA 9 and 46 and BA 8, 9 and 10. The DLPFC has connections with the orbitofrontal cortex, as well as the thalamus, parts of the basal ganglia (specifically, the dorsal caudate nucleus), the hippocampus, and primary and secondary association areas of neocortex (including posterior temporal, parietal, and occipital areas). The DLPFC is also the end point for the dorsal pathway (stream), which is concerned with how to interact with stimuli. An important function of the DLPFC is the executive functions, such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, planning, inhibition, and abstract reasoning.
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The areas deactivated in the viewing of loved ones are those associated with sadness, fear, aggression and depression. Notably, these areas affected by exposure to loved ones did not overlap with brain regions typically activated during arousal, further emphasizing that distinct neural-systems exist for emotion-motivating systems of lust and romantic love. Heightened activity has also been found in the right ventral tegmental area and right caudate nucleus, dopamine-rich areas associated with mammalian reward and motivation. It is suggested that the activation of dopaminergic pathways are what contribute to the arousal component of romantic love.
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Villablanca, J. R.; Burgess, J. Wesley; and Sonnier, B. J. Neonatal cerebral hemispherectomy: A model for post lesion reorganization of the brain. In C. Robert Almli and S. Finger, Editors, The Behavioral Biology of Early Brain Damage, Volume II. Academic Press, New York, pp 179–210, 1984. He helped clarify the rôle of the caudate nucleus in aggression and found that, without input from this nucleus, usually aggressive cats are friendly and affiliative. Burgess also contributed to our understanding of how the nervous system responds to morphine,de Andres, Isabel, Villablanca, J. R., and Burgess, J. Wesley.
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Immunohistochemistry demonstrates that TMEM151A RNA is primarily expressed in the brain (specifically the hippocampus, caudate, cerebellum, and pituitary gland), and has low levels of expression in the stomach, adipose tissue, retina, gallbladder, testes, colon, heart muscle, pancreas, salivary gland; a polyclonal rabbit TMEM151A antibody from Sigma Aldrich was used to get these results. These results were listed as “uncertain.” Unigene microarray analysis shows that Homo sapiens TMEM151a DNA is found at relatively higher levels in the heart and the brain (specifically the frontal and occipital cortexes), and has lower levels of expression in multiple other tissues.
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Individual differences in loss aversion are related to variables such as age, gender, and genetic factors affecting thalamic norepinephrine transmission, as well as neural structure and activities. Outcome anticipation and ensuing loss aversion involve multiple neural systems, showing functional and structural individual variability directly related to the actual outcomes of choices. In a study, adolescents and adults are found to be similarly loss-averse on behavioural level but they demonstrated different underlying neural responses to the process of rejecting gambles. Although adolescents rejected the same proportion of trials as adults, adolescents displayed greater caudate and frontal pole activation than adults to achieve this.
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T2 weighted magnetic resonance scan image showing bilaterally symmetrical hyperintensities in caudate nucleus (small, thin arrow), putamen (long arrow), with sparing of globus pallidus (broad arrow), suggestive of extrapontine myelinolysis (osmotic demyelination syndrome) Symptoms depend on the regions of the brain involved. Prior to its onset, patients may present with the neurological signs and symptoms of hyponatraemic encephalopathy such as nausea and vomiting, confusion, headache and seizures. These symptoms may resolve with normalisation of the serum sodium concentration. Three to five days later, a second phase of neurological manifestations occurs correlating with the onset of myelinolysis.
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Northern blot analyses reveal INMT messenger RNA (mRNA) to be highly expressed in rabbit lung, and in human thyroid, adrenal gland, and lung. Intermediate levels of expression are found in human heart, skeletal muscle, trachea, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, testis, prostate, placenta, lymph node, and spinal cord. Low to very low levels of expression are noted in rabbit brain, and human thymus, liver, spleen, kidney, colon, ovary, and bone marrow. INMT mRNA expression is absent in human peripheral blood leukocytes, whole brain, and in tissue from 7 specific brain regions (thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, caudate nucleus, hippocampus, amygdala, substantia nigra, and corpus callosum).
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The binding potential of VMAT2 is also elevated in bipolar I patients with a history of psychosis, although this finding is inconsistent with finding that valproate increases VMAT2 expression in rodents. One study on DAT binding in acutely depressed people with bipolar reported reductions in the caudate but not putamen. Studies of serotonin's primary metabolite 5-HIAA have been inconsistent, although limited evidence points towards reduced central serotonin signaling in a subgroup of aggressive or suicidal patients. Studies assessing the binding potential of the serotonin transporter or serotonin receptors have also been inconsistent, but generally point towards abnormal serotonin signalling.
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A striking feature is that in the neocortex the Pick bodies are in the II and IV layers of the cortex, which send neurons within the cortex and to thalamic synapses, respectively. While layers III and V have very few if any Pick bodies, they show extreme neuronal loss that can, in some cases, be so severe as to leave a void in the brain altogether. Other regions involved include the caudate, which is severely affected, the dorsomedial region of the putamen, the globus pallidus, and locus coeruleus. The hypothalamic lateral tuberal nucleus is also very severely affected.
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They may either rupture, producing an intracerebral hemorrhage that is initially centered in the region they supply, or they become occluded, producing a lacunar infarct in the tissue they supply. The lenticulostriate arteries are "end arteries", meaning that the regions they supply do not have significant collateral blood supply. Occlusion of these vessels therefore leads to stereotyped stroke syndromes. In the case of the lenticulostriate vessels, hemorrhage may remain localized to the putamen and caudate nucleus, may involve neighboring structures such as the internal capsule and other more distant white matter of the hemisphere, or may even rupture into the ventricular system.
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The loop was originally proposed as a part of a model of the basal ganglia called the parallel processing model, which has been criticized and modified into another model called the center surround model. Current organization schemes characterize cortico-basal ganglia interactions as segregated parallel processing, meaning there is little convergence of distinct cortical areas in the basal ganglia. This is thought to explain the topographically organized functionality of the striatum. The striatum is organized on a rostro-caudal axis, with the rostral putamen and caudate serving associative and cognitive functions and the caudal areas serving sensorimotor function.
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It is separated from the anterior horn of the other lateral ventricle by a thin neural sheet - septum pellucidum, which thus forms its medial boundary. The boundary facing exterior to the ventricle curvature is formed by the corpus callosum - the floor at the limit of the ventricle is the upper surface of the rostrum (the reflected portion of the corpus callosum), while nearer the body of the ventricle, the roof consists of the posterior surface of the genu. The remaining boundary - that facing interior to the ventricle curvature - comprises the posterior edge of the caudate nucleus.
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Shrubs or small trees, up to 5 m high; branchlets slender, cylindric, glabrous. Leaves unifoliolate, leaflet 7.5-13.5 x 2.5-5.2 cm, elliptic-lanceolate or elliptic-oblong, shallowly narrowed at base, caudate- acuminate at apex with 10–15 mm long acumen, entire along margins, coriaceous, glabrous, notched at tip; secondary nerves ca 10 pairs with as many fainter ones in between arising at angles 50-600 with the midnerve, finely reticulate; petioles 5–10 mm long, horizontally grooved above, articulate with base of blade, glabrous. Inflorescence axillary racemes, up to 2.5 cm long, few- flowered, glabrous; pedicels slender, ca 7 mm long, glabrous. Flowers small.
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While the representativeness heuristic and other cognitive biases are the most commonly cited cause of the gambler's fallacy, research suggests that there may also be a neurological component. Functional magnetic resonance imaging has shown that after losing a bet or gamble, known as riskloss, the frontoparietal network of the brain is activated, resulting in more risk-taking behavior. In contrast, there is decreased activity in the amygdala, caudate, and ventral striatum after a riskloss. Activation in the amygdala is negatively correlated with gambler's fallacy, so that the more activity exhibited in the amygdala, the less likely an individual is to fall prey to the gambler's fallacy.
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In one study, overlap of activated brain regions with romantic love was found to include the nucleus accumbens, putamen, caudate nucleus, which are important in social attachment. However, the only regions that were specific to maternal love were the orbitofrontal and lateral prefrontal cortex as well as the occipital and lateral fusiform cortex. Moreover, oxytocin is important between the mother and her offspring, so it is suggested that oxytocin deficiency can influence how successfully the offspring is able to form a monogamous pair bond with another individual in the future. This may provide insight on issues with formation of pair bonds as well as psychological problems from an inefficient upbringing.
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The injection of the FDDNP tracer was successful, and the results of the study showed significant differences between the NFL players and control participants. The NFL players had significantly higher FDDNP signals than control participants, indicating a greater amount of tau protein accumulation. The cortical regions of all the participants studied showed no significant difference, but the NFL players had FDDNP levels that were significantly higher in the caudate, putamen, thalamus, sub thalamus, midbrain, and cerebellar white matter regions of the brain as compared to the control participants. In addition, a positive correlation was found between the number of head injuries the players sustained and the levels of FDDNP binding.
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Quercus langbianensis is an evergreen tree that reaches a height of up to 15 m. The bark is rough, with spots. The branches are brown and tomentose when young, less hairy with age. The leaves measure 70-140 (up to 170) x 25–40 mm, elliptical-lanceolate to oblanceolate, leathery and glabrous on both sides, with margins having numerous small teeth that are obtuse, wavy near the apex: which is acuminate to slightly caudate; petioles are 15–20 mm and hairless. The acorns are sub-globose approximately 17–20 mm, covered with fine silky hair (sericeous), pale brown and ripening by September; scars are approximately 10 mm in diameter and convex.
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Research has suggested that the integrity of the dopamine system in the striatum has been damaged as an effect of CBD. Current studies employing the use of FDOPA PET scanning (FDOPA PET) as a possible method for identifying CBD have focused on analyzing the efficiency of neurons in the striatum that utilize the neurotransmitter dopamine. These studies have concluded that, in general, dopamine uptake was diminished in the caudate and the putamen. This characteristic also has the potential to be useful in distinguishing CBD from the similar PD, as individuals having been diagnosed with PD were more likely to have a lower uptake of dopamine than in individuals with CBD.
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These neuroimaging studies have implicated a number of brain regions, including the limbic system, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, superior parietal lobe, and caudate nucleus. Based on the complex nature of religious experience, it is likely that they are mediated by an interaction of neural mechanisms that all add a small piece to the overall experience. According to the neurotheologist Andrew B. Newberg, neurological processes which are driven by the repetitive, rhythmic stimulation which is typical of human ritual, and which contribute to the delivery of transcendental feelings of connection to a universal unity. They posit, however, that physical stimulation alone is not sufficient to generate transcendental unitive experiences.
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Adults with Parkinson's disease have been observed to show the same impairments as normal aging, only to a more extreme degree, in addition to a loss of control of motor functions as per normal symptoms of the disease. It is a movement disorder and occurs when there is degeneration of dopaminergic neurons that connect the substantia nigra with the caudate nucleus. A patient's primary symptoms include muscular rigidity, slowness of movement, a resting tremor, and postural instability. The ability to plan and learn from experience has been shown to allow adults with Parkinson's to improvement times, but only under conditions where they are using medications to combat the effects of Parkinson's.
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Due to the heterogeneity of OCD symptoms, studies differentiating between symptoms have been performed. Symptom specific neuroimaging abnormalities include the hyperactivity of caudate and ACC in checking rituals, while finding increased activity of cortical and cerebellar regions in contamination related symptoms. Neuroimaging differentiating between content of intrusive thoughts have found differences between aggressive as opposed to taboo thoughts, finding increased connectivity of the amygdala, ventral striatum, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in aggressive symptoms, while observing increased connectivity between the ventral striatum and insula in sexual/religious intrusive thoughts. Another model proposes that affective dysregulation links excessive reliance on habit based action selection with compulsions.
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Middle cerebral artery syndrome is a condition whereby the blood supply from the middle cerebral artery (MCA) is restricted, leading to a reduction of the function of the portions of the brain supplied by that vessel: the lateral aspects of frontal, temporal and parietal lobes, the corona radiata, globus pallidus, caudate and putamen. The MCA is the most common site for the occurrence of ischemic stroke. Depending upon the location and severity of the occlusion, signs and symptoms may vary within the population affected with MCA syndrome. More distal blockages tend to produce milder deficits due to more extensive branching of the artery and less ischemic response.
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A pig's tail The tail is the section at the rear end of certain kinds of animals’ bodies; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso. It is the part of the body that corresponds roughly to the sacrum and coccyx in mammals, reptiles, and birds. While tails are primarily a feature of vertebrates, some invertebrates including scorpions and springtails, as well as snails and slugs, have tail-like appendages that are sometimes referred to as tails. Tailed objects are sometimes referred to as "caudate" and the part of the body associated with or proximal to the tail are given the adjective "caudal".
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The metabolic rate of glucose was lower in the left anterior cingulate gyrus and in the right posterior cingulate gyrus. In addition to changes in the cingulate cortex more brain structures show changes in people with schizophrenia as compared to controls. The hippocampus in people with schizophrenia was found to be smaller in size when compared with controls of the same age group, and, similarly, the caudate and putamen were found to be smaller in volume in a longitudinal study of people with schizophrenia. While the volume of gray matter is smaller, the size of the lateral and third ventricles is larger in people with schizophrenia.
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The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, habit learning, eye movements, cognition, and emotion. The main components of the basal ganglia – as defined functionally – are the striatum, consisting of both the dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) and the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle), the globus pallidus, the ventral pallidum, the substantia nigra, and the subthalamic nucleus. Each of these components has a complex internal anatomical and neurochemical organization. The largest component, the striatum (dorsal and ventral), receives input from many brain areas beyond the basal ganglia, but only sends output to other components of the basal ganglia.
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Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.
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The species was first described in 1977 by the botanist Stanley Thatcher Blake as part of the work Four new species of Eucalyptus as published in the journal Austrobaileya. The specific epithet urophylla means 'with leaves having an elongated tip', and is formed from components ultimately derived from Greek: uro- meaning 'tail' and -phyllus meaning 'leaved'. p. 522. Blake describes the leaves as "caudate", meaning 'ending with a tail-like appendage'. It has been used to produce hybrid species as it appears to be insect-resistant, including a timber with a trade name of "Lyptus", hybridised with Eucalyptus grandis, commonly known as the rose gum or flooded gum.
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The striosomes (also referred to as patches) are one of two complementary chemical compartments within the striatum (the other compartment is known as the matrix) that can be visualized by staining for immunocytochemical markers such as acetylcholinesterase, enkephalin, substance P, limbic system- associated membrane protein (LAMP), AMPA receptor subunit 1 (GluR1), dopamine receptor subunits, and calcium binding proteins. Striosomal abnormalities have been associated with neurological disorders, such as mood dysfunction in Huntington's disease, though their precise function remains unknown. Striosomes were discovered by Ann Graybiel in 1978 using acetylcholinesterase histochemistry. Matrix and Striosome Compartments: Fluorescence microscopy image of a coronal mouse brain section, cut through the striatum (caudate putamen, CP).
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After statistical testing, it was also hypothesized that the brain began using information-integration techniques to solve the rule-based learning tasks. Since rule-based tasks use the hypothesis-testing system of the brain, it can be concluded that the hypothesis-testing system of the brain was damaged/weakened. It is known that the caudate and working memories are part of this system. Therefore, it was confirmed that the putamen is involved in category learning, competition between the systems, feed-back processing in rule-based tasks, and is involved in the processing of pre-frontal regions (which relate to working memory and executive functioning).
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The liver is subdivided into sections for the purposes of performing haruspicy (hepatoscopy); the sections are inscribed with names of individual Etruscan deities. The Piacenza liver is a striking conceptual parallel to clay models of sheep's livers known from the Ancient Near East, reinforcing the evidence of a connection (be it by migration or merely by cultural contact) between the Etruscans and the Anatolian cultural sphere. A Babylonian clay model of a sheep's liver dated to the Middle Bronze Age is preserved in the British Museum.The Liver Tablet, ME 92668 The Piacenza liver parallels the Babylonian artifact by representing the major anatomical features of the liver (the gall bladder, caudate lobe and posterior vena cava) as sculpted protrusions.
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DP2 was found to stimulate the directed movement or chemotaxis of human T-helper type 2 cells (see T helper cell#Th1/Th2 Model for helper T cells) by binding to a receptor initially termed GPR44 and thereafter CRTH2 (for Chemoattractant Receptor- homologous molecule expressed on T-Helper type 2 cells). In addition to these T helper cells, DP2 messenger RNA is also expressed by human basophils, eosinophils, a subpopulation of cytotoxic T cells (i.e. CD8+ T cells), thalamus, ovary, and spleen, and, in the central nervous system, by the frontal cortex, pons, hippocampus, and at lower levels, hypothalamus and caudate nucleus/putamen. These transcripts are also detected in fetal liver and thymus.
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The axons from dopamine neurons emanate from a primary dendrite and project ipsilaterally (on the same side) via the medial forebrain bundle to the dorsal striatum. There is a rough topographical correlation between the anatomical localization of the dopamine cell body within the SNc and the area of termination in the dorsal striatum. Dopaminergic cells in the lateral parts of the SNc project mainly to the lateral and caudal (posterior) parts of the striatum, whereas dopamine cells in the medial SNc project to the medial striatum. In addition, dopamine cells in the dorsal tier project to the ventromedial striatum, whereas the ventral tier neurons project to the dorsal caudate nucleus and putamen.
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The recurrent artery of Heubner, Heubner's artery or medial striate artery is named after the German paediatrician Otto Heubner and is a branch of the anterior cerebral artery, most often arising from the A1-A2 junction (44%) or the proximal A2 segment (43%), or more rarely from the A1 segment. Its vascular territory is the anteromedial section of the caudate nucleus and the anterioinferior section of the internal capsule, as well as parts of the putamen and septal nuclei. In cases of obstructed flow in the Heubner's artery, the individual may experience infarction in those subcortical areas and thus hemiparesis. More proximal portions of the artery may cause spastic paraparesis and sensory loss contralateral to the lesioned side.
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At one point in time, dilated Virchow–Robin spaces were so commonly noted in autopsies of persons with dementia, they were believed to cause the disease. However, additional research is currently being performed in order to confirm or refute a direct connection between dilation of VRS and dementia. Analysis of VRS may distinguish dementia caused by arteriosclerotic microvascular disease from dementia caused by neurodegenerative disease. A 2005 study has evidenced that a substantial amount of VRS in the substantia innominata, lentiform nucleus, and the caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia may implicate dementia due to arteriosclerotic microvascular disease, in particular Ischemic Vascular Dementia, as opposed dementia due to neurodegenerative disease, specifically Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia.
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The two-factor model of delusions posits that dysfunction in both belief formation systems and belief evaluation systems are necessary for delusions. Dysfunction in evaluations systems localized to the right lateral prefrontal cortex, regardless of delusion content, is supported by neuroimaging studies and is congruent with its role in conflict monitoring in healthy persons. Abnormal activation and reduced volume is seen in people with delusions, as well as in disorders associated with delusions such as frontotemporal dementia, psychosis and Lewy body dementia. Furthermore, lesions to this region are associated with "jumping to conclusions", damage to this region is associated with post-stroke delusions, and hypometabolism this region associated with caudate strokes presenting with delusions.
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The two-factor model of delusions posits that dysfunction in both belief formation systems and belief evaluation systems are necessary for delusions. Dysfunction in evaluations systems localized to the right lateral prefrontal cortex, regardless of delusion content, is supported by neuroimaging studies and is congruent with its role in conflict monitoring in healthy persons. Abnormal activation and reduced volume is seen in people with delusions, as well as in disorders associated with delusions such as frontotemporal dementia, psychosis and Lewy body dementia. Furthermore, lesions to this region are associated with "jumping to conclusions", damage to this region is associated with post-stroke delusions, and hypometabolism this region associated with caudate strokes presenting with delusions.
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However, the most studied model for the evaluation of therapeutics is the Mecp2-null mouse (totally devoid of MeCP2). In this context, a reduction in the number and soma size of Th-expressing neurons is present from 5 weeks of age and is accompanied by a decrease of Th immunoreactivity in the caudate-putamen, the principal target of dopaminergic neurons arising from the SNpc. Moreover, a neurochemical analysis of dopaminergic contents in microdissected midbrain and striatal areas revealed a reduction of dopamine at five and nine weeks of age. It is noteworthy that later on (at nine weeks), the morphological parameters remain altered but not worsen, whereas the phenotype progresses and behavioral deficits are more severe.
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Some parents and professionals have raised questions about the side effects of drugs and their long-term use. Magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function of the right caudate nucleus. On February 9, 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration voted to recommend a "black-box" warning describing the cardiovascular risks of stimulant drugs used to treat ADHD. Subsequently, the USFDA commissioned studies which found that, in children, young adults, and adults, there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events (sudden death, myocardial infarction, and stroke) and the medical use of amphetamine or other ADHD stimulants.
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The anterior cingulate circuit consists of the anterior cingulate cortex, also referred to as Brodmann area 24, and its projections to the ventral striatum which includes the ventromedial caudate. The loop continues to connect to the ventral pallidum, which connects to the ventral anterior nucleus of the thalamus. This circuit is essential for the initiation of behavior, motivation and goal orientation, which are the very things missing from a patient with a disorder of diminished motivation. Unilateral injury or injury along any point in the circuit leads to abulia regardless of the side of the injury, but if there is bilateral damage, the patient will exhibit a more extreme case of diminished motivation, akinetic mutism.
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Instead, the putamen was associated with the pallidum in what was called the nucleus lenticularis or nucleus lentiformis. A thorough reconsideration by Cécile and Oskar Vogt (1941) simplified the description of the basal ganglia by proposing the term striatum to describe the group of structures consisting of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the mass linking them ventrally, the nucleus accumbens. The striatum was named on the basis of the striated (striped) appearance created by radiating dense bundles of striato-pallido-nigral axons, described by anatomist Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson (1912) as "pencil-like". The anatomical link of the striatum with its primary targets, the pallidum and the substantia nigra, was discovered later.
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Decreasing levels of different serotonin receptors and the serotonin transporter, 5-HTT, have also been shown to occur with age. Studies conducted using PET methods on humans, in vivo, show that levels of the 5-HT2 receptor in the caudate nucleus, putamen, and frontal cerebral cortex, decline with age. A decreased binding capacity of the 5-HT2 receptor in the frontal cortex was also found, as well as a decreased binding capacity of the serotonin transporter, 5-HHT, in the thalamus and the midbrain. Postmortem studies on humans have indicated decreased binding capacities of serotonin and a decrease in the number of S1 receptors in the frontal cortex and hippocampus as well as a decrease in affinity in the putamen.
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The direct pathway passes through the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus, which are parts of the basal ganglia. It also involves another basal ganglia component the substantia nigra, a part of the midbrain. In a resting individual, a specific region of the globus pallidus, the internal globus pallidus (GPi), and a part of the substantia nigra, the pars reticulata (SNpr), send spontaneous inhibitory signals to the ventral lateral nucleus (VL) of the thalamus, through the release of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Inhibition of the inhibitory neurons that project to the ventral anterior nucleus (VA), which project to the motor regions of the cerebral cortices of the telencephalon, leads to an increase in activity in the motor cortices, thereby promoting muscular action.
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The indirect pathway passes through the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus, which are parts of the basal ganglia. It traverses the subthalamic nucleus, a part of the diencephalon, and enters the substantia nigra, a part of the midbrain. In a resting individual, a specific region of the globus pallidus, known as the internus, and a portion of the substantia nigra, known as the pars reticulata, send spontaneous inhibitory signals to the ventrolateral nucleus (VL) of the thalamus, through the release of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Inhibition of the excitatory neurons within VL, which project to the motor regions of the cerebral cortices of the telencephalon, leads to a reduction of activity in the motor cortices, and a lack of muscular action.
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The meta-analysis found larger volumes in females were most pronounced in areas in the right hemisphere related to language in addition to several limbic structures such as the right insular cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus. Amber Ruigrok's 2013 meta-analysis also found greater grey matter density in the average male left amygdala, hippocampus, insula, pallidum, putamen, claustrum and right cerebellum. The meta-analysis also found greater grey matter density in the average female left frontal pole. According to the neuroscience journal review series Progress in Brain Research, it has been found that males have larger and longer planum temporale and Sylvian fissure while females have significantly larger proportionate volumes to total brain volume in the superior temporal cortex, Broca's area, the hippocampus and the caudate.
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Recent reports demonstrated that KORs are required for stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. One area of the brain most strongly associated with addiction is the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and striatum while other structures that project to and from the NAcc also play a critical role. Though many other changes occur, addiction is often characterized by the reduction of dopamine D2 receptors in the NAcc. In addition to low NAcc D2 binding, cocaine is also known to produce a variety of changes to the primate brain such as increases prodynorphin mRNA in caudate putamen (striatum) and decreases of the same in the hypothalamus while the administration of a KOR agonist produced an opposite effect causing an increase in D2 receptors in the NAcc.
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Dependence is created through these natural rewards, the sugary treats, and the opioid and dopamine released into the synapses of the mesolimbic system. The hippocampus, the insula and the caudate activate when rats crave sugar, which are the same areas that become active when drug addicts crave the drug. Sugar is good because it provides energy, but if the nervous system goes through a change and the body becomes dependent on the sugar intake, somatic signs of withdrawal begin to appear like chattering teeth, forepaw tremors and head shakes when sugar is not ingested. Morphine tolerance, a measure of addiction, was observed in rats and their tolerance on Morphine was attributed to environmental cues and the systemic effects of the drug.
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The terms listed here all are supported by technical and professional usage, but they cannot be represented as mandatory or undebatable; readers must use their judgement. Authors often use terms arbitrarily, or coin them to taste, possibly in ignorance of established terms, and it is not always clear whether because of ignorance, or personal preference, or because usages change with time or context, or because of variation between specimens, even specimens from the same plant. For example, whether to call leaves on the same tree "acuminate", "lanceolate", or "linear" could depend on individual judgement, or which part of the tree one collected them from. The same cautions might apply to "caudate", "cuspidate", and "mucronate", or to "crenate", "dentate", and "serrate".
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The liver, viewed from above, showing the left and right lobes separated by the falciform ligament The liver, viewed from below, surface showing four lobes and the impressions The liver is grossly divided into two parts when viewed from above – a right and a left lobe - and four parts when viewed from below (left, right, caudate, and quadrate lobes). The falciform ligament makes a superficial division of the liver into a left and right lobe. From below, the two additional lobes are located between the right and left lobes, one in front of the other. A line can be imagined running from the left of the vena cava and all the way forward to divide the liver and gallbladder into two halves.
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The forewings are ivory-white, the dorsal third mottled with brown, which forms also a broken line along the fold, furcate near its outer end, the point running toward the apex. A rather broad brown band occurs along the costa, a slender white line running through it from before the middle of the costa to its outer and lower extremity. This is followed by a broader oblique white streak from the commencement of the costal cilia, nearly meeting the end of the slender white line below it. A pair of shorter, triangular, geminated streaks, the outer pair in the apical cilia separated by brown on the costa, the same colour running outward below them and forming a caudate apex in the cilia.
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Functional neuroimaging studies have implicated multiple regions in OCD. Symptom provocation is associated with increased likelihood of activation in the bilateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), right anterior PFC, left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), bilateral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), left precuneus, right premotor cortex, left superior temporal gyrus (STG), bilateral external globus pallidus, left hippocampus, right insula, left caudate, right posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and right superior parietal lobule. The medial portion of the orbitofrontal cortex connects with the paralimbic-limbic system, including the insular cortex, cingulate gryus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. This area is involved in encoding the representation of the value of an expected outcome, which is used to anticipate positive and negative consequences that are likely to follow a given action.
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The nomenclature of the basal ganglia system and its components has always been problematic. Early anatomists, seeing the macroscopic anatomical structure but knowing nothing of the cellular architecture or neurochemistry, grouped together components that are now believed to have distinct functions (such as the internal and external segments of the globus pallidus), and gave distinct names to components that are now thought to be functionally parts of a single structure (such as the caudate nucleus and putamen). The term "basal" comes from the fact that most of its elements are located in the basal part of the forebrain. The term ganglia is a misnomer: In modern usage, neural clusters are called "ganglia" only in the peripheral nervous system; in the central nervous system they are called "nuclei".
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White matter forms the bulk of the deep parts of the brain and the superficial parts of the spinal cord. Aggregates of grey matter such as the basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus, nucleus accumbens) and brainstem nuclei (red nucleus, cranial nerve nuclei) are spread within the cerebral white matter. The cerebellum is structured in a similar manner as the cerebrum, with a superficial mantle of cerebellar cortex, deep cerebellar white matter (called the "arbor vitae") and aggregates of grey matter surrounded by deep cerebellar white matter (dentate nucleus, globose nucleus, emboliform nucleus, and fastigial nucleus). The fluid-filled cerebral ventricles (lateral ventricles, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle) are also located deep within the cerebral white matter.
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The expression of these genes was totally normal in mice with functional D1 receptors, suggesting chronic cocaine use had a direct influence on mediating these genes through a functional DRD1 receptor They found genes belonging to a number of functional groups, and chose six candidate genes from three of these functional groups to verify their differential expression in the caudate putamen. For each gene, researchers verified dependency of their expression on the D1 receptor after cocaine treatment using Trichostatin A or other receptor antagonists. Specifically, they focused on the genes encoding extracellular factors, receptors, modulators, and intracellular signaling molecules. These can be regulated by chronic cocaine treatment via D1 receptors, and all of the genes contain AP-1 transcriptional complex binding sites in their promoter regions.
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The wingspan is about 16 mm. The forewings are fawn brown, with some whitish ochreous mottling near the base of the costa, and on either side of the base of the fold. A very pale whitish ochreous oblique streak, from the middle of the costa, nearly meets at its apex an oblique, slender, silvery line, leaving the costa a little beyond it, and some silvery scales precede the termen below the apex. The apex is somewhat caudate, the cilia above and below it pale whitish ochreous, a fawn-brown line running through them at right angles to a projecting point, which seems to take its origin from a brown apical spot, the outline of the wing being also marked by a slender dark brown marginal line.
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A general decrease in D1 receptor density has also been shown to occur with age. Significant age-related declines in dopamine receptors, D2 and D3 were detected in the anterior cingulate cortex, frontal cortex, lateral temporal cortex, hippocampus, medial temporal cortex, amygdala, medial thalamus, and lateral thalamus One study also indicated a significant inverse correlation between dopamine binding in the occipital cortex and age. Postmortem studies also show that the number of D1 and D2 receptors decline with age in both the caudate nucleus and the putamen, although the ratio of these receptors did not show age-related changes. The loss of dopamine with age is thought to be responsible for many neurological symptoms that increase in frequency with age, such as decreased arm swing and increased rigidity.
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Grey matter has also been shown to positively correlate with intelligence in children. Reis and colleagues have found that grey matter in the prefrontal cortex contributes most robustly to variance in Intelligence in children between 5 and 17, while subcortical grey matter is related to intelligence to a lesser extent. Frangou and colleagues examined the relationship between grey matter and intelligence in children and young adults aged between 12 and 21, and found that grey matter in the orbitofrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, cerebellum and thalamus was positively correlated to intelligence, while grey matter in the caudate nucleus is negatively correlated with intelligence. However, the relationship between grey matter volume and intelligence only develops over time, as no significant positive relationship can be found between grey matter volume and intelligence in children under 11.
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Two studies using volumetric MRIs have suggested that affected individuals display structural changes in the brain, associated with the forebrain parenchymal, cortical gray matter, pallidum volumes, and the caudate nucleus. Correlating to this, Dale Bredesen, a neurodegenerative researcher, has noted a subtype of Alzheimer's Disease associated with this chronic inflammatory response, calling it an "unrecognized—and treatable—epidemic". Arnold R. Eiser, Professor Emeritus of Medicine at Drexel University College of Medicine, has suggested that environmental factors such as dampness and mold may be a contributing factor for why Finland has the highest death rate from dementia in the world. The WHO estimates the prevalence of significant dampness and mold in buildings to be at least 20%, while other estimates of US homes suggest a prevalence as high as 47%.
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Studies of resting state activity have utilized a number of indicators of resting state activity, including regional homogeneity (ReHO), amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (ALFF), fractional amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (fALFF), arterial spin labeling (ASL), and positron emission tomography measures of regional cerebral blood flow or metabolism. Studies using ALFF and fALFF have reported elevations in ACC activity, with the former primarily reporting more ventral findings, and the latter more dorsal findings. A conjunction analysis of ALFF and CBF studies converged on the left insula, with previously untreated people having increased insula activity. Elevated caudate CBF was also reported A meta analysis combining multiple indicators of resting activity reported elevated anterior cingulate, striatal, and thalamic activity and reduced left insula, post-central gyrus and fusiform gyrus activity.
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Coronal section from an MR brain scan of a patient with HD, showing atrophy of the heads of the caudate nuclei, enlargement of the frontal horns of the lateral ventricles (hydrocephalus ex vacuo), and generalized cortical atrophy A physical examination, sometimes combined with a psychological examination, can determine whether the onset of the disease has begun. Excessive unintentional movements of any part of the body are often the reason for seeking medical consultation. If these are abrupt and have random timing and distribution, they suggest a diagnosis of HD. Cognitive or behavioral symptoms are rarely the first symptoms diagnosed; they are usually only recognized in hindsight or when they develop further. How far the disease has progressed can be measured using the unified Huntington's disease rating scale, which provides an overall rating system based on motor, behavioral, cognitive, and functional assessments.
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Thus later studies rather than focusing on subjects in groups, focus more on individual differences in the neural bases by jointly looking at behavioural analyses and neuroimaging. Neuroimaging studies on loss aversion involves measuring brain activity with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate whether individual variability in loss aversion were reflected in differences in brain activity through bidirectional or gain or loss specific responses, as well as multivariate source-based morphometry (SBM) to investigate a structural network of loss aversion and univariate voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to identify specific functional regions within this network. Brain activity in a right ventral striatum cluster increases particularly when anticipating gains. This involves the ventral caudate nucleus, pallidum, putamen, bilateral orbitofrontal cortex, superior frontal and middle gyri, posterior cingulate cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and parts of the dorsomedial thalamus connecting to temporal and prefrontal cortex.
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Amphetamine is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy (a sleep disorder), and obesity, and is sometimes prescribed for its past medical indications, particularly for depression and chronic pain. Long-term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage, but, in humans with ADHD, pharmaceutical amphetamines, at therapeutic dosages, appear to improve brain development and nerve growth. Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia. Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long-term continuous amphetamine use for the treatment of ADHD.
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It is said to be believed that there is an overall agreement that multiple different category learning systems mediate the learning of different category structures. "Two systems that have received support are a frontal-based explicit system that uses logical reasoning, depends on working memory and executive attention, and is mediated primarily by the anterior cingulate, the prefrontal cortex and the associative striatum, including the head of the caudate. The second is a basal ganglia-mediated implicit system that uses procedural learning, requires a dopamine reward signal and is mediated primarily by the sensorimotor striatum" The studies showed that there was significant involvement of the striatum and less involvement of the medial temporal lobes in category learning. In people who have striatal damage, the need to ignore irrelevant information is more predictive of a rule-based category learning deficit.
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It has not been determined if delayed- maturation of this frontal circuitry contributes to the development of OCD or if OCD is the ailment that inhibits normal growth of structures in the frontal striatal, frontal cortex, or striatum. However, the use of neuroimaging has equipped researchers with evidence of some brain structures that are consistently less adequate and less matured in patients diagnosed with OCD in comparison to brains without OCD. More specifically, structures such as the caudate nucleus, volumes of gray matter, white matter, and the cingulate have been identified as being less developed in people with OCD in comparison to individuals that do not have OCD (Lambert, K.G.; Kinsley, C.H.). However, the cortex volume of the operculum (brain) is larger and OCD patients are also reported to have larger temporal lobe volumes; which has been identified in some women patients with OCD (Jenike, M.; Breiter, H.; at el, 1996).
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The use of neuroimaging has made it possible for researchers to monitor and compare structural and functional differences of brains exhibiting OCD symptoms in comparison to brains that do not have OCD and to measure specific structure's neural activity. The MRI scanning techniques have identified smaller levels of white matter volume in women with OCD in comparison to control patients that do not have OCD. The use of positron emission tomographic scan, better known as the PET scan, has enabled researchers to observe structures of the OFC, anterior cingular cortex, and the striatum for evidence of abnormal neural activity. In relationship to delayed-maturation theory of obsessive compulsive disorder, PET scans have consistently observed the caudate nucleus, cingulate volume, and volumes of both gray matter and white matter to be less consistent in patients with OCD in comparison to patients that do not have OCD.
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In deaf signers, activation of the superior temporal sulcus is highly lateralized to the left side during facial recognition tasks, while this lateralization was not present in hearing, bimodal signers. Bilinguals also require an effective and fast neural control system to allow them to select and control their languages even while code switching rapidly. Evidence indicates that the left caudate nucleus—a centrally located brain feature that is near the thalamus and the basal ganglia—is an important part of this mechanism, as bilinguals tend to have significantly increased GMV and activation in this region as compared to monolinguals, especially during active code switching tasks. As implied by the significant preservation of gray matter in the hippocampi (an area of the brain largely associated with memory consolidation and higher cognitive function, such as decision-making) of bimodal bilinguals, areas of the brain that help control phonological working memory tend to also have higher activation in those individuals who are proficient in two or more languages.
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The forewings are dark umber-brown, with a leaden grey costal patch at the base reaching nearly to one-third, widened and produced downward at its outer end, but scarcely touching the fold. Joining it at the extreme base is a leaden grey band, running along the dorsum below the fold to beyond the middle, where it is joined by a transverse fascia starting narrowly on the costa, enclosing a dark brown spot on the cell and consisting above the middle of shining silvery blue-grey scales, a narrower subapical fascia of the same colour, much zigzagged in its course, precedes the termen. The apex is slightly caudate, and is distinctly marked by a slender whitish ochreous line, along the base of the dark brown costal cilia, which is continued along the upper half of the sinuate termen. The terminal cilia is dark brown, with a curved white patch immediately below the apex which is very apparent on the underside.
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Above this is a slender, oblique, detached white streaklet, and an outwardly oblique white costal streak, more or less connected by scattered whitish scales at its apex with the apex of the median streak, and again to the apex of a similar streak a little above the dorsum. At four-fifths is a second, short, straight white costal streak, loosely connected by scattered scales, at its apex, with a striated patch above the tornus, in which they form the upper of a series of three short longitudinal white streaks, bounded before and behind by a whitish line. On the costa at the apex are two converging wedge-shaped white streaks, divided by a dark brown line, which is continued along the termen to the tornus. The outer of these is wider than the inner, and forms the base of the caudate apical extension of the cilia which are bronzy brown beyond it, those on the termen below being bright rosy, iridescent, brassy metallic.
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Flower spike Digitaria insularis is a tufted perennial bunchgrass with very short, swollen rhizomes. The stems reach a height of 80–130 cm and are erect, branched from the lower and middle nodes, swollen bases, with woolly bracts, glabrous internodes and nodes. Sheaths papillose - pilose in their majority, ligule 4–6 mm long, blades linear, 20–50 cm long and 10–20 mm wide. Inflorescence 20–35 cm long, numerous clusters, 10–15 cm long, solitary triquetrous rachis of clusters, 0.4-0.7 mm wide, scabrous; spikelets lanceolate, 4.2-4.6 mm long, paired, caudate, densely covered with trichomes up to 6 mm long, brown or whitish, ranging up to 5 mm from the apex of the spikelet; lower glume triangular to ovate, to 0.6 mm long, enervate, membranous; upper glume 3.5-4.5 mm long, acute, 3-5 nerved, ciliated; inferior lemma as long as spikelet, acuminate, 7-nerved, covered with silky hairs, upper lemma 3.2-3.6 mm long, acuminate, dark brown; anthers 1-1.2 mm long.
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Basal ganglia Buchwald was an "internationally renowned neuroscientist and electrophysiologist who made pioneering seminal contributions concerning the functions of the basal ganglia, areas of the brain involved in the etiology of neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases, and of specific forms of developmental disabilities".IN MEMORIAM Nathaniel A. Buchwald , Neuroscience news, Published by the UCLA Brain Research Institute, Fall, 2006, Volume 15, No. 3. Retrieved 21 April 2008 He was "one of the first neuroscientists to study electrophysiology in subcortical brain nuclei in awake and unrestrained animals. His early studies on evoked potentials garnered much recognition in the late 1950s. Starting with his classic experiments on the “caudate spindle” published in the major journal of the early 1960s Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, Nat and his colleagues, especially his closest and longest collaborator, Chester D. Hull, Ph.D., maintained a continuing examination of how neurons in the basal ganglia communicate with each other and how this communication is altered in models of diseases and during maturation".
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Flowers. Short stemmed, usually unbranched, stoloniferous herb to 10-30 cm high, forming extensive dense carpets, leaves equitant, roots bright orange-red, some plants forming dwarf shrublets to 50 cm high on grey more or less erect stems. Leaves bright to dark green and shiny above concolorous, paler and dull beneath, polymorph, sessile, short and long petiolate leaves even on the same plant, lanceolate, smooth thin coriaceous, lamina to 15 cm long and 4 cm wide, leaf tip descending, gradually tapering into c. 1 cm mucro acuminate to caudate, mucro to 1 cm long, base cuneate. Pseudopetiole green, caniculate when short petiolate, furrowed on the upper side when long petiolate, gradually extend into a short sheathing base, clasping the stem for distinctly more than its circumference. Inflorescence smooth, green below towards purple near the top, terminal, erect, spicate, to 30 cm long, bracts, 2-4, lanceolate ligulate, green with purple base, to 50 mm × 4 mm, early caducous, distally decreasing in size, flowers clustered 5-7 cm near the top the spike.
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The forewings are shining bronzy brown, with a broad white median streak from the base, attenuated to a point beyond the end of the cell where it nearly coalesces with a small elongate white spot beneath its apex, which is succeeded by a white triangular patch before the termen. The lower angle of this is produced in a narrow marginal line along the base of the dorsal cilia, its upper angle also produced towards the apex, but shortly meeting, at an acute angle, two white costal lines, the one starting nearly from the base and leaving the costa beyond the middle, the other coming from the costa a little beyond it, and only slightly less oblique ; at the angle where they meet are some silvery scales. Above the acute angle which they form are three, white, wedge-shaped costal streaks, each wider than the other as they approach the apex, the third, pointing inward through the apical cilia, separated from the second by a blackish streak and ornamented at its outer end by two minute black dashes in the extremity of the apical cilia, which have thus a caudate appearance. The hindwings are greyish brown.Biol. centr.-amer. Lep.
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In more recent research, subcortical regions (those lying below the cerebral cortex such as the putamen and the caudate nucleus), as well as the pre-motor areas (BA 6), have received increased attention. It is now generally assumed that the following structures of the cerebral cortex near the primary and secondary auditory cortices play a fundamental role in speech processing: · Superior temporal gyrus (STG): morphosyntactic processing (anterior section), integration of syntactic and semantic information (posterior section) · Inferior frontal gyrus (IFG, Brodmann area (BA) 45/47): syntactic processing, working memory · Inferior frontal gyrus (IFG, BA 44): syntactic processing, working memory · Middle temporal gyrus (MTG): lexical semantic processing · Angular gyrus (AG): semantic processes (posterior temporal cortex) The left hemisphere is usually dominant in right-handed people, although bilateral activations are not uncommon in the area of syntactic processing. It is now accepted that the right hemisphere plays an important role in the processing of suprasegmental acoustic features like prosody; which is “the rhythmic and melodic variations in speech”. There are two types of prosodic information: emotional prosody (right hemisphere), which is the emotional that the speaker gives to the speech, and linguistic prosody (left hemisphere), the syntactic and thematic structure of the speech.
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