The fast-growing global trend of corporate venture is fast-tracking new symbioses.
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It might therefore be possible to save reefs by seeding them with heat-resistant symbioses.
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More than anyone else in media, BuzzFeed's founder, Jonah Peretti, bet on symbioses with the tech platforms.
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"One thing that sets lichen apart from all other symbioses is that all the components are microbes," Spribille said.
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The artists have thus built a very specific dialogue that both separates and links the internet and real life, without weakening their symbioses.
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The symbioses between large corporations and startups is very valuable, and not having to wait for as many cycles as earlier markets did would be a bliss.
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It is one of the oldest and most successful symbioses in nature, said Toby Spribille, a lichen expert at the University of Graz in Austria, and the lead author of the new paper.
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As the authors write in the new study, these resultsindicate that such symbioses may be much more complex than previously assumed: by physiologically exploiting ''downtimes'' of transpiring trees during the night or rainy days with high water potentials in the root network living stumps seem to act partially autonomously, strategically tapping into resources rather than simply becoming part of the neighboring trees' extended root networks.
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DeVries discovered the substrate-borne calls produced by caterpillars that form symbioses with ants in the butterfly families Riodinidae and Lycaenidae. In these symbioses, ants provide protection against arthropod predators in exchange for food secretions. DeVries demonstrated experimentally that the calls produced by singing caterpillars function to enhance caterpillar-ant symbioses in concert with caterpillar glands that produce food and chemical secretions. He also has shown that singing caterpillars occur widely throughout the world.
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Most EcM hosts show low levels of specificity, and can form symbioses with many distantly related fungi.Molina, Randy, Hugues Massicotte, and James M. Trappe. "Specificity phenomena in mycorrhizal symbioses: community-ecological consequences and practical implications." Mycorrhizal functioning: an integrative plant-fungal process (1992): 357-423.
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The most of the ecology of Searls' prairie clover has been studied in relation to symbioses and herbivory.
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"Ascidians with algal symbionts." Algae and Symbioses, plants, Animals, Fungi, Viruses, interactions explored. Biopress Ltd, England (1992): 215-230.
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The majority of such symbioses are made between legumes and diazotrophic Rhizobia bacteria. The rhizobia-legume symbioses are the most studied due to the importance in agriculture. Each symbiosome in a root nodule cell encloses a single rhizobium that differentiates into a bacteroid. However, in some cases a symbiosome may house several bacteroids.
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Root nodules that occur on non-legume genera like Parasponia in association with Rhizobium bacteria, and those that arise from symbiotic interactions with Actinobacteria Frankia in some plant genera such as Alnus, vary significantly from those formed in the legume-rhizobia symbiosis. In these symbioses the bacteria are never released from the infection thread. Frankia nodulates approximately two hundred species in the following orders (families in parentheses): Cucurbitales (Coriariaceae and Datiscaceae), Fagales (Betulaceae, Casuarinaceae, and Myricaceae), Rosales (Rhamnaceae, Elaeagnaceae and Rosaceae). Actinorhizal symbioses account for roughly the same amount of nitrogen fixation as rhizobial symbioses.
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"Declassifying Myrmecophily in the Coleoptera to Promote the Study of Ant-Beetle Symbioses". ‘’Psyche’’ (Cairo: Hindawi pub co) 2013: 1–8.
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Ectomycorrhizal interactions are similar symbioses, however the fungi are not allowed into any plant cells, though they may grow between them.
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Since its foundation, France Laure draws its ingredients from nature's botanical profuseness such as marine and mineral extracts to obtain perfect skin symbioses.
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Rhizobium mongolense is a Gram negative root nodule bacteria, which nodulates and forms nitrogen-fixing symbioses with Medicago ruthenica. Its type strain is USDA 1844.
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A section of a root nodule cell showing symbiosomes enclosing bacteroids. A symbiosome is a specialised compartment in a host cell that houses an endosymbiont in a symbiotic relationship. The term was first used in 1983 to describe the vacuole structure in the symbiosis between the animal host the Hydra, and the endosymbiont Chlorella. Symbiosomes are also seen in other cnidaria-dinoflagellate symbioses, including those found in coral-algal symbioses.
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Phoretic mites on a fly (Pseudolynchia canariensis) Like all ecological interactions, commensalisms vary in strength and duration from intimate, long-lived symbioses to brief, weak interactions through intermediaries.
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Rhizobium indigoferae is a Gram negative root nodule bacteria, which nodulates and forms nitrogen-fixing symbioses with Indigofera species Its type strain is CCBAU 71714(T) (= AS 1.3046(T)).
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Discovery of bacterial–invertebrate chemoautotrophic symbioses, initially in vestimentiferan tubeworms and then in vesicomyid clams and mytilid mussels, pointed to an even more remarkable source of nutrition sustaining the invertebrates at vents.
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Bacteria genera Rhizobium and Mesorhizobium work to fix nitrogen into a usable form.Terpolilli, J. J., Hood, G. A., & Poole, P. S. (2012). What determines the efficiency of N2-fixing Rhizobium-legume symbioses?.
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Dinoroseobacter shibae is a facultative anaerobic anoxygenic photoheterotroph belonging to the family, Rhodobacteraceae. First isolated from washed cultivated dinoflagellates, they have been reported to have mutualistic as well as pathogenic symbioses with dinoflagellates.
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Smith's research concerns are in evolution and progress of mycorrhizal symbioses, specifically the arbuscular mycorrhizas (Gleomeromycotan fungi). Mycorrhizal symbioses is the symbiotic or mildly pathogenic connection between fungi and the roots of a vascular plant. The investigation involves both simple and strategic analysis, comprehending operations varying from the managing of the symbiosis evolution in mutant plants through features of functions of mycorrhizas in phosphate nutrition of plants and suggestions of the symbiosis for plant competition, crop efficiency and reduction of arsenic toxicity.
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A dominant organism in warm oligotrophic waters, five species within the genus Hemiaulus receive fixed nitrogen from R. intracellularis. Hemiaulus-Richella symbioses are up to 245 times more abundant than the former, with 80% to 100% of Hemilalus cells containing the cyanobiont. Nitrogen fixation in the Hemiaulus-Richella symbiosis is 21 to 45 times greater than in the Richella- Rhizosolenia symbiosis within the southwestern Atlantic and Central Pacific Gyre, respectively. Other genera of diatoms can form symbioses with cyanobacteria; however, their relationships are less known.
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Keys to Long-Term Harmony in Legume-Microbe Symbioses. Plant Physiology. 137, 4, 1205-1210. Fungi, along with bacteria and soil animals, also play a large role in the decomposition of litter and soil organic matter.
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Many Riodinidae larvae have so-called "tentacle nectary organs" on the eighth segment of the abdomen that secrete a fluid which is eaten by ants. Other tentacle organs on the third thoracic segment have been shown to emit allomones which influence ants. Studies suggest caterpillar acoustic signals are used to enhance their symbioses with ants (see singing caterpillars). The location of riodinid organs that function in caterpillar-ant symbioses differs from those found in the Lycaenidae, suggesting that the organs in these two families of butterflies are not homologous in origin.
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Philip James DeVries (born March 7, 1952) is a tropical biologist whose research focuses on insect ecology and evolution, especially butterflies. His best-known work includes symbioses between caterpillars, ants and plants, and community level biodiversity of rainforest butterflies.
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The best-studied examples of endosymbiosis are known from invertebrates. These symbioses affect organisms with global impact, including symbiodinium of corals, or Wolbachia of insects. Many insect agricultural pests and human disease vectors have intimate relationships with primary endosymbionts.
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For example, selection could occur at the level of the holobiont when a transgenerational association among specific host and symbiont genotypes can be maintained. Nevertheless, the holobiont concept has resulted in a shift from the focus on symbioses involving one microbial partner and a single host (squids and luminescent Aliivibrio, legumes and Rhizobium, aphids and Buchnera) toward a greater interest in symbioses in complex multi-partner consortia (animal gut systems, marine invertebrates, plant and seaweed epiphytes, microbe-microbe interactions in soil, aquatic biomes). Moreover, there is a realization that even the relatively well understood binary symbioses such as aphids and Buchnera are more complex with a number of diverse facultative symbionts contributing to resistance to parasites,Oliver, K. M., Russell, J. A., Moran, N. A., and Hunter, M. S. (2003) "Facultative bacterial symbionts in aphids confer resistance to parasitic wasps". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 100: 1803–1807. .
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The concept of the holobiont, which emphasizes the importance and interactions of a microbial host with associated microorganisms and viruses and describes their functioning as a single biological unit,Margulis, Lynn (1991) "Symbiogenesis and Symbionticism". In: Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation; Margulis, L., Fester, R.(Eds.), Cambridge MIT Press. . has been investigated and discussed for many model systems, although there is substantial criticism of a concept that defines diverse host-microbe symbioses as a single biological unit.Douglas, A.E.; Werren, J.H. (2016) "Holes in the Hologenome: Why Host-Microbe Symbioses Are Not Holobionts". mBio, 7: e02099-15. .
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Many of its shells have been found crusted with coralline algae. This algae provides a strong and smooth surface for coral polyps to settle on, possibly being responsible for the symbioses that can occur between corals or other cnidarians and hermit crabs.
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The mode of transmission is also an important aspect of the biology of beneficial microbial symbionts, such as coral-associated dinoflagellates or human microbiota. Organisms can form symbioses with microbes transmitted from their parents, from the environment or unrelated individuals, or both.
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Archaeosporales is an order of fungi best known as arbuscular mycorrhiza to vascular land plants (Tracheophyta). But also form free living endocyte symbioses with cyanobacteria. The free living forms have a Precambrian fossil record back 2.2 Ga, well before evolution of Tracheophyta.
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In symbioses involving cyanobacteria, at least one of the partners must be photoautotrophic in order to generate sufficient amounts of carbon for the mutualistic system. This role is usually allocated to cyanobionts in symbiotic relationships with non-photosynthetic partners such as marine invertebrates.
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Lothar Geitler (18 May 1899 – 1 May 1990) was an Austrian botanist and cytologist. He was born in Vienna. His main research interests included blue- green algae (Cyanophyta), diatoms, lichen symbioses and chromosome structure. The genus Geitlerinema was named in his honour.
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The Dictyonema fungus is a basidiomycete, so it discovered lichenization independently from the ascomycete lichens.Gargas, A., P. T. DePriest, M. Grube, and A. Tehler. 1995. Multiple origins of lichen symbioses in fungi suggested by SSU rDNA phylogeny. Science 268(5216): 1492-1495.
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Caldera, E. J., et al. "Insect Symbioses: A Case Study of Past, Present, and Future Fungus-Growing Ant Research." Environmental Entomology 38.1 (2009): 78–92. However, the leafcutter ants have a defense mechanism against the parasitic fungus, an antifungal actinobacteria from the genus Pseudonocardia.
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Glomus aggregatum is an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus used as a soil inoculant in agriculture and horticulture. Like other species in this phylum it forms obligate symbioses with plant roots, where it obtains carbon (photosynthate) from the host plant in exchange for nutrients and other benefits.
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2013,Ekblad et al. 2013. The production and turnover of extrametrical mycelium of ectomycorrhizal fungi in forest soils: role in carbon cycling. Plant and Soil, 366: 1-27. respectively, and the 2019 paper "Climatic controls of decomposition drive the global biogeography of forest-tree symbioses".
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With the ability to differentiate into several cell types that have various functions, members of the genus Nostoc have the morphological plasticity, flexibility and adaptability to adjust to a wide range of environmental conditions, contributing to its high capacity to form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Several cyanobionts involved with fungi and marine organisms also belong to the genera Richelia, Calothrix, Synechocystis, Aphanocapsa and Anabaena, as well as the species Oscillatoria spongeliae. Although there are many documented symbioses between cyanobacteria and marine organisms, little is known about the nature of many of these symbioses. The possibility of discovering more novel symbiotic relationships is apparent from preliminary microscopic observations.
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Their close association with eukaryotic phytoplankton is supported by phylogenomic evidence suggesting that the Roseobacter lineage diverged from other Alphaproteobacteria at the same moment as the Mesozoic radiation of phytoplankton. Traits involved in symbioses of D. shibae include flagelar synthesis and type IV secretion system under the control of N-acyl homoserine lactone intercellular signal molecules (quorum sensing). D. shibae forms symbioses with Prorocentrum minimum, a toxic red tide-forming dinoflagellate, as well as other dinoflagellates associated with toxic algal blooms. In a mutualistic association, the P. minimum provides carbon sources and some vitamins essential for growth, and while D. shibae provides vitamins B_1 and B_{12}.
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Most inhabit some sort of burrow or crevice and are somewhat territorial. In some cases, they live in symbioses with unrelated animals, such as crustaceans. The larger species are fished for food, in some cases on a commercial scale. Many Gobiinae species are popular aquarium fish.
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8, 2017, pp. 1066–1073. Another model is Law and Diekmann's 1996 models on mutualism, which is defined as a relationship between two organisms that benefits both individuals.Bronstein, Judith. “Mutualisms and Symbioses.” Oxford Bibliographies, 20 Nov 2017, www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0006.xml.
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These symbioses play an important role in global carbon cycling in oligotrophic regions. One known symbiosis between the diatom Hemialus spp. and the cyanobacterium Richelia intracellularis has been found in the North Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Pacific Ocean. The Richelia endosymbiont is found within the diatom frustule of Hemiaulus spp.
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Macaranga species often form symbioses with ant (Formicidae) species (particularly Crematogaster ants of the subgenus Decacrema) because they have hollow stems that can serve as nesting space and occasionally provide nectar. The trees benefit because the ants attack herbivorous insects and either drive them away or feed on them.
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Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi form symbioses with several crop and ornamental species, such as blueberries, cranberries and Rhododendron. Inoculation with ericoid mycorrhizal fungi can influence plant growth and nutrient uptake.Scagel, C. F. 2005 Inoculation with ericoid mycorrhizal fungi alters fertilizer use of highbush blueberry cultivars. HortScience 40: 786-794.
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Grutter and her colleague Robert Poulin, reviewing over thirty years of debate by biologists on cleaning symbioses, argue that "Cleaning symbioses may not be mutualistic associations but rather one-sided exploitation. However, one must then ask why no counter-adaptation has evolved in clients to free them from this exploitation. If clients are the puppets of cleaners, then the fitness consequences of being exploited must be small". They quote as an example of an early position, C. Limbaugh writing in 1961: "From the standpoint of the philosopher of biology, the extent of cleaning behavior in the ocean emphasizes the role of co-operation in nature as opposed to the tooth-and-claw struggle for existence".
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Currently, cyanobionts have been found to form symbiosis with various organisms in marine environments such as diatoms, dinoflagellates, sponges, protozoans, Ascidians, Acadians, and Echiuroid worms, many of which have significance in maintaining the biogeochemistry of both open ocean and coastal waters. Specifically, symbioses involving cyanobacteria are mostly mutualistic, in which the cyanobionts are responsible for nutrient provision to the host in exchange for attaining high structural-functional specialization. Most cyanobacteria-host symbioses are found in oligotrophic areas where limited nutrient availability may limit the ability of the hosts to acquire carbon (DOC), in the case of heterotrophs and nitrogen in the case of phytoplankton, although a few occur in nutrient-rich areas such as mudflats.
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Possible sources of nitrates that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include: #recycling crop waste and livestock or treated human manure #growing legume crops and forages such as peanuts or alfalfa that form symbioses with nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia #industrial production of nitrogen by the Haber process uses hydrogen, which is currently derived from natural gas (but this hydrogen could instead be made by electrolysis of water using renewable electricity) #genetically engineering (non-legume) crops to form nitrogen-fixing symbioses or fix nitrogen without microbial symbionts. The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is only gradually becoming feasible.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, March 25, 2008 vol. 105 no.
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The señorita is a cleaner wrasse, a fish that grooms the parasites and other materials off the bodies of other fish. It may remove and eat ectoparasites such as bacteria, copepods, and isopods. Parasites can constitute around half its total food intake.Côté, I. M. Evolution and Ecology of Cleaning Symbioses in the Sea.
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As analysis tools advanced, Ruby and McFall-Ngai were able to map transcriptional patterns and identify related genes that control the squid's rhythmic behaviors and symbiotic relationship. The sum of their Hawaiian bobtail squid research is an extremely well defined model organism fit for studying bacterial symbioses, light interacting tissues, and cephelopod development.
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He described many gall wasp species. In 1842, Theodor Hartig described what is now known as the Hartig net, a network of fungal hyphae that penetrate feeder roots and surround epidermal cells. The Hartig net is part of the structure of ectomycorrizae, mutualistic symbioses between fungi and plant roots. He died in Braunschweig.
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In arid ecosystems, many primary producers, such as grasses and biological soil crusts, form symbioses with fungi. Mycorrhizal fungi colonizing plant roots acquire carbon directly from plant roots, provide phosphorus sources to plants, and have been shown to transport water.Allen, M.F. 2007. Mycorrhizal Fungi: Highways for Water and Nutrients in Arid Soils.
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The role of cleaning symbioses has been debated by biologists for over thirty years. Some believe that cleaning represents selfless co- operation, essentially pure mutualism, increasing the fitness of both individuals. Others such as Robert Trivers hold that it illustrates mutual selfishness, reciprocal altruism. Others again believe that cleaning behaviour is simply one-sided exploitation, a form of parasitism.
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Actiniidae is the largest family of sea anemones, to which most common, temperate, shore species belong. Most members of this family do not participate in symbioses with fishes. Three exceptions are the bubble-tip anemone (with anemonefish and certain cardinalfish), snakelocks anemone (with Incognito goby) and Urticina piscivora (with painted greenling).Lieske, E.; and R. Myers (1999).
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A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis. Symbioses range from mutualism, beneficial to both partners, to competition, harmful to both partners. Interactions can be indirect, through intermediaries such as shared resources or common enemies. This type of relationship can be shown by net effect based on individual effects on both organisms arising out of relationship.
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Fluxes in microbial communities has to be better characterized for this field's potential to be realised. In addition, there are also clinical implications, as marine microbial symbioses are a valuable source of existing and novel antimicrobial agents, and thus offer another line of inquiry in the evolutionary arms race of antibiotic resistance, a pressing concern for researchers.
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Therefore, symbioses consider resource scarcity and environmental protection as crucial factors in developing sustainable industries and profits. Industrial Symbiosis often becomes manifest in Eco-industrial parks. # Environmental management systems include a wide range of different environmental management approaches in order to ensure continual improvement in sustainability. In early stages, monitoring companies facilitates the identification of hazardous environmental aspects.
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Cyanobacteria have been documented to form symbioses with a large range of eukaryotes in both marine and terrestrial environments. Cyanobionts provide benefit through dissolved organic carbon (DOC) production or nitrogen fixation but vary in function depending on their host. Organisms that depend on cyanobacteria often live in Nitrogen-limited, oligotrophic environments and can significantly alter marine composition leading to blooms.
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The group has also the smallest known genomes of all ferns. One genus, Azolla, is amongst the fastest growing plants on earth and caused a cooling of the climate in the Azolla event about 50 million years ago.Fern genomes elucidate land plant evolution and cyanobacterial symbioses - Nature There is a well-known fossil member of the Marsileales, Hydropteris (incertae sedis).
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In recognition of the contribution she has made to the understanding of nitrogen fixation in legume symbioses Sprent was awarded with a Doctor of Science degree by the University of London and an honorary PhD from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. She was awarded an OBE in 1996 and in 2013, the nitrogen fixing bacterium Burkholderia sprentiae was named after her.
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"Lamellibrachia anaximandri n.sp., a new vestimentiferan tubeworm from the Mediterranean (Annelida)". Zoosystema. Moreover, the study of symbioses revealed associations with chemoautotrophic Bacteria, sulfur oxidizers in Vesicomyidae and Lucinidae bivalves and Siboglinidae tubeworms, and highlighted the exceptional diversity of Bacteria living in symbiosis with small Mytilidae. The Mediterranean seeps appear to represent a rich habitat characterized by megafauna species richness (e.g.
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She moved to the United States in 2008, becoming the Daljit S. and Elaine Sarkaria Professor of Insect Physiology and Toxicology at Cornell University. Her research is on the relationships between animals and their symbiotic microbes. Her earliest papers were on the Roscoff worm, a flatworm that has a symbiotic relationship with algae. Her subsequent work has mainly focused on symbioses between insects and bacteria.
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Figure 3. Neotyphodium coenophialum hyphae in tall fescue leaf tissue. Lolines commonly accumulate in the N. coenophialum–tall fescue symbiosis, providing protection from insects and other environmental stresses. Lolines are produced by several grass–endophyte symbioses involving epichloae species, often along with other bioactive metabolites including ergot alkaloids and indole diterpenoids, and the unusual pyrrolopyrazine alkaloid, peramine, which is not found in other biological communities or organisms.
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Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott, the Japanese pagoda tree (Chinese scholar tree, pagoda tree; syn. Sophora japonica) is a species of tree in the subfamily Faboideae of the pea family Fabaceae. It was formerly included within a broader interpretation of the genus Sophora. The species of Styphnolobium differ from Sophora in lacking the ability to form symbioses with rhizobia (nitrogen fixing bacteria) on their roots.
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Hanne N. Rasmussen (born 1950) is a Danish scientist who studies orchid-fungal symbioses. She is currently a senior researcher at the University of Copenhagen in the Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management. Her research has included studies on numerous plant families, but the majority has focused on symbiotic relationships between various fungi and member of the Orchidaceae family. These relationships are called orchid mycorrhiza.
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Sir David Read FRS is Emeritus Professor of Plant Science in the Department of Animal and Plant Sciences at University of Sheffield. His first degree and PhD came from University of Hull, the latter in 1963.University of Sheffield Academic Staff He also serves on the Rothamsted Research Board of Directors Read's research focuses on plant and fungal physiology and ecology, particularly the biology of root-fungus symbioses.
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The hologenome theory of evolution recasts the individual animal or plant (and other multicellular organisms) as a community or a "holobiont" – the host plus all of its symbiotic microbes. Consequently, the collective genomes of the holobiont form a "hologenome". Holobionts and hologenomes are structural entities that replace misnomers in the context of host-microbiota symbioses such as superorganism (i.e., an integrated social unit composed of conspecifics), organ, and metagenome.
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Expression is mediated by the NPR1 gene and the salicylic acid pathway, both involved in resistance to fungal and insect attack. Other plant chitinases may be required for creating fungal symbioses. Although mammals do not produce chitin, they have two functional chitinases, Chitotriosidase (CHIT1) and acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase), as well as chitinase-like proteins (such as YKL-40) that have high sequence similarity but lack chitinase activity.
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Q-Box NF1LP is an experimental package using an open-flow gas exchange system for measurement of nitrogen fixation in H2-producing legume symbioses. A flow-through H2 sensor (Q-S121) measures the production rate of H2 from N2-fixing tissues, allowing in vivo measurement of nitrogenase activity in real time. Measurements of nitrogenase activity on up to three plants is possible, i.e. a four-channel system including a reference sample.
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Long exposure image of bioluminescence of N. scintillans in the yacht port of Zeebrugge, Belgium N. scintillans is a heterotroph that engulfs, by phagocytosis, food which includes plankton, diatoms, other dinoflagellates, fish eggs, and bacteria. Diatoms are often found in the vacuoles within these single-celled creatures. These green nonfeeding symbioses can grow photoautotrophically for generations. Diatoms of Thalassiosira have been noted as a favored food source of these organisms.
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Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of love: unrequited love, empty love, companionate love, consummate love, infatuated love, self-love, and courtly love. Numerous cultures have also distinguished ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ' (and other variants or symbioses of these states), as culturally unique words, definitions, or expressions of love in regards to a specified "moments" currently lacking in the English language.Liddell and Scott: φιλία (J. Mascaró, translator) Scientific research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades.
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She is also the recipient of the Linnean Society's Trail-Crisp Award for 2015, for her work in microscopy. From 2007–2010 she lectured at QMUL. She describes her research as integrating "expertise in bryophyte systematics, evolution, anatomy and in-vitro culturing to tackle major questions on the origin and evolution of key innovations of land plants including stomata, cuticles, desiccation-tolerance and fungal symbioses". She is an editor of the journal Annals of Botany.
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Here they form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates. Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of nitrogen-poor soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30% of the total fixed nitrogen is produced industrially using the Haber-Bosch process, which uses high temperatures and pressures to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or petroleum) into ammonia.
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She then went on to complete PhD studies from 2013-2018 at University of Victoria in Canada concerned coral symbiosis during the 2015/2016 El Niño event. Her thesis "Coral Symbioses Under Stress: Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Coral-Symbiodinium Interactions" earned her the Canadian Governor General's gold medal for academic excellence. During her doctoral study Claar made use of her training as a scientific diver to complete field work on the island of Kiritimati in the Pacific Ocean.
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One hundred species within the classes Calcarea and Demospongiae form symbioses with cyanobacteria in the genera Aphanocapsa, Synechocystis, Oscillatoria and Phormidium. Cyanobacteria benefit their hosts through providing glycerol and organic phosphates through photosynthesis and supply up to half of their required energy and a majority of their carbon budget. Two groups of sponges with photosynthetic symbionts have been described; these are the "cyanosponges" and "phototrophs". Cyanosponges are mixotrophic and therefore obtain energy through heterotrophic feeding as well as photosynthesis.
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Fungi are composed of soft tissues, making fossilization difficult and the discovery of fungal fossils rare. However, some exquisitely preserved specimens have been discovered in the middle Eocene Princeton Chert of British Columbia. These ectomycorrhizal fossils show clear evidence of a Hartig net, mantle and hyphae, demonstrating well-established EcM associations at least 50 million years ago. The fossil record shows that the more common arbuscular mycorrhizas formed long before other types of fungal-plant symbioses.
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Pine plantation, probably inoculated with fungal spores to allow beneficial ectomycorrhizas to form Plants that are not native to an area often require mycorrhizal symbionts to thrive. The vast majority of arbuscular mycorrhizas are non-specific, and so plants that interact with these mycorrhizas often become invasive quickly and easily. However, ectomycorrhizal symbioses are often relatively specific. In exotic forestry, compatible EcM fungi are often introduced to the foreign landscape to ensure the success of forest plantations.
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Marine environment consists of a large number of chemosynthetic symbioses in different regions of the ocean: shallow-water coastal sediments, continental slope sediments, whale and wood falls, cold seeps and deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Organisms from seven phyla (ciliophora, porifera, platyhelminthes, nematoda, mollusca, annelida and arthropoda) are known to have chemosynthetic symbiosis till now. Some of them include nematode, tube worms, clam, sponge, hydrothermal vent shrimp, worms mollusc, mussels and so on. The symbionts can be ectosymbionts or endosymbionts.
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Cyanobacteria, which are prokaryotic organisms which carry out oxygenic photosynthesis, occupy many environmental conditions, including fresh water, seas, soil, and lichen. Cyanobacteria carry out plant-like photosynthesis because the organelle in plants that carries out photosynthesis is derived from anHill, Malcolm S. "Production Possibility Frontiers in Phototroph:heterotroph Symbioses: Trade- Offs in Allocating Fixed Carbon Pools and the Challenges These Alternatives Present for Understanding the Acquisition of Intracellular Habitats." Frontiers in Microbiology 5 (2014): 357. PMC. Web. 11 March 2016.
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The end result is the nodule, the structure in which nitrogen is fixed. Nod factors act by inducing changes in gene expression in the legume, most notable the nodulin genes, which are needed for nodule organogenesis. At least three plant genes which are stimulated by Nod factors are also involved in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. The addition of certain Nod factors enhances arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization, indicating that the two very different symbioses may share some common mechanisms.
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Nostoc with hormogonia Hormogonia are motile filaments of cells formed by some cyanobacteria in the order Nostocales and Stigonematales. They are formed during vegetative reproduction in unicellular, filamentous cyanobacteria, and some may contain heterocysts and akinetes. Cyanobacteria differentiate into hormogonia when exposed to an environmental stress or when placed in new media. Hormogonium differentiation is crucial for the development of nitrogen- fixing plant cyanobacteria symbioses, in particular that between cyanobacteria of the genus Nostoc and their hosts.
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Cavanaugh's analyses of bacterial symbioses involving giant tube worms and other deep sea invertebrateshas led to her being described as a "scientific Captain Nemo." Cavanaugh pursued her graduate training in biology at Harvard University, in association with the Museum of Comparative Zoology. She entered Harvard in the fall of 1979, earning an M.A. in 1981 and graduating with her PhD in biology in 1985. Her Ph.D. dissertation, entitled Symbiosis of chemoautotrophic bacteria and marine invertebrates, was accepted in 1985.
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The relationship between the Hawaiian bobtail squid and the bioluminescent bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri is one of the best studied symbiotic relationships in the sea and is a choice system for general symbiosis research. This relationship has provided insight into fundamental processes in animal-microbial symbioses, and especially biochemical interactions and signaling between the host and bacterium.McFall-Ngai, M.J. (2000) "Negotiations between animals and bacteria: the ‘diplomacy’of the squid-vibrio symbiosis". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 126(4): 471–480. .
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It has been proposed that habitat type and the distinct functions of different mycorrhizas help determine which type of symbiosis is predominant in a given area. In this theory, EcM symbioses evolved in ecosystems such as boreal forests that are relatively productive but in which nutrient cycling is still limiting. Ectomycorrhizas are intermediate in their ability to take up nutrients, being more efficient than arbuscular mycorrhizas and less so than ericoid mycorrhizas, making them useful in an intermediate nutrient situation.
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This genus of bacteria can form either specific or general symbioses; one species of Bradyrhizobium may only be able to nodulate one legume species, whereas other Bradyrhizobium species may be able to nodulate several legume species. Ribosomal RNA is highly conserved in this group of microbes, making Bradyrhizobium extremely difficult to use as an indicator of species diversity. DNA–DNA hybridizations have been used instead and show more diversity. However, few phenotypic differences are seen, so not many species have been named.
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In the legume-rhizobia symbioses the symbiosome is the nitrogen-fixing unit in the plant, formed by an interaction of plant and bacterial signals, and their cooperation. The legumes are protein-rich, and have a high demand for nitrogen that is usually available from nitrates in the soil. When these are scarce the plant secretes flavonoids that attract free-living diazotrophic (nitrogen-fixing) rhizobia to their root hairs. In turn the bacteria release Nod factors that stimulate the infection process in the plant.
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Singing caterpillars is a term coined by Philip James DeVries, referring to the fact that the larvae of ant-associated butterfly species of the families Riodinidae and Lycaenidae produce substrate borne sounds that attract ants. The study of these symbiotic associations was pioneered by Phil DeVries in Central America, and Naomi Pierce in Australia. Recently, Lucas Kaminski and collaborators are expanding the studies of riodinid-ant symbioses in Brazil. Ants that harvest plant secretions also form ecological associations with insects.
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However, feeding a few individual ants has no measurable benefit to the ant colony as a whole. Caterpillars are actually appropriating individual ants for their own protection, and therefore stopping such ants from performing tasks that would benefit the colony. It could therefore be argued that caterpillar-ant symbioses do not constitute a mutualism as classically defined. Riodinid and lycaenid singing caterpillars are best categorized as ranging from commensal (one partner benefits while the other is not affected) to parasitic.
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While the growth in the use of the term has led some scientists (Jonathan Eisen, among others) to claim that it has been oversold, it reflects the change in orientation towards the quantitative analysis of complete or near-complete assortment of all the constituents of a system. In the study of symbioses, for example, researchers which were once limited to the study of a single gene product can now simultaneously compare the total complement of several types of biological molecules.
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Native Americans and early European explorers used Thuja leaves as a cure for scurvy. Distillation of Fokienia roots produces an essential oil called pemou oil used in medicine and cosmetics. Recent progress on Endophyte Biology in Cupressaceae, by the groups of Jalal Soltani (Bu-Ali Sina University) and Elizabeth Arnold (Arizona University) have revealed prevalent symbioses of endophytes and endofungal bacteria with family Cupressaceae. Furthermore, current and potential uses of Cupressaceous tree's endophytes in agroforestry and medicine is shown by both groups.
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Marine bacteriophages are significant parasites of unicellular marine cyanobacteria. Environmental impact of cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic microorganisms in aquatic systems. Different classes of photosynthetic microorganisms are found in aquatic and marine environments where they form the base of healthy food webs and participate in symbioses with other organisms. However, shifting environmental conditions can result in community dysbiosis, where the growth of opportunistic species can lead to harmful blooms and toxin production with negative consequences to human health, livestock and fish stocks.
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Mycorrhizal, literally “fungus-root”, interactions are symbioses between fungi and plants. Such interactions are based on nutrient acquisition and sharing, the fungi increases the range over which nutrients are gathered and the plant provides materials that the fungi cannot produce. There are two main types of interactions: arbuscular endomycorrhizal, and ectomycorrhizal. Arbuscular endomycorrhizal interactions are when the fungi is allowed to enter the plant, and inhabit special cells. The fungi produce structures that look like trees, called “arbuscules,” inside these cells.
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These fungal symbioses, as well as their affinity towards specific symbionts, vary based on the stage of development and age of the host roots. As an orchid ages the fungal associations become more complex. Mixotrophic orchids like Cephalanthera longibracteata may associate generally with several fungi, most notably from Russulaceae,Tricholomataceae, Sebacinales, Thelephoraceae, as they do not depend as heavily on the fungus for carbon. Some orchids can be very specific in their symbionts, preferring a single class or genus of fungi.
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The majority of evidence shows that the Glomeromycota are dependent on land plants (Nostoc in the case of Geosiphon) for carbon and energy, but there is recent circumstantial evidence that some species may be able to lead an independent existence. The arbuscular mycorrhizal species are terrestrial and widely distributed in soils worldwide where they form symbioses with the roots of the majority of plant species (>80%). They can also be found in wetlands, including salt-marshes, and associated with epiphytic plants.
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Many nassellarians house dinoflagellate symbionts within their tests. The nassellarian provides ammonium and carbon dioxide for the dinoflagellate, while the dinoflagellate provides the nassellarian with a mucous membrane useful for hunting and protection against harmful invaders. There is evidence from small subunit ribosomal DNA analysis of these dinoflagellate symbionts that dinoflagellate symbiosis with radiolarians evolved independently of other dinoflagellate symbioses (e.g. foraminifera). Small subunit ribosomal DNA analysis also shows evidence that no coevolution of the dinoflagellates and radiolarians has occurred.
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Prof. Dr. Nicole Dubilier is a marine microbiologist and director of the Symbiosis Department at the Max Planck Institute for Marine Biology since 2013 and a Professor of Microbial Symbioses at the University of Bremen. She is a pioneer in ecological and evolutionary symbiotic relationships between sea animals and their microbial partners inhabiting environments that harbour low nutrient concentrations. She was responsible for the discovery of a new form of symbiosis between two kinds of bacteria and the marine oligochaete Olavius algarvensis.
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Deep sea vent at East Scotia Ridge Fisher has published many works pertaining to deep sea ecosystems and physiology, symbioses, and ecology of the animals inhabiting these ecosystems. Fisher has been influential in the study of chemoautotrophic bacterial symbiosis in the deep sea environment. He helped describe the horizontal endosymbiont transmission model in Riftia pachyptila, Oasisia alvinae and Tevnia jerichonana. Fisher is actively researching damage assessment and recovery of deep sea ecosystems in the Gulf of Mexico after the Deep Water Horizon spill.
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Bryophytes are non-vascular plants encompassing mosses, liverworts, and hornworts, which most often form symbioses with members from the cyanobacterial genus Nostoc. Depending on the host, the cyanobiont can be inside (endophytic) or outside the host (epiphytic). In mosses, cyanobacteria are major nitrogen fixers and grow mostly epiphytically, aside from two species of Sphagnum which protect the cyanobiont from an acidic-bog environment. In terrestrial Arctic environments, cyanobionts are the primary supplier of nitrogen to the ecosystem whether free-living or epiphytic with mosses.
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Geosiphon pyriformis is known for being the symbiont of Nostoc. The Geosiphon-Nostoc symbiosis, as by modern definitions, is not a lichen, since it is an intracellular association. Also, by functional and evolutionary implications it is more comparable to the arbuscular mycorrhiza symbioses than to lichens. The Geosiphon-Nostoc symbiosis is the only known fungal endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria and is characterised by a "siphonal bladder" that is made of a swollen fungal hypha, 0.5–2 mm in size and growing on the soil surface.
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By the Devonian Period, the colonization of the land by plants was well underway. The bacterial and algal mats were joined early in the period by primitive plants that created the first recognizable soils and harbored some arthropods like mites, scorpions and myriapods. Early Devonian plants did not have roots or leaves like the plants most common today, and many had no vascular tissue at all. They probably relied on arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses with fungi to provide them with water and mineral nutrients such as phosphorus.
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Commonly found in oligotrophic environments, diatoms within the genera Hemiaulus and Rhizosolenia form symbiotic associations with filamentous cyanobacteria in the species Richelia intracellularis. As an endophyte in up to 12 species of Rhizosolenia, R. intracellularis provides fixed nitrogen to its host via the terminally-located heterocyst. Richella-Rhizosolenia symbioses have been found to be abundant within the nitrogen-limited waters of the Central-Pacific Gyre. Several field studies have linked the occurrence of phytoplankton blooms within the gyre to an increase in nitrogen fixation from Richella-Rhizosolenia symbiosis.
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Heterotrophic dinoflagellates can form symbioses with cyanobacteria (phaeosomes), most often in tropical marine environments. The function of the cyanobiont depends on its host species. Abundant marine cyanobacteria in the genus Synechococcus form symbionts with dinoflagellates in the generaOrnithocercus, Histionesis and Citharistes where it is hypothesized to benefit its host through the provision of fixed nitrogen in oligotrophic, subtropical waters. Increased instances of phaeosome symbiosis have been documented in a stratified, nitrogen-limited environment, and living within a host can provide an anaerobic environment for nitrogen fixation to occur.
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Mycorrhizal symbioses are ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems, and it is possible that these associations helped to facilitate land colonization by plants. There is paleobiological and molecular evidence that arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM) originated at least 460 million years ago. EcM plants and fungi exhibit a wide taxonomic distribution across all continents (apart from Antarctica), suggesting that the EcM symbiosis has ancient evolutionary roots. Pinaceae is the oldest extant plant family in which symbiosis with EcM fungi occurs, and fossils from this family date back to 156 million years ago.
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An example of this is the sponge Astroclera willeyana which has a gene that is used in expressing spherulite-forming cells which has an origin in bacteria. Another example is the starlet sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis, which has genes from bacteria that have a role in producing UV radiation protection in the form of shikimic acid. Another way for symbiotic relationships to co-evolve is through genome erosion. This is a process where genes that are typically used during free-living periods aren't necessary because of the symbioses of the organisms.
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Following her work as a Postdoctoral Researcher at University of California Berkeley, Six became a professor at the University of Montana in 1997, where she has been ever since, teaching Forest Entomology and Pathology. She also serves as the Chair of the University of Montana Department of Ecosystems and Conservation Sciences. Six has done extensive research on bark beetle ecology and evolution, symbioses of bark beetles and fungi. In addition, she has researched the bark beetle outbreak, along with bark beetles and forests in relation to climate change.
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This species is studied as a model organism for legume biology because it has a small diploid genome, is self-fertile, has a rapid generation time and prolific seed production, is amenable to genetic transformation, and its genome has been sequenced. It forms symbioses with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia (Sinorhizobium meliloti and Sinorhizobium medicae) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi including Rhizophagus irregularis (previously known as Glomus intraradices). The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana does not form either symbiosis, making M. truncatula an important tool for studying these processes. It is also an important forage crop species in Australia.
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The metabolism of the spirochaete is unknown. Other species of Olavius are also known to have similar symbioses with both sulfide- oxidizing and sulfate-reducing bacteria in the same worm. The primary sulfur- oxidizing symbiont, known as "Gamma1", is closely related to the primary symbionts of other species of gutless oligochaetes in the Phallodrilinae, and also to the symbionts of nematodes in the subfamily Stilbonematinae. In addition to hydrogen sulfide, the symbiotic bacteria also allow the worm to use hydrogen and carbon monoxide as energy sources, and to metabolise organic compounds like malate and acetate.
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Hydrothermal vents emit hydrogen sulfide that support the carbon fixation of chemolithotrophic bacteria that oxidize hydrogen sulfide with oxygen to produce elemental sulfur or sulfate. The chemical reactions are as follows: CO2 \+ 4H2S + O2 -> CH2O + 4S0 \+ 3H2O CO2 \+ H2S + O2 \+ H2O -> CH2O + SO42- \+ 2H+ In modern oceans, Thiomicrospira, Halothiobacillus, and Beggiatoa are primary sulfur oxidizing bacteria, and form chemosynthetic symbioses with animal hosts. The host provides metabolic substrates (e.g., CO2, O2, H2O) to the symbiont while the symbiont generates organic carbon for sustaining the metabolic activities of the host.
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2008, pp. 1597-1608. These types of ant-insect interactions involve the ant providing some service in exchange for nutrients in the form of honeydew, a sugary fluid excreted by many phytophagous insects. . Interactions between honeydew-producing insects and ants is often called trophobiosis, a term which merges notions of trophic relationships with symbioses between ants and insects. This term has been criticized, however, on the basis that myrmecophilous interactions are often more complex than simple trophic interactions, and the use of symbiosis is inappropriate for describing interactions among free-living organisms.
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Sarcodes is the monotypic genus of a north-west American flowering springtime plant in the heath family (Ericaceae), containing the single species Sarcodes sanguinea, commonly called the snow plant or snow flower. It is a parasitic plant that derives sustenance and nutrients from mycorrhizal fungi that attach to tree roots. Lacking chlorophyll, it is unable to photosynthesize. Ectomycorrhizal (EM) symbioses involve a mutualism between a plant root and a fungus; the plant provides fixed carbon to the fungus and in return, the fungus provides mineral nutrients, water and protection from pathogens to the plant.
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From 1931 to 1955, she was an associate professor of botany at the University of Melbourne; her research areas particularly included fungal symbioses and endophytes and also the fungal flora of soils. McLennan was acting head of the Biology department from 1937 to 1938. In collaboration with colleagues during the Second World War, she contributed to improvements to the utility of optical instruments in tropical regions, where fungi were prone to cause defects. She retired in 1955; from 1956 to 1972, she was part-time keeper of the university herbarium.
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Dry steppes occupy the middle sections of mountainous zone (at 1250 to 2500 m above sea level), where one can meet/find eastern oak forest from 1600m, and juniper sparse forest at 1500to 2100 m above the sea level. One can also meet Euonymus europaeus, Sorbus aucuparia and Lonicera caucasica in separate islets or with mixed symbioses. Mountain-steppe and mountain-meadow landscapes are spread at 2500 m above sea level in the reserve area; they are transferred into sub-alpian and alpian meadows in the high mountain zone.
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Cornejo, Pablo, Sebastián Meier, Gilda Borie, Matthias C. Rillig, and Fernando Borie (2008) Glomalin-related Soil Protein in a Mediterranean Ecosystem Affected by a copper Smelter and Its Contribution to Cu and Zn Sequestration. Science of the Total Environment 406.1-2 (2008): 154-60. Web. The symbioses with AMF and soil supplementation of phosphate allows for the promotion growth of Crotalaria juncea. Despite the high levels of copper in the soil of Crotalaria juncea, mechanisms have been determined which can reverse the toxic effects of copper and allow for growth of the plant.
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Amylostereum laevigatum on fallen juniper Amylostereaceae usually infest only dead or cut down conifer wood. Three species – A. areolatum, A. laevigatum and A. chailletii – may also establish a symbiosis with wood wasps (Siricidae), which beside freshly logged trees also infest living trees and infect them with fungi. Symbioses have been recorded with several species: Sirex noctilio, S. juvencus, S. nitobei, S. cyaneus, S. edwarsii, S. nitidus, and, in Japan, Urocerus antennatus and Xoanon matsumurae. Wasps of the genera Sirex and Urocerus store oidia (the hypha of fungi split up to spores) in special abdominal organs.
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Researcher Toby Kiers of VU University Amsterdam and associates used M. truncatula to study symbioses between plants and fungi – and to see whether the partners in the relationship could distinguish between good and bad traders/suppliers. By using labeled carbon to track the source of nutrient flowing through the arbuscular mycorrhizal system, the researchers have proven that the plants had indeed given more carbon to the more generous fungus species. By restricting the amount of carbon the plants gave to the fungus, the researchers also demonstrated that the fungi did pass along more of their phosphorus to the more generous plants.
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The thallus contains internal structures known as cephalodia, characteristic of three-membered lichen symbioses involving two photobionts (the photosynthetic symbionts in the fungal-algal lichen relationship). These internal cephalodia, found between the "ribs" of the thallus surface, arise when blue-green algae (from the genus Nostoc) on the thallus surface are enveloped during mycobiont growth. Structurally, cephalodia consist of dense aggregates of Nostoc cells surrounded by thin-walled hyphae—this delimits them from the rest of the thallus which contains a loose structure of thick-walled hyphae. Blue-green cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen, providing a nutrient for the lichen.
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Thus, Species A indirectly benefits Species C. Pathways of indirect interactions can include all other forms of species interactions. To follow the sea star-mussel relationship, sea stars have an indirect negative effect on the diverse community that lives in the mussel bed because, by preying on mussels and decreasing mussel bed structure, those species that are facilitated by mussels are left homeless. Additional important species interactions include mutualism, which is seen in symbioses between sea anemones and their internal symbiotic algae, and parasitism, which is prevalent but is only beginning to be appreciated for its effects on community structure.
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Current molecular analysis has allowed for the identification of specific taxa forming symbiotic relationships which are of interest in the study, cultivation, and conservation of orchids. This is especially important in the trade and preservation endangered species or orchids of commercial value like the vanilla bean. There have been seen trends in the type of symbioses found in orchids, depending primarily on the life-style of the orchid, as the symbiosis is primarily of benefit to the plant. Terrestrial orchids have been found to commonly associate with Tulasnellaceae, however some autotrophic and non- autotrophic orchids do associate with several ectomycorrhizal fungi.
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Epiphytic fungi, however, may associate more commonly with limited clades of rhizoctonia, a polyphyletic grouping. These fungi may form significant symbioses with either an epiphytic or terrestrial orchid, but rarely do they associate with both. Using seed-baiting techniques researchers have been able to isolate specific species and strains of symbiotic orchid mycorrhizae. Using this technique seeds of the epiphytic orchid Dendrobium aphyllum were found to germinate to seedlings when paired with fungal strains of Tulasnella, however, seeds of this species did not germinate when treated with Trichoderma fungi taken from adult orchids, indicating there are stage specific symbionts.
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The photosynthetic orchid Goodyera pubescens was found to associate with only one dominate fungus, unless subjected to changes in the environment, like drought, in which case the orchid was able to change symbionts in response to stresses. This is unique in that it conflicts with the trends seen in most arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal symbioses which form associations with several fungi at the same time. The knowledge of species-specific fungal symbionts is crucial given the endangered status of many orchids around the world. The identification of their fungal symbionts could prove useful in the preservation and reintroduction of threatened orchids.
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Orchids are a smart plant that manipulate other species into pollinating them, and once pollinated they produce seeds that are eventually released in hopes to be carried to a specific type of fungi (depending on the orchid) where it will attach for mycorrhizal symbioses, and then bloom after a few years or decades depending on the environment and species. Many orchid species are suffering because of overharvesting, burning, clearing, and development. Many efforts are being done to help save both species. Spreading knowledge (educating), creating reserves, and coming up with alternatives are the top three actions being done to conserve both species.
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Cleaning symbiosis is a mutually beneficial association between individuals of two species, where one (the cleaner) removes and eats parasites and other materials from the surface of the other (the client). Cleaning symbiosis is well-known among marine fish, where some small species of cleaner fish, notably wrasses but also species in other genera, are specialised to feed almost exclusively by cleaning larger fish and other marine animals. Other cleaning symbioses exist between birds and mammals, and in other groups. Cleaning behaviour was first described by the Greek historian Herodotus in about 420 BC, though his example (birds serving crocodiles) appears to occur only rarely.
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Social immune systems have been observed across a wide range of taxonomic groups. Allogrooming is found in many animals—for example primates frequently groom others, a behaviour which likely evolved for its hygienic function but has now been co-opted for its additional role in social bonding. Allogrooming in the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) is associated with the regurgitation of food and may allow other bats to identify which individuals are capable of supplying them with food; the allogrooming behaviours of horses and birds have also been studied. A range of sometimes elaborate cleaning symbioses also exist between many different species, especially in marine fish with their cleaning stations.
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The insects both benefit as well, given a safe habitat and a steady food supply of other insects that land on the prey. In the perspective of A. decemarticulatus, they do not actively give any of their own resources to the plant or to the assassin bug. They simply live among them, use their resources, and hunt. In regards to the predatory behavior of A. decemarticulatus, similar behaviors have been observed in other ant species, such as symbioses with plants (like in Pseudomyrmex ferruginea), cultivating a fungus (like in leafcutter ants), and sneaking up to and ambushing larger prey (like in Azteca andreae, another species studied by Dejean).
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50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The study of the association of plants with microorganisms precedes that of the animal and human microbiomes, notably the roles of microbes in nitrogen and phosphorus uptake. The most notable examples are plant root-arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and legume-rhizobial symbioses, both of which greatly influence the ability of roots to uptake various nutrients from the soil. Some of these microbes cannot survive in the absence of the plant host (obligate symbionts include viruses and some bacteria and fungi), which provides space, oxygen, proteins, and carbohydrates to the microorganisms.
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The fungal loop hypothesis suggests that soil fungi in arid ecosystems connect the metabolic activity of plants and biological soil crusts which respond to different soil moisture levels. Compiling diverse evidence such as limited accumulation of soil organic matter, high phenol oxidative and proteolytic enzyme potentials due to microbial activity, and symbioses between plants and fungi, the fungal loop hypothesis suggests that carbon and nutrients are cycled in biotic pools rather than leached or effluxed to the atmosphere during and between pulses of precipitation.Collins, S.L., Sinsabaugh, R.L., Crenshaw, C., Green, L., Porras-Alfaro, A., Stursova, M., and Zeglin, L.H. 2008. Pulse dynamics and microbial processes in aridland ecosystems.
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Douglas, A.E. and Werren, J.H. (2016) "Holes in the hologenome: why host-microbe symbioses are not holobionts". MBio, 7(2). . They argue that "the hologenome concept is unhelpful to the study of host interactions with resident microorganisms because it focuses on one level of selection (the holobiont), and as a result it is concerned with cooperative and integrative features of host-microbe systems to the exclusion of other kinds of interactions, including antagonism among microorganisms and conflicts between host and microbial partners." The holobiont and by extension the hologenome concept remain controversial, particularly in regard to the host and its microbiome as a single evolutionary unit.
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Due to these specialized proteoid roots, the Proteaceae are one of few flowering plant families that do not form symbioses with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. They exude large amounts of organic acids (citric acid and malic acid) every 2–3 days in order to aid the mobilization and absorption of phosphate. Many species are fire-adapted (pyrophytes), meaning they have strategies for surviving fires that sweep through their habitat. Some are resprouters, and have a thick rootstock buried in the ground that shoots up new stems after a fire, and others are reseeders, meaning the adult plants are killed by the fire, but disperse their seeds, which are stimulated by the smoke to take root and grow.
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The concept of the symbiosome was first described in 1983, by Neckelmann and Muscatine, as seen in the symbiotic relationship between Chlorella ( a class of green algae, and Hydra a cnidarian animal host. Until then it had been described as a vacuole. A few years later in 1989, Lauren Roth with Gary Stacey as well as Robert B Mellor applied this concept to the nitrogen-fixing unit seen in the plant root nodule, previously called an infection vacuole. This has since engendered a great deal of research, one result of this has been the provision of a more detailed description of the symbiosome (peribacteroid) membrane, as well as comparisons with similar structures in Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal symbioses in plants .
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Not all endophytic symbioses confer protection from herbivores – only some species associations act as defense mutualisms. The difference between a mutualistic endophyte and a pathogenic one can be indistinct and dependent on interactions with other species or environmental conditions. Some fungi which are pathogens in the absence of herbivores may become beneficial under high levels of insect damage, such as species which kill plant cells in order to make nutrients available for their own growth, thereby altering nutritional content of leaves and making them a less desirable foodstuff. Some endomycorrhizae may provide defense benefits but at the cost of lost reproductive potential by rendering grasses partially sterile with their own fungal reproductive structures taking precedence.
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Lactarius deterrimus has traditionally been considered to have a strict mycorrhizal host specificity with Norway spruce. In 2006, it was reported that the fungus can also form arbutoid mycorrhiza with bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi). Arbutoid mycorrhizal associations are variants of ectomycorrhiza found in certain plants in the Ericaceae characterised by hyphal coils in epidermal cells. The mycorrhiza formed by L. deterrimus on both bearberry and Norway spruce show typical features such as a hyphal mantle and a Hartig net; the distinguishing characteristic between the mycorrhizal symbioses with the different hosts is that the hyphae penetrate the epidermal cells of bearberry, although there are also some differences in the form of the Hartig net, branching pattern, and colour.
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Species of Aiptasia are relatively weedy anemones able to withstand a relatively wide range of salinities and other water quality conditions. In the case of A. pallida and A. pulchella, their hardiness coupled with their ability to reproduce very quickly and out-compete other species in culture gives these anemones the status of pest from the perspective of coral reef aquarium hobbyists. These very characteristics make them easy to grow in the laboratory and thus they are extensively used as model organisms for scientific study. In this respect, Aiptasia have contributed a significant amount of knowledge regarding cnidarian biology, especially human understanding of cnidarian-algal symbioses, a biological phenomenon crucial to the survival of corals and coral reef ecosystems.
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A recent study based on DNA sequence analysis suggest that P. nigrum originated in the Western Ghats hot spot in India . The obligate and facultative ant mutualists found in some Piper species have a strong influence on their biology, making them ideal systems for research on the evolution of symbioses and the effect of mutualisms on biotic communities. Important secondary metabolites found in pepper plants are piperine and chavicine, which were first isolated from Black Pepper, and reported to have antibiotic activities. Preliminary research reports has shown that piperine has an antibacterial activity against various bacteria such as S. aureus, Streptococcus mutans, and gastric cancer pathogen Helicobacter pylori and decreased H. pylori toxin entry to gastric epithelial cells.
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Root tips of the myco-heterotrophic plant alt=Club-shaped, crowded root-tips of a plant with its violet stem emerging in the middle Some of the ectomycorrhizal Russulaceae are also involved in other types of root symbioses with plants. A mutualistic association similar to ectomycorrhiza but with some hyphae penetrating into the plant root cells, termed arbutoid mycorrhiza, is formed by Russulaceae with shrubs of the genera Arbutus and Arctostaphylos, both in subfamily Arbutoideae of the Ericaceae. Some Russulaceae are associated with myco-heterotrophic plants of the Ericaceae subfamily Monotropoideae, forming monotropoid mycorrhiza. This is an epiparasitic relationship, where the heterotrophic plant ultimately derives its carbon from the primary, ectomycorrhizal plant partner of the fungus.
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Three African bird species (Village Weaver Ploceus cucullatus, Common Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus, and Mouse‐brown Sunbird Anthreptes gabonicus) regularly feed on the sap flowing from holes made by local wine tappers in Oil‐palm trees Elaies guineensis in the Bijagós archipelago, Guinea‐Bissau. However, the most familiar examples of increased access to resources through facilitation are the mutualistic transfers of nutrients between symbiotic organisms. A symbiosis is a prolonged, close association between organisms, and some examples of mutualistic symbioses include: ; Gut flora:Associations between a host species and a microbe living in the host’s digestive tract, wherein the host provides habitat and nourishment to the microbe in exchange for digestive services. For example, termites receive nourishment from cellulose digested by microbes inhabiting their gut.
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When Swiss botanist Simon Schwendener discovered in the 1860s that lichens were a symbiotic partnership between a fungus and an alga, his finding at first met with resistance from the scientific community. After his discovery that the fungus—which cannot make its own food—provides the lichen's structure, while the alga's contribution is its photosynthetic production of food, it was found that in some lichens a cyanobacterium provides the food—and a handful of lichen species contain both an alga and a cyanobacterium, along with the fungus.Erica Gies, "The Meaning of Lichen: How a self-taught naturalist unearthed hidden symbioses in the wilds of British Columbia—and helped to overturn 150 years of accepted scientific wisdom", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 6 (June 2017), p. 56.
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Early Paleozoic radiolarian fossil history is dominated by Spumellaria until the Carboniferous period, during which nassellarian fauna experienced a sharp increase in diversity. Nassellarian and spumellarian diversities have been relatively similar since the Mesozoic, with drops in diversity after mass extinction events and a rise in both spumellarian and nassellarian diversity during the Quaternary. Symbioses between algae and radiolarians is observed frequently in extant species, but the evolution and timing of this symbiosis is currently unknown, as the symbiotic algae do not leave behind hard skeletons to fossilize. It may be possible to answer this question using isotopic analysis, as algal symbionts preferentially uptake carbon-12, so symbiont-bearing calcareous organisms such as Foraminifera become enriched in carbon-13 compared to non symbiont-bearing calcareous organisms.
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Variation in the hologenome may encode phenotypic plasticity of the holobiont and can be subject to evolutionary changes caused by selection and drift, if portions of the hologenome are transmitted between generations with reasonable fidelity. One of the important outcomes of recasting the individual as a holobiont subject to evolutionary forces is that genetic variation in the hologenome can be brought about by changes in the host genome and also by changes in the microbiome, including new acquisitions of microbes, horizontal gene transfers, and changes in microbial abundance within hosts. Although there is a rich literature on binary host–microbe symbioses, the hologenome concept distinguishes itself by including the vast symbiotic complexity inherent in many multicellular hosts. For recent literature on holobionts and hologenomes published in an open access platform, see the following reference.
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Red Columbine (Aquilegia formosa) taken at Castle Lake June 2004. Although the lake (at elevation ) and surrounding areas are well below local tree line (for example, on nearby Mount Shasta, the tree line is at about ), because of the high concentration of granite and the often exposed steep, rocky slopes, the vegetation at the lake and in the area can vary widely, from dense mixed forest near and below the lake to the appearance of near-alpine conditions above the lake. At and in the area below the lake, mixed forests of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), red fir (Abies Magnifica), white fir (Abies Concolor), lodgepole pine (Pinus Contorda), incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), and alder can be found. Alders play a particularly important role, as alders establish symbioses with the nitrogen-fixing Actinobacteria (Frankiella alni).
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Micro-nutrient transfer is thought, for the most part, to occur by passive transport across cellular membranes, both during absorption, from soil by fungi, and transfer from fungi to host plants. This is not always the case though and although research on the topic is limited, there is evidence of active transport and allocation of micro-nutrients in certain conditions. The upregulation of cation transporters is observed in orchid D. officinale symbioses, suggesting fungi may assisted in the transfer of nutrients from fungi to plant. Cations, especially iron, are often bound tightly to organic and clay substrates keeping them out of reach of plants, fungi and bacteria, but compounds such as siderophores are often secreted into the soil by fungi and bacteria to aid in the acquisition of these cations.
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