New technologies of destruction have appeared throughout history, from the trireme and gunpowder in past centuries to biological and nuclear weapons in more modern times.
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You get the sense that, were he sent to review an Olive Garden, he would remark, in his opening paragraph, that the bread sticks reminded him of the oars on a trireme.
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The doctor's gown even greener than before they swarm the buxom Equatorial one— head bent, body curled— a creaturely sound from the vast, void-like and watery opening out, the throat a conduit for this otherworldly force like a glacier calving inside the more obsolete sound of a trireme that'll always be circumnavigating that glacier, gloved hands holding my own heels high for the pelvissing plosive head, shoulders, hip, knees feet and cord that voice never not in my ear and soon another, voices so large in their beautiful Latin, how could they accept being refracted so small in another grammar?
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Perle set up Trireme Partners in 2001. Trireme Partners first sought an investment from Boeing in February 2002. Boeing committed to invest $20 million two months later. The company received a $2.5 million investment from Hollinger International Inc.
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Trireme Partners LLP was a limited partnership venture capital company that invested in technology, goods, and services related to Homeland Security. The name "Trireme" was taken from a Greek warship designed with three banks of rowers. Established by Richard Perle and Gerald Hillman, Trireme Partners was a Delaware entity registered in November 2001. One of the firm's major investors was Boeing, who invested $20 million.
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Perle became the subject of controversy in 2003 following a New Yorker article published that alleged Perle offered to influence American foreign policy in Saudi Arabia in exchange for investment in Trireme. Trireme Partners completed its business and dissolved in 2005.
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Rankov was rowing master for the Trireme Trust's reconstructed trireme Olympias. As of 2004, Rankov was chairman of the Trust.The Trireme Trust Rankov has taught at the Classics and Ancient History Department of The University of Western Australia from 1986–1989, at the Classics Department at Royal Holloway University of London since 1990, and was Head of Department from 1999 to 2002. He married Kati Granger in 1981.
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Model of a Greek trireme A Roman mosaic from Tunisia showing a trireme vessel during the Roman Empire Based on all archeological evidence, the design of the trireme most likely pushed the technological limits of the ancient world. After gathering the proper timbers and materials it was time to consider the fundamentals of the trireme design. These fundamentals included accommodations, propulsion, weight and waterline, center of gravity and stability, strength, and feasibility. All of these variables are dependent on one another; however a certain area may be more important than another depending on the purpose of the ship.
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Olympias, a reconstruction of an ancient Athenian trireme In 1982 he was approached by Professor John Morrison of Wolfson College, Cambridge to assist with research into the design of the trireme. Together they and others founded the Trireme Trust, and created a series of small scale replicas based on historical records and architectural theory. Their work eventually led to the construction of a full-scale replica, the Olympias, by the Greek government in 1987. He also worked on the archaeological remains of Bronze Age seagoing ships in Northern Europe, establishing that vessels of considerable size and architectural sophistication capable of large-scale overseas travel existed in the era of 2030-1680 BC. In 1985–1987 a shipbuilder in Piraeus, financed by Frank Welsh (a trireme enthusiast), advised by historian J. S. Morrison and John F. Coates (who with Welsh founded the Trireme Trust initiated and managed the project), and informed by evidence from underwater archaeology, built an Athenian-style trireme, Olympias.
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Morrison, Coates and Willink founded the Trireme Trust together with Welsh. The Trireme Trust is now chaired by professor Boris Rankov. The bronze bow ram weighs 200 kg. It is a copy of an original ram now in the Piraeus archaeological museum.
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In the naval sphere, the archaic period saw the development of the trireme in Greece. In the eighth century, Greek navies began to use ships with two banks of oars, and the three banked trireme seems to have become popular in the seventh century. Corinth was probably the first place in the Greek world to adopt the trireme in the mid seventh century BC. It was not until the mid-sixth century, however, that the trireme became the most popular design for Greek battleships, due to its expense. According to Thucydides, the period saw the first Greek naval battles; he dates the first to around 664 BC.
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In the great wars of the 5th century BC, such as the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, the trireme was the heaviest type of warship used by the Mediterranean navies. The trireme (Greek: triērēs, "three-oared") was propelled by three banks of oars, with one oarsman each. During the early 4th century BC, however, variants of the trireme design began to appear: the invention of the quinquereme (Gk. pentērēs, "five-oared") and the hexareme (Gk.
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Three-banked ("trireme") dromons are described in a 10th-century work dedicated to the parakoimōmenos Basil Lekapenos. However, this treatise, which survives only in fragments, draws heavily upon references on the appearance and construction of a classical Greek trireme, and must therefore be used with care when trying to apply it to the warships of the middle Byzantine period. The existence of trireme vessels is, however, attested in the Fatimid navy in the 11th and 12th centuries, and references made by Leo VI to large Arab ships in the 10th century may also indicate trireme galleys. For cargo transport, the Byzantines usually commandeered ordinary merchantmen as transport ships (phortēgoi) or supply ships (skeuophora).
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The galea in particular seems to have been strongly associated with the Mardaites, and Christos Makrypoulias even suggests that the ship was exclusively used by them. Three-banked ("trireme") dromons are described in a 9th-century work dedicated to the parakoimōmenos Basil Lekapenos. However, this treatise, which survives only in fragments, draws heavily upon references on the appearance and construction of a Classical trireme, and must therefore be used with care when trying to apply it to the warships of the middle Byzantine period. The existence of trireme vessels is, however, attested in the Fatimid navy in the 11th and 12th centuries, and references made by Leo VI to large Arab ships in the 10th century may also indicate trireme galleys.
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They have been interpreted as two-decked warships, and also as triremes.Morrison 1995: 146 Modern scholarship is divided on the provenance of the trireme, Greece or Phoenicia, and the exact time it developed into the foremost ancient fighting ship.Anthony J. Papalas (1997): "The Development of the Trireme", The Mariner's Mirror, Vol. 83, No. 3, pp.
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Olympias A trireme (; derived from Latin: trirēmisfrom tri- "three" + rēmus "oar". "with three banks of oars"; triērēs,from τρι- (tri-) "three" + ἐρέτης "rower" literally "three-rower") was an ancient vessel and a type of galley that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greeks and Romans. The trireme derives its name from its three rows of oars, manned with one man per oar. The early trireme was a development of the penteconter, an ancient warship with a single row of 25 oars on each side (i.e.
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Olympias, a reconstruction of an ancient Athenian trireme In 1985–1987 a shipbuilder in Piraeus, financed by Frank Welsh (an author, Suffolk banker, writer and trireme enthusiast), advised by historian J. S. Morrison and naval architect John F. Coates (who with Welsh founded the Trireme Trust that initiated and managed the project), and informed by evidence from underwater archaeology, built an Athenian-style trireme, Olympias. Crewed by 170 volunteer oarsmen, Olympias in 1988 achieved 9 knots (17 km/h or 10.5 mph). These results, achieved with inexperienced crew, suggest that the ancient writers were not exaggerating about straight-line performance. In addition, Olympias was able to execute a 180 degree turn in one minute and in an arc no wider than two and one half (2.5) ship-lengths.
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The Lenormant Relief, from the Athenian Acropolis, depicting the rowers of an "aphract" Athenian trireme, . Found in 1852, it is one of the main pictorial testaments to the layout of the trireme. There were two chief design traditions in the Mediterranean, the Greek and the Punic (Phoenician/Carthaginian) one, which was later copied by the Romans. As exemplified in the trireme, the Greeks used to project the upper level of oars through an outrigger (parexeiresia), while the later Punic tradition heightened the ship, and had all three tiers of oars projecting directly from the side hull.
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Depiction of the position of the rowers in three different levels (from top: thranitai, zygitai and thalamitai) in a Greek trireme. 19th-century interpretation of the quinquereme's oaring system, with five levels of oars. Far less is known with certainty about the construction and appearance of these ships than about the trireme. Literary evidence is fragmentary and highly selective, and pictorial evidence unclear.
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On the deck of a typical trireme in the Peloponnesian War there were 4 or 5 archers and 10 or so marines.Hanson (2006), p. 242 These few troops were peripherally effective in an offensive sense, but critical in providing defense for the oarsmen. Should the crew of another trireme board, the marines were all that stood between the enemy troops and the slaughter of the men below.
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The ram bow of the trireme Olympias, a modern full-scale reconstruction of a classical Greek trireme. Around the 8th century BC, ramming began to be employed as war galleys were equipped with heavy bronze rams. Records of the Persian Wars in the early 5th century BC by the Ancient historian Herodotus (c. 484–25 BC) show that by this time ramming tactics had evolved among the Greeks.
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The Classical trireme used 170 rowers; later galleys included even larger crews. Trireme oarsmen used leather cushions to slide over their seats, which allowed them to use their leg strength as a modern oarsman does with a sliding seat. Galleys usually had masts and sails, but would lower them at the approach of combat. Greek fleets would even leave their sails and masts on shore (as being unnecessary weight) if possible.
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Warfare in the Classical World. pp. 98-99. The Punic navy was built around the trireme, Carthaginian citizens usually served alongside recruits from Libya and other Carthaginian domains.
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Reconstructed model of a trireme, the type of ship in use by both the Greek and Persian forces According to Plutarch, the League fleet consisted of 200 triremes. These were of the sleek Athenian aphract (deckless) design, originally developed by Themistocles primarily for ramming actions,Goldsworthy, p. 102. although they had been modified by Cimon to improve their suitability for boarding actions. The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men, including 14 marines.
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Engen, Darel. "The Economy of Ancient Greece", EH.Net Encyclopedia, 2004. In 415 BC, an Attic talent was a month's pay for a trireme crew,Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War.
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The horse extended the range and increased the speed of attacks. In addition to land based weaponry, warships, such as the trireme, were in use by the 7th century BC.
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He was considered an expert on the Greek trireme, the oared warship of the Athenian classical golden age, and is best known as one of the founders in 1982, with Charles Willink, another classics teacher, John Coates, a naval architect, and Frank Welsh, a banker, the Trireme Trust, to test his theories about the Athenian trireme by building a full-size reconstruction. In 1984, the Greek Government promised funding, and in 1987 the Olympias was commissioned. With R. T. Williams, Morrison wrote Greek Oared Ships: 900–322 BC;Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1968; 2nd edition with N. B. Rankov as additional contributor, 1986 Long Ships and Round Ships (1980);HMSO, London, 1980 with John Coates, The Athenian Trireme: the History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship (1986);Cambridge University Press, 1986 with J. F. Coates, Greek and Roman Oared Warships (1996);Oxbow Books, Oxford, 1996 and other works. His elder daughter, Annis Garfield, the classicist and author, was an alumna of Girton College, and was voted the most beautiful girl in Cambridge in 1968.
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The Persian force was primarily based around 200 triremes. It is not clear whether there were additional transport ships. The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men, including 14 marines.Lazenby, p. 46.
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In 1275, Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, issued an order for the construction of several galleys that provide the earliest evidence for the dimensions of the bireme galleys. Because of increased weight and breadth, which brought increased friction through the water, a trireme galley was not dramatically faster than a bireme. But the change to trireme produced more significant developments than a gain in tactical speed over short distances. Early bireme galleys escorted merchant ships but were rarely used to carry goods.
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Morrison, Coates & Rankov, The Athenian Trireme, pp. 246–47; Shaw (1995), pp. 168–169 Rowers in ancient war galleys sat below the upper deck with little view of their surroundings. The rowing was therefore managed by supervisors, and coordinated with pipes or rhythmic chanting.Morrison, Coates & Rankov, The Athenian Trireme, pp. 249–52 Galleys were highly maneuverable, able to turn on their axis or even to row backward, though it required a skilled and experienced crew.Morrison, Coates & Rankov, The Athenian Trireme, pp. 246–47 In galleys with an arrangement of three men per oar, all would be seated, but the rower furthest inboard would perform a stand-and-sit stroke, getting up on his feet to push the oar forward, and then sitting down again to pull it back.
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Illustration of a Greek trireme The History emphasizes the development of military technologies. In several passages (1.14.3, 2.75–76, 7.36.2–3), Thucydides describes in detail various innovations in the conduct of siegeworks or naval warfare.
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His publications include an Oxford University Press edition of Orestes by Euripides with commentary, and numerous journal articles and reviews. From 1982 he also cooperated with his Cambridge tutor John Morrison, the banker Frank Welsh and the naval architect John Coates to produce a full-size replica of a Greek trireme, founding the Trireme Trust with them and culminating in the launch of the Olympias in 1987. After his retirement he became an expert amateur botanist, specialising in flowers on Hampstead Heath and chairing Highgate cemetery.
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Romano-Britannic usurper- emperor Allectus (r. 293-296 AD), depicting a trireme on the reverse During the Hellenistic period, the light trireme was supplanted by larger warships in dominant navies, especially the pentere/quinquereme. The maximum practical number of oar banks a ship could have was three. So the number in the type name did not refer to the banks of oars any more (as for biremes and triremes), but to the number of rowers per vertical section, with several men on each oar.
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The white rivers below represent the Danube and Sava and the primordial beginning of Belgrade while the Roman trireme refers to its antiquity. The open gates of the city represent free communication and commerce with the world.
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A 1971 reconstruction of the Real, the flagship of John of Austria in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), is in the Museu Marítim in Barcelona. The ship was 60 m long and 6.2 m wide, had a draught of 2.1 m, weighing 239 tons empty, was propelled by 290 rowers, and carried about 400 crew and fighting soldiers at Lepanto. She was substantially larger than the typical galleys of her time. A group called "The Trireme Trust" operates, in conjunction with the Greek Navy, a reconstruction of an ancient Greek Trireme, the Olympias.
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Trierarch () was the title of officers who commanded a trireme (triēres) in the classical Greek world. In Classical Athens, the title was associated with the trierarchy (τριηραρχία, triērarchia), one of the public offices or liturgies, which were filled by wealthy citizens for a year. As the name implies, the trierarch was responsible for the outfitting and crewing of a trireme, and for commanding it in battle. Trierarchs thus had to be men of considerable means, since the expenses incurred could run as high as a talent in the course of a year.
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These decorations were used both to show the wealth of the patrician and to make the ship frightening to the enemy. The home port of each trireme was signaled by the wooden statue of a deity located above the bronze ram on the front of the ship.Hanson (2006), p. 239 In the case of Athens, since most of the fleet's triremes were paid for by wealthy citizens, there was a natural sense of competition among the patricians to create the "most impressive" trireme, both to intimidate the enemy and to attract the best oarsmen.
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A monoreme has one bank of oars, a bireme two, and a trireme three. Since the maximum banks of oars was three, any expansion above that did not refer to additional banks of oars, but of additional rowers for every oar.
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After picking up more ships at Samos, Teleutias took command at Cnidus and commenced operations against Rhodes.Xenophon, Hellenica 4.8.23–24 A Greek trireme. Alarmed by this Spartan naval resurgence, the Athenians sent out a fleet of 40 triremes under Thrasybulus.
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Modern historians usually take into account the writings of various Roman annalists, some contemporary; the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus; Plutarch; Appian; and Dio Cassius. Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias.
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Modern historians usually take into account the writings of various Roman annalists, some contemporary; the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus; Plutarch; Appian; and Dio Cassius. Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias.
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Demosthenes, well aware of the defects of the third form or symmoria, brought forward a new law in 340 B.C.E. that improved the funding and operation of the trierarchy. The trierarchy were rated for a trireme according to their property as stated in the register in such a manner that one trireme was required from 10 talents. If their wealth was valued at a higher than 10 talents they would be assigned up to three triremes and one auxiliary vessel. Those who had less than 10 talents were to unite in syntelia until they made up that sum.
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259–271 (259f.) Clement of Alexandria in the 2nd century, drawing on earlier works, explicitly attributes the invention of the trireme (trikrotos naus, "three-banked ship") to the Sidonians.Stromata, I.16.36 According to Thucydides, the trireme was introduced to Greece by the Corinthians in the late 8th century BC, and the Corinthian Ameinocles built four such ships for the Samians.Thucydides I.13.2-5 This was interpreted by later writers, Pliny and Diodorus, to mean that triremes were invented in Corinth,Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica, XIV.42.3 the possibility remains that the earliest three-banked warships originated in Phoenicia.
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The Lenormant Relief, from the Athenian Acropolis, depicting the rowers of an aphract Athenian trireme, ca. 410 BC. Found in 1852, it is one of the main pictorial testaments to the layout of the trireme. Herodotus mentions that the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II (610–595 BC) built triremes on the Nile, for service in the Mediterranean, and in the Red Sea, but this reference is disputed by modern historians, and attributed to a confusion, since "triērēs" was by the 5th century used in the generic sense of "warship", regardless its type.The Age of the Galley, pp.
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The emblem of the club is similar with the seal of the flag of the municipality of Corfu, an ancient Greek ship, a symbol of the island. That ancient Greek ship is the quadriceps trireme and symbolizes the power of the Phaeacians navy in antiquity.
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Medieval galleys are also described as "bireme" or "trireme" depending on the number of their banks of oars. The terminology can lead to confusion, since the terms are also used for rowed warships of the Greco-Roman period built on entirely different design principles.
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Although the name of the museum refers to War of Independence, the museum is an archaeology and ethnography museum. The ground floor is the archaeology section. Most of the items are Adramyttion finds, which were granted by Özkan Arıkantürk. There is also a trireme ship.
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New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974. The commander of the Roman garrison, Munius Lupercus, was sent to Veleda, though he was killed en route, evidently in an ambush. Later, when the praetorian trireme was captured, it was rowed upriver on the Lippe as a gift to Veleda.
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111, ed. Reisk These voluntary contributions were frequently very large. Sometimes the more wealthy citizens voluntarily undertook a "trierarchy", or the expenses of equipping a trireme. We read that the freedman Pasion furnished 1000 shields, together with five triremes, which he equipped at his own expense.
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The number of marines on the trireme fluctuated based on each battle. For example, during the Peloponnesian War, there were 4 archers and 10 marines on the deck of a vessel.Hanson 2006, p. 242 However, Cimon had forty marines aboard each ship during the battle of Eurymedon.
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98-99 which is not mentioned being present at Gela. The Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. The Punic navy was built around the trireme, Carthaginian citizens usually served alongside recruits from Libya and other Carthaginian domains.
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Ameinocles (; fl. 8th century BC) was a Corinthian shipbuilder, who visited Samos about 704 BC, and built four ships for the Samians.Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War i. 13 Pliny the Elder says that Thucydides mentioned Ameinocles as the inventor of the trireme;Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia vii.
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27–32 The emergence of more advanced states and intensified competition between them spurred on the development of advanced galleys with multiple banks of rowers. During the middle of the first millennium BC, the Mediterranean powers developed successively larger and more complex vessels, the most advanced being the classical trireme with up to 170 rowers. Triremes fought several important engagements in the naval battles of the Greco-Persian Wars (502–449 BC) and the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), including the Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC, which sealed the defeat of Athens by Sparta and its allies. The trireme was an advanced ship that was expensive to build and to maintain due its large crew.
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By doing this, the amount of manpower would stay consistent, i.e., keeping the same amount of rowing power but shortening the length of the ship to condense the ramming power while keeping speed and agility consistent. This new ideology of warfare and naval tactics would prove to be prudent to the overall military applications of the Trireme, and soon would become the principal combative strategy of the Greek navy and other navies alike. The Greek Trireme, soon after its appearance in the Aegean, would become the standard warship throughout the Mediterranean as sovereign states such as Egypt and even the Persian Empire would adopt the design of these ships and apply them to their own military applications.
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Greek trireme. The trireme, a three-ranked galley with one man per oar, was the main Hellenistic warship up to and into the 4th century BC. At that time, a requirement for heavier ships led to the development of "polyremes" meaning "many oars", applied to "fours" (tetre- in Greek, quadri- in Latin) or more and "fives" (penta- in Greek, quinque- in Latin) and later up to "tens", the largest that seems to have been used in battle. Larger polyremes were built, with Ptolemy II Philadelphus eventually building a "twenty" and a "thirty", and Ptolemy IV Philopator building the "forty". The maximum practical number of oar ranks a ship could have logistically was three (Greek and Latin tri-).
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Pausanias also mentions that at the treasury of the Acanthians stood a chryselephantine trireme, donated by Cyrus the Younger. Behind the treasury of the Acanthians in the Roman period a gate opened onto the sacred precinct, leading to the so-called "House of the Peristyle", dated to the 1st century A.D.
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They are white according to heraldry rules. "Beograd" is Serbian name for "white city," so there are white walls and towers. The walls represent a merchant city; the towers and open gate represent an open market. The ship, a Roman trireme, is a symbol of the antiquity of the city.
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Livy, Lucan and Appian all describe the liburnian as bireme; they were fully decked (cataphract) ships, with a sharply pointed prow, providing a more streamlined shape designed for greater speed. In terms of speed, the liburnian was probably considerably slower than a trireme, but on a par with a "five".
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The Phalanx formation was the standard fighting formation of the army. Dionysius also had the option of using old men and women as peltasts if needed. The cavalry was recruited from wealthier citizens and mercenaries. The Syracuse navy was built around the Quinquereme, an invention attributed to Dionysius, and the trireme.
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To secure and add strength to the hull, cables (hypozōmata) were employed, fitted in the keel and stretched by means of windlasses. Hence the triremes were often called "girded" when in commission.Fields (2007), p. 9 The materials from which the trireme was constructed were an important aspect of its design.
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Rich and poor rowed alongside each other. Victor Davis Hanson argues that this "served the larger civic interest of acculturating thousands as they worked together in cramped conditions and under dire circumstances."Hanson (2006), p. 252 During the Peloponnesian War, there were a few variations to the typical crew layout of a trireme.
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One was a drastically reduced number of oarsmen, so as to use the ship as a troop transport. The thranites would row from the top benches while the rest of the space, below, would be filled with hoplites. In another variation, the Athenians used 10 or so trireme for transporting horses.Hanson (2006), p.
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The fact that the trireme had three levels of oars (trikrotos naus) led medieval historians, long after the specifics of their construction had been lost, to speculate that the design of the "four", the "five" and the other later ships would proceed logically, i.e. that the quadrireme would have four rows of oars, the quinquereme five, etc. However, the eventual appearance of bigger polyremes ("sixes" and later "sevens", "eights", "nines", "tens", and even a massive "forty"), made this theory implausible. Consequently, during the Renaissance and until the 19th century, it came to be believed that the rowing system of the trireme and its descendants was similar to the alla sensile system of the contemporary galleys, comprising multiple oars on each level, rowed by one oarsman each.
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The bireme was twice the triaconter's length and height, and thus employed 120 rowers. Biremes were galleys, galleasses, dromons, and small pleasure crafts pamphyles. The next development, the trireme, keeping the length of the bireme, added a tier to the height, the rowers being thus increased to 180. It also had a large square sail.
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Modern historians usually also take into account the later histories of Diodorus Siculus and Dio Cassius, although the classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states that "Polybius's account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias.
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The trireme was a fast attack, light displacement vessel. In order to sustain the bending moments of her considerable length, a tightened rope (hypozomata) was mounted beneath the deck spanning from bow to stern. This was an ingenious way to increase rigidity of the hull. Today in modern construction it is called pre-tensioning.
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An image of a trireme on the wall of a temple in Nymphaion (3rd century BC). Nymphaion and other ancient Greek colonies along the north coast of the Black Sea. Nýmphaion (, , , ) was a significant centre of the Bosporan Kingdom, situated on the Crimean shore of the Cimmerian Bosporus. Today it is located near the resort town Heroivske/Geroevskoye.
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84, 93 or of that of Decelea according to Plutarch.Plutarch, Themistocles 14 He distinguished himself at the battle of Salamis as a trireme commander. His brother Aeschylus, also fought at the battle.ANONYMOUS LIFE OF AESCHYLUS, § 4 According to Diodorus Siculus, Ameinias was the first to ram the flagship of the Persians, sinking it and killing the admiral.
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Becoming a ship collector, he attacked and subdued all the neighbouring islands, adding their ships to his fleet. Finally he added a new model, the trireme. His reign came to an end about 517 BC when, taking up the Great King's invitation to a friendly banquet for a discussion of prospects, he was suddenly assassinated. There were no prospects.
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The ram on the trireme was the Greek navy's most successful weapon. Triremes were equipped with a large piece of timber sheathed in an envelope of bronze, located in the front of each ship.Casson 1991, p. 89. Although each ship had a ram, the ship needed to have a skilled crew to be successful with this tactic.
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Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 16, 200), describes an island formed in the center, probably rectangular and connected to the shore by a bridge where the privileged spectators likely sat. Taking into consideration the size of the basin and the dimensions of a trireme (approximately 35 × 4.90 meters), the thirty vessels used would hardly be able to manoeuvre. Knowing that the crew of a Roman trireme was approximately 170 rowers and 50 to 60 soldiers, a simple calculation allows us to see that to achieve the number of 3000 men the vessels of Augustus' fleet would have to have held more combatants than an actual fleet. The spectacle thus focused less on the movement of the vessels than the actual presence of them in the artificial basin, and the hand-to-hand combat which developed.
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Hocker (1995), p. 88 In the northern provinces oared patrol boats were employed to keep local tribes in check along the shores of rivers like the Rhine and the Danube.Rankov (1995), pp. 80–83 As the need for large warships disappeared, the design of the trireme, the pinnacle of ancient war ship design, fell into obscurity and was eventually forgotten.
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Foremast and middle mast respectively heights 16.08 m, 11.00 m; circumference both 0.79 m, yard lengths 26.72 m, 17.29 m. Overall deadweight tonnage approximately 80 metric tons. This type of vessel had two, later three, men on a bench, each working his own oar. This vessel had much longer oars than the Athenian trireme which were 4.41 m & 4.66 m long.
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The Athenians were especially known for their diekplous and periplous tactics that disabled enemy ships with speed and ramming techniques.Coates, J., J. Morrison, and N. Rankov. The Athenian Trireme: The History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 Rams were first recorded in use at the battle of Alalia in 535 BC.Morrison, Coates & Rankov (2000), pp.
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Leukon laid siege to Theodosia around 365 BC, hoping to annex it to his dominions. During the siege, Tynnichus, a Heracleote commander, had been sent from Heraclea Pontica with a small force including a merchant ship and a trireme, successfully defeated the Bosporans as he managed to destroy their siege weapons during the night and thus succeeded in relieving Theodosia from the siege.
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The aft 127 mm (5in) gun and depth charge track can be seen. There Cdr Pappas declared his allegiance to democracy, in the background the reconstructed Olympias trireme Rank Flag flown at the foremast displacing downward the Commissioning pennant revealing that the ship is regarded as in commission Velos as museum in the Gulf of Faliro in Athens, 20 May 2006.
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But we find Erasinides mentioned afterwards as one of the eight who commanded at Arginusae.Xenophon, Hellenica 1.6.29Aristophanes, The Frogs 1194 Therefore, as classical scholars Morus and Schneider suggest, "Archestratus" must be substituted for both the above names in the passage of Xenophon, or we must suppose that Erasinides commanded the trireme which escaped to Athens with the news of Conon's blockade.Xenophon, Hellenica 1.6.
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Roman Trireme, likely from Africa Province. Ceramics and pottery, skills developed and practiced for many centuries under the prior Phoenician-derived, urban culture, continued as an important industry,Ceramics and pottery traditions date back to Phoenicia. Dimitri Baramki, Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (Beirut: Kayats 1961) at 69–75. Both oil lamps and amphorae (containers with two handles) were produced in quantity.
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Casson 1991, p. 95. It was not uncommon for ships to beach and battle on land as well. Developing new techniques for the revolutionary trireme, and staying true to their land-based roots, the Greeks soon became a force to be reckoned with on the sea during the 5th century. They were also one of the greatest armies/naval forces in ancient times.
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142 So great was the attachment of the Rhodians to this type of vessel, that for a century after their navy was abolished by Gaius Cassius Longinus in 46 BC, they kept a few as ceremonial vessels. The type was classed with the trireme, and had two and a half files of oarsmen on each side. Judging from the Lindos relief and the famous Nike of Samothrace, both of which are thought to represent trihemioliai, the two upper files would have been accommodated in an oarbox, with the half-file located beneath them in the classic thalamitai position of the trireme. The Lindos relief also includes a list of the crews of two trihemioliai, allowing us to deduce that each was crewed by 144 men, 120 of whom were rowers (hence a full file numbered 24).
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Polyremes comprise the trireme (3 files), quadrireme, quinquereme, hexareme or sexireme (probably a trireme with two rowers per oar), septireme, octeres, enneres, deceres, and larger polyremes up to a "forty", with 40 files of oarsmen, 130m long, carrying 7,250 rowers, other crew, and marines ;Pram (ship): A pram or pramm is a type of shallow-draught flat-bottomed ship. There is also a type of boat called Pram ;Q-ship: A heavily-armed vessel disguised as a merchantman to lure submarines into attacking ;Quinquereme: An ancient warship propelled by three banks of oars; respectively the top, middle, and lower banks had two, two, and one (i.e., 5 total) men per oar ;Royal Mail Ship: Any ship carrying mail for the British Royal Mail, allocated ship prefix RMS while doing so. Typically a fast liner carrying passengers.
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Greek trireme Egyptian sources mention regular shipments of copper from the island of Cyprus, that arrived at the city of Byblos as early as 2,600 years BCE. The Minoans of Crete are the earliest known European seafarers of the Mediterranean Sea. Little is known of their ships, but they reportedly traded pottery as far west as Sicily. According to the historian Thucydides, by 1,900 years BCE.
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Morrison, Coates & Rankov, The Athenian Trireme, p. 248 In high seas, ancient galleys would set sail to run before the wind. They were highly susceptible to high waves, and could become unmanageable if the rowing frame (apostis) came awash. Ancient and medieval galleys are assumed to have sailed only with the wind more or less astern with a top speed of 8–9 knots in fair conditions.
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Xenophon (Hellenika 7.5.23) described the left wing of that Theban army as "like a trireme, with the spur of the prow out in front." The Theban cavalry and light infantry drove off the enemy cavalry. The Theban hoplites marched in a column across the face of the enemy line, then performed a smart wheel and crashed into the enemy right, where the Mantineans were positioned.
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Athenian warship (Trireme), c. 400 BC The Achaean League was a confederation of Greek city states in Achaea, a territory on the northern coast of the Peloponnese. An initial confederation existed during the 5th through the 4th centuries BC. The Achaean League was reformed early in the 3rd century BC, and soon expanded beyond its Achaean heartland. The League's dominance was not to last long, however.
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The History places great importance upon naval supremacy, arguing that a modern empire is impossible without a strong navy. He states that this is the result of the development of piracy and coastal settlements in earlier Greece. Important in this regard was the development, at the beginning of the classical period (c. 500 BC), of the trireme, the supreme naval ship for the next several hundred years.
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Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. The Punic navy was built around the trireme, Carthaginian citizens usually served alongside recruits from Libya and other Carthaginian domains in the fleet. Carthaginians favoured light, maneuverable crafts and they carried an extra sail for speed but fewer number of soldiers than their Greek counterparts.Warry, John (1993).
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The two ships were held together by longitudinal beams, while the obelisk was tied to these longitudinal beams and held stationary underwater. The third ship, a larger trireme, was in the front and was tied to the two larger ships carrying the obelisk. The third ship’s purpose was to help steer the two aft ships and have rowers and sail power the ship across the Mediterranean.
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Ancient Greeks also used the triaconter or triacontor ( triakontoros), a shorter version of the penteconter with thirty oars. There is a general agreement that the trireme, the primary warship of classical antiquity, evolved from the penteconter via the bireme. The penteconter remained in use until the Hellenistic period, when it became complemented and eventually replaced by other designs, such as the lembus, the hemiolia and the liburnians.
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Direct taxation was not well-developed in ancient Greece. The eisphorá () was a tax on the wealth of the very rich, but it was levied only when needed — usually in times of war. Large fortunes were also subject to liturgies which was the support of public works. Liturgies could consist of, for instance, the maintenance of a trireme, a chorus during a theatre festival, or a gymnasium.
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On a good day, the oarsmen, rowing for 6–8 hours, could propel the ship between . There were rare instances however when experienced crews and new ships were able to cover nearly twice that distance (Thucydides mentions a trireme travelling 300 kilometres in one day).Hanson (2006), p. 261 The commanders of the triremes also had to stay aware of the condition of their men.
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The arming of a trireme, the most expensive of the liturgies (the Lenormant relief, c. 410–400 BC., Acropolis Museum, Athens) The cost of a liturgy varied greatly according to its nature and prestige.Baslez (ed.) 2007, p. 346 The least expensive was the eutaxia (), known by a single mention, which cost only 50 drachmas; its nature is unknown - it may be related to the Amphiareia Games at OroposDavies 1967, p.
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Olympias, a modern reconstruction of an ancient Athenian trireme. A ram was a weapon fitted to varied types of ships, dating back to antiquity. The weapon comprised an underwater prolongation of the bow of the ship to form an armoured beak, usually between six and 12 feet (2–4 m) in length. This would be driven into the hull of an enemy ship to puncture, sink or disable the ship.
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The species was first described by Eugène Simon in 1891, based on a specimen collected in the West Indian island of Saint Vincent. It is the type species of the genus. Simon also noted that it had been found in Venezuela. The generic name Triaeris is derived from the Latin word ', meaning "three rows of oars" (as in trireme); the specific epithet stenaspis here means "with a narrow carapace".
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He kept a core of 500 of them at Apameia. The Ptolemies used the smaller African elephant. Ancient mechanical artillery: Catapults (standing), the chain drive of Polybolos (bottom center), Gastraphetes (on wall) Hellenistic military equipment was generally characterized by an increase in size. Hellenistic-era warships grew from the trireme to include more banks of oars and larger numbers of rowers and soldiers as in the Quadrireme and Quinquereme.
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It is made clear that Marcellus expects to re-marry his ex-wife. Pertinax and Crispus flee Imperial questioning on Crispus' yacht, but Crispus is killed when the yacht is rammed by a trireme under the authority of Rufus. Pertinax escapes, returning to Rome and attempting to force Helena Justina to remarry him in order to regain his money. He is tricked and is finally killed by Falco.
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Army units will appear as coloured flags when based in a city (yellow for player controlled units, red for other units). Horse image represents one cavalry unit and an image of a man represents one infantry unit. Moving the mouse over the image will give information about the number of soldiers and where it was raised. When a unit is crossing over water, a Trireme image is shown.
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Polybius, The Histories, I.20–21 The new fleets were commanded by the annually elected Roman magistrates, but naval expertise was provided by the lower officers, who continued to be provided by the socii, mostly Greeks. This practice was continued until well into the Empire, something also attested by the direct adoption of numerous Greek naval terms.Webster & Elton (1998), p. 166 Three- banked ("trireme") Roman quinquereme with the Corvus boarding bridge.
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The Western end of Isola Tiberina. The travertine stone gives a distinctive trireme shape. The island has been linked to the rest of Rome by two bridges since antiquity, and was once called Insula Inter-Duos-Pontes which means "the island between the two bridges". The Ponte Fabricio, the only original bridge in Rome, connects the island from the northeast to the Field of Mars in the rione Sant'Angelo (left bank).
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IG I.153 Beaching the ships at night, however, would leave the troops vulnerable to surprise attacks. While well-maintained triremes would last up to 25 years, during the Peloponnesian War, Athens had to build nearly 20 triremes a year to maintain their fleet of 300. The Athenian trireme had two great cables of about 47 mm in diameter and twice the ship's length called hypozomata (undergirding), and carried two spares.
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Excavations of the ship sheds (neōsoikoi, νεώσοικοι) at the harbour of Zea in Piraeus, which was the main war harbour of ancient Athens, were first carried out by Dragatsis and Wilhelm Dörpfeld in the 1880s.Piraeus: Cantharus, Zea, Munichia , from the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum of Mainz These have provided us with a general outline of the Athenian trireme. The sheds were ca. 40 m long and just 6 m wide.
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257 Such triremes had 60 oarsmen, and rest of the ship was for horses. The trireme was designed for day-long journeys, with no capacity to stay at sea overnight, or to carry the provisions needed to sustain its crew overnight. Each crewman required 2 gallons (7.6 L) of fresh drinking water to stay hydrated each day, but it is unknown quite how this was stored and distributed.Hanson (2006), p.
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Other sources include inscriptions, terrestrial archaeological evidence, and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias. Since 2010, 19 bronze warship rams have been found by archaeologists in the sea off the west coast of Sicily, a mix of Roman and Carthaginian. Ten bronze helmets and hundreds of amphorae have also been found. The rams, seven of the helmets, and six intact amphorae, along with a large number of fragments, have since been recovered.
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Himilco, informed about the approaching Greek army, decided to outflank them using his naval superiority. He however ordered 200 triremes to be manned by picked crews and soldiers, and sail for Messana, thus outflanking the Greeks and attacking the undefended city directly. The trireme normally carried 200 rowers and 16 crew members (including the ship captain)Warry, John, Warfare in the Classical Age, p. 30 and between 14 and 40 marines,Herodotus VII.
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An ancient Greek trireme. Athenian sacred ships were ancient Athenian ships, often triremes, which had special religious functions such as serving in sacred processions (theoria) or embassies or racing in boat races during religious festivals.Jordan, Athenian Navy, 154-157. The two most famous such ships were the Paralus and the Salaminia, which also served as the messenger ships of the Athenian government in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.Jordan, Athenian Navy, 153.
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Wood was exploited, primarily for domestic use; homes and wagons were made of wood as was the ard (aratron). The Greek forests located in the highlands were denuded by goats and charcoal production; it was not long before it had to be imported especially for ship production (see trireme). Beekeeping provided honey, the only source of sugar known to the Greeks. It also was used in medicines and in the production of mead.
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The Pontic fleet hurried to retrieve the situation, but were met by Rhodian reinforcements. Appian reports: ::A severe engagement followed. Both in his fury and in the size of his fleet, Mithridates was superior to his opponents, but the Rhodians circled skilfully and rammed his ships to such effect that the battle ended with the Rhodians retiring into their harbour with a captured trireme in tow and other spoils besides.Appian, Mithridatica, 25.
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Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. The Punic navy was built around the trireme, Carthaginian citizens usually served as crew alongside recruits from Libya and other Carthaginian domains. Carthaginian forces had captured a number of Quinqueremes from the Greeks at Catana, it is unknown if Carthaginians were constructing this type of ships themselves at this point. 40 Quinqueremes were present at Syracuse.
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After every trip the triremes were pulled ashore in special slides and the hypozomata was re-tightened. The trireme hulls were constructed from planks with closely spaced and pegged mortise and tenon joints. When these are fitted carefully the hull can carry shear stresses well and stay watertight. It was estimated that her ramming speed should have been in excess of , something the present reconstruction could not achieve, possibly because it was overweight.
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The bireme Italian-style galleys remained the mainstay of Mediterranean fleets until the late 13th century, although again, contemporary descriptions provide little detail on their construction. From that point on, the galleys universally became trireme ships, i.e. with three men on a single bank located above deck, each rowing a different oar; the so-called alla sensile system. The Venetians also developed the so-called "great galley", which was an enlarged galley capable of carrying more cargo for trade.
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There are various different accounts that lay down foundations of what equipment was used and how these ships engaged in combat. The main military applications of Greek Triremes, besides the transport of troops and supplies, would be the advantages of ramming tactics. Developments and innovations of the Greek Trireme evolved over time, especially in respect to ramming tactics. Naval architects during this time saw fit to bring about full effectiveness and damaging power to these ships.
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Pausanias, Description of Greece, 1.1.2 Recently, archaeologists have uncovered what appear to be traces of ancient Athens’s first port before the city’s naval and shipping centre was moved to Piraeus. The site, some 350 m from the modern coastline, contained pottery, tracks from the carts that would have served the port, and makeshift fireplaces where travelers waiting to take ship would have cooked and kept warm. Olympias, a modern reconstruction of an ancient trireme naval ship.
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After they defeated Xerxes in the naval Battle of Salamis, the Athenians placed an entire captured enemy trireme (warship with three banks of oars) at Sounion as a trophy dedicated to Poseidon.Herodotus, Histories, VIII.121. The temple of Poseidon at Sounion was constructed in 444–440 BC. This was during the ascendancy of the Athenian statesman Pericles, who also rebuilt the Parthenon in Athens. It was built on the ruins of a temple dating from the Archaic period.
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Lazenby, p. 46. In the second Persian invasion of Greece, each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines,Herodotus VII, 184 and this was probably very true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes. Furthermore, the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each. This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40-45 soldiers--triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight.
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Phocion was sent to the Aegean Sea by Chabrias, to collect the regional tributes for the Second Athenian League. As representatives of Athens were unpopular among their 'subject' allies, Phocion had been issued 20 warships. However, he declined to bring them along, commenting that "if he was being sent to fight the islanders he would need a larger force, but if he was visiting them as allies, one ship was enough." So he departed just with his own trireme.
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The Persians were the first nation to use triremes in enormous scale. In fact, the first to commission a large trireme was Cambyses. By 490 BC, the backbone of the fleet was consisted of triremes while Athens had a few after 483 BC. Some triremes were modified as troopers, as well as some for carrying horses and supplies or building bridges. ;Design and dimensions Persian triremes differed from those of the Greek, and used Phoenician design.
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If it evolved naturally from the earlier designs, it would be a trireme with two rowers per oar;Meijer (1986), p. 119 the less likely alternative is that it had two levels with three oarsmen at each. Reports about "sixes" used during the 1st-century BC Roman civil wars indicate that they were of a similar height to the quinqueremes, and record the presence of towers on the deck of a "six" serving as flagship to Marcus Junius Brutus.
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Reconstruction based on the above sculptures shows that the ship was relatively low, with a boxed-in superstructure, a displacement of tonnes, and capable of reaching speeds comparable with those of a full trireme. The trihemiolia was a very successful design, and was adopted by the navies of Ptolemaic Egypt and Athens among others. Despite being classed as lighter warships, they were sometimes employed in a first-line role, for instance at the Battle of Chios.
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Lazenby, p. 46. In the second Persian invasion of Greece, each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines,Herodotus VII, 184 and this was probably also true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes. Furthermore, the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each. This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40–45 soldiers—triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight.
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In some cases, the prestige of the undertaking could attract volunteers (analogous in modern terminology to endowment, sponsorship, or donation). Such was the case for the choragus, who organized and financed choruses for a drama festival. In other instances, like the burden of outfitting and commanding a trireme, the liturgy functioned more like a mandatory donation (what we would today call a one-time tax). In some cities, like Miletus and Teos, heavy taxation was imposed on citizens.
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In the second Persian invasion of Greece, each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines,Herodotus VII, 184 and this was probably also true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes. Furthermore, the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each. This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40-45 soldiers--triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight.Goldsworthy, p. 103.
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The ancient terms for galleys was based on the numbers of rows or rowers plying the oars, not the number of rows of oars. Today it is best known by a modernized Latin terminology based on numerals with the ending "-reme" from rēmus, "oar". A trireme was a ship with three rows of oarsmen, a quadrireme four, a hexareme six, and so forth. There were warships that ran up to ten or even eleven rows, but anything above six was rare.
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Though effectively lowering mobility, it meant that less skill was required from individual oarsmen. Fleets thereby became less dependent on rowers with a lifetime of experience at the oar. By late antiquity, in the 1st centuries AD, ramming tactics had completely disappeared along with the knowledge of the design of the ancient trireme. Medieval galleys instead developed a projection, or "spur", in the bow that was designed to break oars and to act as a boarding platform for storming enemy ships.
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Part of Caesar's fleet was anchored off Leptis, where they were taken unawares by Publius Attius Varus, one of Pompey's admirals, who burned Caesar's transports and captured two undefended quinqueremes. Learning of the attack, Caesar rode to Leptis and went in pursuit of Varus with his remaining ships, recapturing one of the quinqueremes along with a trireme. At Hadrumetum, he burned a number of Pompey's transports and captured or put to flight a number of galleys.Hirtius, De Bello Africo, 61–64.
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Pausanias offering sacrifice to the Gods before the Battle of Plataea. In 478 BC Pausanias was suspected of conspiring with the Persians and was recalled to Sparta; however he was acquitted and then left Sparta of his own accord, taking a trireme from the town of Hermione. After capturing Byzantium the previous year, Pausanias was alleged to have released some of the prisoners of war who were friends and relations of the king of Persia. However, Pausanias argued that the prisoners had escaped.
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Tacitus, Historiae 4,16–17. The supreme commander of the army of the Rhine, Quintus Petillius Cerialis, was transported by the fleet of Classis Britannica with the Legio XIV Gemina and invaded the rebels on land. They fell into an ambush set by the Batavians Caninefaten's and were almost completely wiped out. Although Cerialis hurried from Novaesium with the Classis Germanica to assist, they were attacked during the night by the Batavians and lost all his ships, including Cerialis' own trireme.
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Modern historians usually take into account the writings of various Roman annalists, some contemporary; the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus; the later Roman historians, Livy (who relied heavily on Polybius), Plutarch, Appian (whose account of the Third Punic War is especially valuable) and Dio Cassius. The classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias.
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This is the approach taken by Holland, and gives a naval force which might well match the remnants of the Persian fleet. Although the Athenians had sent 8,000 hoplites to Plataea,Herodotus IX, 28 they would still have had ample manpower to man a large fleet of triremes, especially since rowers tended to be of the lower classes (the thetes) who could not afford the equipment to fight as hoplites.Holland, p217 The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men, including 14 marines.
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Not long after they appeared, a third row of oars was added by the addition to a bireme of an outrigger, a projecting construction that gave more room for the projecting oars. These new galleys were called triērēs ("three-fitted") in Greek. The Romans later called this design the triremis, trireme, the name it is today best known under. It has been hypothesized that early types of triremes existed as early as 700 BC, but the earliest conclusive literary reference dates to 542 BC.Morrison, Coates & Rankov, pp.
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71 The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships, and managed to capture seven ships, though the majority were able to launch successfully.Herodotus VI, 114 Herodotus recounts the story that Cynaegirus, brother of the playwright Aeschylus, who was also among the fighters, charged into the sea, grabbed one Persian trireme, and started pulling it towards shore. A member of the crew saw him, cut off his hand, and Cynaegirus died. Cynaegirus grabbing a Persian ship at the Battle of Marathon (19th century illustration).
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These ships were frequently used by the Romans, as during the second of Caesar's invasions of Britain. The bireme eventually evolved into the trireme. A unit commandant (who was given a tent on the open deck) directed a group of marines. The bireme was also recorded in ancient history on the 8th and early 7th-century Assyrian reliefs, where they were used to carry out an amphibious attack on the coast of Elam and the lagoons of the Persian Gulf during the reign of Sennacherib.
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Medius belonged to a noble Thessalian family, possibly related to the Aleuadae clan. According to Diodorus Siculus (Library of History, XIV.82), his namesake grandfather was a dynast in Larissa in 395. He is first mentioned as commanding a trireme during the descent of the Indus River (Arrian, Indica, 18) in 326 BC, but according to the historian Richard Billows it is likely that he was a member of Alexander the Great's expedition into Asia from the beginning, possibly within the ranks of the Thessalian cavalry.
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The island with the hospital, showing its similarity to a trireme. In the background is the basilica of San Bartolomeo. The temple was destroyed in the medieval period and as early as 1000 the basilica of San Bartolomeo all'Isola was built on its remains by Otto III. The medieval well near the altar of the church seems to be the same as that used to draw water for the sick in the classical period as mentioned by Sextus Pompeius Festus, a 2nd-century Latin grammarian.
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During his slavery, he quickly rose to chief clerk (Argyramoibos) in charge of a money-changing table at the port, and proved so valuable that by 394 BC he had been manumitted and granted resident alien status as reward for his faithful service. When his owners retired, Pasion inherited the bank and established a shield factory. The gifts he provided Athens included one thousand shields and a trireme. Ultimately, Pasion was granted Athenian citizenship and started investing in real estate in order to accumulate more wealth.
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The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions, including Peucestas, within the Mallian town during the Mallian Campaign. André Castaigne (1898-1899). Peucestas was named satrap of Persis upon Alexander's return from India in 324 BC. Peucestas (in Greek Πευκέστας Pefkéstas; lived 4th century BC) was a native of the town of Mieza, in Macedonia, and a distinguished officer in the service of Alexander the Great. His name is first mentioned as one of those appointed to command a trireme on the Hydaspes.
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During this period the standard warship of the Carthaginian navy was the quinquereme, meaning "five-oared". The quinquereme was a galley, long, wide at water level, with its deck standing above the sea, and displacing around . The galley expert John Coates has suggested that they could maintain 7 knots (8 mph; 13 km/h) for extended periods. The quinquereme was superior as a warship to the previous mainstay of Mediterranean navies, the trireme, and, being heavier, performed better than the triremes in bad weather.
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A trierarchy () was a type of obligation called a liturgy, a debt similar to a tax on the very wealthy in Ancient Athens. The person (or persons) up on whom the duty fell is called a trierarch. The trierarch was responsible for the outfitting, maintenance, operation and leadership of a warship known as a trireme, the hull and mast of the ship being provided by the State. The responsibility might fall on one person or be shared, in which case it was known as a syntrierarchy.
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Behind him is the prow of a Roman trireme drawn by three sea horses. Above the horses a trident is depicted on the table of the medal. The inscription is "AMAT VICTORIA CVRAM" (Victory delights in care), as required by King Edward VII. The design dates back to 1904, when the Deputy Master of the Royal Mint invited students of the Modelling School of the Royal College of Art in South Kensington to submit designs for the reverse of the Naval Good Shooting Medal.
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John Francis Coates, OBE (30 March 1922 – 10 July 2010) was a British naval architect best known for his work on the study of construction of the Ancient Greek trireme. His research led to the construction of the first working replicas of triremes, the fastest and most devastating warship of Mediterranean empires, and gave a greater understanding of how they were built and used. He also carried out research into the use of shipping in Northern Europe during the Bronze Age, in particular the Ferriby Bronze Age boat and the Dover Boat.
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One action in 70 AD at the unspecified location of the "Island of the Batavians" during the Batavian Rebellion was recorded, and included a trireme as the Roman flagship.Rankov (1995), pp. 80–81 The last provincial fleet, the classis Britannica, was reduced by the late 200s, though there was a minor upswing under the rule of Constantine (272–337). His rule also saw the last major naval battle of the unified Roman Empire (before the permanent split into Western and Eastern [later "Byzantine"] Empires), the Battle of Hellespont of 324.
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Modern reconstruction of a cross-section of an ancient Greek trireme, showing the three levels of rowers. Ancient rowing was done in a fixed seated position, the most effective rowing position, with rowers facing the stern. A sliding stroke, which provided the strength from both legs as well as the arms, was suggested by earlier historians, but no conclusive evidence has supported it. Practical experiments with the full-scale reconstruction Olympias has shown that there was insufficient space, while moving or rolling seats would have been highly impractical to construct with ancient methods.
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The canal is located near the village of Nea Roda in the Athos peninsula. Starting to the east of Nea Roda on the north coast it follows a fairly straight south-westerly direction towards the south coast where it ends west of the village Tripiti. The canal is completely covered by sediments, but its outline is visible from air photos, and has been detected by several surveys. The total length of the canal was two km, its width was 30 meters, and it was three meters deep, enough for a trireme to pass.
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In ancient Athens during its democracy, there was a form of capital levy known as a liturgy (). The liturgy might anything from financing a public play to supplying and manning a trireme for the navy. An Athenian could volunteer for such a levy, but if no-one volunteered, a wealthy person meeting the eligibility requirements would be ordered to supply it. They could escape by nominating someone wealthier to take over the duty; if the nominated person disputed this, the nominator could take the liturgy, or offer to exchange property with their nominee (antidosis).
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All of these liturgies are part of a religious festival and were recurring ().Demosthenes, XX = Against Leptines 21 By comparison, the military liturgies were used only when needed. The main one was the trierarchy, that is to say the equipment and maintenance of a trireme and its crew for a year. The trierarch was also to assume, under the direction of the strategos, the command of the ship, unless he choose to pay a concession and left the fighting to a specialist in which case the office was purely financial.
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The town's leisure centre is one of the few on Anglesey and has a swimming pool, sports centre and squash courts. It is situated on Anglesey's 125-mile stretch of coast that is designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The town also has two football clubs, Amlwch Town F.C., who play in the Welsh Alliance League, and Amlwch Port F.C., a Sunday League pub team that plays in the North Wales Sunday League. Amlwch has a sea rowing club based in Bull Bay, Trireme Ynys Mon Rowing Club.
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The Park of Maritime Tradition, a collection of preserved historic ships, is located at the site. At the southern tip is the permanent anchorage of the armored cruiser HS Averof (now a floating museum), which was the admiralty ship of the Hellenic Navy during the Balkan Wars and World War I. Other museum ships include the Hellenic Navy destroyer HS Velos (D16), the old cable ship Thalis o Milisios (Thales of Miletos)Formerly the US Army cable ship Joseph Henry and Olympias, a modern reconstruction of an ancient trireme naval ship.
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They invented the best warship of the ancient world, the trireme. Some of the original Greek colonies (such as Capua and Cumae) had been subjugated by the neighbouring Italic tribes and become Oscan-speaking in the period up to 264 BC. The surviving Greek cities in 264 were all coastal: Neapolis, Poseidonia (Paestum), Velia, Rhegium, Locri, Croton, Thurii, Heraclea, Metapontum and Tarentum. The most populous were Neapolis, Rhegium and Tarentum, all of which had large, strategic harbours on the Tyrrhenian, the Strait of Messina and the Ionian sea respectively. Tarentum had, until c.
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Around 500 BC: Athenians and Corinthians entreated Spartans not to harm Athens by restoring the tyrant.Histories, Herodotus, Book 5.93 Just before the classical period, according to Thucydides, the Corinthians developed the trireme which became the standard warship of the Mediterranean until the late Roman period. Corinth fought the first naval battle on record against the Hellenic city of Corcyra.Thucydides 1:13 The Corinthians were also known for their wealth due to their strategic location on the isthmus, through which all land traffic had to pass en route to the Peloponnese, including messengers and traders.
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Once the Mytilenians arrived in Athens, Salaethus was immediately executed and the assembly gathered to assess the situation and voted on the punitive actions that would be taken. The Athenian assembly, scared of further revolt, hastily sentenced all of the male citizens of Mytilene to death, while the women and children would be sold into slavery. According to Thucydides, after the decision was made a trireme was dispatched to Mytilene to carry out the orders and the Athenians, enraged by premeditated revolt, slaughtered all of the prisoners, who numbered around a thousand.Thucyd., 212-222.
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Achaemenid navy was the first true "imperial navy" that appeared in the history. Persians are also credited for establishing the 'trireme navy' as the new naval standard of their time. The establishment of the Achaemenid navy set the basis of Iranian naval engineering, as well as "a powerful Persian maritime tradition that remained in the region until the arrival of the British East India Company and the Royal Navy by the mid-19th century AD". The naval forces affected the coastal subjects of the Achaemenid Empire to a great extent.
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At the beginning of the conflict, all naval forces in the eastern Mediterranean had switched to the trireme, a warship powered by three banks of oars. The most common naval tactics during the period were ramming (Greek triremes were equipped with a cast-bronze ram at the bows), or boarding by ship-borne marines. More experienced naval powers had by this time also begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous. It is not clear what this was, but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side.
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Herodotus, Robin Waterfield and Carolyn Dewald, The Histories (1998), p. 593. A talent was originally intended to be the mass of water required to fill an amphora, about .Talent (Biblical Hebrew), Unit of Measure, unitconversion.org. At the 2017 price of $547/kg, a silver talent is worth $14,113. It was equivalent to 60 minae, 6,000 drachmae or 36,000 oboloi. During the Peloponnesian War, a trireme crew of 200 rowers was paid a talent for a month's worth of work, one drachma, or 4.3 grams of silver per rower per day.
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The famous 2nd century BC Nike of Samothrace, standing atop the prow of an oared warship, most probably a trihemiolia. From the 4th century BC on, new types of oared warships appeared in the Mediterranean Sea, superseding the trireme and transforming naval warfare. Ships became increasingly large and heavy, including some of the largest wooden ships hitherto constructed. These developments were spearheaded in the Hellenistic Near East, but also to a large extent shared by the naval powers of the Western Mediterranean, more specifically Carthage and the Roman Republic.
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In July 2001, George W. Bush appointed Perle chairman of the Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee, which advises the Department of Defense. Two years later a newspaper article accused Perle of a conflict of interest, claiming Perle stood to profit financially by influencing government policy. The article alleged that Perle had business dealings with Saudi investors and linked him to the intelligence-related computer firm Trireme Partners LLP, which he claimed stood to profit from the war in Iraq. That same day, Perle was being interviewed on the issue of Iraq by CNN's Wolf Blitzer.
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Among the heaviest financial burdens borne by the wealthy classes of Athens was the trierarchy, i.e. the obligation (liturgy) of wealthy Athenians to equip (and command) a trireme for one year. Already from the last years of the 5th century, in an effort to alleviate it, the syntrierarchy (co-trierachy), in which the obligation was shared by two citizens, had been introduced. By the middle of the 4th century, however, the trierarchic system had become dysfunctional, not least due to the growing unwillingness of the wealthy classes to contribute time and money to the task.
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However, if he had chosen not to attend, he was doomed anyway. Some of his trireme captains, learning of a devious plot by him to have them assassinated by Egyptian dignitaries while on official business, sailed to Sparta to beg help, which they received. The adventurous young king, Cleomenes I, was spared the trouble of killing Polycrates, but led an expedition to Samos anyway, taking the thalassocracy for two years, 517-515. Adventure and piracy not being activities approved by the Spartan people, they tagged him as insane and insisted he come home.
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At this point, however, a severe storm blew up, and both of these forces were driven back to shore. Eteonicus escaped, and a great number of Athenian sailors—estimates as to the precise figure have ranged from near 1,000 to as many as 5,000—drowned.Kagan (The Peloponnesian War, 459) gives the number as "perhaps a thousand", while Fine (The Ancient Greeks, 515) states it as "between 4,000 and 5,000" An ancient Greek trireme. Twenty-five Athenian triremes were disabled or sunk at Arginusae, and Theramenes was detailed to rescue the survivors.
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At the time, Athens was embroiled in a long-running war with the Aeginetans, and building a fleet would allow the Athenians to finally defeat them at sea. As a result, Themistocles's motion was carried easily, although only 100 warships of the trireme type were to be built. Aristides refused to countenance this; conversely Themistocles was not pleased that only 100 ships would be built. Tension between the two camps built over the winter, so that the ostracism of 482 BC became a direct contest between Themistocles and Aristides.
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Thucydides I.14.1-3 In any case, by the early 5th century, the trireme was becoming the dominant warship type of the eastern Mediterranean, with minor differences between the "Greek" and "Phoenician" types, as literary references and depictions of the ships on coins make clear. The first large- scale naval battle where triremes participated was the Battle of Lade during the Ionian Revolt, where the combined fleets of the Greek Ionian cities were defeated by the Persian fleet, composed of squadrons from their Phoenician, Carian, Cypriot and Egyptian subjects.
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The ship's primary propulsion came from the 180 oars (kōpai), arranged in three rows, with one man per oar. Evidence for this is provided by Thucydides, who records that the Corinthian oarsmen carried "each his oar, cushion (hypersion) and oarloop".Thucydides, II.93.2 The ship also had two masts, a main (histos megas) and a small foremast (histos akateios), with square sails, while steering was provided by two steering oars at the stern (one at the port side, one to starboard). Classical sources indicate that the trireme was capable of sustained speeds of ca.
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While the Hellenistic kingdoms did develop the quinquereme and even larger ships, most navies of the Greek homeland and the smaller colonies could only afford triremes. They were used by the Diadochi Empires and sea powers like Syracuse, Carthage and later Rome. The difference to the classical 5th century Athenian ships was that they were armoured against ramming and carried significantly more marines. Lightened versions of the trireme and smaller vessels were often used as auxiliaries, and still performed quite effectively against the heavier ships, thanks to their greater manoeuvrability.
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John Sinclair Morrison (15 June 1913 – 25 October 2000), who wrote under the name of J. S. Morrison, was an English classicist whose work led to the reconstruction of an Athenian Trireme, an ancient oared warship. Born in 1913, Morrison was professor of Greek and head of the classics department at the University of Durham from 1945 to 1950. He was a Tutor at Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1950 to 1960, then vice-master of Churchill College, from 1960 to 1965.when he became the first President of University College, later renamed Wolfson College.
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The Sounion Kouros, discovered in 1906 in a pit east of the temple alongside fragments of other statues, was probably one of a number of votive statues dedicated to Poseidon which probably stood in front of the god's sanctuary. The archaic temple was probably destroyed in 480 BC by Persian troops during Xerxes I's invasion of Greece. After they defeated Xerxes in the naval Battle of Salamis, the Athenians placed an entire captured enemy trireme (warship with three banks of oars) at Sounion as a trophy dedicated to Poseidon.Herodotus, Histories, VIII.121.
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138–40 Designs with everything from eight rows of oarsmen and upward were built, but most of them are believed to have been impractical show pieces never used in actual warfare.Morrison, Coates & Rankov (2000), p. 77 Ptolemy IV, the Greek pharaoh of Egypt 221–205 BC, is recorded as building a gigantic ship with forty rows of oarsmen, though no specification of its design remains. One suggested design was that of a huge trireme catamaran with up to 14 men per oar and it is assumed that it was intended as a showpiece rather than a practical warship.
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1887 depiction The original, Archaic-period temple of Poseidon on the site, which was built of tufa, was probably destroyed in 480 BC by Persian troops during Xerxes I's invasion of Greece. Although there is no direct evidence for Sounion, Xerxes certainly had the temple of Athena and everything else on the Acropolis of Athens, razed as punishment for the Athenians' defiance.Herodotus, Histories VIII.53. After they defeated Xerxes in the naval Battle of Salamis, the Athenians placed an entire captured enemy trireme (warship with three banks of oars) at Sounion as a trophy dedicated to Poseidon.
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In the days after the battle, the Athenians refitted their ships at Sestos and dispatched a small detachment to Cyzicus, recapturing that town and seizing 8 triremes encountered along the way.Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War 8.107 A trireme was dispatched to Athens, where the unexpected good news restored the people's confidence in the war effort. Historian Donald Kagan has emphasized the effect this victory had on the Athenians. Forced to fight on terms chosen by their enemies, at a time when the city lacked the resources to build another fleet, the Athenians could have lost the war on that day at Cynossema.
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The year is 72 BC, and the rebel gladiator Spartacus ravages the countryside of Italy, and threatens Rome itself. Gordianus the Finder is rousted out of bed in the middle of the night by a new client: Marcus Mummius, an ex- centurion and the military advisor to Marcus Licinius Crassus, the richest man in Rome. Mummius demands that Gordianus accompany him on a trireme to the Bay of Pueteoli that very night, and is unfazed by Gordianus's demand for an unusually extravagant fee. At a villa near Naples the master has been murdered, apparently by two disappeared slaves.
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As they were on the river Tiber and about to reach Rome, the snake crawled out of the ship and disappeared from sight on the island, marking the site where the temple was to be built. Work on the temple began immediately and it was dedicated in 289 BC - soon afterwards, the plague ended. In memory of the event, the front of the island was also remodelled to imitate a trireme. An obelisk marked the island's centre, in front of the temple, to resemble a mast, while blocks of travertine were placed along the edges to look like a bow and stern.
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Model of a Greek trireme from the Deutsches Museum, Munich Throughout their history, the Spartans were a land based force par excellence. During the Persian Wars, they contributed a small navy of 20 triremes, and provided the overall fleet commander, but they largely relied on their allies, primarily the Corinthians, for naval power. This fact meant that, when the Peloponnesian War broke out, the Spartans were supreme on land, but the Athenians supreme at sea. The Spartans repeatedly ravaged Attica, but the Athenians kept being supplied by sea, and were able to stage raids of their own around the Peloponnese with their navy.
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Paralus and Xanthippus (Gr. and ) were the two legitimate sons of Pericles, Xanthippus being the older one and Paralus the younger, and hence members of the Alcmaeonid family. Xanthippus was named after Pericles' father, while Paralus was named after the sacred trireme and flagship of the Athenian fleet. They were educated by their father with the greatest care, but they both appear to have been of inferior capacity, which was uncompensated by their poor worth of character, although contemporary and some later writers seemed to consider Paralus to have been a somewhat more hopeful youth with more potential than his brother.
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Ultimately, the Athenians were swayed by Diodotus’ argument and chose to spare the lives of the Mytilenians and to execute only the leaders of the revolt: another trireme, double-manned to row overnight, was promptly dispatched, and in a dramatic scene arrived at Lesbos just in time to prevent the previous orders from being carried out. Mytilene's oligarchy was removed and democracy installed;Legon, 222. the Athenians razed the city walls and divided most of the Lesbian land, which was distributed to Athenians. Thucydides' treatment of the events highlights some of the relative merits of oligarchy and democracy, as perceived at the time.
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Bronze Roman naval ram, dated before 241 B.C. Includes winged decoration of the goddess of Victory. View from US destroyer Caron at the moment of ramming by Soviet light frigate (FFL 824) on 12 February 1988 The ram was commonly used in antiquity, and was an important part of the armament of the galleys of Imperial Rome. The ancient Greeks used their trireme vessels for ramming as well. In ancient China, rams were largely unknown, as the lack of a keel and the flat shape of the junk's bow was not conducive to the build of an elongated underwater spur.
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The islands of the Aegean Sea provided valuable tax revenue for Athens, but what was probably more vital was their ports. Warships of the era (triremes) could carry little in the way of supplies and had no sleeping space for the crew, and thus needed to stop in port on a daily basis to buy supplies, cook meals, and camp for the night. Triremes were also not particularly seaworthy and thus needed harbors to shelter from rough weather. A trireme could normally travel around 80 km in a day whereas a trip from Athens to Asia Minor is roughly 300 km.
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It is assumed that the Phocaean Greeks had 60 pentekonters (ships with 48 oars and two rudders for steering),Casson, Lionel, The Ancient Mariners, p 79 not the trireme that would become famous at the Battle of Salamis, and the allied fleet was twice as large, also composed of pentekonters. Details of the battle are sketchy, but it is known that although the Greeks had driven the allied fleet off, they had lost almost two-thirds of their own fleet in doing so: a Pyrrhic victory, according to Herodotus.Herodotus, Histories, I, 166. The rams of the surviving ships had been severely damaged.
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Olympias was constructed from 1985 to 1987 by a shipbuilder in Piraeus. She was built to drawings by the naval architect John F. Coates which he developed through long discussions with the historian J. S. Morrison following the longest correspondence on any subject in The Times of London in the early 1980s. The work was also advised by the classics teacher Charles Willink and drew on evidence gained from Greek literature, history of art and archaeology above and below water. Finance came from the Hellenic Navy and donors such as Frank Welsh (a banker, writer and trireme enthusiast).
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They were possibly rigged fore and aft from end to end along the middle line of the hull just under the main beams and tensioned to 13.5 tonnes force. The hypozomata were considered important and secret: their export from Athens was a capital offense.The 18th Jenkin Lecture, 1 October 2005: Some Engineering Concepts applied to Ancient Greek Trireme Warships This cable would act as a stretched tendon straight down the middle of the hull, and would have prevented hogging. Additionally, hull plank butts would remain in compression in all but the most severe sea conditions, reducing working of joints and consequent leakage.
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This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The quinquereme was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels.This paragraph is based upon Potter, pp. 76–78. As compared with a trireme, the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect boarding tactics using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ram.
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They were the first civilization to create the bireme. There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not. The Mediterranean was the source of the vessel, galley, developed before 1000 BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. The Greek trireme was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the propulsion power of oarsmen. Mediterranean peoples developed lighthouse technology and built large fire- based lighthouses, most notably the Lighthouse of Alexandria, built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt.
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18(3), 447–450. The then unnamed species was not mentioned again until it was mentioned briefly in the 2018 Society of Vertebrate Paleontology abstract book. The species and genus were scientifically described by Denver Fowler and colleagues in 2020 based on three claw phalanges from MD-I-2, including the holotype MOR 6622, the distal end of a radius and fragmentary metatarsal. The first part of the generic name, Trierarch, means "triarch" (the title of captain of the trireme in classical Greece); the second, uncus, is translated from Latin as "hook", thus forming Captain Hook, a reference to the villainous hook-handed pirate of Peter Pan.
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It is also said that each oar throughout the ship would be made in length proportionate to the physique of an average Greek man. reconstruction of ancient Greek Trireme Manned crews for these massive warships would have been quite impressive, but accounts vary in actual numbers of men from source to source. Herodotus of Halicarnassus was a Greek historian in the fourth century BC who, through his accounts, said that these Triremes would consist of at least two-hundred men manning all positions. With these massive crews, these ships were able to work at maximum capacity and efficiency in regards to speed, navigation, and transport.
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Agis III succeeded his father on 2 August 338 BC, on the very day of the battle of Chaeronea. His reign was short, but eventful, coming as it did during a low period for Sparta, after it had lost significant borderlands to Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great. Agis III received the financial and military support of Autophradates, Achaemenid satrap of Lydia, against Alexander the Great. In 333 BC, Agis went with a single trireme to the Persian commanders in the Aegean, Pharnabazus and Autophradates, to request money and armaments for carrying on hostile operations against Alexander the Great in Greece.
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History of the Rhine and its tributaries Tile with stamp CLAS(S)IS, from Novaesium, Clemens-Sels-Museum in Neuss from the fleet Castle Old Castle, 1st half of the 3rd century. BC. Map of Fossa Corbulonis Fragment of a bronze plaque from Naaldwijk (NL) with the inscription CLASSISAV Grave stone of Marines L. Valerius Verecundus, died in service in the camp Cologne Alteburg. Roman trireme Model (front) and the original found object (rear right) of a Roman barge (flatboat, pram type Zwammerdam 6) from the 1st century Reconstruction of Navis lusoria at the , Mainz Reconstruction model of the late antique Ländeburgus of Ladenburg. The bridge is no archaeological evidence.
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Other, later, histories of the war exist, but in fragmentary or summary form, and they usually cover military operations on land in more detail than those at sea. Modern historians usually also take into account the later histories of Diodorus Siculus and Dio Cassius, although the classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states that "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include inscriptions, archaeological evidence, and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias. Since 2010 a number of artefacts have been recovered from the site of the Battle of the Aegates, the final battle of the war, fought nineteen years later.
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Polybius, I.26.7 Leaving aside a deck crew of men, and accepting the 2–2–1 pattern of oarsmen, the quinquereme would have 90 oars in each side, and 30-strong files of oarsmen. The fully decked quinquereme could also carry a marine detachment of 70 to 120, giving a total complement of about 400. A "five" would be long, displace around 100 tonnes, be some 5 m wide at water level, and have its deck standing above the sea. Polybius said the quinquereme was superior to the old trireme,Polybius, I.63.8 which was retained in service in significant numbers by many smaller navies.
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Other, later, histories of the war exist, but in fragmentary or summary form, and they usually cover military operations on land in more detail than those at sea. Modern historians usually also take into account the later histories of Diodorus Siculus and Dio Cassius, although the classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states that "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include inscriptions, archaeological evidence, and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias. Since 2010 a number of artefacts have been recovered from the battle site, and their analysis and the recovery of further items are ongoing.
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In March 2003, Perle became embroiled in controversy after The New Yorker published an article by Seymour Hersh. The article described a meeting between Perle, the arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi, and Saudi businessman Harb Zuhair, in which Perle allegedly offered to influence American foreign policy in Saudi Arabia in exchange for investment in Trireme. The U.S. Department of Defense Inspector General investigated the conflict of interest and determined that Perle did not violate the conflict of interest provision because he was only working eight days per annum at the Defense Department at the time, which was less than the 60 days of service requirement.
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The rock in the sea visible near the horizon at the top centre-left of the picture is considered by the locals to be the mythical petrified ship of Odysseus. The side of the rock toward the mainland is curved in such a way as to resemble the extended sail of a trireme. Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" (published in 1842) presents an aging king who has seen too much of the world to be happy sitting on a throne idling his days away. Leaving the task of civilizing his people to his son, he gathers together a band of old comrades "to sail beyond the sunset".
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The historian Andrew Curry sees Polybius as being "fairly reliable"; while Dexter Hoyos describes him as "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian". Other, later, ancient histories of the war exist but in fragmentary or summary form and they usually cover military operations on land in more detail than those at sea. Modern historians usually take into account the later histories of Diodorus Siculus and Dio Cassius, although the classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias.
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Reconstructed model of a trireme, the type of ship in use by both the Greek and Persian forces Once the Persian forces in Europe had largely been neutralised, the Athenians seem to have gone about starting to extend the League in Asia Minor.Plutarch, Cimon, 12Cawkwell, p. 133. The islands of Samos, Chios and Lesbos seem to have become members of the original Hellenic alliance after Mycale, and presumably were also therefore original members of the Delian League.Herodotus IX, 106 However, it is unclear exactly when the other Ionian cities, or indeed the other Greek cities of Asia Minor, joined the league, though they certainly did at some point.
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Plutarch, Pericles, XXIII After the Spartan threat had been removed, Pericles crossed back to Euboea to crush the revolt there. He then punished the landowners of Chalcis, who lost their properties. The residents of Histiaea, meanwhile, who had butchered the crew of an Athenian trireme, were uprooted and replaced by 2,000 Athenian settlers. The crisis was brought to an official end by the Thirty Years' Peace (winter of 446–445 BC), in which Athens relinquished most of the possessions and interests on the Greek mainland which it had acquired since 460 BC, and both Athens and Sparta agreed not to attempt to win over the other state's allies.
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A Greek trireme Athens was at that time embroiled in a conflict with the neighbouring island of Aegina, which possessed a formidable navy. In order to counter this, and possibly with an eye already at the mounting Persian preparations, in 483/2 BC the Athenian statesman Themistocles used his political skills and influence to persuade the Athenian assembly to start the construction of 200 triremes, using the income of the newly discovered silver mines at Laurion. The first clash with the Persian navy was at the Battle of Artemisium, where both sides suffered great casualties. However, the decisive naval clash occurred at Salamis, where Xerxes' invasion fleet was decisively defeated.
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The trireme was constructed to maximize all traits of the ship to the point where if any changes were made the design would be compromised. Speed was maximized to the point where any less weight would have resulted in considerable losses to the ship's integrity. The center of gravity was placed at the lowest possible position where the Thalamian tholes were just above the waterline which retained the ship's resistance to waves and the possible rollover. If the center of gravity were placed any higher, the additional beams needed to restore stability would have resulted in the exclusion of the Thalamian tholes due to the reduced hull space.
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Making durable rope consisted of using both papyrus and white flax; the idea to use such materials is suggested by evidence to have originated in Egypt. In addition, ropes began being made from a variety of esparto grass in the later third century BC. The use of lightwoods meant that the ship could be carried ashore by as few as 140 men, but also that the hull soaked up water, which adversely affected its speed and maneuverability. But it was still faster than other warships. Bronze trireme ram Once the triremes were seaworthy, it is argued that they were highly decorated with, "eyes, nameplates, painted figureheads, and various ornaments".
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Once a naval battle was underway, for the men involved, there were numerous ways for them to meet their end. Drowning was perhaps the most common way for a crew member to perish. Once a trireme had been rammed, the ensuing panic that engulfed the men trapped below deck no doubt extended the amount of time it took the men to escape. Inclement weather would greatly decrease the crew's odds of survival, leading to a situation like that off Cape Athos in 411 (12 of 10,000 men were saved).Hanson (2006), pp. 246–247 An estimated 40,000 Persians died in the Battle of Salamis.
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Other, later, histories of the war exist, but in fragmentary or summary form, and they usually cover military operations on land in more detail than those at sea. Modern historians usually take into account the later histories of Diodorus Siculus and Dio Cassius, although the classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include inscriptions, archaeological evidence, and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias. Since 2010 a number of artefacts have been recovered from the site of the Battle of the Aegates, the final battle of the war, fought fourteen years later.
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Later, histories of the war exist in fragmentary or summary form and they usually cover military operations on land in more detail than those at sea. Modern historians usually also take into account the histories of Diodorus Siculus and Dio Cassius, although the classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states that "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias. Since 2010, several artefacts have been recovered from the nearby site of the Battle of the Aegates, the final battle of the war.
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The difference in numbers between these two battles is because commanders used the marines for different purposes based on the circumstance of the battles. If the battle was being fought in confined waters, there would be more marines on the trireme. The ships would require more marines because the constricted water would prevent the use of typical tactics, and would increase the risk of the ship being boarded by the enemy. Archers were also important in naval battles. The arrows of the seagoing archers were deadly and efficient and could decrease the enemy’s fighting power considerably by picking off officers and men on the enemy ship.
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If the number rolled (including any combat advantage) equals or exceeds the attacked piece's strength, the attacked piece is removed from the board. An attacker may attack with more than one legion at a time, and from more than one direction. Only the attacking forces have the option of retreating to their original position(s) (with each general having their own option). If a force has been completely destroyed, the losing general(s) is/are captured by the ultimate winner of the battle, and the loser's triremes destroyed, although the die must be rolled for this to occur in a naval battle, and a trireme can only be attacked after all legions have been destroyed.
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The use of banausos follows an economic transition in Greece: the use of coinage, the invention of the trireme and of hoplite armor, the prevalence of chattel slavery permitted the rise of a new hoplite class, who used the term to distance themselves from the artisans. Banausos was used as a term of invective, meaning "cramped in body" (Politics 1341 a 7) and "vulgar in taste" (1337 b 7), by the extreme oligarchs in Athens in the 5th century BC, who were led by Critias. In this usage, it refers to the laboring class as a whole; i.e. the artisans, such as potters, stonemasons, carpenters, professional singers, artists, musicians, and all persons engaged in trade or retail.
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Other, later, histories of the war exist, but in fragmentary or summary form, and they usually cover military operations on land in more detail than those at sea. Modern historians usually also take into account the later histories of Diodorus Siculus and Dio Cassius, although the classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states that "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include inscriptions, archaeological evidence, and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias. Since 2010 a number of artefacts have been recovered from the nearby site of the Battle of the Aegates, the final battle of the war, fought eight years later.
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Most of the novels in the series are action and sexual adventures, with many of the military engagements borrowing liberally from historic ones, such as the trireme battles of ancient Greece and the castle sieges of medieval Europe. Ar, the largest city in known Gor, has resemblances to the ancient city of Rome, and its land empire is opposed by the sea-power of the island of Cos. The series is an overlapping of planetary romance and sword and planet. The first book, Tarnsman of Gor, opens with scenes reminiscent of scenes in the first book of the Barsoom series by Edgar Rice Burroughs; both feature the protagonist narrating his adventures after being transported to another world.
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Plato, Menexenus, 240ALysias, Funeral Oration, 21Justinus II, 9 Modern historians generally dismiss these numbers as exaggerations. One approach to estimate the number of troops is to calculate the number of marines carried by 600 triremes. Herodotus tells us that each trireme in the second invasion of Greece carried 30 extra marines, in addition to a probable 14 standard marines.Herodotus VII, 184 Thus, 600 triremes could easily have carried 18,000–26,000 infantry.Kampouris (2000) Numbers proposed for the Persian infantry are in the range 18,000–100,000.Davis, pp9–13Holland, p390Lloyd, p164 However, the consensus is around 25,000. The Persian infantry used in the invasion was probably a heterogeneous group drawn from across the empire.
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5 Dionysius had rebuilt the walls around Ortygia so that they surrounded the whole island and the isthmus connecting the mainland with a robust wall complete with towers at regular intervals which were strongly built.Kern, Paul B., Ancient Siege Warfare, pp174 The isthmus had docks on the west side and the little harbour, Laccius on the east side. Screens and walls were put up to enclose Laccius, and it could accommodate 60 triremes, and a gate was provided between the sea screens that would let one trireme pass at a time.Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.7 Two castles were also built on Ortygia, one near the isthmus, which was the home of Dionysius, and one further south.
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Until 1699, the coat of arms was not officially registered in a General Armorial as a result of an edict established by Colbert that regulated the coats of arms. On May 17, 1809, during the First Empire, it was allowed by decree that the municipalities recover their old blazons, suppressed in 1790 by the National Constituent Assembly. Marseille could enjoy this right in 1810. 6 New weapons were designed according to the guidelines of the Napoleonic heraldry: «in a cut field; in the first, silver, a cross of azure; in the second, of the same, a trireme of gold on a sea of sinople; the chief of gules loaded with three golden bees».
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Ballistae on a Roman ship In classical antiquity, a ship's main weapon was the ram (rostra, hence the name navis rostrata for a warship), which was used to sink or immobilize an enemy ship by holing its hull. Its use, however, required a skilled and experienced crew and a fast and agile ship like a trireme or quinquereme. In the Hellenistic period, the larger navies came instead to rely on greater vessels. This had several advantages: the heavier and sturdier construction lessened the effects of ramming, and the greater space and stability of the vessels allowed the transport not only of more marines, but also the placement of deck-mounted ballistae and catapults.
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Roman trireme on a mosaic in the Bardo Museum, Tunisia Partially isolated from the rest of the continent by the Atlas Mountains (stretching from present-day Morocco to present-day Tunisia) and by the Sahara desert, inhabitants of the northern parts of the Berber world have long had commercial and cultural ties across the Mediterranean Sea to the inhabitants of the regions of Southern Europe and Western Asia. These trade relations date back at least to the Phoenicians in the 1st millennium BC. (According to tradition, the Phoenicians founded their colony of Carthage (in present-day Tunisia) ). The Berbers predominantly constructed their coastal ports and cities. Later, some Phoenicians and Carthaginians arrived for trade.
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In the battle the flagship of Philip V of Macedon, a very large galley bireme or trireme with ten banks of rowers, accidentally rammed one of her own ships when it strayed across her path, and giving her a powerful blow in the middle of the oarbox, well above the waterline, stuck fast, since the helmsman had been unable in time to check or reverse the ship's momentum. Trapped, the flagship was put out of action by two enemy ships, which rammed her below the waterline on each side. The Macedonian navy outnumbered the allied fleet, but lacked experience for Philip had raised it just a few years prior to the battle. This was a crucial deciding factor.
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The arrangement and number of oarsmen is the first deciding factor in the size of the ship. For a ship to travel at high speeds would require a high oar- gearing, which is the ratio between the outboard length of an oar and the inboard length; it is this arrangement of the oars which is unique and highly effective for the trireme. The ports would house the oarsmen with a minimal waste of space. There would be three files of oarsmen on each side tightly but workably packed by placing each man outboard of, and in height overlapping, the one below, provided that thalamian tholes were set inboard and their ports enlarged to allow oar movement.
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58 These figures seem to be corroborated by the tests conducted with the reconstructed Olympias: a maximum speed of 8 knots and a steady speed of 4 knots could be maintained, with half the crew resting at a time.Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265-246 BC, Cassell 2003, p. 98 Given the imperfect nature of the reconstructed ship as well as the fact that it was manned by totally untrained modern men and women, it is reasonable to suggest that ancient triremes, expertly built and navigated by trained men, would attain higher speeds. The distance a trireme could cover in a given day depended much on the weather.
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Herodotus V, 33 Reconstructed model of a trireme, the type of ship in use by both the Greek and Persian forces Herodotus recounts that Megabates made inspections of the ships (probably whilst beached for the night), and came across one ship from Myndus which had not posted any sentries. Megabates ordered his guard to find the captain of the ship, Scylax, and then had the captain thrust into one of the ship's oar holes with his head outside and his body inside the ship. News reached Aristagoras of the treatment of his friend and he went to Megabates and asked him to reconsider his decision. When Megabates refused to grant Aristagoras's wishes, Aristagoras simply cut the captain loose himself.
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It bears a representation of a naked and cloaked Neptune, grasping thunderbolts in both hands and with his right arm drawn back in the act of hurling the missiles. Behind him is the prow of a Roman trireme, drawn by three sea horses. Above the horses, a trident is depicted on the table of the medal. The inscription is "AMAT VICTORIA CVRAM" (Victory delights in care), as required by King Edward VII. The design dates back to 1904, when the Deputy Master of the Royal Mint invited students of the Modelling School of the Royal College of Art in South Kensington to submit designs for the reverse of the Naval Good Shooting Medal.
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Plato's The Republic and other elements of ancient Greek history inspired Hahn's approach. This is seen in the title "Guardian", denoting the head boy and girl, the adoption of a Greek trireme as the school's emblem, and a routine that could be described as Spartan. Classics, and the Greek ideal that education aims to produce a complete person, intellectually, morally, physically and aesthetically had a profound influence on Hahn. Mostly, He believed that pupils should participate in activities, as opposed to sitting and absorbing information. Therefore, physical education forms much of Gordonstoun’s curriculum but achieving personal-goals and overcoming physical challenges take precedent over any competition. As part of their studies, Gordonstoun’s students complete something referred to as “The Project” a practical assignment of the student’s choosing.
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Greek Trireme In Ionia (the modern Aegean coast of Turkey) the Greek cities, which included great centres such as Miletus and Halicarnassus, were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of the Persian Empire in the mid-6th century BC. In 499 BC the Greeks rose in the Ionian Revolt, and Athens and some other Greek cities went to their aid. In 490 BC, the Persian Great King, Darius I, having suppressed the Ionian cities, sent a fleet to punish the Greeks. The Persians landed in Attica, but were defeated at the Battle of Marathon by a Greek army led by the Athenian general Miltiades. The burial mound of the Athenian dead can still be seen at Marathon.
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According to George Akropolites, the Nicaean fleet had 30 galleys and the Venetian fleet 13. However, the Nicaeans lost 13 of their own vessels, which were captured by the Venetians, so that "each one of the enemy ships gained one trireme as spoil, with its men and weapons". The contemporary Venetian chronicler Martin da Canal, on the other hand, claims that the Nicaean fleet numbered no less than 160 ships, "including galleys and other large and small vessels, all of which were well equipped", while the Venetian fleet numbered only ten galleys. Under the command of Podestà of Constantinople Giovanni Quirino, the Venetian fleet defeated the Nicaean fleet under Iophre the Armenian in the battle, taking ten Nicaean galleys captive.
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The navy operated a large number of vessels used to carry food and other supplies, which commonly had a displacement of 100 to 150 tons, at the time they invaded Egypt in 373 BC. Ships capable of carrying 350 to 500 tons were also used in significant numbers. They also had horse transporters (hippagogoi) specifically built for this purpose, that could easily carry 30 horses. Persian horse transport ships were good sailing ships that took advantage of the favorable winds, according to Anthony J. Papalas, who adds they were probably designed to match the speed of a trireme. It is probable that horse transports were galleys with a shallow draft, that allowed horses get off in the waters and embark via a ramp.
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An ancient Greek trireme vessel The Greeks of Homer just used their ships as transport for land armies, but in 664 BC there is a mention of a battle at sea between Corinth and its colony city Corcyra. Ancient descriptions of the Persian Wars were the first to feature large-scale naval operations, not just sophisticated fleet engagements with dozens of triremes on each side, but combined land-sea operations. It seems unlikely that all this was the product of a single mind or even of a generation; most likely the period of evolution and experimentation was simply not recorded by history. After some initial battles while subjugating the Greeks of the Ionian coast, the Persians determined to invade Greece proper.
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" The tyrants thus sent messages to their own kinsman, but the Ionians refused the offers. Critically, each group thought that only they had been approached—there does not seem to have been any discussion of this offer between the different contingents, and the possibility for treachery does not seem to have been realised. Reconstructed model of a trireme, the type of ship in use by both the Greek and Persian forces The Ionians did however hold meetings to discuss the conduct of the battle. Dionysius, the Phocaean general, offered to train and lead the Greek force: > "Our affairs, men of Ionia, stand on the edge of a razor, whether to be free > men or slaves, and runaway slaves at that.
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Sketch reconstruction of a Greek Trireme When the Persians saw the Allied fleet rowing towards them, they decided to seize the opportunity to attack, even though it was late in the day, as they thought they would win an easy victory.Herodotus VIII, 10 They quickly advanced on the much smaller Allied fleet. However, the Allies had come up with a tactic for this situation, where they turned their "bows on to the barbarians, [and] they drew their sterns together in the middle".Herodotus VIII, 11 This is usually taken to mean that they formed into a circle, with their rams pointing outwards;Lazenby, pp138–140 Thucydides reports that in the Peloponnesian War, Peloponnesian fleets twice adopted a circular formation, with their sterns together.
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Ancient Greek trireme corvus In the earliest day of naval warfare, there was little distinction between sailors and soldiers on a warship. The oarsmen of Ancient Greek and Roman ships had to be capable of fighting the rowers of opposing ships hand-to-hand;Themistocles, History of the Peloponnesian War XIV though hoplites began appearing on Greek ships specifically for the boarding of enemy ships.Plutarch, Parallel Lives The Roman Republic was the first to understand the importance of professional soldiers dedicated to melee combat onboard of ships. During the First Punic War, Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians and could not hope to match them in naval tactics, which required great fleet maneuverability and tactical experience.
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Further, Casson writes that the oars were the proper length for no more than eight rowers. Mention by Callixenus of the "forty's" thranite (the uppermost rowing level of a trireme) oars leads Casson to determine that the "forty" had three ranks. He points to the practical limit of eight rowers to an oar, giving a maximum size class of "twenty-four", as well as to the need for a vastly larger deck than one ship could provide in order to accommodate the reported numbers of marines. Combined with Callixenus description of the ship having two heads and two sterns, Casson suggests that the "forty" must have been a catamaran made up of two three-ranked "twenties" joined together by a deck.
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Imagine the feelings of a commander of a fine -- what d'ye call 'em? -- trireme in the Mediterranean, ordered suddenly to the north; run overland across the Gauls in a hurry; put in charge of one of these craft the legionaries -- a wonderful lot of handy men they must have been, too -- used to build, apparently by the hundred, in a month or two, if we may believe what we read. Imagine him here -- the very end of the world, a sea the colour of lead, a sky the colour of smoke, a kind of ship about as rigid as a concertina -- and going up this river with stores, or orders, or what you like. Sand-banks, marshes, forests, savages, -- precious little to eat fit for a civilized man, nothing but Thames water to drink.
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Six months after the events of The Lost Hero, Leo Valdez has constructed a flying trireme named Argo II, for use in the quest to Greece and Rome to stop Gaea from awakening. He, Jason Grace, Piper McLean, and Annabeth Chase, accompanied by Coach Hedge, arrive at Camp Jupiter to rendezvous with Percy Jackson and Roman demigods Frank Zhang and Hazel Levesque. Camp Jupiter's praetor Reyna tells Annabeth that in order to unite Greek and Roman demigods against Gaea, they have to retrieve the Athena Parthenos, a giant statue of Athena that was stolen by the Romans from the Greeks in ancient times. The statue can only be retrieved by the demigod children of Athena through the help of the Mark of Athena, and no one has succeeded.
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123 The Byzantine historian John Cinnamus describes John II employing a ruse to allow his army to cross the river.. He sent a mercenary force composed of "Ligurian knights" (Lombards) and Turks (probably horse archers) to threaten a crossing upstream, while he stayed on the shore opposite Haram with the rest of his army. The ruse worked as his army crossed the river at Haram by boat, the emperor himself on board the imperial trireme. An opposed river crossing is one of the most demanding of military operations. The Byzantine army must have been very disciplined and well supported by archers and bolt-firing artillery on the imperial ships.. Once on the Hungarian bank of the Danube the Byzantine cavalry then, "with couched lances, scattered the assembled Hungarian forces.".
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Early racing sculls with outriggers in 1851. In a rowing boat or galley, an outrigger (or just rigger) is a triangular frame that holds the rowlock (into which the oar is slotted) away from the saxboard (gunwale for gig rowing) to optimize leverage. Wooden outriggers appear on the new trireme around the 7th or 6th centuries BC and later on Italian galleys around AD 1300 while Harry Clasper (1812–1870), a British professional rower, popularised the use of the modern metal version and the top rowing events accepted the physiological and ergonomic advantages so acceded to its use in competitions. Wing-riggers are made by some manufacturers of racing shells which are reinforced arcs or form a single projection akin to aircraft wings instead of conventional thin metal triangular structures.
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Map of Mytilene created in 1597 by the Venetian Giacomo (Jacomo) Franco Relief at the Castle of Mytilene, showing the family cypher of the Palaiologoi (center left) and the Gattilusi coat of arms (center right) The Mytilene castle fortress sits on a hill between the city’s northern and southern ports. From the writing of Homer, the island of Lesbos has been an organized city since 1054 BC. The early harbor of Mytilene was united during ancient times with a channel 700 meters long and 30 meters wide. The Greek word Εύριπος or Euripus is a commonly used term when referring to a strait. The strait allowed ancient 3 rower or more sail boats called Trireme. The boats that passed were 34 meters and had depth of 4 meters.
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Among the great innovations of naval warfare in the ancient world there are few that can surpass the Trireme style warship in terms of efficiency, strategy, and overall effectiveness. The first depiction of this 'longship' style vessel can be found in Homer's The Iliad as a means of transport of armed men and supplies to areas of conflict across the seas. These ships were said to have consisted of two separate levels that could have held up to 60 men per level, all operating oars in unison to propel the ship. The upper level of oarsmen would sit in single-file fashion, pulling their oars through what is called a top wale or some sort of oar-port; while the men in the lower rows would sit in the ships' hold also rowing through lower oar-ports.
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The sons of Pisistratus sent Miltiades, son of Cimon and brother of the dead Stesagoras, in a trireme to the Chersonese to take control of the country; they had already treated him well at Athens, feigning that they had not been accessory to the death of Cimon his father, which I will relate in another place. Reaching the Chersonese, Miltiades kept himself within his house, professing thus to honor the memory of his brother Stesagoras. When the people of the Chersonese learned this, their ruling men gathered together from all the cities on every side, and came together in a group to show fellow-feeling with his mourning; but he put them in bonds. So Miltiades made himself master of the Chersonese; there he maintained a guard of five hundred men, and married Hegesipyle the daughter of Olorus, king of Thrace.
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The modern replica galley Olympias has achieved speeds of 8.5 knots (10 mph; 16 km/h) and cruised at for hours on end. Depiction of the position of the rowers in three levels (from top: thranitai, zygitai and thalamitai) in a Greek trireme The generally accepted theory regarding the arrangement of oarsmen in quinqueremes is that there would be sets – or files – of three oars, one above the other, with two oarsmen on each of the two uppermost oars and one on the lower, for a total of five oarsmen per file. This would be repeated down the side of a galley for a total of 28 files on each side; 168 oars in total. At least one man on each oar would need to have had some experience if the ship was to be handled effectively.
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Assuming that a trireme soaked with water weighed 38 tons including its trolley, and that a man can exert a force of 300 N over an extended period of time, the pulling teams—depending on the slope and the surface of the cart track—must have numbered between 112 and 142 people, with a combined exertion of force of 33 to 42 kN, or around 3.8 tons weight. Bringing the trolley up to speed may have required as many as 180 men. Assuming a speed of 2 km per hour over an estimated length of 6 kilometres, the transfer from sea to sea would have taken three hours to complete. Assuming less load and rolling friction, Raepsaet, in contrast, calculates a maximum pulling force of 27 kN, which would have needed a slightly smaller towing crew.
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The Paralus or Paralos (, "sea-side"; named after a mythological son of Poseidon), was an Athenian sacred ship and a messenger trireme of the Athenian navy during the late 5th century BC. Its crew were known for their vehement pro-democracy views. It played a notable role in several episodes of the Peloponnesian War. The Paralus appears more often in the literary and epigraphical sources for the classical period than any other individual ship;Jordan, Athenian Navy, 172 it carried almost all recorded Athenian diplomatic missions in the 5th and 4th centuries, and it appears that on most of these missions the treasurer (tamias) of Paralus acted as the chief ambassador. The crew of the Paralus (the Paraloi) was known for its exceptionally strong pro-democracy views; its remarkable unity on this matter may indicate that it was composed of the members of a single genos of the name Paraloi.
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Catalysis therefore enhances the Unified Modelling Language (UML) with a definite method, showing how the various UML diagrams relate to each other and offering many design heuristics and process and design patterns. Catalysis builds on the Syntropy method and key ideas from both influenced the development of UML 2.0. More recently, building on the work of D’Souza, Wills and that of John Cheesman and John Daniels,UML Components, Cheesman, J. and Daniels, J., Harlow, England: Addison-Wesley, 2000 Derek Andrews of consultancy Trireme International has developed Catalysis II, which extends Catalysis to address the key issues of Service Oriented Architecture (SOA). Also building on the same foundation, Ian Graham developed Catalysis Conversation Analysis,Requirements Modelling and Specification for Service Oriented Architecture, Graham, I., Chichester: Wiley, 2008, a method of business process modelling with its roots in Semiotics and the idea of a use case (cf.
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He was on the staff of Scipio Aemilianus when Scipio led a Roman army during the Third Punic War on a campaign through many of the locations which featured in the events of 256–255 BC. The modern historian Andrew Curry considers that "Polybius turns out to [be] fairly reliable"; while the classicist Dexter Hoyos describes him as "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian". Other, later, histories of the war exist, but in fragmentary or summary form, and they usually cover military operations on land in more detail than those at sea. Modern historians usually also take into account the later histories of Diodorus Siculus and Dio Cassius, although the classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states that "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts." Other sources include inscriptions, coins, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias.
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The faster a vessel travels, the more energy it uses. Reaching high speed requires energy which a human-powered vessel is incapable of producing. Oar systems generate very low amounts of energy for propulsion (only about 70 W per rower) and the upper limit for rowing in a fixed position is around 10 knots.Coates 1995, pp. 127–28 Ancient war galleys of the kind used in Classical Greece are by modern historians considered to be the most energy-efficient and fastest of galley designs throughout history. A full-scale replica of a 5th-century BC trireme, the Olympias was built 1985–87 and was put through a series of trials to test its performance. It proved that a cruising speed of 7–8 knots could be maintained for an entire day. Sprinting speeds of up to 10 knots were possible, but only for a few minutes and would tire the crew quickly.
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Under the prow there was a rostrum made for striking the enemy ships under the sea. By its original form, the Liburna was the most similar to the Greek penteconter. It had one bench with 25 oars on each side, while in the late ages of the Roman Republic, it became a smaller version of a trireme, but with two banks of oars (a bireme), faster, lighter, and more agile than biremes and triremes. The Liburnian design was adopted by the Romans and became a key part of Ancient Rome's navy, most possibly by mediation of Macedonian navy in the 2nd half of the 1st century BC. Liburna ships played a key role in naval battle of Actium in Greece, which lasted from August 31 to September 2 of 31 BC. Because of its naval and manoeuvrer features and bravery of its Liburnian crews, these ships completely defeated much bigger and heavier eastern ships, quadriremes and penterames.
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Diodorus Siculus, Library, 11.27 Herodotus writes that Athenians said that Ameinias charged one of the enemy vessels and his ship was entangled in combat and his men were not being able to get away, so the other Greek ships joined in the fight to assist Ameinias and this is how the battle started, but the Aeginetans say that one of their ships was the first to attack the Persian fleet.Herodotus, 8.84 He also pursued the ship of Artemisia, and she escaped by ramming and sinking the ship of her ally Damasithymos. When Ameinias saw that he thought that her ship was Greek and he changed the direction of his Trireme to chase other Persian ships. Herodotus believed that Ameinias didn't know that Artemisia was on the ship because otherwise he would not have ceased his pursuit until either he had captured her or had been captured himself because orders had been given to the Athenian captains.
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The Battle of Lepanto was a naval engagement that took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic Christian states arranged by Pope Pius V, inflicted a major defeat on the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in the Gulf of Patras. The Ottoman forces were sailing westward from their naval station in Lepanto (the Venetian name of ancient Naupactus—Greek , Ottoman ) when they met the fleet of the Holy League which was sailing east from Messina, Sicily. The Spanish Empire and the Venetian Republic were the main powers of the coalition, as the league was largely financed by Philip II of Spain and Venice was the main contributor of ships. In the history of naval warfare, Lepanto marks the last major engagement in the Western world to be fought almost entirely between rowing vessels, namely the galleys and galeasses which were the direct descendants of ancient trireme warships.
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First, the Athenian fleet was divided into eight autonomous divisions, each commanded by one of the generals; second, they arranged their fleet in a double line instead of the traditional single line in order to prevent the Spartans from using the maneuver known as the diekplous, in which a trireme raced into a gap between two enemy ships and then wheeled to strike one of them in the side; if the Spartans attempted this against a double line, a ship from the second line could move up to attack the Spartan ship.Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 454-56 The Athenians (yellow) used an unusual tactic with which they prevented a diekplous As the Athenians advanced, they extended their left flank out to sea, outflanking the Spartans. The superior Athenian numbers, combined with the tactics they had implemented, created a dangerous situation for the Spartans, and Callicratidas' helmsman advised him to retire without a fight, but the navarch insisted on pushing on. Dividing his force in two to meet the threat of encirclement,Diodorus Siculus, Library 13.98.
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AD 255: Ballista, aged thirty- four, now an eques and a distinguished soldier in the service of the Emperor Valerian and his son Gallienus, is appointed Dux Ripae, the military commander of the Empire's eastern frontier, between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. His task is to prepare the small fortified town of Arete, on the banks of the Euphrates, for an attack by the invading armies of the Sassanid Persians, under Shapur I. Despite the eminence of his position, he is expected to accomplish this with only the troops of the town's garrison, and whatever levies he can borrow from the surrounding potentates - an impossible task. Traveling with his familia (entourage) and a siege engineer, Mamurra, he embarks on a trireme from Brundisium to Antioch, and then over land to Arete. There, in addition to the shortage of troops, he is forced to cope with the arrogance of his subordinate officers (who, since he was originally a diplomatic hostage from the Angles tribe, consider him a barbarian), and the divides between the various religious, national and political factions that control the town's government.
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This was a radical drop in the number of citizens available to pay the expenses of the city-state. Historian Donald Kagan calculates from ancient records that the special war taxes, religious services, and other fiscal demands legally required from the wealthy by the city state during a seven- year period (411–404 BC) was 2.5 talents. Kagan reminds us "that a talent consisted of 6,000 drachmas, that a drachma was a very good day's pay in the late fifth century, and that in those years an Athenian citizen rowing in the fleet was expected to get by on half that amount." Among the things expected of wealthy Athenians, besides special war taxes and religious obligations, were the production of comic and tragic dramas, paying for choral competitions, dancers, athletic contests, trireme races, equipping triremes for battle in the war, serving in positions such as trierarch, and contributing to the eisphora, and a tax on the wealth of the very rich—levied only when needed—usually in times of war.
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20 The tsunami itself hit the coast of the Malian Gulf at three different places, reaching towns as far as three quarters of a mile inland. The force of the tsunami was such that at one place a trireme was lifted out of its dock and thrown over a city wall. Thucydides gave the following account, noting the characteristic sequence of quake, receding water and huge wave: > About the same time that these earthquakes were so common, the sea at > Orobiae, in Euboea, retiring from the then line of coast, returned in a huge > wave and invaded a great part of the town, and retreated leaving some of it > still under water; so that what was once land is now sea; such of the > inhabitants perishing as could not run up to the higher ground in time. A > similar inundation also occurred at Atalanta, the island off the Opuntian- > Locrian coast, carrying away part of the Athenian fort and wrecking one of > two ships which were drawn up on the beach.
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The most often forwarded argument is one of lack of skilled manpower: the trireme was essentially a ship built for ramming, and successful ramming tactics depended chiefly on the constant maintenance of a highly trained oar crew, something which few states aside from Athens with its radical democracy had the funds or the social structure to do. Using multiple oarsmen reduced the number of such highly trained men needed in each crew: only the rower at the tip of the oar had to be sufficiently trained, and he could then lead the others, who simply provided additional motive power. This system was also in use in Renaissance galleys, but jars with the evidence of ancient crews continuing to be thoroughly trained by their commanders. The increased number of oarsmen also required a broader hull, which on the one hand reduced the ships' speed, but on the other offered several advantages: larger vessels could be strengthened to better withstand ramming, while the wider hull increased their carrying capacity, allowing more marines, and eventually catapults, to be carried along.
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His 1959 book The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times told how civilizations along the Mediterranean Sea began by having their ships travel along the coast and then advanced to trips across the sea, far from the sight of shore. Commerce and military ventures led to journeys to such far-flung locales as India with more specialized crafts designed that expanded the original flat-bottomed boats into vessels such as the trireme propelled by hundreds of oarsmen to speeds of seven knots by its 170 oars. Illustrated History of Ships and Boats, published by Doubleday in 1964, provided a history of boats from ancient craft carved from wood or made from animal skins up to the day's most modern nuclear submarines. Yale University Press published Casson's 2001 book Libraries in the Ancient World that uses references in ancient works and archeological evidence in the Middle East and the Greco-Roman world to follow the development of writing, the creation of the first books and the process of copying them by hand and assembling them into libraries.Staff.
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Beyond three, the number in the type name did not refer to the number of ranks of oars any more (as for biremes and triremes, respectively two and three ranks of oars with one rower per oar), but to the number of rowers per vertical section, with several men on each oar. Indeed, just because a ship was designated with a larger type number did not mean it necessarily had or operated all three possible ranks: the quadrireme may have been a simple evolution of a standard trireme, but with two rowers on the top oar; it may also have been a bireme with two men on each oar; or it may just have had a single rank with four men on a each single oar. Classes of ship could differ in their configuration between regions and over time, but in no case did a "four" ship have four horizontal ranks of oars. From galleys used in the 16th to 18th centuries AD, it is known that the maximum number of men that can operate a single oar efficiently is eight.
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Strombichides () was an Athenian admiral and politician who lived during the late 5th century BC. A son of Diotimus, Strombichides was appointed to command the eight ships which the Athenians sent to the coast of Asia Minor, following the news of the revolt of Chios in 412 BC. On his arrival at Samos he added a Samian trireme to his squadron and sailed to Teos to check on the rebellion there. But soon after, he was compelled to flee to Samos from a superior Peloponnesian fleet, under Chalcideus and Alcibiades and, as a result, Teos revolted. Not long after this Strombichides seems to have returned to Athens, and later in the same year he was one of three commanders who were sent to the Athenians at Samos with a reinforcement of thirty-five ships, which increased their whole force to 104. This they now divided, retaining the greater part of the fleet at Samos to command the sea, and to carry on the war against Miletus, while Strombichides and two others were despatched to Chios with thirty triremes.
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The Khokarsans had a written syllabary, understood the principles of algebra, employed catapults and Greek fire, had an advanced navy of unireme, bireme, and trireme galleys, implemented a solar calendar, and established a samurai- like class of swordsmen called the numatenu who wielded iron broadswords. The Khokarsan civilization was matriarchal, with the high priestess of Kho serving as queen and controlling everything in the society but military, naval, and engineering sectors, these latter being under the direct jurisdiction of the king, the high priest of the sun god Resu. At the opening of the Khokarsa series circa 10,000 B.C., a power struggle between the priestesses of Kho and the priests of Resu has been ongoing for over 800 years. This conflict erupts into civil war when King Minruth IV refuses to relinquish the throne to the hero Hadon, whose victory as champion of the Great Games of Klakor should bestow upon him the traditional right to marry the high priestess and assume the kingship. Because of Minruth’s play for power, the thirty queendoms of the empire are thrown into a state of bloody revolution as the priests attempt to assert their newfound authority over the priestesses.
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