The company also notes a 10 percent improvement in transmittance, making for better outdoor visibility.
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The designers of the PLZT goggle had found that the material could be discharged quicker than when charged to change the transmittance.
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The lack of 4K isn't surprising since it's a prototype, and higher resolution would also reduce the transmittance further, making the display darker when off.
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Vivo says it's managed to increase the light transmittance of that portion of the screen by six times, while relying on algorithmic optimizations to improve image quality.
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According to the company, the phone uses a specially-developed transparent material to let light pass through the various elements of its display, as well as a redesigned pixel structure that improves its transmittance.
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Thanks to the nature of OLED display tech (LG's forté), which has much higher light transmittance than regular LED/LCD panels, it was able to build a screen that looks like a window when it's off, but can show images when on.
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""PLZT is a ceramic material consisting of lead, lanthanum, zirconate, and titante and it can be electronically switched rapidly in polarity, such that when sandwiched with a near infrared blocking material and a fixed polarizing material, the visual transmittance can be varied from full open state (approximately 20%) to totally opaque within a ten-millionth of a second.
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The Spectronic 20 measures the absorbance of light at a pre-determined concentration, and the concentration is calculated from the Beer-Lambert relationship. The absorbance of the light is the base 10 logarithm of the ratio of the Transmittance of the pure solvent to the transmittance of the sample, and so the two absorbance and transmittance can be interconverted. Either transmittance or absorbance can therefore be plotted versus concentration using measurements from the Spectronic 20. Plotting a curve using percent transmittance of light yields an exponential curve.
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Total transmittance is the measure of the total incident light compared to the light that is actually transmitted (e.g. total transmittance). So the incident light may be 100%, but because of absorption and reflection the total transmittance may only be 94%. The data gained from the haze meter can be transferred to a PC for further data processing to ensure a consistent product.
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Beer makes use of the fact, derived from Bouguer's and Lambert's absorption laws, that the intensity of light transmitted through a solution at a given wavelength decreases exponentially with the path length d and the concentration c of the solute (the solvent is considered non-absorbing). Actually, the “Absorption Coëfficient” defined by Beer in his paper is the transmittance (or transmission ratio), T = I / I0. Thus, as pointed out by Beer, the transmittance of a concentrated solution can be derived from a measurement of the transmittance of a dilute solution. Indeed, the transmittance measured for any concentration and path length can be normalized to the corresponding transmittance for a standard concentration and path length.
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Transmittance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in transmitting radiant energy. It is the fraction of incident electromagnetic power that is transmitted through a sample, in contrast to the transmission coefficient, which is the ratio of the transmitted to incident electric field. Internal transmittance refers to energy loss by absorption, whereas (total) transmittance is that due to absorption, scattering, reflection, etc.
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Imperfect transmittance causes observers to experience a reduced difference in spectral contrast or luminance from object surfaces. This is because imperfections in the transmission medium produce, such as atmospheric effects distort transmittance. For instance, transmittance varies when viewing objects from a distance, in smog or fog, or through fabric, glass or water. These conditions greatly effect the amount of light that reaches the eye.
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Strontium boride is used in insulation and nuclear control rods. A recent patent filed for aircraft windows uses SrB6 nanoparticles in a transparent acrylic sheet. The IR-absorbing properties of these nanoparticles prevents the transmittance of infrared wavelengths while still allowing the transmittance of visible light.
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If any of these conditions are not fulfilled, there will be deviations from the Beer–Lambert law. The Beer–Lambert law is not compatible with Maxwell's equations. Being strict, the law does not describe the transmittance through a medium, but the propagation within that medium. It can be made compatible with Maxwell's equations if the transmittance of a sample with solute is ratioed against the transmittance of the pure solvent which explains why it works so well in spectrophotometry.
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Conversely, a control cell with an Ag top electrode resulted in no transmittance within this spectra. Additionally, the cell had a relatively transmittance in the visible region due to the high visible absorbance of the P3HT:PCBM layer. Such cells can be applied to tandem devices and the vertical assembly of PSCs.
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Colored glass optical filters, although harder to make to precise transmittance specifications, are more durable and stable once manufactured.
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GENLN2 is suite of software programs that provide a general purpose line by line atmospheric transmittance and radiance model.
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This enables the ratio, transmittance, to be obtained. For quantitative measurements transmittance is converted to absorbance which is proportional to the solute concentration according to Beer's law. This makes possible the quantitative determination of the amount of a substance in solution. The user could also switch between phototubes without removing the sample holder.
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Experimentally, the phase separation can be followed by turbidimetry. There is no universal approach for determining the cloud point suitable for all systems. It is often defined as the temperature at the onset of cloudiness, the temperature at the inflection point of the transmittance curve, or the temperature at a defined transmittance (e.g., 50%).
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This hypothesis was tested by altering the probable contributions of imperfect transmittance by manipulating motion, luminance and colour information. In some cases, the relative luminance of two target surfaces can be reduced, as Lotto and Purves demonstrate, from a ratio of 8:3 to approximately 7:5. If perception is generated empirically, then "the extent that a stimulus is consistent with imperfect transmittance...will be incorporated into the perception of the target." Appropriate behavioural response depends on the evaluation of the relative contributions of illumination, reflectance and transmittance to the visual stimuli.
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Optical properties such as transmittance, reflectivity, and absorbance as well as the sensor response are typically dependent on the incident wavelength.
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Sunglasses sold in the United States are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration and are required to conform to safety standards. The U.S. standard is ANSI Z80.3-2001,Freestd, Free Standards Worldwide ANSI Z80.3-2001 "ophthalmics nonprescription sunglasses and fashion eyewear requirements", retrieved 6 April 2017 which includes three transmittance categories. According to this standard, the lens should have a UVB (280 to 315 nm) transmittance of no more than one per cent and a UVA (315 to 380 nm) transmittance of no more than 0.3 times the visual light transmittance. The ANSI Z87.1-2003 standard includes requirements for basic impact and high impact protection. In the basic impact test, a 1 in (2.54 cm) steel ball is dropped on the lens from a height of 50 in (127 cm).
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This creates a decrease in the received signal, leading to an increase in optical obscuration i.e. transmittance of light across the beam path.
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Transmissometers are referred to as telephotometers, transmittance meters, or hazemeters. The term transmissometer is also used by oceanographers and limnologists to refer to a device for measuring the optical properties of natural water. In this context, a transmissometer measures the transmittance or attenuation of incident radiation from a light source with a select wavelength, often 660 nm, through a defined cell volume.
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Beer's law stated that the transmittance of a solution remains constant if the product of concentration and path length stays constant. The modern derivation of the Beer–Lambert law combines the two laws and correlates the absorbance, which is the negative decadic logarithm of the transmittance, to both the concentrations of the attenuating species and the thickness of the material sample.
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A diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum with the Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) and the types of telescopes used to image parts of the spectrum.
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Lead bismuthate has a broad transmittance range in the IR spectra.7 When doped with Li2O to form Li2O-[Bi2O3-PbO], the transmittance can increase beyond 10-15 micrometers. The figure above shows the IR spectra of 30Li2O-35[Bi2O3-PbO] glass composition, which contains 30 mole percent Li2O. Infusing varying mole concentrations of Li2O within the structure of lead bismuthate to form Li2O-[Bi2O3-PbO] can increase the transmittance spectra of lead bismuthate glass within and beyond the visible range.7 The figure shows the UV-Vis spectra of lead bismuthate glass compositions with (a) 20, (b) 30, (c) 40, (d) 50 and (e) 60 mole percent of Li2O.
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Reflective tape can be adhered to strips of radiant barrier to make it a contiguous vapor barrier or, alternatively, radiant barrier can be perforated for vapor transmittance.
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Besides spectroscopic reflectance and transmittance, spectroscopic ellipsometry can also be used in an analogous way to characterize thin films and determine t, n(λ) and k(λ).
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These coatings have several advantages over conventional coatings because they have higher visible light transmittance which ensures better natural lighting and extremely low solar heat transmittance. This saves energy by reducing cooling loads. Ninety percent of interior spaces have direct views to the exterior. In addition to the high-performance coatings, a secondary layer of perforated aluminum louvers is hung from the glass to create a double skinned façade.
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Earth's atmospheric transmittance over 1 nautical mile sea level path (infrared region). Because of the natural radiation of the hot atmosphere, the intensity of radiation is different from the transmitted part. Transmittance of ruby in optical and near-IR spectra. Note the two broad blue and green absorption bands and one narrow absorption band on the wavelength of 694 nm, which is the wavelength of the ruby laser.
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The individual reflectance or transmittance of the domains is averaged if the macroscopic reflectance or transmittance is to be calculated. This can be verified simply by investigating, e.g., a polycrystalline material under a polarizing microscope having the polarizers crossed: If the crystallites are larger than the resolution limit, they will be visible. ; Cosmology:The Big Bang theory of the evolution of the observable universe assumes that space is isotropic.
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Determination of linear thermal transmittance for curved detail. Advanced Materials Research, 899, 112-115.Kyncl, J., Doubek, J., & Musálek, L. (2014). Modeling of Dielectric Heating within Lyophilization Process.
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Visual perceptions of contrast are affected by the effects of imperfect transmittance rather than the luminance of the object. The Chubb stimulus illustrated in Figure 1 (B) is consistent with transmittance distortions for two reasons: the patterned elements of the background are continuous with the patterned elements of the target and the luminances of the target elements accord with the values that would arise if the background pattern were viewed through an imperfectly transmitting medium. The transmittance explanation of the Chubb illusion asserts that changing the stimulus in Figure 1 (B) in a way that makes it less consistent with viewing through an imperfect medium should decrease, or reverse, the illusion. Trials confirm this hypothesis.
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A shutter in this exit port coated with the same coating as the sphere walls allows the port to be opened and closed as required. Total transmittance is measured with the exit port closed. Transmittance haze is measured with the exit port open. Commercially available Hazemeters of this type perform both measurements automatically, the only operator interaction being the placement of the sample material on the measurement (entrance) port of the device.
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Levels of Black carbon are most often determined based on the modification of the optical properties of a fiber filter by deposited particles. Either filter transmittance, filter reflectance or a combination of transmittance and reflectance is measured. Aethalometers are frequently used devices that optically detect the changing absorption of light transmitted through a filter ticket. The USEPA Environmental Technology Verification program evaluated both the Aethalometer and also the Sunset Laboratory thermal-optical analyzer.
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Figure 4. Schematic of metal network based Transparent Conducting Electrodes. Electrical transport is through the percolating metal network, while optical transmittance is through the voids. Source: Ankush Kumar (JNCASR) Thesis.
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Conversely in the (hypothetical) total absence of absorption the optical depth remains zero at all altitudes of the sun, that is, transmittance remains 1, and so only the projection effect applies.
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The instrument used in ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy is called a UV/Vis spectrophotometer. It measures the intensity of light after passing through a sample (I), and compares it to the intensity of light before it passes through the sample (I_o). The ratio I/I_o is called the transmittance, and is usually expressed as a percentage (%T). The absorbance, A, is based on the transmittance: :A=-\log(\%T/100\%) The UV–visible spectrophotometer can also be configured to measure reflectance.
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Different types and grades of glass and different window treatments can also affect the amount of light transmission through the windows. The type of glazing is an important issue, expressed by its VT coefficient (Visual Transmittance), also known as visual light transmittance (VLT). As the name suggests, this coefficient measures how much visible light is admitted by the window. A low VT (below 0.4) can reduce by half or more the light coming into a room.
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In order to maximise interchangeability, lenses within a series of cine lenses are often identical in transmittance of light (maximum T-stop). Anamorphic lenses for cinematography may also be classified as cine lenses.
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Infrared cells preferentially absorb light in the infrared range rather than visible wavelengths. A 2010 study developed infrared-transparent PSCs with a CNT film top electrode on the back side and an ITO glass layer on the front side allowing for optical transmittance from both sides of the cell. A ZnO layer was placed on top of the ITO with a P3HT:PCBM layer being added to the ZnO, thus creating an ITO/ZnO/P3HT:PCBM/CNT (bottom to top) cell. It was observed that the top CNT electrode and bottom ITO electrode both exhibited 80% transmittance within a 500 nm to 2.5 um spectra. The cell itself had an optical transmittance of 80% in the 670 nm to 1.2 um range, 60% in the 1.2 um to 2.5 um range.
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Selective surfaces are used for other applications than solar thermal collectors, such as low emissivity surfaces used in window glasses, which reflect thermal radiation and have high transmittance factors (being transparent) for visible sunlight.
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Compared to the CTF Function showed above, there is a larger window, also known as a passband, of spatial frequencies with high transmittance. This allows more phase signal to pass through to the image plane.
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Sizing of a UV system is affected by three variables: flow rate, lamp power, and UV transmittance in the water. Manufacturers typically developed sophisticated computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models validated with bioassay testing. This involves testing the UV reactor's disinfection performance with either MS2 or T1 bacteriophages at various flow rates, UV transmittance, and power levels in order to develop a regression model for system sizing. For example, this is a requirement for all drinking water systems in the United States per the EPA UV Guidance Manual.
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Another direction for transparent wood applications is as a high optical transmittance for optoelectronic devices as substrates in photovoltaic solar cells. Li and her colleagues at the KTH Royal Institute of Technology studied the high optical transmittance that makes transparent wood a candidate for substrate in perovskite solar cells. They concluded that transparent wood has high optical transmittance of 86% and long term stability with fracture of toughness 3.2 MPa⋅m1/2 compared to glass substrate fracture of toughness 0.7–0.85 MPa⋅m1/2, which meets the substrate's requirements for solar cells. These are relevant information for transparent wood's possible application because it is a suitable and sustainable solution to the substrate for solar cell assembly with potential in energy-efficient building applications, as well as replacements for glass and lowering the carbon footprint for the devices.
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The optical cavity is formed by a period of λ/4 distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), made of non-absorbing larger bandgap materials, at the both end of the substrate. The front mirror has a transmittance of t1 and generally has lower reflectivity than compare to the mirror at back (R1 < R2 ). Transmittance t1 allows light to enter into the cavity, and reflectivity R1 (=r12) and R2 (=r22) provides the optical confinement in the cavity. The active region and the substrate region have absorption coefficient α and αex respectively.
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Other theories of cloaking discuss various science and research based theories for producing an electromagnetic cloak of invisibility. Theories presented employ transformation optics, event cloaking, dipolar scattering cancellation, tunneling light transmittance, sensors and active sources, and acoustic cloaking.
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Indium tin oxide (ITO) is a conducting material with the unusual property that it is transparent, so it is widely used in the flat panel display industry. Reflectance and transmittance measurements of the uncoated glass substrate were needed in order to determine the previously unknown n(λ) and k(λ) spectra of the glass. The reflectance and transmittance of ITO deposited on the same glass substrate were then measured simultaneously, and analyzed using the Forouhi–Bloomer equations. As expected, the k(λ) spectrum of ITO is zero in the visible wavelength range, since ITO is transparent.
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The relative illuminating power can then be determined from the candle distances. :2. Reflectance and transmittance of glass and other common materials ::Using visual photometry, Lambert presented the results of many experimental determinations of specular and diffuse reflectance, as well as the transmittance of panes of glass and lenses. Among the most ingenious experiments he conducted was that to determine the reflectance of the interior surface of a pane of glass. :3. Luminous radiative transfer between surfaces ::Assuming diffuse surfaces and the three laws of photometry, Lambert used Calculus to find the transfer of light between surfaces of various sizes, shapes, and orientations.
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Public eye looks over new standard for sunglasses (2002-01-20). website of Standards Australia. Retrieved 21 September 2009. The Australian Standard AS-NZS 1067 defines standards for sunglasses with respect both to UVA (wavelengths between 315 nm and 400 nm) and UVB transmittance.
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This system represents a XNOR logic gate in absorption and a XOR logic gate in transmittance. In compound B the bottom section now contains a tertiary amino group also capable of binding to protons. In this system fluorescence only takes place when both cations available.
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Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light. Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H2O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm.
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The interstitial cavity created by these two layers creates a convective stack-effect, drawing cool air in through the underside of the building and hot air out at the top of the structure near the roof. The perforated louvers provide extensive primary sun protection in closed condition. They reduce up to 70% of solar heat gain at its peak load, yet still provide 15% of light transmittance through the perforations. Given the intensity of the tropical sunlight, field measurements have calculated that this 15% light transmittance in closed mode is sufficient natural lighting to perform routine office functions without the need for secondary artificial lighting in most (75%) of spaces.
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In 2004, Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd licensed AFFS to Japan's Hitachi Displays. Hitachi is using AFFS to manufacture high-end panels. In 2006, HYDIS licensed AFFS to Sanyo Epson Imaging Devices Corporation. Shortly thereafter, Hydis introduced a high- transmittance evolution of the AFFS display, called HFFS (FFS+).
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The next influential factor is the conductivity of the bricks, followed by the thermal absorptance and the specific heat of the bricks. The most influential properties of the materials analyzed (bricks and glasses) are the solar transmittance of the glasses and the conductivity of the bricks.
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Numerous experimental techniques have been developed to study particle aggregation. Most frequently used are time-resolved optical techniques that are based on transmittance or scattering of light. Light transmission. The variation of transmitted light through an aggregating suspension can be studied with a regular spectrophotometer in the visible region.
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A related phenomenon is dithering applied to analog signals before analog-to-digital conversion. Stochastic resonance can be used to measure transmittance amplitudes below an instrument's detection limit. If Gaussian noise is added to a subthreshold (i.e., immeasurable) signal, then it can be brought into a detectable region.
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Haze is measured with a wide angle scattering test in which light is diffused in all directions which results in a loss of contrast. That percentage of light that when passing through that deviates from the incident beam by greater than 2.5 degrees on average is defined as hazeASTM D 1003, Standard Test Method for Haze and Luminous Transmittance of Transparent Plastics, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1994 See through quality is measured with a narrow angle scattering test in which light is diffused in a small range with high concentration. This test measures the clarity with which finer details can be seen through the object being tested. The haze meter also measures total transmittance.
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Then the photon flux density (watts per metre squared usually) of the transmitted or reflected light is measured with a photodiode, charge coupled device or other light sensor. The transmittance or reflectance value for each wavelength of the test sample is then compared with the transmission or reflectance values from the reference sample. Most instruments will apply a logarithmic function to the linear transmittance ratio to calculate the 'absorbency' of the sample, a value which is proportional to the 'concentration' of the chemical being measured. In short, the sequence of events in a scanning spectrophotometer is as follows: # The light source is shone into a monochromator, diffracted into a rainbow, and split into two beams.
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This is the simplest form of HD cables. It uses three cables for video and the two for audio still. The newest form of HD transmittance cables are the High-Definition Multimedia Interface or HDMI cables. The HDMI cables transmit both the video and audio signals over a single cable.
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Here, the letters IR indicate the laser working mode, in this case a pulsed mode. The range 315–532 indicates the wavelength range in nanometers. Finally, the scale number LB6 indicates a lower limit for the optical density, i.e. the transmittance within this wavelength range is less than 10−6.
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The low thermal transmittance of the heat exchange mass allows slow release of heat after the fire is out. With most designs of rocket mass heaters, the heat exchange mass is capable of sufficiently heating the surrounding environment for several days after all the wood is exhausted and the fire is out.
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The double beam design of the Cary 14 provided rapid, simplified analysis by simultaneously measuring the transmittance of both the sample and the reference over the entire spectral range. The optics of the Cary 14 were a key feature. The monochromator in particular was described and patented.Cary, Henry H. (5 July 1966).
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Kapton is also commonly used as a material for windows of all kinds at X-ray sources (synchrotron beam-lines and X-ray tubes) and X-ray detectors. Its high mechanical and thermal stability and high transmittance to X-rays make it the preferred material. It is also relatively insensitive to radiation damage.
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ITO is not very optically transparent, however. The layers must be thin to provide substantial transparency, particularly at the blue end of the spectrum. Using ITO, sheet resistances of 20 to 10,000 ohms per square can be achieved. An ITO coating may be combined with an antireflective coating to further improve transmittance.
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The departing circularly polarized light oscillates between RCP and LCP in a sinusoidal time-dependence as depicted below: File:The description of the circular light.png The light finally travels through a magnet containing the sample, and the transmittance is recorded by another PMT. The schematic is given below: File:The mechanism of the instrument.
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The reflectance of a system is also sometimes called a "reflection coefficient". A wave experiences partial transmittance and partial reflectance when the medium through which it travels suddenly changes. The reflection coefficient determines the ratio of the reflected wave amplitude to the incident wave amplitude. Different specialties have different applications for the term.
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If that were the case, the perceived difference in brightness of target elements, illustrated in Figure 3 (A), would be largely unaffected by the surrounding field in Figure 3 (C), which exhibits lower spatial contrast than the target, which matches the observations. Despite this, they asserted, "this reasoning is undermined by the fact that the apparent contrast by the target pattern in Figure 3 (D) is mostly unaffected by the surround of Figure 3 (F)." Therefore, they chose to examine the Chubb illusion in 'wholly empirical' terms, as mainly a consequence of past experience, or in this case, the influence of transmittance on ambiguous stimuli. The common denominator of the Lotto and Purves observations is the explanatory power of imperfect transmittance.
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For him, in his picturing the Plecnik's architecture, the basic message was the fine art transmittance of architecture with the sequential construction of the planes with the typical reduction of the light and the maximal objectivistic and plastic construction of the space, thus positioning the Plecnik's sequencing of the classical, almost renaissance architectural space.
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MOSART (Moderate Spectral Atmospheric Radiance and Transmittance) is an atmospheric radiative transfer algorithm developed by the US Department of Defense. Development has halted as funding for the project has ended. In order to continue development, Computational Physics, Inc. (CPI) has created AETHER (or Atmospheric Effects on Transfer of Heat and Environmental Radiation), built from MOSART.
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Transmittance spectra of a / film. Mild heating results in significant absorption of infrared light expresses temperature- dependent reflective properties. When heated from room temperature to 80 °C, the material's thermal radiation rises normally until 74 °C, before suddenly appearing to drop to around 20 °C. At room temperature is almost transparent to infrared light.
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Many laboratories rely on only the color of the cerebrospinal fluid to determine the presence or absence of xanthochromia. However, recent guidelines suggest that spectrophotometry should be performed. Spectrophotometry relies on the different transmittance, or conversely, absorbance, of light by different substances or materials, including solutes. Bilirubin absorbs light at wavelengths between 450–460 nm.
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A pulsed Fourier-transform spectrometer does not employ transmittance techniques. In the most general description of pulsed FT spectrometry, a sample is exposed to an energizing event which causes a periodic response. The frequency of the periodic response, as governed by the field conditions in the spectrometer, is indicative of the measured properties of the analyte.
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Another potential advantage of a hollow core is that one can dynamically introduce materials into the core, such as a gas that is to be analyzed for the presence of some substance. PCF can also be modified by coating the holes with sol-gels of similar or different index material to enhance its transmittance of light.
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ATR FTIR spectrum for hexane showing percent transmittance (%T) versus wavenumber (cm−1). The two main standalone spectroscopy techniques for forensic chemistry are FTIR and AA spectroscopy. FTIR is a nondestructive process that uses infrared light to identify a substance. The attenuated total reflectance sampling technique eliminates the need for substances to be prepared before analysis.
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The lower carriers' concentration of TCOs with respect to metals shift their plasmonic resonance into the NIR and SWIR range. To date, the industry standard in TCOs is ITO, or indium tin oxide. This material boasts a low resistivity of ~10−4 Ω·cm and a transmittance of greater than 80%. ITO has the drawback of being expensive.
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This virus (EILV) is typically transmitted sexually from one organism to another. This allows or aids the Eilat virus to naturally keep its complex in circulation. However, researchers are still contemplating the fact that the virus was found to be unable to infect the ovaries, which would normally be a subsequent event following sexual transmittance in other alphaviruses.
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Aggregation processes in strongly scattering systems have been studied with transmittance, backscattering techniques or diffusing-wave spectroscopy. Single particle counting. This technique offers excellent resolution, whereby clusters made out of tenths of particles can be resolved individually. The aggregating suspension is forced through a narrow capillary particle counter and the size of each aggregate is being analyzed by light scattering.
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Capsid proteins have been thought to also gather at the PML bodies during packaging. Transmittance of the Papillomavirus requires release from the infected skin cell at the epithelial surface, as they are non-lytic. They are resistant to desiccation, enhancing their survivability during extracellular transfer between hosts. Cornified squame release from the surface of epithelial cells may also contribute to their survival.
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Intact samples can be imaged in transmittance or diffuse reflectance. The lineshapes for overtone and combination bands tend to be much broader and more overlapped than for the fundamental bands seen in the MIR. Often, multivariate methods are used to separate spectral signatures of sample components. NIR chemical imaging is particularly useful for performing rapid, reproducible and non- destructive analyses of known materials.
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Ruddock W. 2004, "Infrared Imaging and Open Heart Surgery", from InfraredThermography.com by Advanced Infrared Resources [online]: accessed on June 28, 2004. The subdivision presented here is based on a combination of the atmospheric transmittance windows, i.e. the wavelengths regions in which infrared radiation is better transmitted through the atmosphere, the detector materials used to build the infrared sensors and the main applications.
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Many high-quality flashlights use borosilicate glass for the lens. This increases light transmittance through the lens compared to plastics and lower-quality glass. Several types of high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, such as mercury-vapor and metal-halide lamps, use borosilicate glass as the outer envelope material. New lampworking techniques led to artistic applications such as contemporary glass marbles.
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Lidars have been proven useful for classification of cloud types (i.e., cumuli versus cirrus). Cloud boundaries can be retrieved from a ground-based lidar operating at a visible and/or near-infrared band. Cloud-base height can be identified by the time difference between the transmittance of the laser pulse to the sky and the detection of the backscattered light by the telescope.
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This method is similar to the above method, however, the aperture is removed or enlarged to allow all the light to reach the detector. This in effect sets the normalized transmittance to S = 1. This is used in order to measure the non-linear absorption coefficient Δα. The main cause of non-linear absorption is due to two-photon absorption.
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Three additional possibilities to evaluate the bond connection are optical, electron and Acoustical measurements and instrumentation. At first, optical measurement techniques are using an optical microscope, IR transmission microscopy and visual inspection. Secondly, the electron measurement is commonly applied using an electron microscope, e.g. scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high voltage transmittance electron microscopy (HVTEM) and high resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM).
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Plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. The waterhole, or water hole, is an especially quiet band of the electromagnetic spectrum between 1.42 and 1.67 gigahertz, corresponding to wavelengths of 21 and 18 centimeters, respectively. It is a popular observing frequency used by radio telescopes in radio astronomy. The term was coined by Bernard Oliver in 1971.
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Using the pre-calculated matrices described above, optical properties like reflectance, transmittance or absorptance within the sheet can be calculated via matrix multiplications [2–4] and can be performed within seconds or minutes using a standard personal computer. Also a depth-dependent absorption profile can be calculated. This is of special importance for the subsequent electrical simulation of structured silicon solar cells.
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An electromagnetic (or any other) wave experiences partial transmittance and partial reflectance when the medium through which it travels suddenly changes. The transmission coefficient is used in physics and electrical engineering when wave propagation in a medium containing discontinuities is considered. A transmission coefficient describes the amplitude, intensity, or total power of a transmitted wave relative to an incident wave.
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Amorphous plastics are generally optically clear and can transmit almost all incident IR radiation. For this reason they are commonly used in TTIr. Semi-crystalline plastics can diffuse incident IR radiation between the amorphous and crystalline boundaries, reducing the transmittance and increasing the absorbance of the material. The higher absorptivity results in more heat generation for a given IR source.
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Another, is spectroscopic transmittance, T(λ), applicable when the substrate is transparent. Spectroscopic reflectance of a thin film on a substrate represents the ratio of the intensity of light reflected from the sample to the intensity of incident light, measured over a range of wavelengths, whereas spectroscopic transmittance, T(λ), represents the ratio of the intensity of light transmitted through the sample to the intensity of incident light, measured over a range of wavelengths; typically, there will also be a reflected signal, R(λ), accompanying T(λ). The measurable quantities, R(λ) and T(λ) depend not only on n(λ) and k(λ) of the film, but also on film thickness, t, and n(λ) and k(λ) of the substrate. For a silicon substrate, the n(λ) and k(λ) values are known and are taken as a given input.
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In general, a given optical filter transmits a certain percentage of the incoming light as the wavelength changes. This is measured by a spectrophotometer. As a linear material, the absorption for each wavelength is independent of the presence of other wavelengths. A very few materials are non-linear, and the transmittance depends on the intensity and the combination of wavelengths of the incident light.
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Angelica is a low-temperature and long-sunshine crop, suitable for cold and cool climate, and can be cultivated at an altitude of 1500-3000m. The rate of lichen extraction is high in the low sea area. The seedling stage is shade-loving and the transmittance is 10%. Seedlings need to be kept out of direct sunlight, but the mature plant can withstand it.
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The MCML is a numerical way to simulate photon transport in biological tissue. Each photon packet follows a random walk with persistence, where the direction of each step dependent on the direction of the previous step. By averaging multiple independent random walks, MCML estimates the ensemble-averaged quantities such as reflectance, transmittance, absorption, and fluence. Briefly, a packet of photon is first launched into the biological tissue.
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Linear dichroism (LD) or diattenuation is the difference between absorption of light polarized parallel and polarized perpendicular to an orientation axis.Bengt Nordén, Alison Rodger and Timothy Dafforn Linear Dichroism and Circular Dichroism. A Textbook on Polarized-Light Spectroscopy. . The Royal Society of Chemistry – London 2010 It is the property of a material whose transmittance depends on the orientation of linearly polarized light incident upon it.
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Resulting from its geometry, the optical switch is sensitive to the angle of the incident beam. Depending on the shape of the prisms, the transmittance of the switch in its reflective state during a typical day shows characteristic angular dependence. This dependence can be used to find specific transmission curves for different applications, where the geometry of the prisms serves as the input variable.
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Additives such as clarifying agents can be used increase a plastic's transmittance while dies and pigments can be used increase the absorbance of a material. Increasing amounts of these additives can decrease the strength of both the material and the welded joint. The closer the IR radiation source, the higher incidence efficiency on the material. IR radiation is most effective when directing radiation normal to the part.
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Atmospheric transmittance across the electromagnetic spectrum. In optical astronomy, the air mass provides an indication of the deterioration of the observed image, not only as regards direct effects of spectral absorption, scattering and reduced brightness, but also an aggregation of visual aberrations, e.g. resulting from atmospheric turbulence, collectively referred to as the quality of the "seeing".Observing tips: air mass and differential refraction retrieved 15 May 2011.
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Alternatively, the entire wavelength range is measured using a Fourier transform instrument and then a transmittance or absorbance spectrum is generated using a dedicated procedure. This technique is commonly used for analyzing samples with covalent bonds. Simple spectra are obtained from samples with few IR active bonds and high levels of purity. More complex molecular structures lead to more absorption bands and more complex spectra.
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Spectrophotometry: Quantitative measurement of transmittance based on wavelength. It is important in a number of biomedical fields ranging from the measurement of a solute in a sample to determining enzyme kinetics for a given substrate-enzyme pair. Spectrophotometry requires multiple wavelengths for a wide variety of samples. Therefore, an arc lamp is used to generate multiple wavelengths for collimating mirrors and diffraction gratings to generate collimated light at narrow bandwidths.
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Above ca. 500 °C, BaF2 is corroded by moisture, but in dry environments it can be used up to 800 °C. Prolonged exposure to moisture degrades transmission in the vacuum UV range. It is less resistant to water than calcium fluoride, but it is the most resistant of all the optical fluorides to high-energy radiation, though its far ultraviolet transmittance is lower than that of the other fluorides.
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There are several ways to incorporate daylight in interior spaces like usage of windows, skylight and door openings. However, as elderly are more sensitive to glare in comparison to young adults, unplanned opening designs can lead to glare. This can increase the risk of falls and their inability to perform daily tasks effectively. Several shading systems like dual layer curtains, drapes, window blinds, light shelves, low visual transmittance glazing, etc.
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Curved mirrors are typically used to relax the alignment tolerances and to form a stable resonator, often compensating for thermal lensing of the rod.Laser Fundamentals by William Thomas Silfvast – Cambridge University Press 1996 Page 547-549. Transmittance of ruby in optical and near-IR spectra. Note the two broad blue and green absorption bands and the narrow absorption band at 694 nm, which is the wavelength of the ruby laser.
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Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History, ABC-CLIO, , p. 64. Rats serve as outstanding vectors for transmittance of diseases because they can carry bacteria and viruses in their systems. A number of bacterial diseases are common to rats, and these include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Corynebacterium kutsheri, Bacillus piliformis, Pasteurella pneumotropica, and Streptobacillus moniliformis, to name a few. All of these bacteria are disease causing agents in humans.
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Porter and Duff gave a geometric interpretation of the alpha compositing formula by studying orthogonal coverages. Another derivation of the formula, based on a physical reflectance/transmittance model, can be found in a 1981 paper by Bruce A. Wallace. A third approach is found by starting out with two very simple assumptions. For simplicity, we shall here use the shorthand notation a \odot b for representing the over operator.
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Microspectrophotometry is the measure of the spectra of microscopic samples using different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (e.g. ultraviolet, visible and near infrared, etc.) It is accomplished with microspectrophotometers, cytospectrophotometers, microfluorometers, Raman microspectrophotometers, etc. A microspectrophotometer can be configured to measure transmittance, absorbance, reflectance, light polarization, fluorescence (or other types of luminescence such as photoluminescence) of sample areas less than a micrometer in diameter through a modified optical microscope.
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Development and Application of Terahertz Pulsed Imaging for Nondestructive Inspection of Pharmaceutical Tablet. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 14(2), 407–415. doi: 10.1109/jstqe.2007.911309 Terahertz imaging enables non-destructive analysis of valuable artworks and can be conducted onsite. It can reveal hidden layers and via the transmittance of various pigments Adam, A. J. L., Planken, P. C. M., Meloni, S., & Dik, J. (2009).
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The decadic (base-10) logarithm of the reciprocal of the transmittance is called the absorbance or density. DMax and DMin refer to the maximum and minimum density that can be produced by the material. The difference between the two is the density range. The density range is related to the exposure range (dynamic range), which is the range of light intensity that is represented by the recording, via the Hurter–Driffield curve.
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Early the next year, Emperor Heizei moved to the old capital at Heijō-kyō. Angered by Saga's attempt to change the regional inspection system he'd established, the retired emperor set up a competing court. Kusuko and Nakanari, plotting Heizei's complete restoration to the throne, encouraged the opposition between the two. Moreover, Kusuko's position as Naishi-no-Kami gave her control over the issuance of , a means of transmittance for imperial orders to the Daijō-kan.
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In order to increase sensitivity, modulation techniques are often employed. The strength of the gas absorption will depend, as given by the Beer-Lambert law, both on the gas concentration and the path-length that the light has travelled through the gas. In conventional TDLAS, the path- length is known and the concentration is readily calculated from the transmittance. In GASMAS, extensive scattering renders the pathlength unknown and the determination of gas concentration is aggravated.
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AS-NZS 1067 (2003) (English) : Sunglasses and fashion spectacles (By Authority of Australian Consumer Protection Notices No.13 of 2003 and No. 4 of 2005), retrieved 6 April 2017 The five ratings for transmittance (filter) under this standard are based on the amount of absorbed light, 0 to 4, with "0" providing some protection from UV radiation and sunglare, and "4" indicating a high level of protection, but not to be worn when driving.
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Simplified principle of the use of an integrating sphere to measure the transmittance and reflectance of a test sample Light scattered by the interior of the integrating sphere is evenly distributed over all angles. The integrating sphere is used in optical measurements. The total power (flux) of a light source can be measured without inaccuracy caused by the directional characteristics of the source, or the measurement device. Reflection and absorption of samples can be studied.
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Sas-Tec armor is considered to be a progressive reactive armor in that it hardens to a degree sufficient to counter the force. The material prevents trauma to the human body by three methods: #Shock Absorption: Material absorbs impact energy through phase change (hardening). #Shock Delay: Material delays the transmittance of some shock to the human body over a longer period of time. #Dissipation: Impacts are dissipated over larger areas of the body.
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The building was designed by Scott Ellinwood and incorporates an energy efficient lighting system that makes use of natural light as much as possible (clerestories and windows glazed with high- transmittance, heat absorbing glass allow daylight to be used for interior illumination during the day; sensors switch on electric light as daylight fades). The library has a computer lab and homework center, a copy machine, a microfilm reader printer and a microfiche reader printer.
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The researchers proposed a semi-transparent PSC with enhanced efficiency that utilizes both narrow bandgap polymer donor, PTB7‐Th, and non-fullerene acceptor, IHIC. The results of this study showed that the proposed PSC exhibited high transmittance and absorption in the infrared spectrum but low absorption in the visible spectrum. This cell showed to be relatively stable and have a maximum PCE of 9.77%, which, as of 2017, is the highest reported PCE value.
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The technique of this method is based on the monitoring of acoustic waves that are generated with a pulsed laser. Localized heating of a material will create a localized temperature increase, which induces thermal stress. This stress build in a localized region causes an acoustic strain pulse. At an interface, the pulse will be subjected to a transmittance/reflectance state, and the characteristics of the interface may be monitored with the reflected waves.
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The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect, but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet. If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation (for instance, solar rays in the Solar System) than for outbound radiation (typically thermal radiation of the planet's surface in the infrared domain), the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower.
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The company introduced a multi-function dual- beam colorimeter into teaching laboratories in 2004 for the study of kinetics reactions. The device also enables the study of fluorescence, reflectance, and turbidity with select LED output in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared ranges. In this dual-beam design, a reference cuvet sits adjacent to a sample cuvet as a split source beams passes through each liquid. The device detects transmittance through each cuvent simultaneously for enhanced data linearity.
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The LAD of a plant canopy has a significant impact on the reflectance, transmittance and absorption of solar light in the vegetation layer, and thus also on its growth and development. LAD can also serve as a quantitative index to monitor the state of the plants, as wilting usually results in more erectophile LADs. Models of radiation transfer need to take this distribution into account to predict, for instance, the albedo or the productivity of the canopy.
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This unique anisotropic structure, the properties with distinctive values when measured in several directions, allows it to pump ions and water for photosynthesis in the wood. Similarly, in transparent wood composites, removing the lignin and maintaining the cellulose fiber tubes it allows it to become a clear wood that can get soaked in a glue-like epoxy that makes it a robust and transparent material. An excellent raw material with high transmittance and enhanced mechanical properties.
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The National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) is a United States 501(c)3 non-profit organization which sponsors an energy efficiency certification and labeling program for windows, doors, and skylights. NFRC labels provide performance ratings for such products in five categories: U-value, Solar Heat Gain Coefficient, Visible Transmittance, Air Leakage, and Condensation Resistance. This allows architects, builders, code officials, contractors, home owners, and specifiers to compare the energy efficiency among products, and determine whether a product meets code.
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The EOSAEL modules provide transmittance and radiance calculations through gases, natural aerosols, battlefield aerosols, smoke, haze, fog, and clouds for bandpass and laser propagation. Its operating system is Microsoft Windows 3.1, a graphical display operating system which gives a common interface to hardware. EOSAEL models provide the visible and near-infrared (0.2-2.0 ]dm), mid-infrared (3.0-5.0 urn), far-infrared (8.0-12.0 ym), and millimeter wave (10–350 GHz) regions of the spectrum, plus 53 laser lines.
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Bathochromic shift (from Greek βαθύς bathys, "deep"; and χρῶμα chrōma, "color"; hence less common alternate spelling "bathychromic") is a change of spectral band position in the absorption, reflectance, transmittance, or emission spectrum of a molecule to a longer wavelength (lower frequency). Because the red color in the visible spectrum has a longer wavelength than most other colors, the effect is also commonly called a red shift. Hypsochromic shift is a change to shorter wavelength (higher frequency).
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The flow profile is produced from the chamber geometry, flow rate, and particular turbulence model selected. The radiation profile is developed from inputs such as water quality, lamp type (power, germicidal efficiency, spectral output, arc length), and the transmittance and dimension of the quartz sleeve. Proprietary CFD software simulates both the flow and radiation profiles. Once the 3D model of the chamber is built, it is populated with a grid or mesh that comprises thousands of small cubes.
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Those energy differences correspond to absorption in the ultraviolet, violet, and yellow-green regions of the spectrum. Transmittance of ruby in optical and near-IR spectra. Note the two broad violet and yellow-green absorption bands and one narrow absorption band at the wavelength of 694 nm, which is the wavelength of the ruby laser. If one percent of the aluminium ions are replaced by chromium in ruby, the yellow- green absorption results in a red color for the gem.
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Being a multiscale system involving many phenomena, and a versatile medium, foam can be studied using many different techniques. Considering the different scales, experimental techniques are diffraction ones, mainly light scattering techniques (DWS, see below, static and dynamic light scattering, X rays and neutron scattering) at sub-micrometer scales, or microscopic ones. Considering the system as continuous, its bulk properties can be characterized by light transmittance but also conductimetry. The correlation between structure and bulk is evidenced more accurately by acoustics in particular.
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Previous rigid endoscopes suffered from very low light transmittance and extremely poor image quality. The surgical requirement of passing surgical tools as well as the illumination system actually within the endoscope's tube – which itself is limited in dimensions by the human body – left very little room for the imaging optics. The tiny lenses of a conventional system required supporting rings that would obscure the bulk of the lens' area. They were also incredibly hard to manufacture and assemble – and optically nearly useless.
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Another example of the potency of modern modes of transportation in increasing the spread of disease is the 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic. Global transportation, back in the early 20th century, was able to spread a virus because the network of transmittance and trade was already global. The virus was found on crew members of ships and trains, and all the infected employees spread the virus everywhere they traveled. As a result, almost 50-100 million people died of this global transmission.
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Concrete walls with glass prisms running through them have also been made. With the advent of cheaper optical fibers, fiber-optic concrete walls. Daylight (and shadow images) can then pass directly through a solid concrete wall, making it translucent; fiber optics will lead light around bends and over tens of meters. Typically only a few percent of the light is transmitted (the percent transmittance is about half the percent of the surface that is fibers, and usually only ~5% fibers are used).
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Before the Internet was created, the transmittance of information between mediums was limited by distance. However, since modernization and constant development of this resource, we are now able to communicate with people across the world by a means of a couple clicks and keystrokes. While we have seen many benefits through the creation of the Internet, this extension of freedom has also led to many setbacks, which the Clean IT project strives to solve. Clean IT is particularly concerned with possible terrorist attacks.
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St. Cäcilia, parish church at Heusenstamm As a builder of churches, Neumann recurred to Guarino Guarini, the architecture of his native Bohemia and its transmittance to Franconia by Johann Dientzenhofer. He emphasized the use of the rotunda as a central feature of his churches. This reached its pinnacle at Vierzehnheiligen (after 1742) and Neresheim (after 1747). One of his last large projects was a rebuilding of the Hofburg Palace at Vienna (after 1746), which was not put into practice, however.
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UV disinfection is most effective for treating high- clarity, purified reverse osmosis distilled water. Suspended particles are a problem because microorganisms buried within particles are shielded from the UV light and pass through the unit unaffected. However, UV systems can be coupled with a pre-filter to remove those larger organisms that would otherwise pass through the UV system unaffected. The pre-filter also clarifies the water to improve light transmittance and therefore UV dose throughout the entire water column.
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Commonly, 3D geometry with transparency is rendered by blending (using alpha compositing) all surfaces into a single buffer (think of this as a canvas). Each surface occludes existing color and adds some of its own color depending on its alpha value, a ratio of light transmittance. The order in which surfaces are blended affects the total occlusion or visibility of each surface. For a correct result, surfaces must be blended from farthest to nearest or nearest to farthest, depending on the alpha compositing operation, over or under.
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For example, green(dim)-green(bright) is called "green-white". Dichromats, by definition, cannot distinguish any of the colors, and only make correct answers by random guessing. The Military Medical Purchase Description specifies the lights in the FALANT in terms of percent luminous transmittance and 1931 CIE x,y chromaticity coordinates, calculated from Illuminant A, from spectrophotometric measurements of the glass filter components that make up the lantern. Illuminant A is approximated by a 115 volt, 40 watt T8 tungsten lamp inside the FALANT.
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Using the Bausch & Lomb Spectronic 20 Colorimeter, 1962 The Spectronic 20 is a brand of single-beam spectrophotometer, designed to operate in the visible spectrum across a wavelength range of 340 nm to 950 nm, with a spectral bandpass of 20 nm. It is designed for quantitative absorption measurement at single wavelengths. Because it measures the transmittance or absorption of visible light through a solution, it is sometimes referred to as a colorimeter. The name of the instrument is a trademark of the manufacturer.
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Transient-absorption spectroscopy (TAS), also known as flash photolysis, is an extension of absorption spectroscopy. Ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy, an example of non-linear spectroscopy, measures changes in the absorbance/transmittance in the sample. Here, the absorbance at a particular wavelength or range of wavelengths of a sample is measured as a function of time after excitation by a flash of light. In a typical experiment, both the light for excitation ('pump') and the light for measuring the absorbance ('probe') are generated by a pulsed laser.
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SEEP is controversial because it is not universally agreed to exist as a contrast mechanism for fMRI. However, more recent studies have demonstrated changes in MRI signal corresponding with changes in neuronal activity in rat cortical tissue slices, in the absence of blood flow or changes in oxygenation, and neuronal activity and cellular swelling were corroborated by light-transmittance microscopy. This demonstrated SEEP contrast in the absence of confounding factors which can occur in-vivo, such as physiological motion and the possibility of concurrent BOLD contrast.
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220x220px A cuvette (French: cuvette = "little vessel") is a small tube-like container with straight sides and a circular or square cross section. It is sealed at one end, and made of a clear, transparent material such as plastic, glass, or fused quartz. Cuvettes are designed to hold samples for spectroscopic measurement, where a beam of light is passed through the sample within the cuvette to measure the absorbance, transmittance, fluorescence intensity, fluorescence polarization, or fluorescence lifetime of the sample. This measurement is done with a spectrophotometer.
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At some point, this chemical reaction will reach a point of balance called an equilibrium point. In order to determine the respective concentrations of reactants and products at this point, the light transmittance of the solution can be tested using spectrophotometry. The amount of light that passes through the solution is indicative of the concentration of certain chemicals that do not allow light to pass through. The absorption of light is due to the interaction of light with the electronic and vibrational modes of molecules.
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The output from a colorimeter may be displayed by an analogue or digital meter and may be shown as transmittance (a linear scale from 0-100%) or as absorbance (a logarithmic scale from zero to infinity). The useful range of the absorbance scale is from 0-2 but it is desirable to keep within the range 0-1 because, above 1, the results become unreliable due to scattering of light. In addition, the output may be sent to a chart recorder, data logger, or computer.
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The high transmittance of daylight in the winter (shading will block the direct sunlight in the summer) will also increase the heat gain and potentially reduce the demand for heating. Interior blinds are user-controlled to improve visual comfort, and it will rise automatically in the evening. The artificial light will dim or brighten up according to the change of daylighting. The building is monitored by indoor sensors that send direct reminders to occupants to open the windows when natural ventilation mode is on.
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Mediation analysis quantifies the extent to which a variable participates in the transmittance of change from a cause to its effect. It is inherently a causal notion, hence it cannot be defined in statistical terms. Traditionally, however, the bulk of mediation analysis has been conducted within the confines of linear regression, with statistical terminology masking the causal character of the relationships involved. This led to difficulties, biases, and limitations that have been alleviated by modern methods of causal analysis, based on causal diagrams and counterfactual logic.
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A. R. Schultz, P. J. Flory, Phase Equilibria in Polymer-Solvent Systems, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1952, Volume 74, pp 4760–4767. Also desirable for many applications is a sharp phase transition, which is reflected by a sudden drop in transmittance. The sharpness of the phase transition is related to the extent of phase separation but additionally relies on whether all present polymer chains exhibit the same cloud point. This depends on the polymer endgroups, dispersity, or—in the case of copolymers—varying copolymer compositions.
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Pippali later met the Buddha, under whom he was ordained as a monk, named Kāśyapa, but later called Mahākāśyapa to distinguish him from other disciples. Mahākāśyapa became an important disciple of the Buddha, to the extent that the Buddha exchanged his robe with him, which was a symbol of the transmittance of the Buddhist teaching. He became foremost in ascetic practices and attained enlightenment shortly after. He often had disputes with Ānanda, the attendant of the Buddha, due to their different dispositions and views.
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When a photographic film is exposed to light, the result of the exposure can be represented on a graph showing log of exposure on the horizontal axis, and density, or log of transmittance, on the vertical axis. For a given film formulation and processing method, this curve is its characteristic or Hurter–Driffield curve.Kodak, "Basic sensitometry and characteristics of film" : "A characteristic curve is like a film’s fingerprint." Since both axes use logarithmic units, the slope of the linear section of the curve is called the gamma of the film.
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When one inspects a series of test tubes with suspensions prepared at different concentration of the flocculant, stable suspensions often remain dispersed, while the unstable ones settle. Automated instruments based on light scattering/transmittance to monitor suspension settling have been developed, and they can be used to probe particle aggregation. One must realize, however, that these techniques may not always reflect the actual aggregation state of a suspension correctly. For example, larger primary particles may settle even in the absence of aggregation, or aggregates that have formed a colloidal gel will remain in suspension.
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Simple interferometer with a beam-splitter and compensator plate An ideal beam-splitter transmits and reflects 50% of the incident radiation. However, as any material has a limited range of optical transmittance, several beam-splitters may be used interchangeably to cover a wide spectral range. For the mid-IR region the beamsplitter is usually made of KBr with a germanium-based coating that makes it semi-reflective. KBr absorbs strongly at wavelengths beyond 25 μm (400 cm−1) so CsI is sometimes used to extend the range to about 50 μm (200 cm−1).
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For this to happen the boomerang shaped molecules adopt a helical superstructure. In one azo bent- core mesogen a thermal transition is found from a uniaxial Nu to a biaxial nematic Nb mesophase, as predicted by theory and simulation. This transition is observed on heating from the Nu phase with Polarizing optical microscopy as a change in Schlieren texture and increased light transmittance and from x-ray diffraction as the splitting of the nematic reflection. The transition is a second order transition with low energy content and therefore not observed in differential scanning calorimetry.
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Barium fluoride is transparent from the ultraviolet to the infrared, from 150–200 nm to 11–11.5 µm. It is used in windows for infrared spectroscopy, in particular in the field of fuel oil analysis. Its transmittance at 200 nm is relatively low (0.60), but at 500 nm it goes up to 0.96–0.97 and stays at that level until 9 µm, then it starts falling off (0.85 for 10 µm and 0.42 for 12 µm). The refractive index is about 1.46 from 700 nm to 5 µm.
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UV LIGA utilizes an inexpensive ultraviolet light source, like a mercury lamp, to expose a polymer photoresist, typically SU-8. Because heating and transmittance are not an issue in optical masks, a simple chromium mask can be substituted for the technically sophisticated X-ray mask. These reductions in complexity make UV LIGA much cheaper and more accessible than its X-ray counterpart. However, UV LIGA is not as effective at producing precision molds and is thus used when cost must be kept low and very high aspect ratios are not required.
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Theories of cloaking discusses various theories based on science and research, for producing an electromagnetic cloaking device. Theories presented employ transformation optics, event cloaking, dipolar scattering cancellation, tunneling light transmittance, sensors and active sources, and acoustic cloaking. A cloaking device is one where the purpose of the transformation is to hide something, so that a defined region of space is invisibly isolated from passing electromagnetic fields (see Metamaterial cloaking) or sound waves. Objects in the defined location are still present, but incident waves are guided around them without being affected by the object itself.
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The air inside is usually atmospheric air, but some inert gases, such as argon or krypton may be used to offer better thermal transmittance values. Curtain wall architecture building In residential construction, thicknesses commonly used are 1/8 inch (3 mm) monolithic and 5/8 inch (16 mm) insulating glass. Larger thicknesses are typically employed for buildings or areas with higher thermal, relative humidity, or sound transmission requirements, such as laboratory areas or recording studios. Glass may be used which is transparent, translucent, or opaque, or in varying degrees thereof.
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A diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum with the Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) and the types of telescopes used to image parts of the spectrum.Visible-light astronomy encompasses a wide variety of observations via telescopes that are sensitive in the range of visible light (optical telescopes). Visible-light astronomy is part of optical astronomy, and differs from astronomies based on invisible types of light in the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, such as radio waves, infrared waves, ultraviolet waves, X-ray waves and gamma-ray waves. Visible light ranges from 380 to 750 nanometers in wavelength.
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The development of a nucleic acid test for the HIV-1 RNA has dramatically lowered the rate of donor blood seropositivity to about 1 in 3 million units. As transmittance of HIV does not necessarily mean HIV infection, the latter could still occur at an even lower rate. The transmission of hepatitis C via transfusion currently stands at a rate of about 1 in 2 million units. As with HIV, this low rate has been attributed to the ability to screen for both antibodies as well as viral RNA nucleic acid testing in donor blood.
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CRT phosphors The readings by themselves are typically not as useful as their tristimulus values, which can be converted into chromaticity co-ordinates and manipulated through color space transformations. For this purpose, a spectrocolorimeter may be used. A spectrocolorimeter is simply a spectrophotometer that can estimate tristimulus values by numerical integration (of the color matching functions' inner product with the illuminant's spectral power distribution). One benefit of spectrocolorimeters over tristimulus colorimeters is that they do not have optical filters, which are subject to manufacturing variance, and have a fixed spectral transmittance curve—until they age.
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It assumed that the material properties are independent of each other. Therefore, each material property will be varied at a time, leaving the others constant at the default values (from EnergyPlus)and measured the mean absolute error (MAE) between the real indoor and the simulated temperatures. The range of material properties was given by an expert. The specific room under study has a lot of fenestration, so it is not so surprising to see that the influence of the solar transmittance of the windows is the most influential of all material properties analyzed.
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The overall mass of concrete can be reduced by 35-50% depending on the design, as a consequence of reduced slab mass, as well as lower requirements for vertical structure and foundations. Biaxial slabs commonly span up to 20 metres at a thickness of around 500 mm. The added strength also reduces the acoustic transmittance of the slab for low frequencies. The reduced mass of biaxial slabs also results in a more environmentally friendly product which produces less CO2 emissions both in its construction and indirectly through the reduction of surrounding structural support.
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When an ultrashort light pulse, known as the pump pulse, is focused onto a thin opaque film on a substrate, the optical absorption results in a thermal expansion that launches an elastic strain pulse. This strain pulse mainly consists of longitudinal acoustic phonons that propagate directly into the film as a coherent pulse. After acoustic reflection from the film-substrate interface, the strain pulse returns to the film surface, where it can be detected by a delayed optical probe pulse through optical reflectance or (for films that are thin enough) transmittance changes.
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Transmittance of a prismatic array against day rotation(δ) (δ=0 stands for 12.00h, 15° equals 1 hour). The prisms are aligned such that the angle of incidence (θ) in mid-summer at noon. (A); Vertical alignment of the prismatic array for a mid-summer day (a) for a mid-autumn & mid-spring day (b), and for a mid-winter day (c). B; Horizontal alignment of the prismatic array for a mid-summer day (d), a mid-autumn & mid-spring day (e), and for a mid-winter day (f).
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Clive, P. J. M., The emergence of eolics, TEDx University of Strathclyde (2014). Retrieved 9 May 2014. The ground reflection of an airborne lidar gives a measure of surface reflectivity (assuming the atmospheric transmittance is well known) at the lidar wavelength, however, the ground reflection is typically used for making absorption measurements of the atmosphere. "Differential absorption lidar" (DIAL) measurements utilize two or more closely spaced (<1 nm) wavelengths to factor out surface reflectivity as well as other transmission losses, since these factors are relatively insensitive to wavelength.
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By measuring a series of standards and creating the standard curve, it is possible to quantify the amount or concentration of a substance within a sample by determining the absorbance on the Spec 20 and finding the corresponding concentration on the calibration curve. Alternatively, the logarithm of percent transmittance can be plotted versus concentration to create a standard curve using the same procedure. The absorbance measured by the Spectronic 20 is the sum of the absorbance of each of the constituents of the solution. Therefore, the Spectronic 20 can be used to analyze more complex solutions.
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Before testing a sample, the Spectronic 20 is calibrated using a blank solution, which is the pure solvent that is used in the experimental sample. It is typically water or an organic solvent. In this calibration, the transmittance is set at 100% using the calibration knob of the instrument (the amplifier control knob in the figure at right). The instrument can also optionally be calibrated with a stock solution of a sample at a concentration known to have an absorbance of 2 or else vendor supplied standards, using the light absorption knob in the diagram shown at right.
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Electromagnetic transmittance, or opacity, of the Earth's atmosphere Astronomical spectroscopy is used to measure three major bands of radiation: visible spectrum, radio, and X-ray. While all spectroscopy looks at specific areas of the spectrum, different methods are required to acquire the signal depending on the frequency. Ozone (O3) and molecular oxygen (O2) absorb light with wavelengths under 300 nm, meaning that X-ray and ultraviolet spectroscopy require the use of a satellite telescope or rocket mounted detectors. Radio signals have much longer wavelengths than optical signals, and require the use of antennas or radio dishes.
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Defect-free NaCl crystals have an optical transmittance of about 90% for infrared light, specifically between 200 nm and 20 µm. They were therefore used in optical components (windows and prisms) operating in that spectral range, where few non-absorbing alternatives exist and where requirements for absence of microscopic inhomogeneities are less strict than in the visible range. While inexpensive, NaCl crystals are soft and hygroscopic – when exposed to the ambient air, they gradually cover with "frost". This limits application of NaCl to dry environments, vacuum sealed assembly areas or for short-term uses such as prototyping.
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Buildings are responsible of the 40% of European energy consumption, consequently, improving the thermal performance of the cladding and associated components is very important. The elemental U-value (thermal transmittance, W/m2K) of a cladding panel, depends on the conductivity and thickness of the insulation which is added, the profile shape and the presence of thermal bridges. So, metal profile sheets can achieve thermal performance regulations thanks of insulations and profile shape. It is very important to analyze and avoid all possible thermal bridges within the roof and wall cladding assembly, to minimize local heat/cold losses.
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Figure 3: The Chubb Illusion Visual perceptions are dependent on the interaction of the human visual system with any bi-stable or multi-stable stimuli and the frequency of its occurrence. The lighting of objects at a point, the reflectance of those objects and the transmittance of media between the object and observer is central to determining the primary factors that affect our visual perception. It is due to this that a low contrast image is perceived to be of a higher contrast when placed in front of a grey background. The grey background is more ambiguous than the high contrast background.
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Lotto and Purves (2001) demonstrated that the Chubb illusion can be explained "by the degree to which imperfect transmittance is likely to have affected the light that reaches the eye." Indeed, these observations suggest a wholly empirical explanation of the Chubb illusion. Chubb effect estimates that when an object is viewed through an imperfectly transmitting medium, it increases or decreases the apparent brightness or dullness of the target patch, even when luminance ratios and spatial frequencies remain the same. Lotto and Purves (2001) doubted that illusory perceptions of brightness were explained as consequences of lateral inhibition.
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Redox couple for a viologen. The 2+ species on the left is colorless, and the 1+ species on the right is deep blue or red, depending on the identity of R. Electrochromism is the phenomenon where the color or opacity of a material changes when a voltage is applied. By doing so, an electrochromic smart window can block ultraviolet, visible or (near) infrared light instantaneously and on demand. The ability to control transmittance of near infrared light can increase the energy efficiency of a building, reducing the amount of energy needed to cool during summer and heat during winter.
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At a lower angle the light must also travel through more atmosphere. This attenuates it (by absorption and scattering) further reducing insolation at the surface. Attenuation is governed by the Beer-Lambert Law, namely that the transmittance or fraction of insolation reaching the surface decreases exponentially in the optical depth or absorbance (the two notions differing only by a constant factor of ln(10) = 2.303) of the path of insolation through the atmosphere. For any given short length of the path the optical depth is proportional to the quantity of absorbers and scatterers along that length, typically increasing with decreasing altitude.
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Mahākāśyapa became an important disciple of the Buddha, to the extent that the Buddha exchanged his robe with him, which was a symbol of the transmittance of the Buddhist teaching. He became foremost in ascetic practices and attained enlightenment shortly after met the Buddha. He often had disputes with Ānanda, the attendant of the Buddha, due to their different dispositions and views. Despite his ascetic, strict and stern reputation, he paid an interest in community matters and teaching, and was known for his compassion for the poor, which sometimes caused him to be depicted as an anti-establishment figure.
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The Aethalometer principle is based upon the continuous filter-tape sampler developed in the 1950s for the measurement of coefficient of haze. This instrument drew the sample air stream through a filter tape spot for a fixed time duration (usually 1 or 2 hours). The tape was advanced and its gray coloration measured optically by either transmittance or reflectance. However, the data units were arbitrary, and were not interpreted in terms of a mass concentration of a defined material in the air stream until retrospective studies linked the ‘COH unit’ to quantitative analyses of atmospheric trace constituents.
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Tassels dyed with BASF dyes 1901 A colorant is any substance that changes the spectral transmittance or reflectance of a material. Synthetic colorants are those created in a laboratory or industrial setting. The production and improvement of colorants was a driver of the early synthetic chemical industry, in fact many of today's largest chemical producers started as dye-works in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, including Bayer AG(1863). Synthetics are extremely attractive for industrial and aesthetic purposes as they have they often achieve higher intensity and color fastness than comparable natural pigments and dyes used since ancient times.
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It has been demonstrated that seismonastic movement can be inhibited with the use of anesthetics. Using nuclear magnetic resonance, upward movement of water within the pulvinus joint in response to electrical stimulation was observed in the pulvinus at the base of the petiole. Movement of water to the upper or lower part of the pulvinus causes asymmetric swelling therefore causing the petiole to either droop or rise and contributing to the characteristic displacement of the petioles. The transmittance of internal electrical and chemical signals cause changes in the pulvinus which allows M. pudica to respond accordingly to touch stimuli.
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Previous rigid endoscopes suffered from low light transmittance and poor image quality. The surgical requirement of passing surgical tools as well as the illumination system within the endoscope's tube - which itself is limited in dimensions by the human body - left very little room for the imaging optics. The tiny lenses of a conventional system required supporting rings that would obscure the bulk of the lens area; they were difficult to manufacture and assemble and optically nearly useless. The elegant solution that Hopkins invented was to fill the air-spaces between the 'little lenses' with rods of glass.
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The transparent wood, tightly packed and perpendicularly aligned cellulose fibers operate as wideband wave-guides with high transmission scattering losses for light. This unique light management capacity results in a light propagation effect. By measuring its optical properties with an integrated sphere, Li and her colleagues found that transparent wood exhibits a high transmittance of 90% and a high optical haze of 95%. As a result, transparent wood as an energy efficient material could be used to decrease the daytime lighting energy usage by efficiently guiding the sunlight into the house while providing uniform and consistent illumination throughout the day.
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Such is the case in building applications where artificial light can be replaced by sunlight through a light transmittance design. Based on research and simulation performed by Joseph Arehart at the University of Colorado Boulder, transparent wood as a glass glazing system replacement could reduce the space conditioning energy consumption by 24.6% to 33.3% in medium (climate zone 3C, San Francisco, CA) and large office spaces (climate zone 4C, Seattle, Washington) respectably. These are relevant insights in transparent wood's potential functionality because it shows lower thermal conductivity and better impact strength compared to popular glass glazing systems.
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To save the cost, with overall window thermal transmittance lower than about 0,4 W/(m2K) it is possible to abandon, otherwise common, modulated external shading. It has been shown that at such low window U-values, glazing with moderate solar gain performs comparably to glazing of comparable U-value with variable external shading and high solar gain. This is because with improved overall U-values building's heating demand diminishes and as a consequence solar heat gain loses much of its utility. Due to incidence-angle-dependent Fresnel reflections, the optical characteristics of multipane glazing, also notably vary seasonally.
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4A/OP or, Automatized Atmospheric Absorption Atlas, is an operational fast and accurate radiative transfer model for the infrared. 4A/OP is a user-friendly software for various scientific applications (surface, balloon or space-based observations), co-developed by LMD (Laboratoire de Meteorologie Dynamique) and NOVELTIS with the support of CNES (the French Space Agency). NOVELTIS is in charge of the industrialization and the distribution of the LMD 4A radiative transfer model. 4A allows fast and accurate computation of transmittance and radiance, owing to the use of a comprehensive database (atlases) of monochromatic optical thicknesses for up to 43 atmospheric molecular species.
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But it is very effective at obscuring low contrast patterns and textures and making them invisible. Consequently, calotype photographs can show bold outlines and high-contrast details clearly, but low-contrast details and textures tend to be lost because of non-uniform paper transmittance. Paper texture effects are limiting in nature photography, for example, where one expects to capture subtle patterns such as those produced by plants growing in close proximity or pebbles in a streambed. Early calotype photographers appear to have dealt with texture by composing with an eye for high contrasts and bold outlines.
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OVIRS instrument of the OSIRIS-REx probe is a visible and infrared spectrometer Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy or vibrational spectroscopy) is the measurement of the interaction of infrared radiation with matter by absorption, emission, or reflection. It is used to study and identify chemical substances or functional groups in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms. The method or technique of infrared spectroscopy is conducted with an instrument called an infrared spectrometer (or spectrophotometer) which produces an infrared spectrum. An IR spectrum can be visualized in a graph of infrared light absorbance (or transmittance) on the vertical axis vs.
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An amplitude modulation hologram is one where the amplitude of light diffracted by the hologram is proportional to the intensity of the recorded light. A straightforward example of this is photographic emulsion on a transparent substrate. The emulsion is exposed to the interference pattern, and is subsequently developed giving a transmittance which varies with the intensity of the pattern – the more light that fell on the plate at a given point, the darker the developed plate at that point. A phase hologram is made by changing either the thickness or the refractive index of the material in proportion to the intensity of the holographic interference pattern.
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When exposed to light in a photosynthetic system, the dye is decolorised by chemical reduction. DCPIP has a higher affinity for electrons than ferredoxin and the photosynthetic electron transport chain can reduce DCPIP as a substitute for NADP+, that is normally the final electron carrier in photosynthesis. As DCPIP is reduced and becomes colorless, the resultant increase in light transmittance can be measured using a spectrophotometer. The reduction of DCPIP DCPIP can also be used as an indicator for vitamin C. If vitamin C, which is a good reducing agent, is present, the blue dye, which turns pink in acid conditions, is reduced to a colorless compound by ascorbic acid.
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In a world ever more concerned with saving energy, studying the thermal properties of buildings has become a growing field of interest. One of the starting points in these studies is the mounting of heat flux sensors on walls in existing buildings or structures built especially for this type of research. Heat flux sensors mounted to building walls or envelope component can monitor the amount of heat energy loss/gain through that component and/or can be used to measure the envelope thermal resistance, R-value, or thermal transmittance, U-value. The measurement of heat flux in walls is comparable to that in soil in many respects.
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Due to changes in blood volumes in the skin, a plethysmographic variation can be seen in the light signal received (transmittance) by the sensor on an oximeter. The variation can be described as a periodic function, which in turn can be split into a DC component (the peak value) and an AC component (peak minus valley). The ratio of the AC component to the DC component, expressed as a percentage, is known as the (peripheral) perfusion index (Pi) for a pulse, and typically has a range of 0.02% to 20%. An earlier measurement called the pulse oximetry plethysmographic (POP) only measures the "AC" component, and is derived manually from monitor pixels.
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Their results demonstrate that PMMoV is widespread and abundant in wastewater from the United States, suggesting the utility of this virus as an indicator of human fecal pollution. Quantitative PCR was used to determine the abundance of PMMoV in raw sewage, treated wastewater, seawater exposed to wastewater, and fecal samples and/or intestinal homogenates from a wide variety of animals. PMMoV was present in all wastewater samples at concentrations greater than 1 million copies per milliliter of raw sewage. Though there have been no outbreaks in humans, the transmittance of this plant virus to humans has created a discussion on the viability of humans as vectors for plant viruses.
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The plant's strong response to sunlight parallels its role as an invasive species, as it can outcompete other species by fighting for and receiving more sunlight. Although growth ratios decrease when Oriental bittersweet is exposed to 2% sunlight (due to a decrease in photosynthetic ability), it still exhibited a 90% survival rate. Experimental data has indicated that Oriental bittersweet has a strong ability to tolerate low light conditions “ranging on average from 0.8 to 6.4% transmittance ”. In comparison to its congener American bittersweet, when placed in habitats with little light, Oriental bittersweet was found to have increased height, increased aboveground biomass, and increased total leaf mass.
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Different administrative districts (country/state/city etc) mandate different energy efficiency level. Quadruple glazing may be required to achieve the desired energy efficiency levels in the arctic regions, or to allow for higher glazing ratios in curtain walling without increasing winter heat loss. Quadruple glazing allows building glazing elements to be designed free of modulated external sun-shading as variable solar gain no longer provides energy efficiency improvement at low thermal transmittance achievable with quadruple and other multipane glazing. There are numerous buildings built with ageing triple glazing in Nordic countries that are in need of renovation where multipane glazing is a solution of choice.
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The raw image data captured by the image sensor is then converted to a full-color image (with intensities of all three primary colors represented at each pixel) by a demosaicing algorithm which is tailored for each type of color filter. The spectral transmittance of the CFA elements along with the demosaicing algorithm jointly determine the color rendition. The sensor's passband quantum efficiency and span of the CFA's spectral responses are typically wider than the visible spectrum, thus all visible colors can be distinguished. The responses of the filters do not generally correspond to the CIE color matching functions,Comparison of the spectral response of a Nikon D70 vs.
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When the modeling phase is complete, selected systems are validated using a professional third party to provide oversight and to determine how closely the model is able to predict the reality of system performance. System validation uses non-pathogenic surrogates such as MS 2 phage or Bacillus subtilis to determine the Reduction Equivalent Dose (RED) ability of the reactors. Most systems are validated to deliver 40 mJ/cm2 within an envelope of flow and transmittance. To validate effectiveness in drinking-water systems, the method described in the EPA UV Guidance Manual is typically used by the U.S., whilst Europe has adopted Germany's DVGW 294 standard.
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Ser55 in the active site of MGS is responsible for discriminating the binding of an inorganic phosphate from the phosphate group of the substrate (DHAP) by hydrogen bonding and undergoing a conformational change of location. Transmittance of the allosteric signal is determined to pass through Arg97 and Val101 because none of these are located in the active site, yet mutations at these residues negates any inhibitory effect of phosphate binding. Pro82 is necessary to transmit the signal from one subunit to the Ar97 and Val101 of another subunit. The induction of salt-bridge formation between Asp10 and Arg140 is an additional inter-subunit signal transmission pathway for organisms that retain the last 10 amino acids of the monomer peptide.
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Tube de Lumière At the end point (the point of use), a diffuser spreads the light into the room. The first full-scale passive horizontal light pipes were built at the Daylight Lab of Texas A&M; University where the annual daylight performance was thoroughly evaluated in a 360 degree rotating 6 m wide by 10 m deep room. The pipe is coated with a 99.3% specular reflective film and the distribution element at the end of the light pipe consists of a 4.6 m long diffusing radial film with an 87% visible transmittance. The light pipe introduces consistently illuminance levels ranging between 300 lx to 2,500 lux throughout the year at distances between 7.6 m to 10 m.
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787-8 Dreamliner passenger jet Electrochromic windows, also known as smart windows, are a new technological arrangement for achieving energy efficiency in buildings, with variable transmittance of light and solar energy. These ‘‘smart windows’’ can automatically control the amount of light and solar energy passing through the windows which subsequently improves indoor comfort; for example, electrochromic glass provides better glare resistance than fritted glass in most direct sunlight applications. The efficiency of these windows will vary depending on their placement, size, and local climate conditions since these factors influence the amount of sunlight that comes in contact with these windows. Electrochromic windows generally achieve their control over light and heat through their layered design.
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Linear polymer chains can be regarded as a linear polarizers. If their direction coincides with that of one of the crossed polarizers then little light is transmitted; the transmission is increased when the chains make a non-zero angle with both polarizers, and the induced transmittance is dependent on the wavelength, partly because of the absorption properties of the polymer. A schematic of Maltese cross formation This effect results in the dark perpendicular cones (Maltese cross) and colored brighter regions in between them in the front and right pictures. It reveals that the molecular axis of the polymer molecules in the spherules is either normal or perpendicular to the radius vector, i.e.
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Cover crop in South Dakota Thick cover crop stands often compete well with weeds during the cover crop growth period, and can prevent most germinated weed seeds from completing their life cycle and reproducing. If the cover crop is flattened down on the soil surface rather than incorporated into the soil as a green manure after its growth is terminated, it can form a nearly impenetrable mat. This drastically reduces light transmittance to weed seeds, which in many cases reduces weed seed germination rates. Furthermore, even when weed seeds germinate, they often run out of stored energy for growth before building the necessary structural capacity to break through the cover crop mulch layer.
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Hence, an excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an infrared vision device, usually a focal plane array (FPA) infrared camera capable of detecting radiation in the mid (3 to 5 μm) and long (7 to 14 μm) wave infrared bands, denoted as MWIR and LWIR, corresponding to two of the high transmittance infrared windows. Abnormal temperature profiles at the surface of an object are an indication of a potential problem. Maldague X. P. V. and Moore, P.O., eds., Principles of Infrared and Thermal Testing, in Nondestructive Handbook, Infrared and Thermal Testing, Volume 3, 3rd edition, ASNT Press, Columbus (2001) Infrared thermography, thermal imaging, and thermal video, are examples of infrared imaging science.
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The first full scale missile domes of transparent yttria manufactured from nanoscale ceramic powders were developed in the 1980s under Navy funding. Raytheon perfected and characterized its undoped polycrystalline yttria, while lanthana-doped yttria was similarly developed by GTE Labs. The two versions had comparable IR transmittance, fracture toughness, and thermal expansion, while the undoped version exhibited twice the value of thermal conductivity. Renewed interest in yttria windows and domes has prompted efforts to enhance mechanical properties by using nanoscale materials with submicrometer or nanosized grains. In one study, three vendors were selected to provide nanoscale powders for testing and evaluation, and they were compared to a conventional (5 μm) yttria powder previously used to prepare transparent yttria.
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The optical depth of the whole path is then the integral (sum) of those optical depths along the path. When the density of absorbers is layered, that is, depends much more on vertical than horizontal position in the atmosphere, to a good approximation the optical depth is inversely proportional to the projection effect, that is, to the cosine of the zenith angle. Since transmittance decreases exponentially with increasing optical depth, as the sun approaches the horizon there comes a point when absorption dominates projection for the rest of the day. With a relatively high level of absorbers this can be a considerable portion of the late afternoon, and likewise of the early morning.
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Other units which are closely related to the thermal conductivity are in common use in the construction and textile industries. The construction industry makes use of measures such as the R-value (resistance) and the U-value (transmittance or conductance). Although related to the thermal conductivity of a material used in an insulation product or assembly, R- and U-values are measured per unit area, and depend on the specified thickness of the product or assembly.R-values and U-values quoted in the US (based on the inch-pound units of measurement) do not correspond with and are not compatible with those used outside the US (based on the SI units of measurement).
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Transparent conductive oxides (TCO) are doped metal oxides used in optoelectronic devices such as flat panel displays and photovoltaics (including inorganic devices, organic devices, and dye- sensitized solar cells). Most of these films are fabricated with polycrystalline or amorphous microstructures. Typically, these applications use electrode materials that have greater than 80% transmittance of incident light as well as electrical conductivities higher than 103 S/cm for efficient carrier transport. In general, TCOs for use as thin-film electrodes in solar cells should have a minimum carrier concentration on the order of 1020 cm−3 for low resistivity and a bandgap greater than 3.2 eV to avoid absorption of light over most of the solar spectra.
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This can enter buildings directly through windows or it can heat the building shell to a higher temperature than the ambient, increasing the heat transfer through the building envelope.Re- radiation of heat into the roof space during summer can cause sol-air temperatures to reach 60Co The Solar Heat Gain Co-efficient (SHGC)Windows Energy Ratings Scheme - WERS (a measure of solar heat transmittance) of standard single glazing can be around 78-85%. Solar gain can be reduced by adequate shading from the sun, light coloured roofing, spectrally selective (heat-reflective) paints and coatings and various types of insulation for the rest of the envelope. Specially coated glazing can reduce SHGC to around 10%.
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The extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion, about 5.5 ⋅ 10−7/K (20...320 °C), accounts for its remarkable ability to undergo large, rapid temperature changes without cracking (see thermal shock). Phosphorescence in fused quartz from an extremely intense pulse of UV light in a flashtube, centered at 170 nm Fused quartz is prone to phosphorescence and "solarisation" (purplish discoloration) under intense UV illumination, as is often seen in flashtubes. "UV grade" synthetic fused silica (sold under various tradenames including "HPFS", "Spectrosil", and "Suprasil") has a very low metallic impurity content making it transparent deeper into the ultraviolet. An optic with a thickness of 1 cm has a transmittance around 50% at a wavelength of 170 nm, which drops to only a few percent at 160 nm.
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Spectrophotometry is a tool that hinges on the quantitative analysis of molecules depending on how much light is absorbed by colored compounds. Important features of spectrophotometers are spectral bandwidth (the range of colors it can transmit through the test sample), the percentage of sample-transmission, the logarithmic range of sample-absorption, and sometimes a percentage of reflectance measurement. A spectrophotometer is commonly used for the measurement of transmittance or reflectance of solutions, transparent or opaque solids, such as polished glass, or gases. Although many biochemicals are colored, as in, they absorb visible light and therefore can be measured by colorimetric procedures, even colorless biochemicals can often be converted to colored compounds suitable for chromogenic color-forming reactions to yield compounds suitable for colorimetric analysis.
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There has been numerical modeling of plasmonic metallic nanostructures have shown great potential as a method of light management in thin-film nanodisc-patterned hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) solar photovoltaic (PV) cells. A problem that arises for plasmonic-enhanced PV devices is the requirement for 'ultra-thin' transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) with high transmittance and low enough resistivity to be used as device top contacts/electrodes. Unfortunately, most work on TCOs is on relatively thick layers and the few reported cases of thin TCO showed a marked decrease in conductivity. To overcome this it is possible to first grow a thick layer and then chemically shave it down to obtain a thin layer that is whole and highly conductive.
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The absorption of light leads to an isomeric change in the retinal molecule. The signal transduction pathway is the mechanism by which the energy of a photon signals a mechanism in the cell that leads to its electrical polarization. This polarization ultimately leads to either the transmittance or inhibition of a neural signal that will be fed to the brain via the optic nerve. The steps, or signal transduction pathway, in the vertebrate eye's rod and cone photoreceptors are then: #The rhodopsin or iodopsin in the disc membrane of the outer segment absorbs a photon, changing the configuration of a retinal Schiff base cofactor inside the protein from the cis-form to the trans-form, causing the retinal to change shape.
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The presence of both cations hinders photoinduced electron transfer (PET) allowing compound B to fluoresce. In the absence of both or either ion, fluorescence is quenched by PET, which involves an electron transfer from either the nitrogen atom or the oxygen atoms, or both to the anthracenyl group. When both receptors are bound to calcium ions and protons respectively, both PET channels are shut off. The overall result of Compound B is AND logic, since an output of "1" (fluorescence) occurs only when both Ca2+ and H+ are present in solution, that is, have values as "1". With both systems run in parallel and with monitoring of transmittance for system A and fluorescence for system B the result is a half-adder capable of reproducing the equation 1+1=2.
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Concept display of the connection between the label management software, communication station, and terminal display in a mock-up retail environment A typical ESL utilizes ultra-low-power CPU and wireless communication solutions to meet the power of low cost and low power, due to the high number of label tags required in an average retail store. ESL consists of three aspects to function. #Label management software: Responsible for the configuration of the system, configuration of the properties on the label itself, and to update the database for the list of prices Typically, a centralized software that is responsible for the building of and maintenance of the network for the data communication between the label management software and the terminal display. #Communication station: Responsible for the stability and reliability of transmittance through a long distance from the label management software to the label.
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If the pulse contains more than one photon, then Eve can split off the extra photons and transmit the remaining single photon to Bob. This is the basis of the photon number splitting attack, where Eve stores these extra photons in a quantum memory until Bob detects the remaining single photon and Alice reveals the encoding basis. Eve can then measure her photons in the correct basis and obtain information on the key without introducing detectable errors. Even with the possibility of a PNS attack a secure key can still be generated, as shown in the GLLP security proof; however, a much higher amount of privacy amplification is needed reducing the secure key rate significantly (with PNS the rate scales as t^2 as compared to t for a single photon sources, where t is the transmittance of the quantum channel).
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Stable unions grant many legal rights, such as the right to be recognized as a couple in legal issues, common ownership of property acquired jointly, including transmittance and inheritance, recognition of the partner as a dependent at the National Institute of Social Security, on health plans and with insurers. Also included is the right to transfer the bank account of one partner to another in case of death or illness of the holder.Same-sex stable unions De facto unions may be registered at a civil law notary throughout the country (there are specific ordinances about it in Rio Grande do Sul, Roraima and Piauí, but the right is federal and registration is possible in others places too). Prior to the nationwide legalisation of same- sex marriage, several binational same-sex couples won the right to live permanently in Brazil.
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The absorbance spectrum of pumpkin seed oil has the wide-but-shallow minimum in the green region of the spectrum and deep local minimum in the red region. In thin layers, the absorption at any specific green wavelength is not as low as it is for the red minimum, but a broader band of greenish wavelengths are transmitted, and hence the overall appearance is green. The effect is enhanced by the greater sensitivity to green of the photoreceptors in the human eye, and the narrowing of the red transmittance band by the long-wavelength limit of cone photoreceptor sensitivity. According to the Beer-Lambert law, when viewing through the coloured substance (and thus ignoring reflection), the proportion of light transmitted at a given wavelength, T, decreases exponentially with thickness t, T = e−at, where a is the absorbance at that wavelength.
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Depending on the redox conditions it can exist in two inter-convertible forms: a more common oxidized yellow-brown form which is insoluble in water and only slightly soluble in organic solvents, such as pyridine, and a reduced form with bright red color that is more soluble in organic solvents. Scytonemin absorbs very strongly and very broadly across the UV-C-UV-B-UV-A-violet-blue spectral region, with an in vivo maximum absorption at 370 nm and an in vitro maximum absorption at 386 and 252 nm, and with smaller peaks at 212, 278 and 300 nm. It is believed that scytonemin acts as a highly efficient protective biomolecule (sunscreen) that filters out damaging high frequency UV rays while at the same time allowing the transmittance of wavelengths necessary for photosynthesis. Its biosynthesis in cyanobacteria is mostly triggered by exposure to UV-A and UV-B wavelengths.
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The challenge of characterizing thin films involves extracting t, n(λ) and k(λ) of the film from the measurement of R(λ) and/or T(λ). This can be achieved by combining the Forouhi–Bloomer dispersion equations for n(λ) and k(λ) with the Fresnel equations for the reflection and transmission of light at an interface to obtain theoretical, physically valid, expressions for reflectance and transmittance. In so doing, the challenge is reduced to extracting the five parameters A, B, C, Eg, and n(∞) that constitute n(λ) and k(λ), along with film thickness, t, by utilizing a nonlinear least squares regression analysis fitting procedure. The fitting procedure entails an iterative improvement of the values of A, B, C, Eg, n(∞), t, in order to reduce the sum of the squares of the errors between the theoretical R(λ) or theoretical T(λ) and the measured spectrum of R(λ) or T(λ).
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Sundanese boys playing the angklung in 1918 The angklung was first invented in West Java, Indonesia, with a possibility of cultural transmittance to various other places such as Malaysia and the Philippines over the course of several centuries. In the early 20th century during the time of the Dutch East Indies, the angklung was adopted in Thailand, where it is called angkalung (อังกะลุง). It was recorded that angklung was brought to Siam in 1908 by Luang Pradit Pairoh, a royal musician in the entourage of Field Marshal Prince Bhanurangsi Savangwongse of Siam, who paid a royal visit to Java that year (27 years after the first state visit of his elder brother, King Chulalongkorn, to Java in 1871). The Thai angklung are typically tuned in the Thai tuning system of seven equidistant steps per octave, and each angklung has three bamboo tubes tuned in three separate octaves rather than two, as is typical in Indonesia.
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All modern UV–Vis spectrophotometer are built on the same basic principles as the DU spectrophotometer. Diagram of Model DU optical system, Beckman manual, 1954 Although the default light source for the instrument was tungsten, a hydrogen or mercury lamp could be substituted depending on the optimal range of measurement for which the instrument was to be used. The tungsten lamp was suitable for transmittance of wavelengths between 320 and 1000 millimicrons; the hydrogen lamp for 220 to 320 millimicrons, and the mercury lamp for checking the calibration of the spectrophotometer. Minimum spectral band widths, Cary & Beckman, 1941 As advertised in the 1941 News Edition of the American Chemical Society, the Beckman Spectrophotometer used an autocollimating quartz crystal prism for a monochromator, capable of covering a range from the ultraviolet (200 millimicrons) to the infrared (2000 millimicrons), with a nominal bandwidth of 2 millimicrons or less for most of its spectral range.
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