Bloom Farms — they produce oil cartridges or the oil for vaporization.
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Next, the canister is placed into the CannaCloud device to start the vaporization.
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"Although these people died, it wasn't through instant soft tissue vaporization," Thompson said.
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It will allow vaporization, along with pills, oils, gels, creams, ointments, tinctures, and other liquids.
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Juul uses a nicotine-salt solution in the vaporization process that people seem to like.
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Dabbing is the flash vaporization of cannabis concentrate applied to a hot surface and inhaled.
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The frosty vaporization of the strings as Wozzeck is about to murder Marie had terrifying precision and poise.
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While vaporization is becoming increasingly popular, you'll need a weed vape for that, which can get expensive real quick.
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If you compare it to conventional whisky, whisky is heat distilled so it's essentially a vaporization and purification process.
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For the last year or so, Marvel fans have dealt with the vaporization of their favorite characters in 2018's Avengers: Infinity War.
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Exposure to the extreme low pressure environment of space would cause an immediate vaporization of fluids in the skin and uppermost layers of soft tissue.
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Scientists suspect several processes at work, including vaporization of volatile ices, such as nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane, into Pluto's cold and unexpectedly compact atmosphere.
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Last fall, researchers purchased 84 CBD products from 31 manufacturers including oils, alcohol-based tinctures, and vaporization liquid and had them analyzed at a lab.
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Our observations revealed an explosive vaporization followed by high-velocity interacting flows of liquid and vapour, and by the generation of shock trains in the liquid jets.
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Macris said that, ultimately, both studies show that scientists need to do more work to understand how melting and vaporization of rock dictated what the planet looks like today.
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All photos: Mika McKinnonYesterday morning, NASA's Cassini spacecraft slammed into the day side of Saturn, the brief flash of its vaporization marking the end of a 13-year mission.
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Nearly 43 percent of the products — which included oils, tinctures, and vaporization liquid — contained less cannabidiol than their labels promised, indicating that they weren't potent enough to give their users the medicinal treatment they sought.
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The stakes here aren't quite planet vaporization or an existential galactic threat—at least not yet—but right to repair laws are good for the environment, good for consumers, and good for our personal freedom.
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Then, the researchers ran a model to see if vaporization of some specific elements with lower boiling points called volatiles could have accounted for the Earth's present-day composition—and their model matched the data quite well.
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"I've not experienced any of the negative side effects of cannabis smoking since dedicating my regimen to vaporization," Mark tells me, before listing a number of regular smoking side-effects, like chronic coughing, wheezing, and coughing up phlegm.
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Vaporization Startup Pax Labs Introduces Juul, Its Next-Gen E-Cigarette The company began running into problems as its popularity increased exponentially (in part by allegedly turning to some of the same tactics big tobacco used to target underage consumers).
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"The market is going to be kind of rough getting started," said Jordan Lams, chief executive of Moxie, a company based in the Los Angeles suburb of Lynwood that specializes in making cannabis extracts, including oils used in electronic vaporization, or "vape," devices.
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However, and I really want to stress this, more information is needed to determine which specific products or substances are involved Reports earlier this week suggested that Vitamin E acetate, a byproduct of the vitamin complex formed during the vaporization process, may be to blame.
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Trump administration is readying tighter regulations on e-cigarettes, including ban on flavorings "As the industry emerges from some tough months, I am excited about the opportunity Pax has to be the leading company in cannabis vaporization technology," Murphy said in a release tied to the news.
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"The two main solvents found in the [e-cig] juice"—propylene glycol and glycerol—"are FDA-approved as food and at food temperatures, but when heated to the point of vaporization they can produce carcinogenic compounds," says study co-author Mark Rubinstein, a professor of pediatrics at UCSF.
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Another health risk posed by the burning of homes and structures, as opposed to just burning vegetation, is the incineration and vaporization of nasty stuff inside buildings, such as metals and leads, Robert Gould, a pathologist on the board of directors for the group Physicians for Social Responsibility, told BuzzFeed News.
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As an X-ray explosion preceded in the group's experiments, the eventual result was the fragmentation and vaporization of the water droplet being targeted, leaving a disc-shaped cloud surrounding the original path of the pulse, rather than the sphere you might expect from an explosion bursting from a single focused point.
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Temperature-dependency of the heats of vaporization for water, methanol, benzene, and acetone. The enthalpy of vaporization (symbol ), also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid substance to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place. The enthalpy of vaporization is often quoted for the normal boiling temperature of the substance.
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Vaporization (or vaporisation) of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor.Britannica: Vaporization There are two types of vaporization: evaporation and boiling. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon, whereas boiling is a bulk phenomenon. A laboratory flask filled with pure bromine, a liquid that evaporates rapidly.
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Temperature-dependency of the heats of vaporization for water, methanol, benzene, and acetone. As the temperature (or pressure) rises to the critical point, the latent heat of vaporization falls to zero.
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Vaporization of perfluorohexane with two anesthetic vaporizers calibrated for perfluorohexane has been shown to improve gas exchange in oleic acid-induced lung injury in sheep. Predominantly PFCs with high vapor pressure are suitable for vaporization.
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Values are usually quoted in J/mol, or kJ/mol (molar enthalpy of vaporization), although kJ/kg, or J/g (specific heat of vaporization), and older units like kcal/mol, cal/g and Btu/lb are sometimes still used among others.
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Full extract oil in an oral syringe. Hash oil is consumed usually by ingestion, smoking or vaporization.
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The enthalpy of condensation (or heat of condensation) is by definition equal to the enthalpy of vaporization with the opposite sign: enthalpy changes of vaporization are always positive (heat is absorbed by the substance), whereas enthalpy changes of condensation are always negative (heat is released by the substance).
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5-Bromo-DMT was reported to be psychoactive at 20–50 mg via vaporization with mild psychedelic-like activity.
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There are many different techniques, such as electrocautery, cryotherapy (cryoturbinectomy), laser vaporization and turbinoplasty. They all require general anesthesia.
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Lasers can weld in one of two modes: conduction and keyhole. Which mode is in operation depends on whether the power density is sufficiently high enough to cause evaporation. Conduction mode occurs below the vaporization point while keyhole mode occurs above the vaporization point. The keyhole is analogous to an air pocket.
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The entropy of vaporization is the increase in entropy upon vaporization of a liquid. This is always positive, since the degree of disorder increases in the transition from a liquid in a relatively small volume to a vapor or gas occupying a much larger space. At standard pressure P ~~o~~ = 1 bar, the value is denoted as ΔS ~~o~~ vap and normally expressed in J mol−1 K−1. In a phase transition such as vaporization, both phases coexist in equilibrium, so the difference in Gibbs free energy is equal to zero.
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The typical latent heat of vaporization (or condensation) is 970 Btu/lb (2256.5 kJ/kg) for saturated steam at atmospheric pressure.
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In nanotechnology, freeze-drying is used for nanotube purification to avoid aggregation due to capillary forces during regular thermal vaporization drying.
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Flue-gas condensation allows the latent heat of vaporization of the water to be recovered, subsequently increasing the thermal efficiency of the plant.
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Sublimation is a direct phase transition from the solid phase to the gas phase, skipping the intermediate liquid phase. Because it does not involve the liquid phase, it is not a form of vaporization. The term vaporization has also been used in a colloquial or hyperbolic way to refer to the physical destruction of an object that is exposed to intense heat or explosive force, where the object is actually blasted into small pieces rather than literally converted to gaseous form. Examples of this usage include the "vaporization" of the uninhabited Marshall Island of Elugelab in the 1952 Ivy Mike thermonuclear test.
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The surface tension (γ) of a material is directly related to its intramolecular and intermolecular forces. The stronger the force, the greater the surface tension. This can be modeled by an equation: Where ΔvapU is the energy of vaporization, NA is Avogadro's number, and a2 is the surface area per molecule. This equation also implies that the energy of vaporization affects surface tension.
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Common oxidizers include gaseous or liquid oxygen, nitrous oxide, and hydrogen peroxide. For a reverse hybrid, oxidizers such as frozen oxygen and ammonium perchlorate are used. Proper oxidizer vaporization is important for the rocket to perform efficiently. Improper vaporization can lead to very large regression rate differences at the head end of the motor when compared to the aft end.
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For removing lead paint temperatures below 590 °C (1100 °F) are used to minimize vaporization. Focused infrared heaters are also used for localised heating.
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Some medications are applied as an ointment or gel, and reach the mucous membrane via vaporization. Examples are nasal topical decongestants and smelling salt.
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According to Trouton's rule, the entropy of vaporization (at standard pressure) of most liquids is about 85 to 88 J mol−1 K−1.
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This system is capable of adding up to 14,400 Mcf/day into the VNG system by trucking LNG from the Chesapeake plant to the vaporization plant.
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A steam accumulator is a type of LHTES where the phase change is between liquid and gas and uses the latent heat of vaporization of water.
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Acoustic droplet vaporization (ADV) is the process by which superheated liquid droplets are phase-transitioned into gas bubbles by means of ultrasound. Perfluorocarbons and halocarbons are often used for the dispersed medium, which forms the core of the droplet. The surfactant, which forms a stabilizing shell around the dispersive medium, is usually composed of albumin or lipids. There exist two main hypothesis that explain the mechanism by which ultrasound induces vaporization.
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This provides improved vaporization from the surface of the fuel droplets and so more efficient combining of atmospheric oxygen with vaporized fuel, delivering more complete and cleaner combustion.
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The vaporization of metals is a key step in metal vapor synthesis, which exploits the increased reactivity of metal atoms or small particles relative to the bulk elements.
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Estimation of the enthalpy of vaporization of electrolyte solutions can be simply carried out using equations based on the chemical thermodynamic models, such as Pitzer model or TCPC model.
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For both Laser Ablation and Desolvating Nebulisers, a small flow of Nitrogen may also be introduced into the Argon flow. Nitrogen exists as a dimer, so has more vibrational modes and is more efficient at receiving energy from the RF coil around the torch. Other methods of sample introduction are also utilized. Electrothermal vaporization (ETV) and in torch vaporization (ITV) use hot surfaces (graphite or metal, generally) to vaporize samples for introduction.
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A vaporization heat wand and vaporization chamber bowl used to deliver vapor through a water pipe A vaporizer or vaporiser, colloquially known as a vape, is a device used to vaporize substances for inhalation. Plant substances can be used, commonly cannabis, tobacco, or other herbs or blends of essential oil. However, they can also be filled with a combination propylene glycol, glycerin, and drugs such as nicotine (e.g. extract from tobacco) or tetrahydrocannabinol as a liquid solution.
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Evaporative cooler illustration Most designs take advantage of the fact that water has one of the highest known enthalpy of vaporization (latent heat of vaporization) values of any common substance. Because of this, evaporative coolers use only a fraction of the energy of vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning systems. Unfortunately, except in very dry climates, the single-stage (direct) cooler can increase relative humidity (RH) to a level that makes occupants uncomfortable. Indirect and two-stage evaporative coolers keep the RH lower.
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CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 1st Student Edition and Web Elements. And the phase transition of boiling is much more energetic than freezing. For instance, the energy required to completely boil or vaporize water (what is known as enthalpy of vaporization) is roughly 540 times that required for a one-degree increase.H2Ospecific heat capacity, Cp = 0.075327 kJ mol−1 K−1 (25 °C); Enthalpy of fusion = 6.0095 kJ/mol (0 °C, 101.325 kPa); Enthalpy of vaporization (liquid) = 40.657 kJ/mol (100 °C).
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The temperature in Finnish saunas is , usually , and is kept clearly above the dewpoint despite the vaporization of löyly water, so that visible condensation of steam does not occur as in a Turkish sauna.
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Under pressure, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is compressed into a liquid, which upon vaporization absorbs a significant amount of thermal energy. As a result, it will greatly lower the temperature of any object it contacts as it evaporates.
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Some thermal batteries also involve causing a substance to transition thermally through a phase transition which causes even more energy to be stored and released due to the delta enthalpy of fusion or delta enthalpy of vaporization.
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Volcano forced-air vaporizer. The balloon, at top, fills with vapors and particulates, and can then be detached and inhaled from. A vaporization pipe with flame filter. 28\. Insert cannabis, other herbs or essential oils here 36\.
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Liquefaction processes are used for scientific, industrial and commercial purposes. Many gases can be put into a liquid state at normal atmospheric pressure by simple cooling; a few, such as carbon dioxide, require pressurization as well. Liquefaction is used for analyzing the fundamental properties of gas molecules (intermolecular forces), or for the storage of gases, for example: LPG, and in refrigeration and air conditioning. There the gas is liquefied in the condenser, where the heat of vaporization is released, and evaporated in the evaporator, where the heat of vaporization is absorbed.
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The interactions between each circuit may also be affected by various mechanical or air pressure connections and also by temperature sensitive and electrical components. These are introduced for reasons such as engine responsiveness, fuel efficiency or automobile emissions control. Various air bleeds (often chosen from a precisely calibrated range, similarly to the jets) allow air into various portions of the fuel passages to enhance fuel delivery and vaporization. Extra refinements may be included in the carburetor/manifold combination, such as some form of heating to aid fuel vaporization such as an early fuel evaporator.
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Since food, including vegetables, is cooked by the vaporization of water within the food, the use of water vapor as the mode of heat transfer has no effect on the chemical interactions on the surface of the food.
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This provides improved vaporization from the surface of the fuel droplets, and so more efficient combining of atmospheric oxygen with vaporized fuel delivering more complete combustion. In petrol engines, it is used in gasoline direct injection engine technology.
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Generally speaking bulk measurement instruments thermally vaporize the particles prior to ionization, and there are several different ways that the vaporization and ionization is performed. The main instrument that is used for bulk measurements is Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS).
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For example: :"Why do many candles, especially small ones, flicker and pop in the last moments before burning out? What determines the frequency of flickering?" (3.110). Walker's answer involves qualitative arguments of capillarity, negative feedback, and latent heat of vaporization.
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One poses that the ultrasonic field interacts with the dispersed medium so as to cause vaporization in the bubble core. The other suggests that shockwaves from inertial cavitation, occurring near or within the droplet, cause the dispersed medium to vaporize.
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There are many different methods in cutting using lasers, with different types used to cut different material. Some of the methods are vaporization, melt and blow, melt blow and burn, thermal stress cracking, scribing, cold cutting and burning stabilized laser cutting.
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Sulfotep's flash point is and its enthalpy of vaporization is 59.4 kilojoules per mole. Its surface tension is 423 dynes per centimeter. The chemical has no Rule of 5 violations. Its diffusivity in water is 0.63 × 10−5 cm2 per second.
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While the process is technically a process of electrocoagulation, the term "electrocautery" is sometimes loosely, nontechnically and incorrectly used to describe it. The process of vaporization can be used to ablate tissue targets, or, by linear extension, used to transect or cut tissue. While the processes of vaporization/ cutting and desiccation/coagulation are best accomplished with relatively low voltage, continuous or near continuous waveforms, the process of fulguration is performed with relatively high voltage modulated waveforms. Fulguration is a superficial type of coagulation, typically created by arcing modulated high voltage current to tissue that is rapidly desiccated and coagulated.
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Laser drilling of cylindrical holes generally occurs through melting and vaporization (also referred to as "ablation") of the workpiece material through absorption of energy from a focused laser beam. The energy required to remove material by melting is about 25% of that needed to vaporize the same volume, so a process that removes material by melting is often favored. Whether melting or vaporization is more dominant in a laser drilling process depends on many factors, with laser pulse duration and energy playing an important role. Generally speaking, ablation dominates when a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser is used.
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The reduction in pressure across the control valve causes the condensate to undergo a partial vaporization referred to as flash vaporization. The raw natural gas from the low pressure separator is sent to a "booster" compressor that raises the gas pressure and sends it through a cooler, and then to the main gas compressor. At the raw natural gas processing plant, the gas will be dehydrated and acid gases and other impurities will be removed from the gas. Then, the ethane (), propane (), butanes (), and pentanes ()—plus higher molecular weight hydrocarbons referred to as C5+—will also be removed and recovered as byproducts.
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Tractors designed to run on those fuels usually used a "hot" intake air manifold that allowed exhaust heat to warm the manifold and carburetor to aid vaporization. Given the poor vaporization at low temperatures, all-fuel tractors were started on gasoline, then switched to the heavy fuel. They were equipped with a small gasoline tank and a large fuel tank, both of which fed into a common valve supplying the fuel to the carburetor. The engine would be started on gasoline and the tractor would then be worked until the engine was sufficiently warm to change over.
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The resulting gas produced by this warming is typically methane, which is the major component (with some ethane) of natural gas and one of the most potent and hazardous greenhouse gases. If a spill occurs and the vapor does not ignite, it would build to higher concentrations. At higher concentrations, the vaporized methane will cause an asphyxiation hazard to anyone exposed. If a spill or leak followed by a vaporization event were to occur in or near water, then water in contact with the spilled LNG can accelerate the vaporization process and increase the concentration of vapor in the immediate area.
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Hence helium has a particularly low enthalpy of vaporization, 0.0845 kJ/mol, as the van der Waals forces between helium atoms are particularly weak. On the other hand, the molecules in liquid water are held together by relatively strong hydrogen bonds, and its enthalpy of vaporization, 40.65 kJ/mol, is more than five times the energy required to heat the same quantity of water from 0 °C to 100 °C (cp = 75.3 J/K·mol). Care must be taken, however, when using enthalpies of vaporization to measure the strength of intermolecular forces, as these forces may persist to an extent in the gas phase (as is the case with hydrogen fluoride), and so the calculated value of the bond strength will be too low. This is particularly true of metals, which often form covalently bonded molecules in the gas phase: in these cases, the enthalpy of atomization must be used to obtain a true value of the bond energy.
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The heating process typically takes milliseconds to tens of milliseconds to complete and initiate detonation in the primary explosive. This is roughly 1,000 to 10,000 times longer and less precise than the EBW electrical vaporization. Modern exploding-bridgewire detonators arranged in a tray.
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In a typical classical distillation column, all the vapor driving the separation comes from the reboiler. The reboiler receives a liquid stream from the column bottom and may partially or completely vaporize that stream. Steam usually provides the heat required for the vaporization.
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However, as pressures approach the critical pressure, both the surface tension and the heat of vaporization converge to zero, making them the dominant sources of pressure dependency. For water at 1atm, the above equation calculates a critical heat flux of approximately 1000 kW/m2.
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A laser vaporization cluster source produces ions using a combination of laser desorption ionization and supersonic expansion. The Smalley source (or Smalley cluster source) was developed by Richard Smalley at Rice University in the 1980s and was central to the discovery of fullerenes in 1985.
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Citation: Water Structure and Science, Water Properties (by London South Bank University). Link to Web site. Water's sizable enthalpy of vaporization is why one's skin can be burned so quickly as steam condenses on it (heading from red to green in Fig. 7 above).
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Heat pipes employ phase change to transfer thermal energy from one point to another by the vaporization and condensation of a working fluid or coolant. Heat pipes rely on a temperature difference between the ends of the pipe, and cannot lower temperatures at either end below the ambient temperature (hence they tend to equalize the temperature within the pipe). When one end of the heat pipe is heated, the working fluid inside the pipe at that end vaporizes and increases the vapor pressure inside the cavity of the heat pipe. The latent heat of vaporization absorbed by the working fluid reduces the temperature at the hot end of the pipe.
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A vapour glaze reaction similar to salt glazing, as an alternative glazing process, has been suggested. In this process, the vaporization or dissociation of salts leads to vapour transport through the enveloping powder to the quartz body where a glaze is formed.Williamson, R.S.1942. The Saqqara Graph.
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OPLS simulations in aqueous solution typically use the TIP4P or TIP3P water model. A distinctive feature of the OPLS parameters is that they were optimized to fit experimental properties of liquids, such as density and heat of vaporization, in addition to fitting gas-phase torsional profiles.
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Different waveforms can be used for different electrosurgical procedures. For cutting, a continuous single frequency sine wave is often employed. Rapid tissue heating leads to explosive vaporization of interstitial fluid. If the voltage is sufficiently high (> 400 V peak-to-peak) the vapor sheath is ionized, forming conductive plasma.
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Generally speaking, droplet size decreases with increasing pulse intensity. This is due to the increased vaporization rate and thus a thinner molten layer. For the longer pulse duration, the greater total energy input helps form a thicker molten layer and results in the expulsion of correspondingly larger droplets.
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By analyzing the volume, types, proportions, and rate of production of dissolved gases, much diagnostic information can be gathered. Since these gases can reveal the faults of a transformer, they are known as "fault gases". Gases are produced by oxidation, vaporization, insulation decomposition, oil breakdown and electrolytic action.
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6-221 The enthalpy of vaporization is 35.09 kJ·mol−1 at the boiling point and normal pressure. The enthalpy of fusion is 8.28 kJ·mol−1 at the melting point. The critical parameters of pyridine are pressure 6.70 MPa, temperature 620 K and volume 229 cm3·mol−1.Lide, p.
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The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is based largely on the amount of kinetic energy an individual particle may possess. Even at lower temperatures, individual molecules of a liquid can evaporate if they have more than the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for vaporization.
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Another smart bullet is one that self-destructs within a limited range. This would be used to minimize collateral damage of a bullet in case of a miss. For example, hunting near a populated area. This would involve either change in course into the ground, or near vaporization.
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Evidence has been presented for the existence of hollow golden cages with the partial formula with n = 16 to 18. These clusters, with diameter of 550 picometres, are generated by laser vaporization and characterized by photoelectron spectroscopy. Using mass spectrometry, the unique tetrahedral structure of has been confirmed.
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The most commonly used heat exchanger is a radiator, where air is blown actively through a fan system to condense the vapour to a liquid. The liquid is recirculated through the system, thus repeating the process. No pump is required—the vaporization and condensation cycle is self-sustaining.
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The feasibility of vaporization of THC has been demonstrated in a series of laboratory studies involving different vaporizer designs. An electric vaporizer was shown to release substantial amounts of the THC while producing no measurable amounts of benzene, toluene, and naphthalene, which are generated when marijuana is smoked.
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Evidence for (or against) the existence of diatomic astatine (At2) is sparse and inconclusive. Some sources state that it does not exist, or at least has never been observed, while other sources assert or imply its existence. Despite this controversy, many properties of diatomic astatine have been predicted; for example, its bond length would be , dissociation energy , and heat of vaporization (∆Hvap) 54.39 kJ/mol. The latter figure means that astatine may (at least) be metallic in the liquid state on the basis that elements with a heat of vaporization greater than ~42 kJ/mol are metallic when liquid; diatomic iodine, with a value of 41.71 kJ/mol, falls just short of the threshold figure.
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Absorption bypass odorizers take a portion of the gas stream, the amount being dependent on the flow of gas in the line, and run it through a tank containing liquid odorant. The gas is passed over the top of the liquid. Variations exist where wicks are utilized to increase odorant vaporization.
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The ground surface temperature is thought to have ranged from 3,000 to 4,000 degrees Celsius just after the bombing. Exposing a body to this level of radiant heat would leave bones and carbonized organs behind. While radiation could severely inflame and ulcerate the skin, complete vaporization of the body is impossible.
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Cavitation is the rapid formation of vaporous microbubbles in a fluid due to a local drop of pressure below the vaporization pressure at a given temperature. Cavitation in the blood can lead to mechanical heart valve failure, so cavitation testing is an essential part of the valve design verification process.
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He published that fact in his treatise on artillery in 1605, where he wrote: "The water is converted into air, and its vaporization is followed by violent explosion." His discovery is seen as one of the steps leading to the invention of the steam engine. He died in Tours, France in January 1616.
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Cutting down waste-handling cost is another major reason for large companies to use evaporation applications. Legally, all producers of waste must dispose of waste using methods compatible with environmental guidelines; these methods are costly. By removing moisture through vaporization, industry can greatly reduce the amount of waste product that must be processed.
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In theory, this would improve fuel vaporization, and the new engine was more powerful. However, the new system made the cylinder head, and the rider's inseam, very hot. This, along with an exhaust valvetrain that required frequent adjustment, caused sales to drop. The addition of dual carburetors in 1937 did not revive interest.
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It reacts strongly with amines and alkalis. It also reacts violently with diisopropyl ether, or any ether if metal salts are present, sometimes causing an explosion. Trifluoroacetyl chloride's heat of vaporization is 20 kilojoules per mole at 65 btus per pound. Numerous atoms and compounds can replace the chlorine atom in trifluoroacetyl chloride.
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To cool the air it used latent cooling of vaporization, in other words, cooling by water evaporation.Sibley, p. 221 Water inside the cooler evaporates and in the process transfers heat from the surrounding air to evaporate the water, giving in return cool moisture-laden air inside. The lower the humidity, the better it works.
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The surface of a capsule can get to 1480 °C (2700 F) as it descends through the Earth's atmosphere. All this heat has to be directed away. Reentry capsules are typically coated with a material that melts and then vaporizes ("ablation"). It may seem counterproductive, but the vaporization takes heat away from the capsule.
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99.8% at 20 K).Rock, Peter A., Chemical thermodynamics; principles and applications (Macmillan 1969) Table p.478 shows (No/Np)H2 = 0.002 at 20 K The heat of vaporization is only 0.904 kJ/mol. As a result, ortho liquid hydrogen equilibrating to the para form releases enough energy to cause significant loss by boiling.
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The coagulation offsets the fractionation processes at particle formation, evening out isotopic distribution. For ground and low-altitude bursts, the cloud contains also vaporized, melted and fused soil particles. The distribution of activity through the particles depends on their formation. Particles formed by vaporization-condensation have activity evenly distributed through volume as the air-burst particles.
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The liquid input stream is sprayed through a nozzle into a hot vapor stream and vaporized. Solids form as moisture quickly leaves the droplets. A nozzle is usually used to make the droplets as small as possible, maximizing heat transfer and the rate of water vaporization. Droplet sizes can range from 20 to 180 μm depending on the nozzle.
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Therefore, the Cochrane Collaboration recommends that it should not be used, except in clinical trials. In acoustic droplet vaporization (ADV), albumin is sometimes used as a surfactant. ADV has been proposed as a cancer treatment by means of occlusion therapy. Human serum albumin may be used to potentially reverse drug/chemical toxicity by binding to free drug/agent.
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These two materials are corrosion and heat- resistant. Surrounding the graphite blocks is an aeroshell, designed to protect the entire assembly against the heat of reentering the Earth's atmosphere. The plutonium fuel is also stored in a ceramic form that is heat- resistant, minimising the risk of vaporization and aerosolization. The ceramic is also highly insoluble.
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A copper vaporizer block is electrically heated with two 100 watt cartridge heaters and a stainless steel capillary allow introduction of sample and consequent partial vaporization. The capillary and the vaporizer block are soldered together to ensure stable thermal contact. The resultant supersonic jet then passes through the ion source for introduction into the quadrupole mass spectrometer.
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N-Methyl-N-ethyltryptamine (MET) is a psychedelic tryptamine. It is closely related to DMT and DET. There is very little information on the human pharmacology or toxicity of MET. The freebase is believed to be active via vaporization at 15 mg"That's okay, you're good" MET trip report - The Vaults of Erowid and orally at 80-100 mg.
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Psychoactive drugs are administered via oral ingestion as a tablet, capsule, powder, liquid, and beverage; via injection by subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous route; via rectum by suppository and enema; and via inhalation by smoking, vaporization and insufflation ("snorting"). The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.United States Food and Drug Administration. CDER Data Standards Manual .
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Water has a very high heat of vaporization. As the ambient temperature water is injected into the engine, heat transfers from the hot cylinder head and intake air into the water. This makes it evaporate, cooling the intake charge. A cooler intake charge means it is more dense (higher volumetric efficiency) and also has a lower tendency to knock.
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Daytime and nighttime temperatures can vary by as much as over the course of a year. Rain usually falls in winter. The desert soil is covered with sand and pebbles; there are marshes, seasonal lakes and seasonal river beds. The hot temperatures cause extreme vaporization, which leaves the marshes and mud grounds with large crusts of salt.
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Laser vaporization allows precise laser firing when individual particles fly through the vaporization zone, and the systems are thus dubbed single particle mass spectrometers (SPMS). Several versions of SPMS have been reported, including the aerosol time-of-flight mass spectrometer (AToFMS), the laser mass analyzer for particles in the airborne state (LAMPAS), particle analysis by laser mass spectrometer (PALMS), the rapid single-particle mass spectrometer (RSMS), the bioaerosol mass spectrometer (BAMS) b194 Steele et al., 2003), the nanoaerosol mass spectrometer (NAMS), the single-particle laser ablation time-of-flight mass spectrometer (SPLAT), the single-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SPAMS), and laser ablation aerosol particle time-of-flight mass spectrometer (LAAP- ToF-MS). Among the most commons of these instruments is the aerosol time-of- flight mass spectrometer (AToFMS).
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Post- accident analysis concluded that the final control method (i.e., dissipation of the prompt critical state and the end of the sustained nuclear reaction) occurred by means of catastrophic core disassembly: destructive melting, vaporization, and consequent conventional explosive expansion of the parts of the reactor core where the greatest amount of heat was being produced most quickly. It was estimated that this core heating and vaporization process happened in about 7.5 milliseconds, before enough steam had been formed to shut down the reaction, beating the steam shutdown by a few milliseconds. A key statistic makes it clear why the core blew apart: the reactor designed for a 3 MW power output operated momentarily at a peak of about 20 GW, a power density over 6,000 times higher than its safe operating limit.
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The most important physical parameter describing a pool fire is the heat release rate, which determines the minimum safe distance needed to avoid burns from thermal radiation. The heat release rate is limited by the rate of evaporation of the fuel, as the combustion reaction takes place in the gas phase. The evaporation rate, in turn, is determined by other physical parameters, such as the depth, surface area and shape of the pool, as well as the fuel boiling point, heat of vaporization, heat of combustion, thermal conductivity and others. A feedback loop exists between the heat release rate and evaporation rate, as a significant part of the energy released in the combustion reaction will be transmitted from the gas phase to the liquid fuel, and can supply the needed heat of vaporization.
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In batch distillation, the feed is charged to the still pot to which heat is supplied continuously through a steam jacket or a steam coil. As the mixture boils, it generates a vapour richer in the more volatile. But as boiling continue, concentration of more volatile in the liquid decrease. It is generally assumed that equilibrium vaporization occurs in the still.
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Certain manufacturers made farm tractors specifically designed to run on heavy, low-octane fuels which were commonly called "distillate" or "tractor fuel". Other names were tractor vaporising oil (United Kingdom) and "power kerosene" (Australia). Often the tractors were referred to as "all-fuel". The most important factor in burning heavy fuels in a spark-ignition engine is proper fuel vaporization.
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Because of ammonia's vaporization properties, it is a useful refrigerant. It was commonly used before the popularisation of chlorofluorocarbons (Freons). Anhydrous ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its high energy efficiency and low cost. It suffers from the disadvantage of toxicity, and requiring corrosion resistant components, which restricts its domestic and small-scale use.
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He also conducted a wide range of research at the crater, discovering impactite, iron-nickel spherules related to the impact and vaporization of the asteroid, and the presence of many features still unique to the crater, such as half-melted slugs of meteoric iron mixed with melted target rock. Nininger's discoveries were compiled and published in a seminal work, Arizona's Meteorite Crater (1956).
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Vaporization is rapid at temperatures above the boiling points. The calorific (heat) values of the two are almost equal. Both are thus mixed to attain the vapor pressure that is required by the end user and depending on the ambient conditions. If the ambient temperature is very low, propane is preferred to achieve higher vapor pressure at the given temperature.
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Cooking techniques can be broken down into two major categories: Oil based and water based cooking techniques. Both oil and water based techniques rely on the vaporization of water to cook the food. Oil based cooking techniques have significant surface interactions that greatly affect the quality of the food they produce. These interactions stem from the polar oil molecules interacting with the surface of the food.
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They are surrounded by a layer of iridium metal and encased in high-strength graphite blocks. These two materials are corrosion- and heat-resistant. Surrounding the graphite blocks is an aeroshell, designed to protect the entire assembly against the heat of reentering the Earth's atmosphere. The plutonium fuel is also stored in a ceramic form that is heat-resistant, minimising the risk of vaporization and aerosolization.
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In all these examples the uncontrolled surge in power was sufficient to cause an explosion that destroyed each reactor and released radioactive fission products into the atmosphere. At Chernobyl in 1986, an poorly-understood positive scram effect resulted in an overheated reactor core. This led to the rupturing of the fuel elements and water pipes, vaporization of water, a steam explosion, and a meltdown.
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Ablation near the electrode in a flashtube. The high-energy electrical arc slowly erodes the glass, leaving a frosted appearance. Ablation is removal or destruction of material from an object by vaporization, chipping, or other erosive processes. Examples of ablative materials are described below, and include spacecraft material for ascent and atmospheric reentry, ice and snow in glaciology, biological tissues in medicine and passive fire protection materials.
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Vesta's surface is covered by regolith distinct from that found on the Moon or asteroids such as Itokawa. This is because space weathering acts differently. Vesta's surface shows no significant trace of nanophase iron because the impact speeds on Vesta are too low to make rock melting and vaporization an appreciable process. Instead, regolith evolution is dominated by brecciation and subsequent mixing of bright and dark components.
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Given uncontrolled flow rate or varied solvent composition, another representation was designed such that a different heating source and control system would allow for partial vaporization. Two different heating methods were combined because one is capable of more rapid response time while the other is slower. This combination allows the third representation of vaporizer to handle fluctuations in flow rate coming of the LC column.
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The first converted PRU (Photo-Reconnaissance Unit) Mosquito was delivered to RAF Benson in July 1941 by Geoffrey de Havilland himself. The PR Mk XVI and later variants had pressurized cockpits and also pressurized central and inner wing tanks to reduce fuel vaporization at high altitude. The Mosquito was faster than most enemy fighters above 40,000 ft,Bowman 2005, p. 21. and could roam almost anywhere.
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As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component.
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It is known that the stronger the force, the higher the energy of vaporization. Surface tension can then be used to calculate surface energy (uσ). An equation describing this property is: Surface energy Where T is temperature and the system is at constant pressure and area. Specifically for hydrogels, the free surface energy can be predicted using the Flory–Huggins free energy function for the hydrogels.
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Incongruent transition, in chemistry, is a mass transition between two phases which involves a change in chemical composition. This is contrasted with congruent transition, for which the composition remains the same. The transition may be that of melting, vaporization or allotropism. The concept is also often extended to related phenomena, for example, incongruent dissolution of a solid by a liquid solvent, which is often encountered in geology.
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Orally administered NMT appears to produce no psychoactive effects, likely as a result of extensive first-pass metabolism.Foye's principles of medicinal chemistry By William O. Foye, Thomas L. Lemke, David A. Williams However, it may become active upon combination with a MAOA inhibitor (MAOI). By vaporization NMT shows activity at 50–100 mg, with a duration of 45–70 minutes; duration of visual effects 15–30 seconds.
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The calorific value of liquid dimethylfuran is 33.7 MJ/kg, compared to 26.9 MJ/kg for ethanol and 43.2 MJ/kg for gasoline. The research octane number (RON) of dimethylfuran is 119. The latent heat of vaporization at 20 °C is 31.91 kJ/mol. Recent tests in a single-cylinder gasoline engine found that the thermal efficiency of burning dimethylfuran is similar to that of gasoline.
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With each condensation-vaporization cycle, the vapors are enriched in a certain component. A larger surface area allows more cycles, improving separation. This is the rationale for a Vigreux column or a packed fractionating column. Spinning band distillation achieves the same outcome by using a rotating band within the column to force the rising vapors and descending condensate into close contact, achieving equilibrium more quickly.
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If any vapor is introduced into the system it will compress, and the pressure may not rise sufficiently to actuate the brakes. Hydraulic braking systems are sometimes subjected to high temperatures during operation, such as when descending steep grades. For this reason, hydraulic fluid must resist vaporization at high temperatures. Water vaporizes easily with heat and can corrode the metal parts of the system.
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The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or per 1000 feet) of altitude. Note that the presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor.
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Every heat engine is subject to the theoretical efficiency limits of the Carnot cycle or subset Rankine cycle in the case of steam turbine power plants or Brayton cycle in gas turbine with steam turbine plants. Most of the efficiency loss with steam power generation is associated with the latent heat of vaporization of steam that is not recovered when a turbine exhausts its low temperature and pressure steam to a condenser. (Typical steam to condenser would be at a few millimeters absolute pressure and on the order of 5 °C/11 °F hotter than the cooling water temperature, depending on the condenser capacity.) In cogeneration this steam exits the turbine at a higher temperature where it may be used for process heat, building heat or cooling with an absorption chiller. The majority of this heat is from the latent heat of vaporization when the steam condenses.
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Sodium, potassium and calcium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980–1990s, and are thought to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts including presently from Comet Encke. In 2008, magnesium was discovered by MESSENGER. Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet's magnetic poles. This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet's surface.
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Cavitation is the process of forming an air bubble in a liquid due to the vaporization of that liquid cause by an area of low pressure. This area of low pressure lowers the boiling point of a liquid allowing it to vaporize into a gas. Cavitation can take place in pumps, which can cause damage to the impeller that moves the fluids through the system. Cavitation is also seen in propulsion.
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Spinning band distillation is a technique used to separate liquid mixtures which are similar in boiling points. When liquids with similar boiling points are distilled, the vapors are mixtures, and not pure compounds. Fractionating columns help separate the mixture by allowing the mixed vapors to cool, condense, and vaporize again in accordance with Raoult's law. With each condensation-vaporization cycles, the vapors are enriched in a certain component.
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A larger surface area allows more cycles, improving separation. Spinning band distillation takes this concept one step further by using a spinning helical band made of an inert material such as metal or Teflon to push the rising vapors and descending condensate to the sides of the column, coming into close contact with each other. This speeds up equilibration and provides for a greater number of condensation-vaporization cycles.
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Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide affects plants in a variety of ways. Elevated CO2 increases crop yields and growth through an increase in photosynthetic rate, and it also decreases water loss as a result of stomatal closing. It limits the vaporization of water reaching the stem of the plant. "Crassulacean Acid Metabolism" oxygen is all along the layer of the leaves for each plant leaves taking in CO2and release O2.
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The Omega Chemical Corporation was a refrigerant and solvent recycling company that operated from 1976-1991 in Whittier, California. Due to improper waste handling and removal, the soil and groundwater beneath the property became contaminated and the area is now referred to as the Omega Chemical Superfund Site. Cleanup of the site began in 1995 with the removal of hazardous waste receptacles and a multimillion-dollar soil vaporization detoxifying system.
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Administration of infliximab has provided only after previous treatment with antibiotics or immunosuppressive. Surgical approach has been conducted in a minority of cases and mostly consists of either vulvectomy, laser vaporization, lesion excision, or vulvar abscess draining. Surgical management has unfortunately been comparably more unsuccessful than medical, and should only see minimal use, with the exception of cases nonresponding to medical treatment, drainage of vulvar abscesses and resection of surface lesions.
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Bone marrow ablation is a process whereby the human bone marrow cells are eliminated in preparation for a bone marrow transplant. This is performed using high-intensity chemotherapy and total body irradiation. As such, it has nothing to do with the vaporization techniques described in the rest of this article. Ablation of brain tissue is used for treating certain neurological disorders, particularly Parkinson's disease, and sometimes for psychiatric disorders as well.
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In vaporization cutting the focused beam heats the surface of the material to boiling point and generates a keyhole. The keyhole leads to a sudden increase in absorptivity quickly deepening the hole. As the hole deepens and the material boils, vapor generated erodes the molten walls blowing ejecta out and further enlarging the hole. Non melting material such as wood, carbon and thermoset plastics are usually cut by this method.
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The number of planetesimals that would reach the Moon is consistent with the crater record from the LHB. However, the orbital distribution of the remaining asteroids does not match observations. In the outer Solar System the impacts onto Jupiter's moons are sufficient to trigger Ganymede's differentiation but not Callisto's. The impacts of icy planetesimals onto Saturn's inner moons are excessive, however, resulting in the vaporization of their ice.
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Note that in the case of liquefied gasses, BLEVEs can also be hazardous because of rapid cooling due to the absorption of the enthalpy of vaporization (e.g. frostbites), or because of possible asphyxiation if a large volume of gas is produced and not rapidly dispersed (e.g. inside a building, or in a trough in the case of heavier-than-air gasses), or because of the toxicity of the gasses produced.
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This condition is considered premalignant because it may lead to squamous cell carcinoma in about 10% of all cases. It is not possible to predict which cases will progress into SCC, so the current consensus is that all lesions should be treated. Treatment options include 5-fluorouracil, imiquimod, scalpel vermillionectomy, chemical peel, electrosurgery, and carbon dioxide laser vaporization. These curative treatments attempt to destroy or remove the damaged epithelium.
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The vapor pressure in the cylinder is a function of temperature. When gaseous propane is drawn at a high rate, the latent heat of vaporization required to create the gas will cause the bottle to cool. (This is why water often condenses on the sides of the bottle and then freezes). Since lightweight, high-octane propane vaporize before the heavier, low-octane propane, the ignition properties change as the cylinder empties.
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Her work on shock-induced ice melting helped to show that liquid water is the most erosive fluid currently at work on the surface of Mars. One of the tools at the Shock Compression Laboratory is a 40 mm cannon. The shock lab has been located at UC Davis since 2016. Her group also does experiments at the Z Machine at Sandia National Laboratory to study shock-induced vaporization.
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Flashboards run in several parallel strings to provide a large area of plasma or ultraviolet radiation and uses the breakdown and vaporization of gaps of diamonds to produce the required plasma. These parallel strings are mounted in tubes and oriented to have their gaps azimuthal to the tube's axis. It discharges by using high pressure air to move air out of the way.Diamond, Electro Thermal Chemical Gun Technology Study, p.
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Most modern breweries utilize vacuum evaporation to reduce the boiling temperature and maintain flavor. In essence, the beer is placed under a light vacuum to facilitate the alcohol molecules going into the gaseous phase. If a sufficient vacuum is applied, it is not necessary to "cook" the beer at a temperature that destroys the flavor. Some heat must nevertheless be supplied to counter the heat lost to enthalpy of vaporization.
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Internal combustion engines rely upon the vaporization of the fuel in the cylinders to form a fuel/air mixture in order to burn well. The chemically correct air/fuel mixture for total burning of gasoline has been determined to be 15 parts air to one part gasoline or 15/1 by weight. Changing this to a volume ratio yields 8000 parts air to one part gasoline or 8,000/1 by volume.
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The greenhouse gases trap sun rays that should be reflected back out into the universe, thereby causing the Earth's temperature to elevate. The increasing temperatures mostly affect countries that are closer to water since water can absorb a lot of energy from the sun and can release it in the form of vaporization. As the evaporated water condenses, the amount of condensation increases and the likelihood of precipitation increases as well.
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Vapors are created when grease is heated to and beyond its vaporization point. As the vapors cool, the grease condenses and settles on colder surfaces. It is important for occupational safety and health, as well as compliance with local fire codes, to vent such vapors outside the kitchen and outside the building where the kitchen is located. Grease is not only slippery, but also a highly flammable hydrocarbon.
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For a given amount of air consumed, this means that an engine can burn 7.6 times more nitromethane than gasoline. Nitromethane also has a high latent heat of vaporization, meaning that it will absorb substantial engine heat as it vaporizes, providing an invaluable cooling mechanism. The laminar flame speed and combustion temperature are higher than gasoline at and respectively. Power output can be increased by using very rich air-fuel mixtures.
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Single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) were first seen in 1993 as cylinders rolled from a single graphene sheet. In 1998, the first peapod was observed by Brian Smith, Marc Monthioux and David Luzzi. The idea of peapods came from the structure that was produced inside a transmission electron microscope in 2000. They were first recognized in fragments obtained by a pulsed-laser vaporization synthesis followed by treatment with an acid and annealing.
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When the laser beam hits the surface of the material, its behavior may vary according to the power of the laser used. In the case of high power, there is a real "ablation" or "vaporization" of the material at the point of incidence between the laser and the surface: this causes the disappearance of a small portion of material and a small recall force, due to compression longitudinal, which would be the origin of the ultrasonic wave. This longitudinal wave tends to propagate in the normal direction to the surface of the material, regardless of the angle of incidence of the laser: this would allow to accurately estimate the thickness of the material, knowing the speed of propagation of the wave, without worrying about the angle of incidence. The use of a high power laser, with consequent vaporization of the material, is the optimal way to obtain an ultrasonic response from the object.
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Heat of vaporization of water from melting to critical temperature Water has a very high specific heat capacity of 4.1814 J/(g·K) at 25 °C – the second highest among all the heteroatomic species (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. Most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has accumulated in the oceans. The specific enthalpy of fusion (more commonly known as latent heat) of water is 333.55 kJ/kg at 0 °C: the same amount of energy is required to melt ice as to warm ice from −160 °C up to its melting point or to heat the same amount of water by about 80 °C.
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In Europe the usable energy content of a fuel is typically calculated using the lower heating value (LHV) of that fuel, the definition of which assumes that the water vapor produced during fuel combustion (oxidation) remains gaseous, and is not condensed to liquid water so the latent heat of vaporization of that water is not usable. Using the LHV, a condensing boiler can achieve a "heating efficiency" in excess of 100% (this does not violate the first law of thermodynamics as long as the LHV convention is understood, but does cause confusion). This is because the apparatus recovers part of the heat of vaporization, which is not included in the definition of the lower heating value of a fuel. In the U.S. and elsewhere, the higher heating value (HHV) is used, which includes the latent heat for condensing the water vapor, and thus the thermodynamic maximum of 100% efficiency cannot be exceeded.
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In cutting mode electrode touches the tissue, and sufficiently high power density is applied to vaporize its water content. Since water vapor is not conductive under normal circumstances, electric current cannot flow through the vapor layer. Energy delivery beyond the vaporization threshold can continue if sufficiently high voltage is applied (> +/-200 V) to ionize vapor and convert it into a conductive plasma. Vapor and fragments of the overheated tissue are ejected, forming a crater.
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The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometre or 3 °F per 1000 feet).
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Compounds with a higher vaporization point will remain behind and will include many of the water-soluble plant pigments and flavonoids. Because hydrosols are produced at high temperatures and are somewhat acidic, they tend to inhibit bacterial growth but not fungal growth. They are not sterile, and should be kept refrigerated to preserve freshness. Herbal distillates degrade over time and will degrade faster than essential oils, which are more stable and will degrade slower.
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More recent work (Voisey, et al., 2000) shows that the fraction of the material removed by melt expulsion, referred to as melt ejection fraction (MEF), drops when laser energy further increases. The initial increase in melt expulsion on raising the beam power has been tentatively attributed to an increase in the pressure and pressure gradient generated within the hole by vaporization. A better finish can be achieved if the melt is ejected in fine droplets.
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The heat of vaporization greatly exceeds the specific heat capacity. Using water as an example, the energy needed to evaporate one gram of water is 540 times the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of that same one gram of water by 1 °C. Almost all of that energy is rapidly transferred to the "cold" end when the fluid condenses there, making a very effective heat transfer system with no moving parts.
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Once this water is inside the boiler or steam generator, the process of adding the latent heat of vaporization begins. The boiler transfers energy to the water by the chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel. The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum, from where it goes down the downcomers to the lower inlet waterwall headers.
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In chemical separation processes, an Energy separating agent (ESA) is the heat or shaft work added to facilitate the separation of two chemical species. It is contrasted with a mass separating agent, which is any chemical species added to the reaction that facilitates the reaction. ESAs are used in many common separation procedures. Some important examples of procedures utilizing ESAs are vaporization (heat added), distillation (heat added), crystallization (heat evolved), and stripping (heat added).
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Siekierski & Burgess 2002, pp. 65, 122 Astatine may be metallic in the liquid state on the basis that elements with an enthalpy of vaporization (∆Hvap) greater than ~42 kJ/mol are metallic when liquid.Rao & Ganguly 1986 Such elements include boron, silicon, germanium, antimony, selenium, and tellurium. Estimated values for ∆Hvap of diatomic astatine are 50 kJ/mol or higher;Vasáros & Berei 1985, p. 117 diatomic iodine, with a ∆Hvap of 41.71,Kaye & Laby 1973, p.
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Atmosphere There are indications that Ceres may have a tenuous atmosphere and water frost on the surface. Surface water ice is unstable at distances less than 5 AU from the Sun, so it is expected to sublime if it is exposed directly to solar radiation. Water ice can migrate from the deep layers of Ceres to the surface, but escapes in a very short time. As a result, it is difficult to detect water vaporization.
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The depth of penetration and the rate of propagation in pitting corrosion are significantly greater than in crevice corrosion. Crevices can develop a local chemistry which is very different from that of the bulk fluid. For example, in boilers, concentration of non-volatile impurities may occur in crevices near heat-transfer surfaces because of the continuous water vaporization. "Concentration factors" of many millions are not uncommon for common water impurities like sodium, sulfate or chloride.
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Regasification is the process of converting LNG from a liquid to a gaseous state. This requires significant quantities of heat energy to supply the enthalpy of vaporization of LNG and to heat it from -162°C to about 0 to 10°C for introduction into a pipeline. Gas may be sent to a main gas transmission system, which typically operates at 70–100 bar. NGL is first pumped as liquid to this pressure.
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Theory of Heat, third edition, Longmans, Green, and Co., London, page 73. Latent heat is energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system, during a constant-temperature process. Two common forms of latent heat are latent heat of fusion (melting) and latent heat of vaporization (boiling). These names describe the direction of energy flow when changing from one phase to the next: from solid to liquid, and liquid to gas.
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During frying, water in noodle strands migrates from central region outwards to replace the surface water that is dehydrated during frying. Therefore, a porous sponge structure in the noodle is created due to vaporization. During the migration of water, it carries thermal energy from oil to the surroundings and bound water to offer the heat for finishing starch gelatinization. Furthermore, the heat transfer during evaporation protects instant noodles from burning or being overcooked during frying.
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Note that the presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometer or per 1000 feet).
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For welding metallic objects, the laser beam is focused to obtain intensities of more than 1 MW/cm2. When the laser beam hits the surface of the material, this spot is heated up to vaporization temperature, and a vapor cavity is formed in the weld metal due to the escaping metal vapor. This is known as a keyhole. The extraordinary feature of the weld seam is its high depth-to-width ratio.
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The rails need to withstand enormous repulsive forces during shooting, and these forces will tend to push them apart and away from the projectile. As rail/projectile clearances increase, arcing develops, which causes rapid vaporization and extensive damage to the rail surfaces and the insulator surfaces. This limited some early research railguns to one shot per service interval. The inductance and resistance of the rails and power supply limit the efficiency of a railgun design.
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Carburetor icing, or carb icing, is an icing condition which can affect any carburetor under certain atmospheric conditions. The problem is most notable in certain realms of aviation. Carburetor icing is caused by the temperature drop in the carburetor, as an effect of fuel vaporization, and the temperature drop associated with the pressure drop in the venturi. If the temperature drops below freezing, water vapor will freeze onto the throttle valve, and other internal surfaces of the carburetor.
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This could find an application in some advanced muffler, using nonlinear acoustic effects to withdraw the energy of the sound waves without to disturb the flux of the gas. Again, the analysis of the nonlinear response, i.e. the transfer function, may be boosted with the superfunction. ;Evaporation and condensation: In analysis of condensation, the growth (or vaporization) of a small drop of liquid can be considered, as it diffuses down through a tube with some uniform concentration of vapor.
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The adsorption chamber of the chiller is filled with a solid material (for example zeolite, silica gel, alumina, active carbon or certain types of metal salts), which in its neutral state has adsorbed the refrigerant. When heated, the solid desorbs (releases) refrigerant vapour, which subsequently is cooled and liquefied. This liquid refrigerant then provides a cooling effect at the evaporator from its enthalpy of vaporization. In the final stage the refrigerant vapour is (re)adsorbed into the solid.
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When the intracellular temperature reaches 60 degrees C, instantaneous cell death occurs. If tissue is heated to 60–99 degrees C, the simultaneous processes of tissue desiccation (dehydration) and protein coagulation occur. If the intracellular temperature rapidly reaches 100 degrees C, the intracellular contents undergo a liquid to gas conversion, massive volumetric expansion, and resulting explosive vaporization. Appropriately applied with electrosurgical forceps, desiccation and coagulation result in the occlusion of blood vessels and halting of bleeding.
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Electric current continues to flow from the metal electrode through the ionized gas into the tissue. Rapid overheating of tissue results in its vaporization, fragmentation and ejection of fragments, allowing for tissue cutting. In applications of a continuous wave the heat diffusion typically leads to formation of a significant thermal damage zone at the edges of the lesion. Open circuit voltage in electrosurgical waveforms is typically in the range of 300–10,000 V peak-to- peak.
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For atomic mass spectrometry, a sample must also be ionized. Vaporization, atomization, and ionization are often, but not always, accomplished with a single source. Alternatively, one source may be used to vaporize a sample while another is used to atomize (and possibly ionize). An example of this is laser ablation inductively-coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry, where a laser is used to vaporize a solid sample and an inductively-coupled plasma is used to atomize the vapor.
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Channel 4 (UK) documentary. Transmitted 30 August 2011 Camels rarely sweat, even when ambient temperatures reach . Any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat; the heat of vaporization therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat. Camels can withstand losing 25% of their body weight to sweating, whereas most other mammals can withstand only about 12–14% dehydration before cardiac failure results from circulatory disturbance.
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Direct methods for multi-phase solar desalination are those which use the sun's thermal energy collected to heat the sea water and produce the vaporization needed for this 2-phase separation. Such methods are relatively simple and require little space so they are normally used on small production systems. However, they have a low production rate due to low operating temperature and pressure, so they are useful on places where the demand of freshwater is below 200 m3/day.
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Evaporation printing uses a combination of high precision screen printing with material vaporization to print features to 5 µm. This method uses techniques such as thermal, e-beam, sputter and other traditional production technologies to deposit materials through a high precision shadow mask (or stencil) that is registered to the substrate to better than 1 micrometer. By layering different mask designs and/or adjusting materials, reliable, cost-effective circuits can be built additively, without the use of photo-lithography.
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Since the process requires additional energy, it is an endothermic change. The enthalpy of sublimation (also called heat of sublimation) can be calculated by adding the enthalpy of fusion and the enthalpy of vaporization. Comparison of phase diagrams of carbon dioxide (red) and water (blue) showing the carbon dioxide sublimation point (middle-left) at 1 atmosphere. As dry ice is heated, it crosses this point along the bold horizontal line from the solid phase directly into the gaseous phase.
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If wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates, the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium, and it becomes saturated steam. Saturated steam is advantageous in heat transfer due to the high latent heat of vaporization. It is a very efficient mode of heat transfer. In layman's terms, saturated steam is at its dew point at the corresponding temperature and pressure.
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This bubble is due to the vaporization of water that directly absorbs the heat of the blast. This bubble may break the surface depending on how much energy is dispersed and the depth of the nuclear device. The bubble displaces large amounts of water that then collapses in on the bubble after all the energy is expended. The water collapsing in on the cavity is called the "radioactive pool" and has the highest concentration of radioactive material.
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So called "butane honey oil" was available briefly in the 1970s. This product was made in Kabul, Afghanistan, and smuggled into the United States by The Brotherhood of Eternal Love. Production is thought to have ceased when the facility was destroyed in an explosion. Traditional ice-water separated hashish production utilizes water and filter bags to separate plant material from resin, though this method still leaves much residual plant matter and is therefore poorly suited for full vaporization.
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Gold described the use of alcohol and activated charcoal in honey oil production by 1989, and Michael Starks further detailed procedures and various solvents by 1990. Large cannabis vaporizers gained popularity in the twentieth century for their ability to vaporize the cannabinoids in cannabis and extracts without burning plant material, using temperature controlled vaporization. Colorado and Washington began licensing hash oil extraction operations in 2014. Small portable vape pens saw a dramatic increase in popularity in 2017.
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The mechanism of bullet disintegration varies with the energy transfer at the time of impact. With sufficient velocity, bullets may be vaporized upon impact. Few firearms can propel bullets at sufficient velocity to cause reliable vaporization at the target, and air resistance causes bullet velocity to decrease with increasing distance from the firing point; so frangible bullets typically rely upon other mechanisms for disintegration at lower velocities. Target characteristics are an important aspect of interaction with the bullet.
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When switching high currents, the electrodes undergo considerable heat stress, as they are directly involved in the electric arc. This causes the surfaces to undergo gradual vaporization, so some designs incorporate methods to easily adjust the distance between the electrodes or to actually replace the electrodes. The main electrodes are typically fabricated from brass, copper or its alloys, tungsten, or copper–tungsten composite, to achieve longer electrode life. The trigger pulse is most often delivered by a trigger transformer.
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Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane, C2H6) that has been cooled down to liquid form for ease and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state (at standard conditions for temperature and pressure). It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non- corrosive. Hazards include flammability after vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia.
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Typical laboratory fractional distillation unit For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification. As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column.
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Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase. The surrounding gas must not be saturated with the evaporating substance. When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer energy to each other based on how they collide with each other. When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy to overcome the vapor pressure, it will escape and enter the surrounding air as a gas.
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Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air. Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais. The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines.
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Wille S, Al MM, Schumacher P, Poyi-Kamdem M, Tok A, Muthen N, Ozgur E, Engelmann UH: Urodynamic effect of 80 watt photoselective laser vaporization of the prostate. Scand J Urol 2013;47:378-383. His scientific interest in improved diagnostic tools of patients suffering from an overactive bladder sydnrome (OAB) culminates in the invention of a urodynamic catheterless longterm measuring capsule (Wille capsule, wica).Wille S, Tenholte D, Engelmann U: A system for long-term urodynamic studies without catheters.
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Just before drinking, a tab is pulled so that the desiccant comes into contact with the liquid and dissolves. As it does so, it absorbs an amount of heat energy called the latent heat of fusion. Evaporative cooling works with the phase change of liquid into vapor and the latent heat of vaporization, but the self- cooling can uses a change from solid to liquid, and the latent heat of fusion, to achieve the same result.
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It is distinguished from western-style large-bowl pipes designed for strong tobaccos that are burned hot and tasted but not inhaled. Instead, by properly distancing a lighter flame below the opening, inhalant users operate at vaporization temperatures, minimizing combustion waste and toxicity. Traditional national varieties of one-hitter pipes have included Native American calumet ("peace pipe"), kiseru (Japan), midwakh (Middle East), sebsi (Morocco) and some narrow chillums (Nepal, India, Jamaica). A one-hitter has been considered drug paraphernalia in certain regions.
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However, the Red Army is unable to assault Bayley's base directly, since that would risk an explosive vaporization of the frozen air (Bayley demonstrates the possible consequences by releasing a portion of said air, leveling enormous areas of Siberia and the Europe.). Bayley holds Nora hostage in order to keep Engelbrecht under control. Realising the danger Bayley's plans impose to the Earth, Nora commits suicide by exposing herself to the frozen oxygen. Now free and lusting for revenge, Engelbert sides with Klimenko.
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A number of measures have been developed to remove these byproducts, allowing the sulfolane to be reused and increase the lifetime of a given supply. Some methods that have been developed to regenerate spent sulfolane include vacuum and steam distillation, back extraction, adsorption, and anion-cation exchange resin columns. Sulfolane is also added to hydrofluoric acid as a vapor suppressant, commonly for use in a refinery's alkylation unit. This "modified" hydrofluoric acid is less prone to vaporization if released in its liquid form.
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Pulsed laser deposition is only one of many thin film deposition techniques. Other methods include molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), sputter deposition (RF, magnetron, and ion beam). The history of laser-assisted film growth started soon after the technical realization of the first laser in 1960 by Maiman. Smith and Turner utilized a ruby laser to deposit the first thin films in 1965, three years after Breech and Cross studied the laser-vaporization and excitation of atoms from solid surfaces.
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In the past, the museum exhibit contained a statement that the person was a 42-year-old woman named Mitsuno Koshitomo (越智ミツノ). As a result of these previous statements, some conclusions in the literature state that she was the person depicted in the stone. According to museum staff, many visitors to the museum believe that the shadow is the outline of a human vaporized immediately after the bombing. However, the possibility of human vaporization is not supported from a medical perspective.
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The Brazilian 2008 Honda Civic flex-fuel has outside direct access to the secondary reservoir gasoline tank in the front right side, the corresponding fuel filler door is shown by the arrow. High ethanol blends present a problem to achieve enough vapor pressure for the fuel to evaporate and spark the ignition during cold weather (since ethanol tends to increase fuel enthalpy of vaporization). When vapor pressure is below 45 kPa starting a cold engine becomes difficult. Policy document 01/08.
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The quantity known as lower heating value (LHV) (net calorific value (NCV) or lower calorific value (LCV)) is determined by subtracting the heat of vaporization of the water from the higher heating value. This treats any H2O formed as a vapor. The energy required to vaporize the water therefore is not released as heat. LHV calculations assume that the water component of a combustion process is in vapor state at the end of combustion, as opposed to the higher heating value (HHV) (a.k.a.
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Asteroid laser ablation is a proposed method for deflecting asteroids, involving the use of a laser array to alter the orbit of an asteroid. Laser Ablation works by heating up a substance enough to allow gaseous material to eject, either through sublimation (solid to gas) or vaporization (liquid to gas). For most asteroids this process occurs between temperatures in the range of . The ejecting material creates a thrust, which over an extended period of time can change the trajectory of the asteroid.
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For example, in 1374 the Count of Oñati appropriated the village and Leintz Gatzaga has been burnt down several times, in 1334, 1371, 1492 and 1498. Following the last burning, it was ordered that the old part must be built of stone. Whereas in most places the vaporization system was used in salt mining, in Leintz Gatzaga, due to its cold and wet climate, salt miners would use fire to evaporate the water. The machinery used changed throughout the centuries.
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In 1968, Red Tornado appears at JSA headquarters on Earth-Two claiming to be the "original" Red Tornado (Ma Hunkel). Although the JSA is suspicious, Red Tornado has all of Hunkel's memories. Morrow has other robots attack a museum and vaporize relics, and the JSA responds. Red Tornado, programmed to appear inept (and keep the JSA from realizing its true nature), exposes the JSA to the dust created by the vaporization and all except Doctor Fate fall into a coma.
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This facility is supplied by two pipelines and can deliver up to 90,000 Mcf/day to the Chattanooga Gas market. Southern Company Gas, through Virginia Natural Gas (VNG), also owns some storage capacity — 752,174 Mcf equivalent — in the Columbia Natural Gas Company- operated Chesapeake LNG facility. This plant is located at the end of the Columbia pipeline that supplies VNG's south system. To more fully utilize this contracted capacity, VNG constructed an LNG vaporization plant adjacent to its propane plant in 2002.
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In its landscape stands out the one known as Montaña Pelada, a natural space protected under the category of natural monument, and that corresponds to a volcanic cone that presents a boiler of approximately 1 kilometer of diameter, conformed by successive explosions fruit of the violent vaporization of the sea waters. Hermano Pedro spent some time in a little cave situated near the present-day town. The cave is now the site of a small shrine dedicated to the saint.
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The engine has a fuel injection system which schedules fuel flow proportionally to the airflow, with fuel vaporization occurring at the intake ports. The engine has a displacement of 722 cubic inches (11.8 litres) and produces . The cylinders have air-cooled heads cast from aluminum alloy with a fully machined combustion chamber. The first IO-720 was type certified on 25 October 1961 to the CAR 13 standard as amended to 15 June 1956 including 13-1, 13-2, 13-3, 13-4.
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Therefore special metals are used for this low-temperature cryogenic service where metal is in contact with LNG. Appropriate materials includes aluminium alloys with 3 to 5 percent magnesium and high nickel steels containing 9 per cent nickel. The loading/unloading arms and pipework are insulated to prevent heat gain from the air to minimise the vaporization of LNG. Tankers being loaded with LNG displace the vapour volume in their tanks, this gas is routed to boil-off or gas recovery storage tanks.
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Additionally, they discovered at the site formations of travertine, a form of calcite created when water flows through limestone and dissolves calcium carbonate, which is later redeposited. Further investigation revealed that deep beneath the Delphi region lies bituminous deposit, rich in hydrocarbons and full of pitch, that has a petrochemical content as high as 20%. Friction created by earthquakes heat the bituminous layers resulting in vaporization of the hydrocarbons which rise to the surface through small fissures in the rock.
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The plant was re-opened on 7 May 2020 following the nationwide lockdown implemented as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The plant stored 2,000 metric tons (1,968 long tons; 2,205 short tons) of styrene in tanks, which were left unattended. Styrene monomer must be stored between because higher temperatures result in rapid vaporization. It is believed that a computer glitch in the factory's cooling system allowed temperatures in the storage tanks to exceed safe levels, causing the styrene to vaporize.
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Condensate is the waste that had been discharged through waste stream in climbing and falling-film evaporator. This evaporator will discharge vapor as the condensate as vapor pass through more rapidly than the liquid flows in the tube. In each evaporation unit, the feed enter from the bottom of tubesheet of pass through the climbing and falling film segment. When the liquid rises throughout the tube, boiling and vaporization process occurred as it is contact with the steam heated plates.
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Pure ethanol provides 2/3 of the heat value available in pure gasoline. In the most common calculation, that is, the BTU value of pure gasoline vs gasoline with 10% ethanol, the latter has just over 96% BTU value of pure gasoline. Gasoline BTU varies relating to the Reid vapor pressure (causing easier vaporization in winter blends containing ethanol (ethanol is difficult to start a vehicle on when it is cold out) and anti- knock additives. Such additives offer a reduction in BTU value.
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On 5 February 2016, the Chinese government issued the investigation report of the explosions. The report concluded the fire started in a container through auto-ignition of nitrocellulose, due to vaporization of the wetting agent during hot weather. On 8 November 2016, various courts in China handed jail sentences to 49 government officials and warehouse executives and staff for their roles in circumventing the safety rules that led to the disaster. Yu Xuewei, the Chairman of Ruihai Logistics, was sentenced to death with a two-year reprieve.
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Reaction Design is a San Diego-based developer of combustion simulation software used by engineers to design cleaner burning and fuel-efficient combustors and engines, found in everything from automobiles to turbines for power generation and aircraft propulsion to large diesel engines that use pistons the size of rooms to propel ships locomotives. The technology is also used to model spray vaporization in electronic materials processing applications and predict mixing reactions in chemical plants. Ansys, a leader in engineering simulation software, acquired Reaction Design in January 2014.
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FortisBC's Mt Hayes facility is located near Ladysmith, Vancouver Island. The facility was completed in 2011 and is owned in a limited partnership between FortisBC, Stz'uminus First Nation, and the Cowichan Tribes. The facility includes a liquefaction system, vaporization system, and storage tank and is connected to the main transmission line via two pipeline spurs. The primary use of the facility is for peak shaving storage, to ensure a steady supply of gas and maintain lower costs during peak demand periods for local customers.
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Although it has only been used on demonstration projects, this indirect method based on crystallization of the saline water has the advantage of the low energy required. Since the latent heat of fusion of water is 6,01 kJ/mole and the latent heat of vaporization at 100 °C is 40,66 kJ/mole, it should be cheaper in terms of energy cost. Furthermore, the corrosion risk is lower too. There is although a disadvantage related with the difficulties of mechanically moving mixtures of ice and liquid.
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Slapper detonators are an improvement on EBW detonators. Slappers, instead of directly using the exploding foil to detonate the initiator explosive, use the electrical vaporization of the foil to drive a small circle of insulating material such as PET film or kapton down a circular hole in an additional disc of insulating material. At the far end of that hole is a pellet of conventional initiator explosive. The conversion efficiency of energy from electricity into kinetic energy of the flying disk or slapper can be 20–40%.
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Examples can include Latent internal energy of vaporization (liquid to vapor), Latent internal energy of crystallization (liquid to solid) Latent internal energy of sublimation (solid to vapor). These values are usually expressed in units of energy per mole or per mass such as J/mol or BTU/lb. Often a negative sign will be used to represent energy being withdrawn from the system, while a positive value represents energy being added to the system. However, reference sources do vary so check the source to be sure.
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Sputter occurs when the energy level is very low, below 15% of the explosion energy, or when the pulse duration is very long. Sputter is the vaporization of metal from the cathode, which is redeposited on the walls of the lamp, blocking the light output. Because the cathode is more emissive than the anode, the flashtube is polarized, and connecting the lamp to the power source incorrectly will quickly ruin it. However, even if connected properly, the degree of sputter may vary considerably from lamp to lamp.
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During and immediately after World War II, alcohols (primarily ethanol, occasionally methanol) were the most common fuels for large liquid-fueled rockets. Their high heat of vaporization kept regeneratively-cooled engines from melting, especially considering that alcohols would typically contain several percent water. However, it was recognized that hydrocarbon fuels would increase engine efficiency, due to a slightly higher density, the lack of an oxygen atom in the fuel molecule, and negligible water content. Whatever hydrocarbon was chosen, though, would have to replicate alcohol's coolant ability.
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All "wipes" deteriorate quickly and require disassembly and spare parts replacement. "Wet" silencers or "wet cans" use a small quantity of water, oil, grease, or gel in the expansion chambers to cool the propellant gases and reduce their volume (see ideal gas law). The coolant lasts only a few shots before it must be replenished, but can greatly increase the effectiveness of the suppressor. Water is most effective, because of its high heat of vaporization, but it can run or evaporate out of the silencer.
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The Ferraris were also struggling on Michelins, and Villeneuve pitted for new tyres on lap 50, before stopping with fuel vaporization problems five laps from the end. Scheckter, meanwhile, was lapped by Regazzoni on lap 56, before Jarier and Watson passed him in the closing laps. Regazzoni eventually took the chequered flag 24 seconds ahead of Arnoux, giving Williams their first Formula One victory. It was also Regazzoni's fifth and final win and, to date, the last win in F1 for a Swiss driver.
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Vulvectomy refers to a gynecological procedure in which the vulva is partly or completely removed. The procedure is usually performed as a last resort in certain cases of cancer,Fuh KC and Berek JS (2012) Current management of vulvar cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 26(1):45-62. vulvar dysplasia, vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia,Hillemans P, Wang X, Staehle S, Michels W, Dannecker C (2006) Evaluation of different treatment modalities for vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN): CO(2) laser vaporization, photodynamic therapy, excision and vulvectomy.
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Schematic of the EBID process EBID setup The focused electron beam of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) or scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) is commonly used. Another method is ion-beam- induced deposition (IBID), where a focused ion beam is applied instead. Precursor materials are typically liquid or solid and gasified prior to deposition, usually through vaporization or sublimation, and introduced, at accurately controlled rate, into the high-vacuum chamber of the electron microscope. Alternatively, solid precursors can be sublimated by the electron beam itself.
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A cutaway view of the intake of the original Fordson tractor (including the intake manifold, vaporizer, carburetor, and fuel lines). Internal combustion engines can be configured to run on many kinds of fuel, including gasoline, kerosene, tractor vaporizing oil (TVO), vegetable oil, diesel fuel, biodiesel, ethanol fuel (alcohol), and others. Multifuel engines, such as petrol-paraffin engines, can benefit from an initial vaporization of the fuel when they are running less volatile fuels. For this purpose, a vaporizer (or vaporiser) is placed in the intake system.
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Flame filter prevents flame from igniting herb which instead is heated to vaporization temperature. A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to , which causes the active ingredients to evaporate into a gas without burning any plant material (the boiling point of THC is ).1989\. The Merck Index, 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey Vaporizing releases a lower proportion of carbon monoxide and other toxic chemicals than does smoking, although the proportion may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set.
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The 15th day of the New Year according to the lunar calendar is a traditional South Korean holiday. Many attend moon-viewing events all over the country for the new year's first full moon. On that night, Koreans drink Daeboreium or "ear-quickening wine" in hopes of hearing good news quickly for the next year. While children do not drink the alcohol they are encouraged to place their lips to the glass, then pour the wine in a chimney to deter sickness and vaporization.
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Then Earle began "three years in a mysterious vaporization" according to the Chicago Sun-Times. His 1990 album The Hard Way had a strong rock sound and was followed by "a shoddy live album" called Shut Up and Die Like an Aviator. In August 1991, Earle appeared on the TV show The Texas Connection "looking pale and blown out". In light of Earle's "increasing drug use", MCA Records did not renew his contract and Earle didn't record any music for the next four years.
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When a substance undergoes a phase transition (changes from one state of matter to another) it usually either takes up or releases energy. For example, when water evaporates, the increase in kinetic energy as the evaporating molecules escape the attractive forces of the liquid is reflected in a decrease in temperature. The energy required to induce the phase transition is taken from the internal thermal energy of the water, which cools the liquid to a lower temperature; hence evaporation is useful for cooling. See Enthalpy of vaporization.
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Some engines have been made with the reverse configuration, having the exhaust valve in the cylinder head and the intake valve in the block. The ABC Skootamota began production with an engine of this configuration, but this was changed to an overhead valve engine before production ended. In 1936 and 1937, the Indian Four had the valve positions reversed, with the exhaust valve in the head and the inlet valve in the block. In theory, this would improve fuel vaporization, and the engine was actually more powerful.
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Latent heat (also known as latent energy or heat of transformation) is energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system, during a constant- temperature process — usually a first-order phase transition. Latent heat can be understood as energy in hidden form which is supplied or extracted to change the state of a substance without changing its temperature. Examples are latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization involved in phase changes, i.e. a substance condensing or vaporizing at a specified temperature and pressure.
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Temperature control of the storage volume is used to determine the rate of vaporization of the frozen antihydrogen, up to a few grams per second (amounting to several petawatts of power when annihilated with equal amounts of matter). It is then ionized into antiprotons which can be electromagnetically accelerated into the reaction chamber. The positrons are usually discarded since their annihilation only produces harmful gamma rays with negligible effect on thrust. However, non-relativistic rockets may exclusively rely on these gamma rays for propulsion.
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Eight new fermentors made in Italy started work in 1996 which are cooled by direct vaporization of ammonium, which was the first time in Yugoslavia, and which rationalizes the expenditure of cooling energy. The four new ones were installed in 1998, and eight more in 2000. New, modern line for filling beer in glass bottles was installed in 2003. Čelarevo Brewery has been under the patronage of Carlsberg Group owning 52 percent from September 2003, and from September 2004 the ownership has become 99.96 percent.
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The same conduction that works against the spot vaporization of metal is an asset if the objective is to vaporize some other coating away from the metal. Laser engraving metal plates are manufactured with a finely polished metal, coated with an enamel paint made to be "burned off". At levels of 10 to 30 watts, excellent engravings are made as the enamel is removed quite cleanly. Much laser engraving is sold as exposed brass or silver-coated steel lettering on a black or dark-enamelled background.
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Experimental reference data included, for example, the enthalpy of vaporization (OPLS), enthalpy of sublimation, dipole moments, and various spectroscopic parameters. Inconsistencies can be overcome by interpretation of all force field parameters and choosing a consistent reference state, for example, room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Several force fields also include no clear chemical rationale, parameterization protocol, incomplete validation of key properties (structures and energies), lack of interpretation of parameters and of a discussion of uncertainties. In these cases, large, random deviations of computed properties have been reported.
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Anesthetic machine, showing sevoflurane (yellow) and isoflurane (purple) vaporizers on the right An anesthetic vaporizer (American English) or anaesthetic vaporiser (British English) is a device generally attached to an anesthetic machine which delivers a given concentration of a volatile anesthetic agent. It works by controlling the vaporization of anesthetic agents from liquid, and then accurately controlling the concentration in which these are added to the fresh gas flow. The design of these devices takes account of varying: ambient temperature, fresh gas flow, and agent vapor pressure.
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For outdoor fires, the seat of the fire is sprayed with a straight spray: the cooling effect immediately follows the "asphyxia" caused by vaporization and reduces the further amount of water required. A straight spray is used so the water arrives massively to the seat of the fire before it vaporizes. A strong spray may also have a mechanical effect; it can disperse the combustible product and thus prevent the fire from starting again. Spray is always aimed at a surface or an object.
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The pads which engage the rotating part may become overheated and "glaze over", becoming so smooth and hard that they cannot grip sufficiently to slow the vehicle. Also, vaporization of the hydraulic fluid under temperature extremes or thermal distortion may cause the linings to change their shape and engage less surface area of the rotating part. Thermal distortion may also cause permanent changes in the shape of the metal components, resulting in a reduction in braking capability that requires replacement of the affected parts.
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Researchers and designers of the ammunition disposal kilns assumed the combustible compounds within the ammunition would burn away at 350 degrees Celsius. Documents available from the US military state, and thermochemical and thermodynamic calculations verify, the combustible compounds within the ammunition being disposed of at Gerdec burn to give out a heat amounting to 4500 degrees Celsius. Such an energy would, without further sufficient and adequately designed machine components, lead to vaporization and explosion of the machines used to dispose of the ammunition dumps.
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The point of melting is indicated by the darkening of the hole when the liquid phase appears, destroying the black body conditions. Today, containerless laser heating techniques, combined with fast pyrometers and spectro- pyrometers, are employed to allow for precise control of the time for which the sample is kept at extreme temperatures. Such experiments of sub-second duration address several of the challenges associated with more traditional melting point measurements made at very high temperatures, such as sample vaporization and reaction with the container.
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When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as latent heat of vaporization which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than its surrounding air, continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form, which support lightning and thunder. Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form: moisture, an unstable airmass, and a lifting force (heat). All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and the dissipation stage.
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Carburetor icing conditions Carburetor icing is caused by the temperature drop in the carburetor, as an effect of fuel vaporization, and the temperature drop associated with the pressure drop in the venturi. If the temperature drops below freezing, water vapor will freeze onto the throttle valve, and other internal surfaces of the carburetor. The venturi effect can drop the ambient air temperature by 70 absolute degrees Fahrenheit (F), or 38.89 absolute degrees Celsius (C). In other words, air at an outside temperature of 100 degree F, can drop to 30 degrees F in the carburetor.
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Nitrous oxide can also be used to artificially increase the mass of oxygen present in the intake air. This is accomplished by injecting liquid nitrous oxide into the intake, which supplies significantly more oxygen in a given volume than is possible with atmospheric air. Nitrous oxide is 36.3% available oxygen by mass after it decomposes as compared with atmospheric air at 20.95%. Nitrous oxide also boils at at atmospheric pressures and offers significant cooling from the latent heat of vaporization, which also aids in increasing the overall air charge density significantly compared to natural aspiration.
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The "energy flash" of a hypervelocity impact during a laboratory simulation of what happens when a piece of orbital debris hits a spacecraft in orbit Hypervelocity impact Hypervelocity is very high velocity, approximately over 3,000 meters per second (6,700 mph, 11,000 km/h, 10,000 ft/s, or Mach 8.8). In particular, hypervelocity is velocity so high that the strength of materials upon impact is very small compared to inertial stresses. Thus, metals and fluids behave alike under hypervelocity impact. Extreme hypervelocity results in vaporization of the impactor and target.
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Hypervelocity collisions can be studied by examining the results of naturally occurring collisions (between micrometeorites and spacecraft, or between meteorites and planetary bodies), or they may be performed in laboratories. Currently the primary tool for laboratory experiments is a light-gas gun, but some experiments have used linear motors to accelerate projectiles to hypervelocity. The properties of metals under hypervelocity have been integrated with weapons, such as explosively formed penetrator. The vaporization upon impact and liquefaction of surfaces allow metal projectiles formed under hypervelocity forces to penetrate vehicle armor better than conventional bullets.
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Laclede Gas Company is the largest natural gas distribution utility in Missouri, serving approximately 632,000 residential, commercial and industrial customers in the city of St. Louis and ten counties in eastern Missouri. As an adjunct to its gas distribution business, the company operates an underground natural gas storage field, a propane storage cavern, and propane vaporization facilities. Lacede Gas is a regulated public utility and a wholly owned subsidiary of Spire Inc (formerly Laclede Group). Its corporate headquarters is located in the 700 Market building in downtown St. Louis.
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The HTL process differs from pyrolysis as it can process wet biomass and produce a bio-oil that contains approximately twice the energy density of pyrolysis oil. Pyrolysis is a related process to HTL, but biomass must be processed and dried in order to increase the yield. The presence of water in pyrolysis drastically increases the heat of vaporization of the organic material, increasing the energy required to decompose the biomass. Typical pyrolysis processes require a water content of less than 40% to suitably convert the biomass to bio-oil.
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Fireless steam locomotive Despite the resemblance to a boiler, note the lack of a chimney and also how the cylinders are at the cab end, not the chimney end. In other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a capacious reservoir for thermal energy because of water's high heat of vaporization. Fireless steam locomotives were steam locomotives that operated from a supply of steam stored on board in a large tank resembling a conventional locomotive's boiler.
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To overcome this, one or more outer MWNT shells are compromised or removed in the region between the anchors and the rotor plate. One simple way to accomplish this is by successively applying very large stator voltages (around 80 V DC) that cause mechanical fatigue and eventually shear the outer shells of the MWNT. An alternative method involves the reduction of the outermost MWNT tubes to smaller, wider concentric nanotubes beneath the rotor plate. The smaller nanotube(s) are fabricated using the Electrical driven vaporization (EDV) which is a variant of the electrical-breakdown technique.
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Plutonium hexafluoride is the highest fluoride of plutonium, and is of interest for laser enrichment of plutonium, in particular for the production of pure plutonium-239 from irradiated uranium. This pure plutonium is needed to avoid premature ignition of low-mass nuclear weapon designs by neutrons produced by spontaneous fission of plutonium-240. It is a red-brown volatile crystalline solid; the heat of sublimation is 12.1 kcal/mol and the heat of vaporization 7.4 kcal/mol. It is relatively hard to handle, being very corrosive and prone to auto-radiolysis.
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The ablation of the target material upon laser irradiation and the creation of plasma are very complex processes. The removal of atoms from the bulk material is done by vaporization of the bulk at the surface region in a state of non-equilibrium. In this the incident laser pulse penetrates into the surface of the material within the penetration depth. This dimension is dependent on the laser wavelength and the index of refraction of the target material at the applied laser wavelength and is typically in the region of 10 nm for most materials.
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Measurements on board the NASA satellite MESSENGER have revealed Encke may contribute to seasonal meteor showers on Mercury. The Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer (MASCS) instrument discovered seasonal surges of calcium since the probe began orbiting the planet in March 2011. The spikes in calcium levels are thought to originate from small dust particles hitting the planet and knocking calcium-bearing molecules into the atmosphere in a process called impact vaporization. However, the general background of interplanetary dust in the inner Solar System cannot, by itself, account for the periodic spikes in calcium.
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Ablative armor is armor which prevents damage through the process of ablation, the removal of material from the surface of an object by vaporization, chipping, or other erosive processes. In contemporary spacecraft, ablative plating is most frequently seen as an ablative heat shield for a vehicle that must enter atmosphere from orbit, such as on nuclear warheads, or space vehicles like the Mars Pathfinder probe. The idea is also commonly encountered in science fiction. Ablative armour is distinct from the concept of reactive armour which is actually in common use in modern armoured vehicles.
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Water's high enthalpy of vaporization allows the option of efficient evaporative cooling to remove waste heat in cooling towers or cooling ponds. Recirculating systems may be open if they rely upon evaporative cooling or closed if heat removal is accomplished in heat exchangers with negligible evaporative loss. A heat exchanger or condenser may separate non-contact cooling water from a fluid being cooled, or contact cooling water may directly impinge on items like saw blades where phase difference allows easy separation. Environmental regulations emphasize the reduced concentrations of waste products in non- contact cooling water.
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There were no surprises in qualifying, with Mario Andretti on pole and Ronnie Peterson alongside him, with Niki Lauda third. At the start, Peterson got off better and took the lead from Andretti, but he held it for only four laps before Andretti retook it. Lauda ran third in the early stages, but he was passed by Alan Jones, and the duo battled until Lauda's engine failed yet again. The two Lotus cars were cruising at the front, and Jones ran third comfortably until he retired with a fuel vaporization problem.
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With evaporative cooling condensers, their coefficients-of-performance (COPs) are very high; typically 4.0 or more. Air cooled condensers are installed and operated outdoors and are cooled with outside air, that is often forced through the condenser using electric fans. Water cooled condensers are cooled with water that is in turn cooled by a cooling tower. The expansion device or refrigerant metering device (RMD) restricts the flow of the liquid refrigerant causing a pressure drop that vaporizes some of the refrigerant; this vaporization absorbs heat from nearby liquid refrigerant.
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As the vapor condenses, it releases the corresponding heat of vaporization, that tends to raise the temperature of the condenser's inner surface. Therefore, a condenser must be able to remove that heat energy quickly enough to keep the temperature low enough, at the maximum rate of condensation that is expected to occur. This concern can be addressed by increasing the area of the condensation surface, by making the wall thinner, and/or by providing a sufficiently effective heat sink (such as circulating water) on the other side of it.
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Piquet took the lead with Villeneuve chasing and Mansell third ahead of the two Williams cars. The young Englishman disappeared early on with a suspension problem and Reutemann went out with gearbox trouble and Jones moved up ahead of Villeneuve and began to pressure Piquet for the lead. On lap 53 Piquet came up to lap some backmarkers, went offline and slid off into a barrier at Tabac. Jones took the lead and seemed to have the race in his pocket until lap 67 when he went into the pits with a fuel vaporization problem.
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These syntheses use as a starting material, obtained from and concentrated hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride. Hapticity is a term to describe the coordination of a group of contiguous atoms of a ligand bound to the central atom; it is indicated by the Greek character eta, η. Yttrium complexes were the first examples of complexes where carboranyl ligands were bound to a d0-metal center through a η7-hapticity. Vaporization of the graphite intercalation compounds graphite–Y or graphite– leads to the formation of endohedral fullerenes such as Y@C82.
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The number of plates in the arc chute is dependent on the short-circuit rating and nominal voltage of the circuit breaker. In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc. Gas (usually sulfur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the stretched arc. Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material).
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2003, 29, 39 gas core in microbubble ultrasound contrast agents;Liu, Y., Miyoshi, H., and Nakamura, M. Encapsulated ultrasound microbubbles: Therapeutic application in drug/gene delivery. J. Controlled Release 2006, 114, 89− 99 and occlusion therapy via the conversion of nanometer liquid droplets into micrometer sized gas microbubbles (acoustic droplet vaporization).D. Bardin, T. D. Martz, P. S. Sheeran, R. Shih, P. A. Dayton, and A. P. Lee, “High-speed, clinical-scale microfluidic generation of stable phase-change droplets for gas embolotherapy,” Lab on a Chip, vol. 11, no.
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In chemistry, the Terrace Ledge Kink model (TLK), which is also referred to as the Terrace Step Kink model (TSK), describes the thermodynamics of crystal surface formation and transformation, as well as the energetics of surface defect formation. It is based upon the idea that the energy of an atom’s position on a crystal surface is determined by its bonding to neighboring atoms and that transitions simply involve the counting of broken and formed bonds. The TLK model can be applied to surface science topics such as crystal growth, surface diffusion, roughening, and vaporization.
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In a conventional boiler, fuel is burned and the hot gases produced pass through a heat exchanger where much of their heat is transferred to water, thus raising the water's temperature. One of the hot gases produced in the combustion process is water vapour (steam), which arises from burning the hydrogen content of the fuel. A condensing boiler extracts additional heat from the waste gases by condensing this water vapour to liquid water, thus recovering its latent heat of vaporization. A typical increase of efficiency can be as much as 10-12%.
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Humidity depends on water vaporization and condensation, which, in turn, mainly depends on temperature. Therefore, when applying more pressure to a gas saturated with water, all components will initially decrease in volume approximately according to the ideal gas law. However, some of the water will condense until returning to almost the same humidity as before, giving the resulting total volume deviating from what the ideal gas law predicted. Conversely, decreasing temperature would also make some water condense, again making the final volume deviate from predicted by the ideal gas law.
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However, due to the lower specific heat capacity of fats and oils and their higher vaporization temperature, they often attain much higher temperatures inside microwave ovens. This can induce temperatures in oil or fatty foods like bacon far above the boiling point of water, and high enough to induce some browning reactions, much in the manner of conventional broiling (UK: grilling), braising, or deep fat frying. Microwaving foods high in content of sugar, starch, fat may damage some plastic containers. Fruits such as tomatoes have a high sugar content.
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The ideal working fluid or often called refrigerant would have favorable thermodynamic properties, be noncorrosive to mechanical components, and be safe, including freedom from toxicity and flammability. It would not cause ozone depletion or climate change. Since different fluids have the desired traits in different degree, choice is a matter of trade-offs. The desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature.
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Cetyl alcohol is used in the cosmetic industry as an opacifier in shampoos, or as an emollient, emulsifier or thickening agent in the manufacture of skin creams and lotions. It is also employed as a lubricant for nuts and bolts, and is the active ingredient in some "liquid pool covers" (forming a non-volatile surface layer to reduce water evaporation, related latent vaporization heat loss, and thus to retain heat in the pool). Moreover, it can also be used as a non-ionic co-surfactant in emulsion applications.
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Heat is the energy component of a fire. When it comes into contact with a fuel, it provides the energy necessary for ignition, causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the combustion reaction can continue, and causes the vaporization of solid and liquid fuels. The resulting self-sustained chemical chain reaction is complex and requires fuel, an oxidizer, and heat energy to come together in a very specific way. An oxidizing agent is a material or substance that will release gases, including oxygen, when the proper conditions exist.
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The eggs that will spawn those sovereigns lie out of reach, however, secured in a secret chamber and booby-trapped by those whose knowledge died with them in the plague. Obi-Wan and his X'Ting guide, Jesson Di Blinth, travel down into the sealed egg chamber in an attempt to retrieve the last remaining royal eggs. They face many trials along the way, including a question and answer session for the final test. The questions are presented by a machine that holds the eggs, and threatens vaporization of them if answered incorrectly.
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An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, swamp box, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems, which use vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling uses the fact that water will absorb a relatively large amount of heat in order to evaporate (that is, it has a large enthalpy of vaporization). The temperature of dry air can be dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor (evaporation).
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Although it is more difficult to build an aircraft radiator that is able to handle steam, it is by no means impossible. The key requirement is to provide a system that condenses the steam back into liquid before passing it back into the pumps and completing the cooling loop. Such a system can take advantage of the specific heat of vaporization, which in the case of water is five times the specific heat capacity in the liquid form. Additional gains may be had by allowing the steam to become superheated.
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It is located in Zacatepec, Morelos. The official opening of this stadium was in November 1954. This stadium is nicknamed the Selva Cañera ("Sugar Cane Jungle") because of the tropical weather that distinguish the municipality of Zacatepec. There was a famous player and later coach named Ignacio Trelles, who ordered the watering of the field one hour before the football match, leading to a very strong vaporization and an increase of the temperature to near 40 Celsius (more or less 100 Fahrenheit), which was very hard for the visitor squads.
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In the opposite direction, this is why one's skin feels cool as liquid water on it evaporates (a process that occurs at a sub-ambient wet-bulb temperature that is dependent on relative humidity). Water's highly energetic enthalpy of vaporization is also an important factor underlying why solar pool covers (floating, insulated blankets that cover swimming pools when not in use) are so effective at reducing heating costs: they prevent evaporation. For instance, the evaporation of just 20 mm of water from a 1.29-meter-deep pool chills its water 8.4 degrees Celsius (15.1 °F).
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Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition, and there are two space missions set to make observations. MESSENGER, which ended in 2015, found higher-than-expected potassium and sulfur levels on the surface, suggesting that the giant impact hypothesis and vaporization of the crust and mantle did not occur because potassium and sulfur would have been driven off by the extreme heat of these events. BepiColombo, which will arrive at Mercury in 2025, will make observations to test these hypotheses. The findings so far would seem to favor the third hypothesis; however, further analysis of the data is needed.
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Electrode surfaces intended to be used for cutting often feature a finer wire or wire loop, as opposed to a more flat blade with a rounded surface. Coagulation is performed using waveforms with lower average power, generating heat insufficient for explosive vaporization, but producing a thermal coagulum instead. Electrosurgical desiccation occurs when the electrode touches the tissue open to air, and the amount of generated heat is lower than that required for cutting. The tissue surface and some of the tissue more deep to the probe dries out and forms a coagulum (a dry patch of dead tissue).
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A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feedwater heater. In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant using a drum boiler, the surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it changes states from vapor to liquid. The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a feedwater heater, which raises the temperature of the water by using extraction steam from various stages of the turbine. Preheating the feedwater reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system.
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An early 1919 high-altitude oxygen system used a vacuum flask of liquid oxygen to supply two people for one hour at . The liquid passed through several warming stages before use, as expansion when it evaporated, and absorbed latent heat of vaporization, would make the gasified oxygen so cold that it could cause instant frostbite of the lungs. The first successful creation for the oxygen mask was by Armenian born Dr. Arthur Bulbulian, in the field of facial prosthetics, in 1941. Many designs of aviator's oxygen masks contain a microphone to transmit speech to other crew members and to the aircraft's radio.
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Steam is water in the gas phase. It is commonly formed by boiling or evaporating water. Steam that is saturated or superheated is invisible; however, "steam" often refers to wet steam, the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as water vapour condenses. The enthalpy of vaporization is the energy required to turn water into the gaseous form when it increases in volume by 1,700 times at standard temperature and pressure; this change in volume can be converted into mechanical work by steam engines such as reciprocating piston type engines and steam turbines, which are a sub-group of steam engines.
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However, since all components of the dehumidifier are in the same room, no heat energy is removed. Instead, the electric power consumed by the dehumidifier remains in the room as heat, so the room is actually heated, just as by an electric heater that draws the same amount of power. In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate that water also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification process is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead releases heat.
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The early fuel evaporator is a device found in some internal combustion engines with carburetors. It can sometimes be referred to as an electronic fuel evaporator. The device on a car, commonly referred to as an EFE heater, is located between the throttle body of the carburetor and the intake manifold as a gasket and contains a resistance grid that heats the air/fuel mixture. The purpose of the EFE heater is to aid with vaporization of fuel in cold conditions, as well as to reduce exhaust emissions by running for about two minutes to allow for leaner choke calibrations.
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Distillation is a process used to separate or partially separate components in a mixture by boiling (vaporization) followed by condensation. Distillation takes advantage of differences in concentrations of components in the liquid and vapor phases. In mixtures containing two or more components, the concentrations of each component are often expressed as mole fractions. The mole fraction of a given component of a mixture in a particular phase (either the vapor or the liquid phase) is the number of moles of that component in that phase divided by the total number of moles of all components in that phase.
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Cutaway model of an oil-filled high-voltage circuit breaker Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil along the path of the arc. The vapor released by the arcing consists of hydrogen gas. Mineral oil has better insulating property than air. Whenever there is a separation of current carrying contacts in the oil, the arc in circuit breaker is initialized at the moment of separation of contacts, and due to this arc the oil is vaporized and decomposed in mostly hydrogen gas and ultimately creates a hydrogen bubble around the electric arc.
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Initial scientific discoveries towards modern day laser peening began in the early 1960s as pulsed laser technology began to proliferate across the globe. In an early investigation of the laser interaction with materials by Gurgen Askaryan and E.M. Moroz, they documented pressure measurements on a targeted surface using a pulsed laser. The pressures observed were much larger than could be created by the force of the laser beam alone. Research into the phenomenon indicated the high pressure resulted from a momentum impulse generated by material vaporization at the target surface when rapidly heated by the laser pulse.
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A Coulomb explosion is a "cold" alternative to the dominant laser etching technique of thermal ablation, which depends on local heating, melting, and vaporization of molecules and atoms using less-intense beams. Pulse brevity down only to the nanosecond regime is sufficient to localize thermal ablation - before the heat is conducted far, the energy input (pulse) has ended. Nevertheless, thermally ablated materials may seal pores important in catalysis or battery operation, and recrystallize or even burn the substrate, thus changing the physical and chemical properties at the etch site. In contrast, even light foams remain unsealed after ablation by Coulomb explosion.
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In 1918 Świętosławski returned to Poland, leaving his laboratory in Moscow and urging other highly qualified Polish scientists to follow him. In 1919, he was named Professor of Physical Chemistry at Warsaw University of Technology, and returned to scientific research, working on enthalpy of vaporization. In 1920, at the Conference of International Chemical Union in Rome, he made a motion to accept benzoic acid as an international standard of marking the bomb calorimeters. In 1922, his motion was accepted, and Świętosławski was named head of the Thermochemical Data Commission, which coordinated research on marking the heat of combustion.
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Starting around the time of the First World War, nations began to issue their service personnel with purpose-made ID tags. These were usually made of some form of lightweight metal such as aluminium. However, in the case of the British Army the material chosen was compressed fiber, which was not very durable. Although wearing ID tags proved to be highly beneficial, the problem remained that bodies could be completely destroyed (ranging from total body disruption to outright vaporization), burned or buried by the type of high explosive munitions routinely used in modern warfare or in destructions of vehicles.
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These actions are represented in their diagram of the "Hierarchy of Controls" shown below with the most effective steps at the top and the least effective at the bottom. The high vaporization potential and flammability of chloroprene has significant implications for handling and storage operations in the occupational setting. Chloroprene should be stored in closed containers in a cool, well-ventilated area with the temperature no higher than 50 degrees Fahrenheit. In addition, chloroprene has a high reactivity and should be stored away from oxidizing agents such as perchlorate, peroxides, permanganates, chlorates, nitrates, chlorine, bromine, and fluorine.
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Convenience is an important factor in consumer acceptance. The convenient storage of petroleum fuels combined with its low cost has led to an unrivaled success. In addition, a petroleum fuel is a primary energy source, not just an energy storage and transport medium. The energy density—derived from nitrogen's isobaric heat of vaporization and specific heat in gaseous state—that can theoretically be realised from liquid nitrogen at atmospheric pressure and 27°C ambient temperature is about 213 watt-hours per kilogram (W·h/kg), while typically only 97 W·h/kg can be achieved under realistic circumstances.
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Some coolants are used in both liquid and gas form in the same circuit, taking advantage of the high specific latent heat of boiling/condensing phase change, the enthalpy of vaporization, in addition to the fluid's non-phase-change heat capacity. Refrigerants are coolants used for reaching low temperatures by undergoing phase change between liquid and gas. Halomethanes were frequently used, most often R-12 and R-22, often with liquified propane or other haloalkanes like R-134a. Anhydrous ammonia is frequently used in large commercial systems, and sulfur dioxide was used in early mechanical refrigerators.
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The efficiency and feasibility of this process depends on the efficiency of the compressing device (e.g., blower, compressor or steam ejector) and the heat transfer coefficient attained in the heat exchanger contacting the condensing vapor and the boiling "mother" solution/liquid. Theoretically, if the resulting condensate is subcooled, this process could allow full recovery of the latent heat of vaporization that would otherwise be lost if the vapor, rather than the condensate, was the final product; therefore, this method of evaporation is very energy efficient. The evaporation process may be solely driven by the mechanical work provided by the compressing device.
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The increased dissolved solids act to increase the boiling point well beyond that of pure water. Seawater with a TDS of approximately 30 g/L exhibits a boiling point elevation of less than 1 K but saturated sodium chloride solution at 360 g/L has a boiling point elevation of about 7 K. This boiling point elevation represents a challenge for vapor- compression evaporation in that it increases the pressure ratio that the steam compressor must attain to effect vaporization. Since boiling point elevation determines the pressure ratio in the compressor, it is the main overall factor in operating costs.
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RVP is commonly reported in kilopascals or pounds per square inch ASTM D323-15a, Standard Test Method for Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reid Method) and represents volatization at atmospheric pressure because ASTM-D-323 measures the gauge pressure of the sample in a non- evacuated chamber. The matter of vapor pressure is important relating to the function and operation of gasoline-powered, especially carbureted, vehicles and is also important for many other reasons. High levels of vaporization are desirable for winter starting and operation and lower levels are desirable in avoiding vapor lock during summer heat.
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When power is applied, if there is sufficient voltage to ionize the argon, the ionized argon gas will strike a small arc between the starting electrode and the adjacent main electrode. As the ionized argon conducts, the heat from its arc vaporizes the liquid mercury; next, the voltage between the two main electrodes will ionize the mercury gas. An arc initiates between the two main electrodes and the lamp will then radiate mainly in the ultraviolet, violet and blue emission lines. Continued vaporization of the liquid mercury increases the arc tube pressure to between 2 and 18 bar, depending on lamp size.
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The primary concern is the concentration of analyte. If the concentration is too high then separation can be unsuccessful, but mass spectrometry as a detection method does not need complete separation, showing another benefit of coupling LC to a mass spectrometer. LC can be coupled to mass spectrometry through the vaporization of the liquid samples as they enter the mass spectrometer. This method can allow for ionization methods that require gaseous samples to be used, such as CI or PI, particularly atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization or atmospheric pressure photoionization, which allows for more interactions and more ionization.
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Single-walled carbon nanotubes can also be synthesized by a thermal plasma method, first invented in 2000 at INRS (Institut national de la recherche scientifique) in Varennes, Canada, by Olivier Smiljanic. In this method, the aim is to reproduce the conditions prevailing in the arc discharge and laser ablation approaches, but a carbon- containing gas is used instead of graphite vapors to supply the necessary carbon. Doing so, the growth of SWNT is more efficient (decomposing the gas can be 10 times less energy-consuming than graphite vaporization). The process is also continuous and low cost.
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In one version of the laser spray interface, explosive vaporization and mist formation occur when an aqueous solution effusing from the tip of the stainless steel capillary is irradiated from the opposite side of the capillary by a 10.6 μm infrared laser. Weak ion signals could be detected when the plume was sampled through the ion sampling orifice. When a high voltage (3–4 kV) was applied to the stainless-steel capillary, strong ion signals appeared. The ion abundances were found to be orders of magnitude greater than those obtained by conventional electrospray ionization in the case of aqueous solutions.
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The West German race was next on the calendar, and there were no surprises in qualifying, with Andretti on pole and Peterson alongside him, with Lauda third. At the start, Peterson got off better and took the lead from Andretti, but he held it for only four laps before Andretti retook it. Lauda ran third in the early stages but he was passed by Alan Jones, and the duo battled until Lauda's engine failed yet again. The two Lotus cars were cruising at the front and Jones ran third comfortably until he retired with a fuel vaporization problem.
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However, ammonia has some problems as a basis for life. The hydrogen bonds between ammonia molecules are weaker than those in water, causing ammonia's heat of vaporization to be half that of water, its surface tension to be a third, and reducing its ability to concentrate non-polar molecules through a hydrophobic effect. Gerald Feinberg and Robert Shapiro have questioned whether ammonia could hold prebiotic molecules together well enough to allow the emergence of a self-reproducing system. cited in Ammonia is also flammable in oxygen and could not exist sustainably in an environment suitable for aerobic metabolism.
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The higher the temperature, the better. The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the high heat of vaporization of the working fluid. Also, unless the pressure and temperature reach super critical levels in the steam boiler, the temperature range the cycle can operate over is quite small: steam turbine entry temperatures are typically around 565 °C and steam condenser temperatures are around 30 °C. This gives a theoretical maximum Carnot efficiency for the steam turbine alone of about 63.8% compared with an actual overall thermal efficiency of up to 42% for a modern coal-fired power station.
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Latent heat is associated with the change of phase of atmospheric or ocean water, vaporization, condensation, freezing or melting, whereas sensible heat is energy transferred that is evident in change of the temperature of the atmosphere or ocean, or ice, without those phase changes, though it is associated with changes of pressure and volume. The original usage of the term, as introduced by Black, was applied to systems that were intentionally held at constant temperature. Such usage referred to latent heat of expansion and several other related latent heats. These latent heats are defined independently of the conceptual framework of thermodynamics.
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In thermodynamics, one can calculate enthalpy by determining the requirements for creating a system from "nothingness"; the mechanical work required, , differs based upon the conditions that obtain during the creation of the thermodynamic system. Energy must be supplied to remove particles from the surroundings to make space for the creation of the system, assuming that the pressure remains constant; this is the term. The supplied energy must also provide the change in internal energy, , which includes activation energies, ionization energies, mixing energies, vaporization energies, chemical bond energies, and so forth. Together, these constitute the change in the enthalpy .
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The vaporizing droplet (droplet vaporization) problem is a challenging issue in fluid dynamics. It is part of many engineering situations involving the transport and computation of sprays: fuel injection, spray painting, aerosol spray, flashing releases… In most of these engineering situations there is a relative motion between the droplet and the surrounding gas. The gas flow over the droplet has many features of the gas flow over a rigid sphere: pressure gradient, viscous boundary layer, wake. In addition to these common flow features one can also mention the internal liquid circulation phenomenon driven by surface-shear forces and the boundary layer blowing effect.
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Liebig condenser The Liebig condenser or straight condenser is a piece of laboratory equipment, specifically a condenser consisting of a straight glass tube surrounded by a water jacket. In typical laboratory operation, such as distillation, the condenser is clamped to a retort stands in vertical or oblique orientation. The hot vapor of some liquid is introduced at the upper end of the inner tube, and condenses in contact with its colder walls. Water (or some other fluid) is constantly circulated in the jacket to carry away the heat of vaporization released by the condensing vapor, keeping the tube below the liquid's boiling point.
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CB chondrites are metal rich carbonaceous chondrites containing iron/nickel nodules that formed from the crystallization of impact melts 4.8 ±0.3 Myrs after the first solids. The vaporization of these metals requires impacts of greater that 18 km/s, well beyond the maximum of 12.2 km/s in standard accretion models. Jupiter's migration across the asteroid belt increases the eccentricities and inclinations of the asteroids, resulting in a 0.5 Myr period of impact velocities sufficient to vaporize metals. If the formation of CB chondrites was due to Jupiter's migration it would have occurred 4.5-5 Myrs after the formation of the Solar System.
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Anti-Heroin Act of 1924 is a United States federal law prohibiting the importation and possession of opium for the chemical synthesis of an addictive narcotic known as diamorphine or heroin. The Act of Congress amended the Smoking Opium Exclusion Act of 1909 which authorized the importation of the poppy plant for medicinal purposes utilizing an opium pipe or vaporization to consume the euphoric opiate. The H.R. 7079 legislation was passed by the 68th United States Congressional session and enacted into law by the 30th President of the United States Calvin Coolidge on June 7, 1924.
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Carbon peapods can be naturally produced during carbon nanotube synthesis by pulsed laser vaporization. C60 fullerene impurities are formed during the annealing treatment and acid purification, and enter the nanotubes through defects or vapor-phase diffusion. Fullerenes within a nanotube are only stabilized at a diameter difference of 0.34 nm or less, and when the diameters are nearly identical, the interacting energy heightens to such a degree (comparable to 0.1 GPa) that the fullerenes become unable to be extracted from the SWNT even under high vacuum. The encapsulated fullerenes have diameters close to that of C60 and form a chain inside the tube.
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The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of one bar. The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound, etc.) of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often atmospheric pressure). Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor.
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However, the Carnage symbiote was too powerfully bonded and despite Spider-Carnage's best efforts, he could not get rid of it, so he threw himself into a dangerously unstable warp hole where he was killed by vaporization. Unlike the unpredictable-but-somewhat- sane Venom, Carnage is thoroughly insane, and revels in chaos and destruction, taking lives at whim and without discrimination. Venom, on the other hand, usually safeguards innocent lives, possibly as a side effect of bonding with the sane human Eddie Brock. Lifelike robotic copies of Carnage and Venom appear in "The Haunting of Mary Jane".
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Artistic sketch of Kepler-22b, a recently discovered exoplanet with comparable mass (within 10 Earth masses) of the planet Earth. The discovery of extrasolar Earth-sized planets has encouraged research into their potential for habitability. One of the generally agreed (Noack and Breuer and references within) requirements for a life-sustaining planet is a mobile, fractured lithosphere cyclically recycled into a vigorously convecting mantle, in a process commonly known as plate tectonics. Plate tectonics provide a means of geochemical regulation of atmospheric particulates, as well as removal of carbon from the atmosphere. This prevents a “runaway greenhouse” effect that can result in inhospitable surface temperatures and vaporization of liquid surface water.
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Afterwards a secondary coating layer of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is applied onto the coated water droplet. The doubly-coated water droplet is then cast into the hexane/water mixture and eventually settled at the hexane/water interface to form the interfacial water marble. During this process, the PVDF coating quickly diffused into hexane to balance the hydrophobic interaction between hexane and the water droplet, while the nanomaterials quickly self-assembled into a nanostructured protective layer on the droplet surface through the Marangoni effect. The interfacial water marble can completely resist coalescence cascade and exist nearly permanently at the hexane/water interface, providing that the hexane phase is not depleted by vaporization.
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Melt expulsion arises as a result of the rapid build-up of gas pressure (recoil force) within a cavity created by evaporation. For melt expulsion to occur, a molten layer must form and the pressure gradients acting on the surface due to vaporization must be sufficiently large to overcome surface tension forces and expel the molten material from the hole. The "best of both worlds" is a single system capable of both "fine" and "coarse" melt expulsion. "Fine" melt expulsion produces features with excellent wall definition and small heat-affected zone while "coarse" melt expulsion, such as used in percussion drilling and trepanning, removes material quickly.
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King's interest in hiking and camping reinforced his interests in freeze-dried foods to minimize the weight of his back-pack. He has done considerable research on dehydration of foods and beverages, and in particular those phenomena that influence the quality of the product. He started working with freeze drying, which removes water by direct vaporization from the frozen state. Although he started by measuring and explaining drying rates in terms of fundamental transport phenomena, he soon turned to learning how highly volatile substances such as taste and aroma components could best be retained despite their being much more volatile than the water which was itself being vaporized during evaporative drying.
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In practice, the speed of the vapor through the heat pipe is limited by the rate of condensation at the cold end and far lower than the molecular speed. Note/explanation: The condensation rate is very close to the sticking coefficient times the molecular speed times the gas density, if the condensing surface is very cold. However, if the surface is close to the temperature of the gas, the evaporation caused by the finite temperature of the surface largely cancels this heat flux. If the temperature difference is more than some tens of degrees, the vaporization from the surface is typically negligible, as can be assessed from the vapor pressure curves.
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Thus a heat pipe can operate at hot-end temperatures as low as just slightly warmer than the melting point of the working fluid, although the maximum rate of heat transfer is low at temperatures below 25 °C (77 °F). Similarly, a heat pipe with water as a working fluid can work well above the atmospheric boiling point (100 °C, 212 °F). The maximum temperature for long term water heat pipes is 270 °C (518 °F), with heat pipes operating up to 300 °C (572 °F) for short term tests. The main reason for the effectiveness of heat pipes is the vaporization and condensation of the working fluid.
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It is used in many consumer products that require pressurized gas because it is inexpensive and nonflammable, and because it undergoes a phase transition from gas to liquid at room temperature at an attainable pressure of approximately 60 bar (870 psi, 59 atm), allowing far more carbon dioxide to fit in a given container than otherwise would. Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Aluminium capsules of are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for air guns, paintball markers/guns, inflating bicycle tires, and for making carbonated water. Rapid vaporization of liquid carbon dioxide is used for blasting in coal mines.
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This is not a significant disadvantage in many types of material, as good joint strengths can be achieved, however for certain material classes such as ceramics or metal ceramic composites, such processing can significantly limit joint strength. They have great potential for use in the aerospace industry, provided a joining process that maintains the strength of the material can be found. Until recently, sources of x-rays of sufficient intensity to cause enough volumetric heating for welding were not available. However, with the advent of third-generation synchrotron radiation sources, it is possible to achieve the power required for localized melting and even vaporization in a number of materials.
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The way this is done, is the miners heat up the mercury-gold amalgam to high temperature to vaporize the mercury away, leaving only the highly desired gold. The vaporization of mercury requires a temperature of at least 357 °C. In addition to the mercury-gold amalgam some residue mercury is also still present in the silt and ore that was washed away, sometimes referred to as mine tailings. When these mine tailings are disposed of and during the washing process, large amounts of the remaining mercury often pollutes and infiltrates the local ecosystems and especially waterways around and down steam from the mining sites.
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To enhance the show effect of aerobatic maneuvers, smoke is sometimes generated; the smoke allows viewers to see the path travelled by the aircraft. Due to safety concerns, the smoke is not a result of combustion but is produced by the vaporization of fog oil into a fine aerosol, achieved either by injecting the oil into the hot engine exhaust"The smoke is generated by pumping smoke oil directly into the exhaust pipes just below the cylinder heads. The heat will vaporize, but not burn, the oil, creating thick white smoke. During an airshow routine, the smoke system will use around 5 gallons of smoke oil".
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H. J. Melosh with I.V. Nemchinov proposed deflecting an asteroid or comet by focusing solar energy onto its surface to create thrust from the resulting vaporization of material. This method would first require the construction of a space station with a system of large collecting, concave mirrors similar to those used in solar furnaces. Orbit mitigation with highly concentrated sunlight is scalable to achieving the predetermined deflection within a year even for a global-threatening body without prolonged warning time. Such a hastened strategy may become topical in the case of late detection of a potential hazard, and also, if required, in providing the possibility for some additional action.
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In order to reduce chlorine (and moisture) content, M. x giganteus is usually harvested dry, in early spring, but this late harvest practice is still not enough of a countermeasure to achieve corrosion-free combustion. However, the chlorine amount in miscanthus reduces by approximately 95% when it is torrefied at 350 degrees Celsius. Chlorine release during the torrefaction process itself is more manageable than chlorine release during combustion, because "[…] the prevailing temperatures during the former process are below the melting and vaporization temperatures of the alkali salts of chlorine, thus minimizing their risks of slagging, fouling and corrosion in furnaces." For potassium, Kambo et al.
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WD 1145+047 b is currently being vaporized by its star because of its extreme proximity to it. White dwarfs are usually the size of the Earth, and have half as much mass as they did during the main sequence. Due to this and the searing hot temperature of the stellar remnant, rocky minerals are being vaporized off the surface of this object, into orbit around the star, which is responsible for a hot dusty disk that was observed around its host star. It is likely that WD 1145+017 b is bound to disintegrate in the future (around 100–200 million years from now) due to further vaporization and ablation.
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Both methanol and ethanol burn at lower temperatures than gasoline, and both are less volatile, making engine starting in cold weather more difficult. Using methanol as a fuel in spark-ignition engines can offer an increased thermal efficiency and increased power output (as compared to gasoline) due to its high octane rating (114Burton, George; Holman, John; Lazonby, John (2000). Salters Advanced Chemistry: Chemical Storylines (2nd ed.). Heinemann. ) and high heat of vaporization. However, its low energy content of 19.7 MJ/kg and stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio of 6.42:1 mean that fuel consumption (on volume or mass bases) will be higher than hydrocarbon fuels.
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Conversely, tumor treated too slowly or at too low a temperature will not achieve therapeutic goals. The human body is a collection of tissues with differing heat capacities, all connected by a dynamic circulatory system with variable relationship to skin or lung surfaces designed to shed heat energy. All methods of inducing higher temperature in the body are countered by the thermo-regulatory mechanisms of the body. The body as a whole relies mostly on simple radiation of energy to the surrounding air from the skin (50% of heat lost this way) which is augmented by convection (blood shunting) and vaporization through sweat and respiration.
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Ray Story (born in 1964) is the founder and owner of The United Tobacco Vapor Group (UTVG) USA as well as UTVG Europe BV, an electronic cigarette company. He is also the creator of Flavor Vapes, Premium Vapes, Vape Master Cigar, Wanna Vape, and E-Hitter, all brands under the UTVG name. The company's products are sold globally online and in store. He is also the creator of a new patented vaporization technology for the E-Cigarette called "qmos" which moves away from the traditional heating methods of first generation vaporizers and e-cigarettes in favor of a wick-less and coil-less technology for longevity and consistency.
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Extremely high intensity sources of 9.25 keV X-rays (gallium K-alpha line) for X-ray phase-contrast microscopy, from a focal spot about 10 um x 10 um, may be obtained with an X-ray source which uses a liquid metal galinstan anode. This was demonstratred in 2003. The metal flows from a nozzle downward at a high rate of speed and the high intensity electron source is focused upon it. The rapid flow of metal carries current, but the physical flow prevents a great deal of anode heating (due to forced- convective heat removal), and the high boiling point of galinstan inhibits vaporization of the anode.
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The interfacing mechanism is contained inside a common EI source, like that found in any GC-MS system. The liquid phase from a nano HPLC column is admitted from the capillary column port, where the connection tubing and the nebulizer are first introduced and sealed to prevent vacuum loss. The mechanism is based on the formation of an aerosol in high-vacuum conditions, followed by a quick droplet desolvation and final vaporization of the solute prior to the ionization. The completion of the process is quick and complete and reduces chances of thermal decomposition as reported in the Figure, where a scheme of the interface is shown.
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The core of the interface is represented by the micro-nebulizer. The nebulizer tip protrudes into the ion source so that the spray expansion is completely contained inside the ion volume. The eluate emerges as liquid phase at a flow rate of 300-500 nL/min, and any premature in-tube solvent evaporation is prevented by a convenient thermal insulation of the nebulizer and the connecting tubing from the surrounding source heat. The high temperature of the ion source, between 300 and 400°C, has a double function: to compensate for the latent heat of vaporization during the droplet desolvation, and to convert the solute into the gas phase.
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The first could result in the orbit of Mars crossing that of the other terrestrial planets destabilizing the inner Solar System. If the first was avoided the latter would still leave the orbits of the terrestrial planets with larger eccentricities. The orbital distribution of the asteroid belt would also be altered leaving it with an excess of high inclination objects. Other differences between predictions and observations included the capture of few irregular satellites by Jupiter, the vaporization of the ice from Saturn's inner moons, a shortage of high inclination objects captured in the Kuiper belt, and the recent discovery of D-type asteroids in the inner asteroid belt.
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Ovarian drilling was first used in the treatment of PCOS in 1984 and has evolved as a safe and effective surgery. After performing laparoscopic electrosurgical ovarian drilling in CC-resistant patients in 1984, Gjönnaess found that this technique increased ovulation rates to 45 percent and pregnancy rates to 42 percent. In 1988, laparoscopic multiple punch resection of ovaries on the hypothalamo-pituitary axis, slightly modified from Gjönnaess's operation, caused a reduction in LH pulsation and pituitary responsiveness in the treatment of PCOS. In 1989, ovarian drilling was conducted with argon, carbon dioxide (CO2) or potassium-titanyl-phosphate (KTP) laser vaporization causing spontaneous ovulation in 71 percent of those treated.
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In contrast to other gas components, water content in air, or humidity, to a higher degree depends on vaporization and condensation from or into water, which, in turn, mainly depends on temperature. Therefore, when applying more pressure to a gas saturated with water, all components will initially decrease in volume approximately according to the ideal gas law. However, some of the water will condense until returning to almost the same humidity as before, giving the resulting total volume deviating from what the ideal gas law predicted. Conversely, decreasing temperature would also make some water condense, again making the final volume deviating from predicted by the ideal gas law.
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In more technical terms thermospray is the controlled partial vaporization of a liquid as it flows through a heated capillary tube. The nebulization is accomplished by pumping a liquid sample at moderately high pressure through an electrothermally heated capillary tube. When sufficient power is coupled to the flowing sample stream, a partially vaporized mixture is produced consisting of some fraction of vaporized sample and some remaining liquid sample. Upon exiting the heated capillary, the rapidly expanding sample vapor converts the remaining liquid stream to an aerosol. The produced vapor acts as a nebulizing ‘gas’ and aids the breakup of the liquid stream into droplets, in a process similar to pneumatic nebulization.
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Concurrent but unconnected to the Kroto-Smalley work, astrophysicists were working with spectroscopists to study infrared emissions from giant red carbon stars. Smalley and team were able to use a laser vaporization technique to create carbon clusters which could potentially emit infrared at the same wavelength as had been emitted by the red carbon star. Hence, the inspiration came to Smalley and team to use the laser technique on graphite to generate fullerenes. C60 was discovered in 1985 by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto, and Richard Smalley. Using laser evaporation of graphite they found Cn clusters (where n>20 and even) of which the most common were C60 and C70.
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Because the solvent fraction of dilbit typically comprises volatile aromatics like naptha and benzene, reasonably rapid carrier vaporization can be expected to follow an above- ground spill—ostensibly enabling timely intervention by leaving only a viscous residue that is slow to migrate. Effective protocols to minimize exposure to petrochemical vapours are well-established, and oil spilled from the pipeline would be unlikely to reach the aquifer unless incomplete remediation were followed by the introduction of another carrier (e.g. a series of torrential downpours). The introduction of benzene and other volatile organic compounds (collectively BTEX) to the subterranean environment compounds the threat posed by a pipeline leak.
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Single crystal gallium nitride nanotubes were first reported to be synthesized by Peidong Yang and his research team at the University of Berkeley's Department of Chemistry on April 10, 2003. The synthesis was achieved by initially creating nanowires from pure crystals of zinc oxide onto a sapphire wafer through a process Yang and his colleagues previously created called epitaxial casting. These zinc oxide nanowires were then used as templates over which crystals of gallium nitride were grown by chemical vapour deposition. Once the gallium nitride crystals formed, heat was then applied to the sapphire wafer to allow vaporization of the zinc oxide nanowire cores.
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Parts can be glued with silicone sealant, high-temperature epoxy, or sealed with aluminum (thermal) foil tape, although this is not necessary. Total height is less than two inches (50 mm), though dimensions may be increased to hold more fuel or decreased to take up even less space. The choice of aluminium has several advantages—light weight, low cost, and good thermal conductivity to aid vaporization of fuel. Modifications to the surface such as inking or painting a dark color increase the amount of radiant thermal energy captured by the stove body and change the stove's burn profile as a function of time, fuel load, and ambient temperature.
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The design accounted for steam collapse in the core when the fuel element temperature falls below 265 °C, coolant vaporization in fuel channels in cold reactor state, and sticking of some emergency protection rods. However, the slow insertion speed of the control rods, together with their design causing localized positive reactivity as the displacer moves through the lower part of the core, created a number of possible situations where initiation of the EPS could itself cause or aggravate a reactor runaway. The computer system for calculation of the reactivity margin was collecting data from about 4,000 sources. Its purpose was to assist the operator with steady-state control of the reactor.
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Metal aromaticity is the concept of aromaticity, found in many organic compounds, extended to metals. The first experimental evidence for the existence of aromaticity in metals was found in aluminium cluster compounds of the type where M stands for lithium, sodium or copper.Observation of All-Metal Aromatic Molecules Xi Li, Aleksey E. Kuznetsov, Hai-Feng Zhang, Alexander I. Boldyrev, Lai-Sheng Wang Science Vol. 291. p. 859 2001 These anions can be generated in a helium gas by laser vaporization of an aluminium / lithium carbonate composite or a copper or sodium / aluminium alloy, separated and selected by mass spectrometry and analyzed by photoelectron spectroscopy.
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According to McLachlan theory, the interactions of particles in media can even be fully repulsive, as observed for liquid helium, however, the lack of vaporization and presence of a freezing point contradicts a theory of purely repulsive interactions. Measurements of attractive forces between different materials (Hamaker constant) have been explained by Jacob Israelachvili. For example, "the interaction between hydrocarbons across water is about 10% of that across vacuum". Such effects are represented in molecular dynamics through pairwise interactions that are spatially more dense in the condensed phase relative to the gas phase and reproduced once the parameters for all phases are validated to reproduce chemical bonding, density, and cohesive/surface energy.
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The concentrated solar still can produce as much as twenty times more water than the theoretical maximum of a standard solar still and in practice, can produce as much as 30x the volume. A typically 25% efficiency standard solar still (not allowing for any recovery of rejected latent heat), as the latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.26 MJ per kilogram, should evaporate kg (or liters) of water per m² per day in a region with an average daily solar irradiation of 21.6 MJ/m² ( watts/m²), or liters per year (like a precipitation height of ). A twenty times more productive still would have a daily output of or yearly.
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It also constituted a five-member fact-finding committee to probe the incident and to deliver a report to the bench. The committee would be supervised by former Andhra Pradesh High Court judge, B. Seshasayana Reddy. The report of the high-level committee headed by the NGT chair issued on 28 May 2020, accessed and reviewed by The Associated Press, found that the storage tanks were outdated and lacked temperature sensors, allowing the styrene vaporization to go undetected. With factory workers and the overall company inexperienced in storing tanks of such dangerous chemicals, the report blamed the incident on "gross human failure" and a lack of basic safety norms.
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Because Tenebra's atmosphere contains large quantities of sulphur, the planet's lakes and small oceans are filled with sulphuric acid. Throughout the day-night cycle the lakes and oceans rise and fall like tides in the Bay of Fundy, due to the heavy nightly rainfall and the easy evaporation of the liquid water (its heat of vaporization stands close to zero under Tenebran conditions). The constant ebb and flow of hot, pressurized sulphuric acid weakens the planet's crust, resulting in frequent earthquakes and minor rearrangements of the landscape. For two decades humans have been observing this world from the space station Vindemiatrix, which revolves about Tenebra on a synchronous orbit, one with a period just under 96 hours.
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The adjacent photograph shows two unusual phenomena: bright spikes projecting from the bottom of the fireball, and the peculiar mottling of the expanding fireball surface. The surface of the fireball, with a temperature over 20,000 kelvins, emits huge amounts of visible light radiation, more than 100 times the intensity at the Sun's surface. Anything solid in the area absorbs the light and rapidly heats. The "rope tricks" that protrude from the bottom of the fireball are caused by the heating, rapid vaporization and then expansion of guy wires (or specialized rope trick test cables) that extend from the shot cab, the housing at the top of the tower that contains the explosive device, to the ground.
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Malik observed that when the rope was painted black, spike formation was enhanced, and if it were painted with reflective paint or wrapped in aluminium foil, no spikes were observed - thus confirming the hypothesis that it is heating and vaporization of the rope, induced by exposure to high-intensity visible light radiation, which causes the effect. Because of the lack of guy wires, no "rope trick" effects were observed in surface-detonation tests, free-flying weapons tests, or underground tests. The cause of a surface mottling is more complex. In the initial microseconds after the explosion, a fireball is formed around the bomb by the massive numbers of thermal x-rays released by the explosion process.
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Instead, the electric power consumed by the dehumidifier remains in the room as heat, so the room is actually heated, just as by an electric heater that draws the same amount of power. In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate that water also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification process is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead releases heat. Therefore, an in-room dehumidifier always will warm the room and reduce the relative humidity indirectly, as well as reducing the humidity directly by condensing and removing water.
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In addition, cooking promotes nonenzymatic browning chemical reactions involving sugar conversion, formation of high molecular weight melanoidinsFalcone, P.M. and Giudici, P. (2008) Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution impacting Traditional Balsamic Vinegar ageing. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry; 56(16); 7057-7066 and furanic compounds such as 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF).Antonelli, A.; Chinnici, F.; Masino, F. (2004) Heat-induced chemical modification of grape must as related to its concentration during the production of traditional balsamic vinegar: a preliminary approach Food Chemistry, 88(1):63-68 Water vaporization induces the concentration of sugars, organic acids, and polyphenols, resulting in the increase of density, viscosity, and refractive index (Brix degree), and, conversely, the lowering of water activity and pH value.
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Ionization of the substrate is very efficient as it occurs at atmospheric pressure, and thus has a high collision frequency. Additionally, APCI considerably reduces the thermal decomposition of the analyte because of the rapid desolvation and vaporization of the droplets in the initial stages of the ionization. This combination of factors most typically results in the production of ions of the molecular species with fewer fragmentations than many other ionization methods, making it a soft ionization method. Another advantage to using APCI over other ionization methods is that it allows for the high flow rates typical of standard bore HPLC (0.2-2.0mL/min) to be used directly, often without diverting the larger fraction of volume to waste.
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Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) and laser-assisted sub-epithelial keratectomy (or laser epithelial keratomileusis"Laser epithelial keratomileusis (LASEK)" Accessed June 30, 2008.) (LASEK) are laser eye surgery procedures intended to correct a person's vision, reducing dependency on glasses or contact lenses. LASEK and PRK permanently change the shape of the anterior central cornea using an excimer laser to ablate (remove by vaporization) a small amount of tissue from the corneal stroma at the front of the eye, just under the corneal epithelium. The outer layer of the cornea is removed prior to the ablation. A computer system tracks the patient's eye position 60 to 4,000 times per second, depending on the specifications of the laser that is used.
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Ablation therapy using radio frequency waves on the heart is used to cure a variety of cardiac arrhythmiae such as supraventricular tachycardia, Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome (WPW), ventricular tachycardia, and more recently as management of atrial fibrillation. The term is often used in the context of laser ablation, a process in which a laser dissolves a material's molecular bonds. For a laser to ablate tissues, the power density or fluence must be high, otherwise thermocoagulation occurs, which is simply thermal vaporization of the tissues. Rotoablation is a type of arterial cleansing that consists of inserting a tiny, diamond-tipped, drill-like device into the affected artery to remove fatty deposits or plaque.
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A thermionic generator is like a cyclic heat engine and its maximum efficiency is limited by Carnot's law. It is a low-Voltage high current device where current densities of 25-50 (A/squarecm) have been achieved at voltage from 1-2V. The energy of high temperature gases can be partly converted into electricity if the riser tubes of the boiler are provided cathode and anode of a thermionic generator with the interspace filled with ionized Caesium vapor. The surface property of primary interest is the work function, which is the barrier that limits electron emission current from the surface and essentially is the heat of vaporization of electrons from the surface.
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Volume (v), energy (u), enthalpy (h), and entropy (s) versus temperature (C) for superheated steam Superheated steam is steam at a temperature higher than its vaporization point at the absolute pressure where the temperature is measured. Superheated steam can therefore cool (lose internal energy) by some amount, resulting in a lowering of its temperature without changing state (i.e., condensing) from a gas, to a mixture of saturated vapor and liquid. If unsaturated steam (a mixture which contains both water vapor and liquid water droplets) is heated at constant pressure, its temperature will also remain constant as the vapor quality (think dryness, or percent saturated vapor) increases towards 100%, and becomes dry (i.e.
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The refrigerating fluid is sometimes also circulated in a jacket around the trough. Crystals precipitate on the cold surfaces of the screw/discs, from which they are removed by scrapers and settle on the bottom of the trough. The screw, if provided, pushes the slurry towards a discharge port. A common practice is to cool the solutions by flash evaporation: when a liquid at a given T0 temperature is transferred in a chamber at a pressure P1 such that the liquid saturation temperature T1 at P1 is lower than T0, the liquid will release heat according to the temperature difference and a quantity of solvent, whose total latent heat of vaporization equals the difference in enthalpy.
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During the use of laser, heat will be generated which will result in coagulation, drying and vaporization around the site which will prevent bleeding by sealing the blood vessels and also inhibiting the pain receptors at the incision site. The clinical use of a laser for gingivectomy involves repeated lasing and wiping away tissue remnants with moist gauze and this results in a bloodless operating field allowing better visibility and greater ease for the operator. The laser also sterilizes the tissues and eliminates the need for a post-surgical dressing. The better control of laser, less post- operative inflammation and pain and the improved healing in the surgical site all are the benefits of using laser in surgery.
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In ion plating the energy, flux and mass of the bombarding species along with the ratio of bombarding particles to depositing particles are important processing variables. The depositing material may be vaporized either by evaporation, sputtering (bias sputtering), arc vaporization or by decomposition of a chemical vapor precursor chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The energetic particles used for bombardment are usually ions of an inert or reactive gas, or, in some cases, ions of the condensing film material ("film ions"). Ion plating can be done in a plasma environment where ions for bombardment are extracted from the plasma or it may be done in a vacuum environment where ions for bombardment are formed in a separate ion gun.
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To eject a droplet from each chamber, a pulse of current is passed through the heating element causing a rapid vaporization of the ink in the chamber and forming a bubble, which causes a large pressure increase, propelling a droplet of ink onto the paper (hence Canon's trade name of Bubble Jet). The ink's surface tension, as well as the condensation and resultant contraction of the vapor bubble, pulls a further charge of ink into the chamber through a narrow channel attached to an ink reservoir. The inks involved are usually water-based and use either pigments or dyes as the colorant. The inks must have a volatile component to form the vapor bubble; otherwise droplet ejection cannot occur.
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Cocaine base/crack can be smoked because it vaporizes with little or no decomposition at , which is below the boiling point of water. Crack is a lower purity form of free-base cocaine that is usually produced by neutralization of cocaine hydrochloride with a solution of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3) and water, producing a very hard/brittle, off-white-to-brown colored, amorphous material that contains sodium carbonate, entrapped water, and other by-products as the main impurities. The origin of the name "crack" comes from the "crackling" sound (and hence the onomatopoeic moniker "crack") that is produced when the cocaine and its impurities (i.e. water, sodium bicarbonate) are heated past the point of vaporization.
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This technique allows a reaction vessel to be heated throughout with minimal stirring, as opposed to heating the bottom of the vessel and waiting for convection to heat the remainder, cutting down on both the duration of the reaction and the possibility of side reactions that may occur at higher temperatures. A variation on this theme is the water bath in which the sand is replaced with water. It can be used to keep a reaction vessel at the temperature of boiling water until all water is evaporated (see Standard enthalpy change of vaporization). Sand baths are one of the oldest known pieces of laboratory equipment, having been used by the alchemists.
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Solar puffing (also called solar toking or taking solar hits ) is the act of using a magnifying lens to heat cannabis for consumption. Many practitioners of this method know that by using heat from sunlight, instead of heat from a lighter, that the cannabis is consumed in a more 'natural' way, since the sunlight is the only heat source which also comes directly from nature. Utilization of this method also provides the practitioner the ability to consume a greater amount of THC within a given amount of cannabis because more THC is preserved for inhalation due to a lower heating temperature as opposed to that of combustion. This method is similar to that of vaporization.
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Whether a reaction can occur spontaneously depends not only on the enthalpy change but also on the entropy change (∆S) and absolute temperature T. If a reaction is a spontaneous process at a certain temperature, the products have a lower Gibbs free energy G = H - TS than the reactants (an exergonic reaction), even if the enthalpy of the products is higher. Thus, an endothermic process usually requires a favorable entropy increase (∆S > 0) in the system that overcomes the unfavorable increase in enthalpy so that still ∆G < 0\. While endothermic phase transitions into more disordered states of higher entropy, e.g. melting and vaporization, are common, spontaneous chemical reactions at moderate temperatures are rarely endothermic.
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Individually, tantalum and hafnium carbide have the highest melting points among the binary compounds, and , respectively, and their "alloy" with a composition Ta4HfC5 is believed to have a melting point of . Very few measurements of melting point in tantalum hafnium carbide have been reported, because of the obvious experimental difficulties at extreme temperatures. A 1965 study of the TaC-HfC solid solutions at temperatures 2225–2275 °C found a minimum in the vaporization rate and thus maximum in the thermal stability for Ta4HfC5. This rate was comparable to that of tungsten and was weakly dependent on the initial density of the samples, which were sintered from TaC-HfC powder mixtures, also at 2225–2275 °C.
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Extremely high-intensity sources of 9.25 keV X-rays (gallium K-alpha line) for X-ray phase microscopy of fixed tissue (such as mouse brain), from a focal spot about 10 μm × 10 μm, and 3-D voxels of about one cubic micrometer, may be obtained with an X-ray source that uses a liquid-metal galinstan anode. The metal flows from a nozzle downward at a high speed, and the high-intensity electron source is focused upon it. The rapid flow of metal carries current, but the physical flow prevents a great deal of anode heating (due to forced-convective heat removal), and the high boiling point of galinstan inhibits vaporization of the anode.
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Obseverations made on Kepler-432b reveal that its host star is gradually causing the planet's orbit to decay via tidal interactions. As Kepler-432 A is ascending the red giant branch (RGB), it will continue to expand past the orbit of Kepler-432b, likely engulfing it completely. The drag between the stellar photosphere and the gas giant would cause its orbit to spiral inward until it is vaporized by the star after ablation and vaporization take its toll on the planet. In some way, this helps with studying how similar interactions will eventually cause the Earth to be engulfed by the Sun as a red giant, some 7 billion years from now.
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To protect the Crew Module during Earth re- entry, the dish shaped AVCOAT heat shield ablator system was selected. NASA announced that this module will encounter temperature as high as 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Licensed by Textron, AVCOAT material is produced at New Orleans's Michoud Assembly Facility by Lockheed Martin. This heat shield will be installed at the base of the crew module to provide a controlled erosion moving heat away from the crew module into the atmosphere. This process of erosion is called “ablation” - where materials are removed by vaporization or erosion by continuous contact with the supersonic velocity of gas flow and high temperature; thus the construction of honeycomb structure was made.
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Other popular smoking tools are various pipes and cigars. A less common but increasingly popular alternative to smoking is vaporizers, which use hot air convection to deliver the substance without combustion, which may reduce health risks. A portable vaporization alternative appeared in 2003 with the introduction of electronic cigarettes, battery-operated, cigarette-shaped devices which produce an aerosol intended to mimic the smoke from burning tobacco, delivering nicotine to the user without some of the harmful substances released in tobacco smoke. Other than actual smoking equipment, many other items are associated with smoking; cigarette cases, cigar boxes, lighters, matchboxes, cigarette holders, cigar holders, ashtrays, silent butlers, pipe cleaners, tobacco cutters, match stands, pipe tampers, cigarette companions and so on.
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LASEK and PRK permanently change the shape of the anterior central cornea using an excimer laser to ablate (remove by vaporization) a small amount of tissue from the corneal stroma at the front of the eye, just under the corneal epithelium. The outer layer of the cornea is removed prior to the ablation. A computer system tracks the patient's eye position 60 to 4,000 times per second, depending on the brand of laser used, redirecting laser pulses for precise placement. Most modern lasers will automatically center on the patient's visual axis and will pause if the eye moves out of range and then resume ablating at that point after the patient's eye is re-centered.
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However, due to the difficulties associated with accurately measuring its vapor pressure, and because of the dependency on the specifics of the experimental design, various values have been reported in the literature for the vapor pressure of SiO (g). For the pSiO above molten silicon in a quartz (SiO2) crucible at the melting point of silicon, one study yielded a value of 0.002 atm."Handbook of Semiconductor Silicon Technology," W. C. O'Mara, R. B. Herring, L. P. Hunt, Noyes Publications (1990), p. 148 For the direct vaporization of pure, amorphous SiO solid, 0.001 atm has been reported.J. A. Nuth III, F. T. Ferguson, The Astrophysical Journal, 649, 1178-1183 (2006) For a coating system, at the phase boundary between SiO2 and a silicide, 0.01 atm was reported.
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The violence of the bombardment could well result in significant outgassing that would replace removed atmosphere. Most of the ejected atmosphere would go into solar orbit near Venus, and, without further intervention, could be captured by the Venerian gravitational field and become part of the atmosphere once again. Another variant method involving bombardment would be to perturb a massive Kuiper belt object to put its orbit onto a collision path with Venus. If the object, made of mostly ices, had enough velocity to penetrate just a few kilometers past the Venusian surface, the resulting forces from the vaporization of ice from the impactor and the impact itself could stir the lithosphere and mantle thus ejecting a proportional amount of matter (as magma and gas) from Venus.
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The adsorption of water at surfaces is of broad importance in chemical engineering, materials science and catalysis. Also termed surface hydration, the presence of physically or chemically adsorbed water at the surfaces of solids plays an important role in governing interface properties, chemical reaction pathways and catalytic performance in a wide range of systems. In the case of physically adsorbed water, surface hydration can be eliminated simply through drying at conditions of temperature and pressure allowing full vaporization of water. For chemically adsorbed water, hydration may be in the form of either dissociative adsorption, where H2O molecules are dissociated into surface adsorbed -H and -OH, or molecular adsorption (associative adsorption) where individual water molecules remain intact Adsorption of water at TiO2 planes, dissociative vs molecular water adsorption.
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In such an event, reactor power can grow rapidly without any negative feedback from the expansion or boiling of the water, even if it is in a channel just away. Dramatic heating will occur to the nuclear fuel, leading to melting and vaporization of the metals within the core. Rapid expansion, increases in pressure, and failure of core components may lead to the destruction of the nuclear reactor, as was the case with SL-1. As the energy of expansion and heat travel from the nuclear fuel to the water and the vessel, it becomes likely that the nuclear reaction will shut down, either from the lack of sufficient moderator or from the fuel expanding beyond the realm of a critical mass.
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In SI units, one kilocalorie per mole is equal to 4.184 kilojoules per mole, or joules per molecule, or 0.043 eV per molecule. At room temperature (25 °C, 77 °F, or 298.15 K) it is equal to 1.688 units in the kT term of Boltzmann's equation. Even though it is not an SI unit, the kilocalorie per mole is still widely used in chemistry for thermodynamical quantities such as thermodynamic free energy, heat of vaporization, heat of fusion and ionization energy, due to the ease with which it can be calculated based on the units of measure typically employed in quantifying a chemical reaction, especially in aqueous solution. Typically but not exclusively, kcal/mol are used in the United States, whereas kJ/mol are preferred elsewhere.
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A Pure Energy N2 tank with a remote line attached The newer high-pressure air (HPA) paintball markers use compressed air or nitrogen (N2) for propulsion, to attempt to offset issues with other types of propellants such as . Due to nitrogen's low critical point, when pure nitrogen or air (which is 78% nitrogen) is compressed, it remains in gaseous form unless the temperature goes well below . When it expands, the tank also cools due to the Joule-Thomson effect, but at a far lower rate than liquid because it does not have to phase-change from liquid to gas. The lack of vaporization reduces the variation in output gas pressure associated with rapid successions of firing cycles, improving accuracy and reducing the chance of "freeze-up" malfunctions.
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The precise meaning of such a quantity is dependent on the context (what substances are involved, circumstances, etc.), but the unit of measurement is used specifically to describe certain existing phenomena, such as in thermodynamics it is the unit of measurement that describes molar energy. For convenience and due to the range of magnitudes involved these quantities are almost always reported in kJ·mol−1 rather than in J·mol−1. For example, heats of fusion and vaporization are usually of the order of 10 kJ·mol−1, bond energies are of the order of 100 kJ·mol−1, and ionization energies of the order of 1000 kJ·mol−1. 1 kJ·mol−1 is equal to 0.239 kcal·mol−1 or 1.04×10−2 eV per particle.
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Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy instrument A scientist preparing solutions for atomic absorption spectroscopy, reflected in the glass window of the AAS's flame atomizer cover door Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a spectroanalytical procedure for the quantitative determination of chemical elements using the absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state. Atomic absorption spectroscopy is based on absorption of light by free metallic ions. In analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over 70 different elements in solution, or directly in solid samples via electrothermal vaporization, and is used in pharmacology, biophysics, archaeology and toxicology research.
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The processes in a flame include the stages of desolvation (drying) in which the solvent is evaporated and the dry sample nano-particles remain, vaporization (transfer to the gaseous phase) in which the solid particles are converted into gaseous molecule, atomization in which the molecules are dissociated into free atoms, and ionization where (depending on the ionization potential of the analyte atoms and the energy available in a particular flame) atoms may be in part converted to gaseous ions. Each of these stages includes the risk of interference in case the degree of phase transfer is different for the analyte in the calibration standard and in the sample. Ionization is generally undesirable, as it reduces the number of atoms that are available for measurement, i.e., the sensitivity.
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The water vapor with condensed droplets often seen billowing from power stations is created by the cooling systems (not directly from the closed-loop Rankine power cycle). This 'exhaust' heat is represented by the "Qout" flowing out of the lower side of the cycle shown in the T–s diagram below. Cooling towers operate as large heat exchangers by absorbing the latent heat of vaporization of the working fluid and simultaneously evaporating cooling water to the atmosphere. While many substances could be used as the working fluid in the Rankine cycle, water is usually the fluid of choice due to its favorable properties, such as its non-toxic and unreactive chemistry, abundance, and low cost, as well as its thermodynamic properties.
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Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. There are two main types of boiling: nucleate boiling where small bubbles of vapour form at discrete points, and critical heat flux boiling where the boiling surface is heated above a certain critical temperature and a film of vapor forms on the surface. Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F but is lower with the decreased atmospheric pressure found at higher altitudes.
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This compound can be prepared by arc-vaporization at temperatures up to 1100 °C of graphite rods packed with scandium(III) oxide iron nitride and graphite powder in a K-H generator in a nitrogen atmosphere at 300 Torr. Endohedral metallofullerenes are characterised by the fact that electrons will transfer from the metal atom to the fullerene cage and that the metal atom takes a position off-center in the cage. The size of the charge transfer is not always simple to determine. In most cases it is between 2 and 3 charge units, in the case of the La2@C80 however it can be even about 6 electrons such as in Sc3N@C80 which is better described as [Sc3N]+6@[C80]−6.
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Finally a match exists between the calculated values and the experimental photoelectron values for the energy required to remove the first 4 valence electrons. D-orbital aromaticity is found in trinuclear tungsten and molybdenum metal clusters generated by laser vaporization of the pure metals in the presence of oxygen in a helium stream.Observation of d-Orbital Aromaticity Xin Huang, Hua-Jin Zhai, Boggavarapu Kiran, Lai-Sheng Wang, Angewandte Chemie International Edition Volume 44, Issue 44, Pages 7251–54 2005 In these clusters the three metal centers are bridged by oxygen and each metal has two terminal oxygen atoms. The first signal in the photoelectron spectrum corresponds to the removal of the valence electron with the lowest energy in the anion to the neutral compound.
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The regenerator operates at a temperature of about 715 °C and a pressure of about 2.41 bar, hence the regenerator operates at about 0.7 bar higher pressure than the reactor. The combustion of the coke is exothermic and it produces a large amount of heat that is partially absorbed by the regenerated catalyst and provides the heat required for the vaporization of the feedstock and the endothermic cracking reactions that take place in the catalyst riser. For that reason, FCC units are often referred to as being 'heat balanced'. The hot catalyst (at about 715 °C) leaving the regenerator flows into a catalyst withdrawal well where any entrained combustion flue gases are allowed to escape and flow back into the upper part to the regenerator.
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The vaporization of water also absorbs heat; it thereby cools the smoke, air, walls, and objects that could act as further fuel, and thus prevents one of the means by which fires grow, which is by "jumping" to nearby heat/fuel sources to start new fires, which then combine. Water extinguishment is thus a combination of "asphyxia" (cutting off the oxygen supply) and cooling. The flame itself is suppressed by asphyxia, but the cooling is the most important element in mastering a fire in a closed area. Water may be accessed from a pressurized fire hydrant, pumped from water sources such as lakes or rivers, delivered by tanker truck, or dropped from water bombers, which are aircraft adapted as tankers for fighting forest fires.
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The surgeon uses a pointed or blade shaped electrode called the "active electrode" to make contact with the tissue and exert a tissue effect...vaporization, and its linear propagation called electrosurgical cutting, or the combination of desiccation and protein coagulation used to seal blood vessels for the purpose of Hemostasis. The electric current oscillates between the active electrode and the dispersive electrode with the entire patient interposed between the two. Since the concentration of the RF current reduces with distance from the active electrode the current density rapidly (quadratically) decreases. Since the rate of tissue heating is proportional to the square of current density, the heating occurs in a very localized region, only near the portion of the electrode, usually the tip, near to or in contact with the target tissue.
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When liquid coolant undergoes a change in phase due to the absorption of heat from a heated solid surface, a higher transfer rate occurs. The more efficient heat transfer from the heated surface (in the form of heat of vaporization plus sensible heat) and the motions of the bubbles (bubble-driven turbulence and convection) leads to rapid mixing of the fluid. Therefore, boiling heat transfer has played an important role in industrial heat transfer processes such as macroscopic heat transfer exchangers in nuclear and fossil power plants, and in microscopic heat transfer devices such as heat pipes and microchannels for cooling electronic chips. The use of boiling is limited by a condition called critical heat flux (CHF), which is also called a boiling crisis or departure from nucleate boiling (DNB).
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The quantity known as higher heating value (HHV) (or gross energy or upper heating value or gross calorific value (GCV) or higher calorific value (HCV)) is determined by bringing all the products of combustion back to the original pre-combustion temperature, and in particular condensing any vapor produced. Such measurements often use a standard temperature of . This is the same as the thermodynamic heat of combustion since the enthalpy change for the reaction assumes a common temperature of the compounds before and after combustion, in which case the water produced by combustion is condensed to a liquid. The higher heating value takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of water in the combustion products, and is useful in calculating heating values for fuels where condensation of the reaction products is practical (e.g.
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Arsenic is an element with a vaporization point of 615 °C, such that arsenical oxide will be lost from the melt before or during casting, and fumes from fire setting for mining and ore processing have long been known to attack the eyes, lungs and skin. Chronic arsenic poisoning leads to peripheral neuropathy, which can cause weakness in the legs and feet. It has been speculated that this lay behind the legend of lame smiths, such as the Greek god Hephaestus. A well-preserved mummy of a man who lived around 3,200 BCAge determination of tissue, bone and grass samples from Ötztal Ice Man (PDF; 476 kB) found in the Ötztal Alps, popularly known as Ötzi, showed high levels of both copper particles and arsenic in his hair.
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The precise timing of EBWs is achieved by the detonator using direct physical effects of the vaporized bridgewire to initiate detonation in the detonator's booster charge. Given a sufficiently high and well known amount of electric current and voltage, the timing of the bridgewire vaporization is both extremely short (a few microseconds) and extremely precise and predictable (standard deviation of time to detonate as low as a few tens of nanoseconds). Conventional blasting caps use electricity to heat a bridge wire rather than vaporize it, and that heating then causes the primary explosive to detonate. Imprecise contact between the bridgewire and the primary explosive changes how quickly the explosive is heated up, and minor electrical variations in the wire or leads will change how quickly it heats up as well.
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Retrieved 10 October 2007. The ground water in the area is known to contain arsenic compounds, and the illness was believed to have been caused by arsenic poisoning incurred when residents of the area inhaled the vapor of the boiling arsenic-contaminated water. However, further investigations have led to the conclusion that the arsenic content in the groundwater did not differ from that of the local drinking supply, and that the illness reported was likely caused by the vaporization of troilite, a sulfur-bearing compound present within the meteorite in large amounts, which would have melted at relatively low temperatures and high pressures created by such an impact. According to cosmochemist Larry Grossman of the University of Chicago, the aerial lights and explosions reported were consistent with extraterrestrial material.
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Carbonaceous chondrite fission Xe, often abbreviated as CCF Xe, are a collection of different isotopes of xenon that were thought to have arisen from the decay of a superheavy element within the island of stability. Early studies proposed that the half life of the theoretical progenitor of CCF Xe to be on the order of 108 years. A later attempt at characterization of the progenitor in 1975 by Edward Anders, a professor of chemistry at the University of Chicago, and colleague John Larimer suggested a heat of vaporization of 54 kJ/mol and a boiling point of 2500K for the element and, based on estimated accretion temperatures, they also proposed elements 111 and 115 (today named roentgenium and moscovium) as the most likely candidates assuming the element condensed in pure form.
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For 2013, Suzuki updated the Swift with some minor cosmetic changes such as a revised front bumper, L-shaped LED daytime running lights on the foglamp housings, fresh 16-inch wheels, LED-type high-level brake lamp and new seat fabric design. For the Japanese market, it features Suzuki's newly developed DUAL JET ENGINE as well as Suzuki's ENE-CHARGE system and ECO-COOL, implemented from the Suzuki Wagon R. The new DUAL JET ENGINE uses the dual-injection system on its 1.2 L petrol engine and it works by increasing vaporization, making combustion more efficient. It channels fuel to two intake ports instead of only one per cylinder. With the DUAL JET ENGINE and the ENE-CHARGE, fuel economy is now up to 26.4 km/L, calculated based on JC08 mode.
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RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources. Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs) involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the "drying system".
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The volumetric efficiency increases with increase of air temperature at constant pressure, so that power does not decrease as fast as the air density when the temperature is raised, due to changes in vaporization and heat transfer. In order to compare the action of the gasoline engine with the theoretically perfect heat engine operating on the same cycle, it is necessary to base the heat balance of the actual engine on the heat actually made available by combustion, not upon the heat supplied in the fuel. By summing up the exhaust and jacket heat losses with the brake power, an approximation is made of the true heat available, accurate to within perhaps 5%. Basing the heat balance upon the heat thus accounted for, it is fairly well-established that the energy distribution is not appreciably altered by change of either altitude or speed.
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Isaac Newton described comets as compact and durable solid bodies moving in oblique orbit and their tails as thin streams of vapor emitted by their nuclei, ignited or heated by the Sun. Newton suspected that comets were the origin of the life-supporting component of air. As early as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, Immanuel Kant hypothesized that comets are composed of some volatile substance, whose vaporization gives rise to their brilliant displays near perihelion. In 1836, the German mathematician Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, after observing streams of vapor during the appearance of Halley's Comet in 1835, proposed that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit, and he argued that the non-gravitational movements of Encke's Comet resulted from this phenomenon.
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Many advances in welding technology have resulted from the introduction of new sources of the thermal energy required for localized melting. These advances include the introduction of modern techniques such as gas tungsten arc, gas-metal arc, submerged-arc, electron beam, and laser beam welding processes. However, whilst these processes were able to improve stability, reproducibility, and accuracy of welding, they share a common limitation - the energy does not fully penetrate the material to be welded, resulting in the formation of a melt pool on the surface of the material. To achieve welds which penetrate the full depth of the material, it is necessary to either specially design and prepare the geometry of the joint or cause vaporization of the material to such a degree that a "keyhole" is formed, allowing the heat to penetrate the joint.
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Animated GIF showing a phaser discharge in slow motion Phaser output can be adjusted in both area of effect and output: a typical hand phaser can be adjusted so that it will merely shock or stun a living organism, while the effects of higher settings range from burning, and disintegration to true vaporization. This versatility means they can also be used as welding torches or cutting tools, and can create heat sources by firing at a large, solid object (like a rock). The stream can be adjusted to strike multiple targets at once, strike a single target with precision, or even destroy large amounts of material. Phasers can be set to overload, whereby they build up a force-chamber explosion by continuously generating energy without releasing it; the resulting blast can destroy most natural objects within a 50-meter radius.
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Continuing the calculation from two paragraphs above, air cooling needs ten times of the surface area, therefore the fins, and air needs 2000 times the flow velocity and thus a recirculating air fan needs ten times the power of a recirculating water pump. Moving heat from the cylinder to a large surface area for air cooling can present problems such as difficulties manufacturing the shapes needed for good heat transfer and the space needed for free flow of a large volume of air. Water boils at about the same temperature desired for engine cooling. This has the advantage that it absorbs a great deal of energy with very little rise in temperature (called heat of vaporization), which is good for keeping things cool, especially for passing one stream of coolant over several hot objects and achieving uniform temperature.
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Another definition, used by Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) and originally used by API (data collected for API research project 44), is the enthalpy of all combustion products minus the enthalpy of the fuel at the reference temperature (API research project 44 used 25 °C. GPSA currently uses 60 °F), minus the enthalpy of the stoichiometric oxygen (O2) at the reference temperature, minus the heat of vaporization of the vapor content of the combustion products. The distinction between the two is that this second definition assumes that the combustion products are all returned to the reference temperature and the heat content from the condensing vapor is considered not to be useful. This is more easily calculated from the higher heating value than when using the preceding definition and will in fact give a slightly different answer.
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Heat from the exhaust warmed both the metal and the air/fuel mixture inside the chamber, ensuring full vaporization of the fuel for greater combustion efficiency. The chamber also served as a reservoir of fuel/air mixture downstream of the carburettor body, allowing each cylinder to draw an equal and balanced amount of mixture for further efficiency and smooth-running. The heat chamber principle was especially suitable for an engine running at Wide open throttle and heavy loads for long periods of time, as was intended for the 2CV, when the throttle plate in the carburettor would be fully open, the Manifold vacuum would be low and the exhaust temperatures would be high. Unlike other air-cooled cars (such as the Volkswagen Beetle and the Fiat 500) the 2CV's engine had no thermostat valve in its oil system.
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If, in addition, the rate of photoionization is greater than the rate of consumption of intermediates, then each selected state is converted to one electron plus one positive ion, so that the RIS process is saturated. A usually efficient way to produce free atoms of an element in the ground state is to atomize the elements by ion sputtering or thermal vaporization of the element from a laser matrix under vacuum conditions or at environments with pressures significantly less than normal atmospheric pressure. The resulting plume of secondary atoms is then channeled through the path of multiple tuned laser beams which are capable of exciting consecutive electronic transitions in the specified element. Light from these tuned lasers promotes the desired atoms above their ionization potentials whereas interfering atoms from other elements are hardly ionized since they are generally transparent to the laser beam.
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Specific harms associated with cannabis include increased accident-rate while driving under intoxication, dependence, psychosis, detrimental psychosocial outcomes for adolescent users and respiratory disease. Some safer cannabis usage campaigns including the UKCIA (United Kingdom Cannabis Internet Activists) encourage methods of consumption shown to cause less physical damage to a users body, including oral (eating) consumption, vaporization, the usage of bongs which cool and to some extent filters the smoke, and smoking the cannabis without mixing it with tobacco. The fact that cannabis possession carries prison sentences in most developed countries is also pointed out as a problem by European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), as the consequences of a conviction for otherwise law-abiding users arguably is more harmful than any harm from the drug itself. For example, by adversely affecting employment opportunities, impacting civil rights, and straining personal relationships.
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Figure 5: Scheme of water ice molecules Although most previous and current research on frustration focuses on spin systems, the phenomenon was first studied in ordinary ice. In 1936 Giauque and Stout published The Entropy of Water and the Third Law of Thermodynamics. Heat Capacity of Ice from 15 K to 273 K, reporting calorimeter measurements on water through the freezing and vaporization transitions up to the high temperature gas phase. The entropy was calculated by integrating the heat capacity and adding the latent heat contributions; the low temperature measurements were extrapolated to zero, using Debye's then recently derived formula. The resulting entropy, S1 = 44.28 cal/(K·mol) = 185.3 J/(mol·K) was compared to the theoretical result from statistical mechanics of an ideal gas, S2 = 45.10 cal/(K·mol) = 188.7 J/(mol·K). The two values differ by S0 = 0.82 ± 0.05 cal/(K·mol) = 3.4 J/(mol·K).
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A laboratory simulation of an impact event and crater formation Impact cratering involves high velocity collisions between solid objects, typically much greater than the speed of sound in those objects. Such hyper-velocity impacts produce physical effects such as melting and vaporization that do not occur in familiar sub- sonic collisions. On Earth, ignoring the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from space is equal to the gravitational escape velocity of about 11 km/s. The fastest impacts occur at about 72 km/s in the "worst case" scenario in which an object in a retrograde near-parabolic orbit hits Earth. The median impact velocity on Earth is about 20 km/s. However, the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere rapidly decelerate any potential impactor, especially in the lowest 12 kilometres where 90% of the earth's atmospheric mass lies.
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This oxygen supports combustion; it combines with fuels such as gasoline, alcohol, diesel fuel, propane, or CNG to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor, along with heat, which causes the former two products of combustion to expand and exert pressure on pistons, driving the engine. Nitrous oxide is stored as a liquid in tanks, but is a gas under atmospheric conditions. When injected as a liquid into an inlet manifold, the vaporization and expansion causes a reduction in air/fuel charge temperature with an associated increase in density, thereby increasing the cylinder's volumetric efficiency. As the decomposition of N2O into oxygen and nitrogen gas is exothermic and thus contributes to a higher temperature in the combustion engine, the decomposition increases engine efficiency and performance, which is directly related to the difference in temperature between the unburned fuel mixture and the hot combustion gasses produced in the cylinders.
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The nozzle of hot water rockets must be able to withstand high pressure, high temperatures and the particularly corrosive nature of hot water. The simplest design has a pressurised water tank where the water is heated before launch; however, this gives a very low exhaust velocity since the high latent heat of vaporization means that very little actual steam is produced and the exhaust consists mostly of water, or if high temperatures and pressures are used, then the tank is very heavy. More complex designs can involve passing the water through pumps and heat exchangers and employing nuclear reactors or solar heating; it is estimated that these can give a specific impulse of over 195 s Isp,AIAA 97-3172, "Nuclear-Heated Steam Rocket Using Lunar Ice" Anthony Zuppero, which is still well below the standards of more complex designs, for example the 465 s of the hydrogen-oxygen Vinci engine.
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As noted in the historical section, a major problem for every Le Sage model is the energy and heat issue. As Maxwell and Poincaré showed, inelastic collisions lead to a vaporization of matter within fractions of a second and the suggested solutions were not convincing. For example, Aronson gave a simple proof of Maxwell's assertion: Likewise Isenkrahe's violation of the energy conservation law is unacceptable, and Kelvin's application of Clausius' theorem leads (as noted by Kelvin himself) to some sort of perpetual motion mechanism. The suggestion of a secondary re-radiation mechanism for wave models attracted the interest of JJ Thomson, but was not taken very seriously by either Maxwell or Poincaré, because it entails a gross violation of the second law of thermodynamics (huge amounts of energy spontaneously being converted from a colder to a hotter form), which is one of the most solidly established of all physical laws.
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However, using water as a coolant would require converting it into superheated steam, at high temperatures and pressures, and there were concerns about micrometeorite damage on orbit puncturing the pressure vessel, causing the reentry shield to fail. These concerns were resolved using a failure-resistant massively redundant flow system, created using thin metal sheets chemically etched with a pattern of micropores forming a channel system that was robust against failure and damage. In addition, cooling was achieved two different ways; one way was the vaporization of the water, but the second was even more significant, and was due to the creation of a layer of "cool" steam surrounding the base surface, reducing the ability to heat. Further, the water metering system would have to be extremely reliable, giving one drop per second per square inch, and was achieved via a trial/error design approach on real hardware.
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Image 4: Simplified chemical engineering schematic of Continuous Fractional Distillation tower separating one feed mixture stream into four distillate and one bottoms fractions Although small size units, mostly made of glass, can be used in laboratories, industrial units are large, vertical, steel vessels (see images 1 and 2) known as "distillation towers" or "distillation columns". To improve the separation, the tower is normally provided inside with horizontal plates or trays as shown in image 5, or the column is packed with a packing material. To provide the heat required for the vaporization involved in distillation and also to compensate for heat loss, heat is most often added to the bottom of the column by a reboiler, and the purity of the top product can be improved by recycling some of the externally condensed top product liquid as reflux. Depending on their purpose, distillation columns may have liquid outlets at intervals up the length of the column as shown in image 4.
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In an attempt at a chemical conception of the aether, he put forward a hypothesis that there existed two inert chemical elements of lesser atomic weight than hydrogen. Of these two proposed elements, he thought the lighter to be an all-penetrating, all-pervasive gas, and the slightly heavier one to be a proposed element, coronium. Mendeleev devoted much study and made important contributions to the determination of the nature of such indefinite compounds as solutions. Mendeleev Medal In another department of physical chemistry, he investigated the expansion of liquids with heat, and devised a formula similar to Gay-Lussac's law of the uniformity of the expansion of gases, while in 1861 he anticipated Thomas Andrews' conception of the critical temperature of gases by defining the absolute boiling-point of a substance as the temperature at which cohesion and heat of vaporization become equal to zero and the liquid changes to vapor, irrespective of the pressure and volume.
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Larger molten particles have the fission products diffused through the outer layers, and fused and non-melted particles that were not heated sufficiently but came in contact with the vaporized material or scavenged droplets before their solidification have a relatively thin layer of high activity material deposited on their surface. The composition of such particles depends on the character of the soil, usually a glass-like material formed from silicate minerals. The particle sizes do not depend on the yield but instead on the soil character, as they are based on individual grains of the soil or their clusters. Two types of particles are present, spherical, formed by complete vaporization-condensation or at least melting of the soil, with activity distributed evenly through the volume (or with a 10–30% volume of inactive core for larger particles between 0.5–2 mm), and irregular-shaped particles formed at the edges of the fireball by fusion of soil particles, with activity deposited in a thin surface layer.
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The moist static energy is a thermodynamic variable that describes the state of an air parcel, and is similar to the equivalent potential temperature. The moist static energy is a combination of a parcel's enthalpy due to an air parcel's internal energy and energy required to make room for it, its potential energy due to its height above the surface, and the latent energy due to water vapor present in the air parcel. It is a useful variable for researching the atmosphere because, like several other similar variables, it is approximately conserved during adiabatic ascent and descent. [Requires free registration] The moist static energy, S, can be described mathematically as: ::S=C_p \cdot T + g \cdot z + L_v \cdot q where Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure, T is the absolute air temperature, g is the gravitational constant, z is the height above the surface, Lv is the latent heat of vaporization, and q is water vapor specific humidity.
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These models aim to explain the origin, evolution, and abundance of water vapor (among other compounds), proposing different hypotheses, from vaporization of micrometeoroids to cometary impacts in these atmospheres. She has been deputy coordinator of the Space Area of the (ANEP), as well as participating in national and international committees for the management of space science and technology, such as the ESA Solar System Working Group and the Scientific Committee of the International Space Science Institute. In 2016 she participated as a scientific and technical researcher on the missions of the space probe Rosetta (ESA) to comet 67P, on BepiColombo (ESA-JAXA) for the exploration of Mercury, and on the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (ESA) to study Jupiter and the Galilean moons. Likewise, she has been part of the scientific-technical definition teams of NASA-ESA space missions to the Saturn system, and of an ESA mission to bring asteroidal material to Earth.
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The engine has a fuel injection system which meters fuel in proportion to the induction airflow with fuel vaporization taking place at the intake ports. The engine has a displacement of . The cylinders have air-cooled heads. The IO-390 was first introduced at AirVenture 2002. It has a factory recommended TBO of 2000 hours and requires a dynafocal engine mount. The IO-390 was initially marketed through Lycoming's custom engine subsidiary, Thunderbolt Engines, prior to the engine's certification and was at that time only available for installation on non-certified aircraft. The IO-390 was certified on 30 March 2009 to FAR 33.} In January 2009 the base price of the IO-390-EXP version was USD$32,650.00. In November 2009 Lycoming announced that it had obtained an FAA Supplemental Type Certificate to replace the originally fitted Lycoming O-360 engines in the Mooney M20E, M20F and M20J with a new or remanufactured IO-390-A3A6 engine.
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Spielberg did not want any blood or gore during the Heat-Ray deaths; in the words of Helman, "this was going to be a horror movie for kids". So the effects crew came up with the vaporization of the bodies, and considering it could not be fully digital due to both the complexity of the effect and the schedule, live-action dust was used alongside the CGI ray assimilation and particles. Digital birds followed the Tripods in most scenes to symbolize the presence of death, which Chiang compared to vultures and added that "you don't know if these birds are going to the danger or away from it, if you should follow them or run away." During the scene where Ray's stolen minivan is attacked by a mob, Janusz Kaminski and Spielberg wanted a lot of interactive lights, so they added different kinds of lights, including Coleman lamps, oil lanterns, flashlights and Maglights.
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ADS then confirms with the Low Alarm Water Level, verifies at least 1 low-pressure cooling pump is operating, and starts a 105-second timer. When the timer expires, or when the manual ADS initiate buttons are pressed, the system rapidly releases pressure from the RPV in the form of steam through pipes that are piped to below the water level in the suppression pool (the torus/wetwell), which is designed to condense the steam released by ADS or other safety valve activation into water), bringing the reactor vessel below 32 atm (3200 kPa, 465 psi), allowing the low-pressure cooling systems (LPCS/LPCI/LPCF/GDCS) to restore reactor water level. During an ADS blowdown, the steam being removed from the reactor is sufficient to ensure adequate core cooling even if the core is uncovered. The water in the reactor will rapidly flash to steam as reactor pressure drops, carrying away the latent heat of vaporization and providing cooling for the entire reactor.
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Due to the high temperatures on the illuminated side of the planet, and the likelihood that all surface volatiles have been depleted, silicate rock vaporization may have produced a tenuous atmosphere (with a pressure approaching 1 Pa or 10−2 mbar at 2500 K) consisting predominantly of sodium, O2, O and silicon monoxide, as well as smaller amounts of potassium and other metals. Magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), silicon (Si), and iron (Fe) may rain out from such an atmosphere on the planet's daylight side in the form of particles of minerals, such as enstatite, corundum and spinel, wollastonite, silica, and iron (II) oxide, that would condense at altitudes below 10 km. Titanium (Ti) may be depleted (and possibly iron similarly) by being transported towards the night side before condensing as perovskite and geikelite. Sodium (and to a lesser extent, potassium), being more volatile, would be less subject to condensation into clouds, and would dominate the outer layers of the atmosphere.
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Smoking is a practice in which a substance is burned and the resulting smoke is breathed in to be tasted and absorbed into the bloodstream. Most commonly, the substance used is the dried leaves of the tobacco plant, which have been rolled into a small square of rice paper to create a small, round cylinder called a "cigarette". Smoking is primarily practised as a route of administration for recreational drug use because the combustion of the dried plant leaves vaporizes and delivers active substances into the lungs where they are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and reach bodily tissue. In the case of cigarette smoking these substances are contained in a mixture of aerosol particles and gases and include the pharmacologically active alkaloid nicotine; the vaporization creates heated aerosol and gas into a form that allows inhalation and deep penetration into the lungs where absorption into the bloodstream of the active substances occurs.
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The combustion of ammonia to nitrogen and water is exothermic: The standard enthalpy change of combustion, ΔH°c, expressed per mole of ammonia and with condensation of the water formed, is −382.81 kJ/mol. Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic product of combustion: all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to N2 and O2, which is the principle behind the catalytic converter. Nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic products in the presence of appropriate catalysts, a reaction of great industrial importance in the production of nitric acid: A subsequent reaction leads to NO2: The combustion of ammonia in air is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst (such as platinum gauze or warm chromium(III) oxide), due to the relatively low heat of combustion, a lower laminar burning velocity, high auto-ignition temperature, high heat of vaporization, and a narrow flammability range. However, recent studies have shown that efficient and stable combustion of ammonia can be achieved using swirl combustors, thereby rekindling research interest in ammonia as a fuel for thermal power production.
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