Several of her posts end with "Sieg Heil," a Nazi solute.
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Bustle, Well + Good, Shape, and Sol Solute all highly recommend the Jade Yoga Travel Mat.
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Each reaction is dependent on a number of factors; it requires a given amount of solute, certain temperatures, a specific concentration of the drug.
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That term actually refers to the movement of a solvent like water across a permeable barrier, not the substance (called a solute) that dissolves within that solvent.
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The idea is that water moves from an area in which there is a lower concentration of solute into one with a higher concentration to create a more balanced solution.
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"When I see neo-Nazis raise their hands in terrifying solute [sic], in public, in our nation's capital, I shudder in horror," he said, referencing an alt-right conference in Washington on Saturday.
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Transport reactions generally catalyzed by APC Superfamily members include: ::Solute:proton symport Solute (out) + nH+ (out) → Solute (in) + nH+ (in). ::Solute:solute antiport Solute-1 (out) + Solute-2 (in) ⇌ Solute-1 (in) + Solute-2 (out).
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The creation of the cavity will be entropically and enthalpically unfavorable as the ordered structure of the solvent decreases and there are fewer solvent-solvent interactions. Second, the solute must separate out from the bulk solute. This is enthalpically unfavorable as solute-solute interactions are breaking but is entropically favorable. Third, the solute must occupy the cavity created in the solvent.
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The generalized transport reaction for the members of this family is: ::solute (out) + Na+ (out) → solute (in) + Na+ (in).
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For this strengthening mechanism, solute atoms of one element are added to another, resulting in either substitutional or interstitial point defects in the crystal (see Figure 1). The solute atoms cause lattice distortions that impede dislocation motion, increasing the yield stress of the material. Solute atoms have stress fields around them which can interact with those of dislocations. The presence of solute atoms impart compressive or tensile stresses to the lattice, depending on solute size, which interfere with nearby dislocations, causing the solute atoms to act as potential barriers.
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This is enthalpically unfavorable since solute-solute interactions decrease, but when the solute particle enters the cavity, the resulting solvent-solute interactions are enthalpically favorable. Finally, as solute mixes into solvent, there is an entropy gain. Solvation of a solute by solvent The enthalpy of solution is the solution enthalpy minus the enthalpy of the separate systems, whereas the entropy of solution is the corresponding difference in entropy. The solvation energy (change in Gibbs free energy) is the change in enthalpy minus the product of temperature (in Kelvin) times the change in entropy.
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Consider the problem in which the solvent freezes to a very nearly pure crystal, regardless of the presence of the nonvolatile solute. This typically occurs simply because the solute molecules do not fit well in the crystal, i.e. substituting a solute for a solvent molecule in the crystal has high enthalpy. In this case, for low solute concentrations, the freezing point depression depends solely on the concentration of solute particles, not on their individual properties.
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At its simplest, the kidney produces urine composed of solute and pure (solute-free) water. How rapidly the kidney clears the blood plasma of a substance (be it water or solute) is the renal clearance, which is related to the rate of urine production. The rate at which plasma is cleared of solute is the osmolal clearance; the rate at which plasma is cleared of solute-free water is the free water clearance.
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Sometimes the solute dissociates or associates in the solvent. In such cases the law is modified as D(Distribution factor)=concentration of solute in all forms in solvent 1/concentration of solute in all forms in solvent 2.
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In the lack of proper solute intake, the amount of free water excretion can be severely limited. Without adequate solute intake, the normal functioning electrolyte gradient that pulls water into urine will be effectively destroyed. Briefly, to excrete free water from urine, the urine flow (which is solute clearance + free water clearance) will equal the rate of solute excretion divided by the urine osmolality. With a diet of only solute poor beer, only about 200–300 mOSM (normal 750 mOSM to greater than 900 mOSM) of solute will be excreted per day, capping the amount of free water excretion at four liters.
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Even though the interaction force is negative (attractive) in both cases when the dislocation is approaching the solute. The maximum force (Fmax) necessary to tear dislocation away from the lowest energy state (i.e. the solute atom) is greater for the soft solute than the hard one.
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One way to compare how favorable the dissolution of a solute is in different solvents is to consider the free energy of transfer. The free energy of transfer quantifies the free energy difference between dilute solutions of a solute in two different solvents. This value essentially allows for comparison of solvation energies without including solute-solute interactions. In general, thermodynamic analysis of solutions is done by modeling them as reactions.
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For a solute that adsorbs at surface, diffusioosmotic flow is away from regions of high solute concentration, while for solutes that are repelled by the surface, flow is away from regions of low solute concentration.This schematic illustrates diffusioosmotic flow above a surface in contact with a solution that has a concentration gradient of a solute (red). The flow as a function of height above the surface is shown as black arrows of length proportional to the flow velocity at that height. The flow is left-to-right as this solute is repelled by the surface, and its concentration increases from left-to-right.
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Flow of mobile phase through the column preferentially carries off the lower-affinity solute and thus at high concentration the higher-affinity solute will eventually displace all molecules with lesser affinities.
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As such, substitutional solute atoms do not interact with the shear stress fields characteristic of screw dislocations. Conversely, in interstitial solid solutions, solute atoms cause a tetragonal distortion, generating a shear field that can interact with edge, screw, and mixed dislocations. The attraction or repulsion of the dislocation to the solute atom depends on whether the atom sits above or below the slip plane. For example, consider an edge dislocation encountering a smaller solute atom above its slip plane.
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In this case, the interaction energy is negative, resulting in attraction of the dislocation to the solute. This is due to the reduced dislocation energy by the compressed volume lying above the dislocation core. If the solute atom were positioned below the slip plane, the dislocation would be repelled by the solute. However, the overall interaction energy between an edge dislocation and a smaller solute is negative because the dislocation spends more time at sites with attractive energy.
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The freezing point depression thus is called a colligative property. The explanation for the freezing point depression is then simply that as solvent molecules leave the liquid and join the solid, they leave behind a smaller volume of liquid in which the solute particles can roam. The resulting reduced entropy of the solute particles thus is independent of their properties. This approximation ceases to hold when the concentration becomes large enough for solute-solute interactions to become important.
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Depending upon the desired product, either the solvent or solute stream of reverse osmosis will be waste. For food concentration applications, the concentrated solute stream is the product and the solvent stream is waste. For water treatment applications, the solvent stream is purified water and the solute stream is concentrated waste. The solvent waste stream from food processing may be used as reclaimed water, but there may be fewer options for disposal of a concentrated waste solute stream.
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H.W. Smith, Circulation 21, 808 (1960) Theory of Solutions: A Knowledge of the Laws of Solutions ... # colligative properties which depend only on solute concentration and temperature, and are independent of the nature of the solute particles # additive properties such as mass, which are the sums of properties of the constituent particles and therefore depend also on the composition (or molecular formula) of the solute, and # constitutional properties which depend further on the molecular structure of the given solute.
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Also, the dislocation density cannot be infinitely high, because then the material would lose its crystalline structure.Citation needed This is a schematic illustrating how the lattice is strained by the addition of interstitial solute. Notice the strain in the lattice that the solute atoms cause. The interstitial solute could be carbon in iron for example.
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A solute dissolves in a solvent when it forms favorable interactions with the solvent. This dissolving process all depends upon the free energy change of both solute and solvent. The free energy of solvation is a combination of several factors. Solvation of solute by solvent First, a cavity must be created in the solvent.
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The classical and most reliable method of log P determination is the shake- flask method, which consists of dissolving some of the solute in question in a volume of octanol and water, then measuring the concentration of the solute in each solvent. The most common method of measuring the distribution of the solute is by UV/VIS spectroscopy.
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Solute- drag creep is characterized by serrated flow and is typically observed in metallic alloys that do not exhibit short-time creep behavior - the creep rate of these material increases during transient creep before reaching steady- state. Similar to solid-solution strengthening, the size misfit parameter between solute atoms and dislocations results in the restriction of dislocation motion. At low temperatures, the solute atoms do not have enough energy to move. However, at higher temperatures, the solute atoms become mobile and contribute to creep.
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Plants with a polymer-trapping mechanism may have an abundance of plasmodesmata, but this trait alone does not indicate this loading strategy. Therefore, to accurately determine phloem-loading mechanisms, the type and amount of transport solute must also be identified. A plant's phloem-loading strategy can be accurately determined by combining data on solute type, solute concentration and plasmodesmatal abundance.
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HPLC detectors fall into two main categories: universal or selective. Universal detectors typically measure a bulk property (e.g., refractive index) by measuring a difference of a physical property between the mobile phase and mobile phase with solute while selective detectors measure a solute property (e.g., UV-Vis absorbance) by simply responding to the physical or chemical property of the solute.
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Pure water is usually defined as having an osmotic potential (\Psi_\pi) of zero, and in this case, solute potential can never be positive. The relationship of solute concentration (in molarity) to solute potential is given by the van 't Hoff equation: :\Psi_\pi = - MiRT where M is the concentration in molarity of the solute, i is the van 't Hoff factor, the ratio of amount of particles in solution to amount of formula units dissolved, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. The water diffuses across the osmotic membrane to where the water potential is lowerFor example, when a solute is dissolved in water, water molecules are less likely to diffuse away via osmosis than when there is no solute. A solution will have a lower and hence more negative water potential than that of pure water.
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This is also true for solute atom with size greater than the solvent atom. Thus, the interaction energy dictated by the size effect is generally negative. The elastic modulus of the solute atom can also determine the extent of strengthening. For a “soft” solute with elastic modulus lower than that of the solvent, the interaction energy due to modulus mismatch (Umodulus) is negative, which reinforce the size interaction energy (Usize). In contrast, Umodulus is positive for a “hard” solute, which results in lower total interaction energy than a soft atom.
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Simple diffusion and osmosis are in some ways similar. Simple diffusion is the passive movement of solute from a high concentration to a lower concentration until the concentration of the solute is uniform throughout and reaches equilibrium. Osmosis is much like simple diffusion but it specifically describes the movement of water (not the solute) across a selectively permeable membrane until there is an equal concentration of water and solute on both sides of the membrane. Simple diffusion and osmosis are both forms of passive transport and require none of the cell's ATP energy.
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The atomic bonds are longer due to the smaller radius of the solute atom. Similarly, if a larger atom is added to the lattice a compressive stress field is created. The atomic bonds are shorter due to the larger radius of the solute atom. The stress fields created by adding solute atoms form the basis of the material strengthening process that occurs in alloys.
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By contrast, to dilute a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute. Unless two substances are miscible, there exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a solution. At this point, the solution is said to be saturated. If additional solute is added to a saturated solution, it will not dissolve, except in certain circumstances, when supersaturation may occur.
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Solute drag creep is one kind of mechanism for power law creep (PLC), involving both dislocation and diffusional flow. Solute drag creep is observed in certain metallic alloys. Their creep rate increases during the first stage of creep before a steady-state, which can be explained by a model associated with solid-solution strengthening. The size misfit between solute atoms and edge dislocations could restrict dislocation motion.
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Reverse osmosis is a separation process that uses pressure to force a solvent through a semi- permeable membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to the other side, forcing it from a region of high solute concentration through a membrane to a region of low solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure.
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Nonionic compounds do not dissociate, and form only 1 osmole of solute per 1 mole of solute. For example, a 1 mol/L solution of glucose is 1 osmol/L. Multiple compounds may contribute to the osmolarity of a solution.
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Solute carrier family 25, member 29 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A29 gene. The gene is also known as CACL and C14orf69. SLC25A29 belongs to a protein family of solute carriers called the mitochondrial carriers.
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Solute carrier family 22 (organic cation transporter), member 21 is a protein that in the house mouse is encoded by the Slc22a21 gene. The gene is also known as Octn3 and Slc22a9. Slc22a21 belongs to a protein family of solute carriers.
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In many simulations of a solute-solvent system the main focus is on the behavior of the solute with little interest of the solvent behavior particularly in those solvent molecules residing in regions far from the solute molecule. Solvents may influence the dynamic behavior of solutes via random collisions and by imposing a frictional drag on the motion of the solute through the solvent. The use of non-rectangular periodic boundary conditions, stochastic boundaries and solvent shells can all help reduce the number of solvent molecules required and enable a larger proportion of the computing time to be spent instead on simulating the solute. It is also possible to incorporate the effects of a solvent without needing any explicit solvent molecules present.
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Middle: With more molecules, there is a clear trend where the solute fills the container more and more uniformly. Bottom: With an enormous number of solute molecules, randomness becomes undetectable: The solute appears to move smoothly and systematically from high-concentration areas to low-concentration areas. This smooth flow is described by Fick's laws. Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion and were derived by Adolf Fick in 1855.
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So repetitive local stress maxima and minima could be detected during solute drag creep.
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Solvatochromism is the phenomenon observed when the colour due to a solute is different when that solute is dissolved in different solvents. Reichardt's dye dissolved in different solvents The solvatochromic effect is the way the spectrum of a substance (the solute) varies when the substance is dissolved in a variety of solvents. In this context, the dielectric constant and hydrogen bonding capacity are the most important properties of the solvent. With various solvents there is a different effect on the electronic ground state and excited state of the solute, so that the size of energy gap between them changes as the solvent changes.
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A convenient quantitation of the effect of a solute additive on the solubility of another solute may be obtained by the Setschetow equation:Singhai, A., 1992. Studies on solubilization, formulation and evaluation of some drugs, Dept. of Pharm. Sci. Dr. H. S. Gaur vishwavidhyalaya.
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In this case, the molar mass of the solute must be known. The molar mass of a solute is determined by comparing mB with the amount of solute dissolved. In this case, i must be known, and the procedure is primarily useful for organic compounds using a nonpolar solvent. Cryoscopy is no longer as common a measurement method as it once was, but it was included in textbooks at the turn of the 20th century.
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It is then neutralized with a base. Additives may either increase or decrease the solubility of a solute in a given solvent. These salts that increase solubility are said to ‘salt in’ the solute and those salts that decrease the solubility ‘salt out’ the solute. The effect of an additive depends very much on the influence it has on the structure of water or its ability to compete with the solvent water molecules.
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The first solvation shell of a sodium ion dissolved in water A solvation shell is the solvent interface of any chemical compound or biomolecule that constitutes the solute. When the solvent is water it is often referred to as a hydration shell or hydration sphere. The number of solvent molecules surrounding each unit of solute is called the hydration number of the solute. A classic example is when water molecules arrange around a metal ion.
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In order to remove or recover the extracted solute, SIR particles can be regenerated using low pressure steam stripping,MPPSystems, Macro Porous Polymer Extraction System - Water Purification, Akzo Nobel, Arnhem, p. 1-7. which is particularly effective for the recovery of volatile hydrocarbons. However, if the vapor pressure of the extracted solute is too low, or if the complexation between solute and extractant is too strong, other techniques need to be applied, e.g. pH swing.
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The carbon atoms in the interstitial sites of the lattice creates a stress field that impedes dislocation movement. This is a schematic illustrating how the lattice is strained by the addition of substitutional solute. Notice the strain in the lattice that the solute atom causes.
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Thus, SecDF does not only show sequence similarity but also structural similarity to secondary solute transporters.
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Liquids with high levels of solute usually require vertical heat exchangers which are more commonly used.
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In ion-exchange chromatography (IC), retention is based on the attraction between solute ions and charged sites bound to the stationary phase. Solute ions of the same charge as the charged sites on the column are excluded from binding, while solute ions of the opposite charge of the charged sites of the column are retained on the column. Solute ions that are retained on the column can be eluted from the column by changing the solvent conditions (e.g., increasing the ion effect of the solvent system by increasing the salt concentration of the solution, increasing the column temperature, changing the pH of the solvent, etc.).
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The retention time is the time from the start of signal detection to the time of the peak height of the Gaussian curve. From the variables in the figure above, the resolution, plate number, and plate height of the column plate model can be calculated using the equations: Resolution (Rs) Rs = 2(tRB – tRA)/(wB \+ wA) Where: tRB = retention time of solute B tRA = retention time of solute A wB = Gaussian curve width of solute B wA = Gaussian curve width of solute A Plate Number (N): N = (tR)2/(w/4)2 Plate Height (H): H = L/N Where L is the length of the column.
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Urea is damaging to living tissue so, to cope with this problem, some fish retain trimethylamine oxide. This provides a better solution to urea's toxicity. Sharks, having slightly higher solute concentration (i.e., above 1000 mOsm which is sea solute concentration), do not drink water like marine fish.
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Uncharged compounds such as methane can also be solvated by water and also have a hydration number. Although solvation shells can contain inner and outer shell solvent-solute interactions, the hydration number generally focuses on the inner shell solvent molecules that most directly interact with the solute.
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Kohler curves showing how the critical diameter and supersaturation are dependent upon the amount of solute. It's assumed here that the solute is a perfect sphere of sodium chloride.Köhler theory describes the process in which water vapor condenses and forms liquid cloud drops, and is based on equilibrium thermodynamics. It combines the Kelvin effect, which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface, and Raoult's Law, which relates the saturation vapor pressure to the solute.
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Solute carrier family 15 (H+/peptide transporter), member 2, also known as SLC15A2, is a human gene.
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This mechanism of fluid, electrolyte, and also small solute exchange is especially important in renal glomerular capillaries3.
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Molecular diffusion from a microscopic and macroscopic point of view. Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple line) and none on the right. The barrier is removed, and the solute diffuses to fill the whole container. Top: A single molecule moves around randomly.
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Major facilitator superfamily domain-containing protein 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MFSD9 gene. It is a potential solute carrier, and called atypical solute carrier since it is not named according to the SLC nomenclature. It is expressed both in central and peripheral organs.
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Substitutional solute in lattice Depending on the size of the alloying element, a substitutional solid solution or an interstitial solid solution can form. In both cases, the overall crystal structure is essentially unchanged. Substitutional solid solution strengthening occurs when the solute atom is large enough that it can replace solvent atoms in their lattice positions. Some alloying elements are only soluble in small amounts, whereas some solvent and solute pairs form a solution over the whole range of binary compositions.
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Solute drag creep shows a special phenomenon, which is called the Portevin-Le Chatelier effect. When the applied stress becomes sufficiently large, the dislocations will break away from the solute atoms since dislocation velocity increases with the stress. After breakaway, the stress decreases and the dislocation velocity also decreases, which allows the solute atoms to approach and reach the previously departed dislocations again, leading to a stress increase. The process repeats itself when the next local stress maximum is obtained.
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Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane toward a higher concentration of solute (lower concentration of solvent). In biological systems, the solvent is typically water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids, supercritical liquids, and even gases. When a cell is submerged in water, the water molecules pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules move out of the cell.
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When one substance is dissolved into another, a solution is formed. This is opposed to the situation when the compounds are insoluble like sand in water. In a solution, all of the ingredients are uniformly distributed at a molecular level and no residue remains. A solvent- solute mixture consists of a single phase with all solute molecules occurring as solvates (solvent-solute complexes), as opposed to separate continuous phases as in suspensions, emulsions and other types of non-solution mixtures.
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Solute carrier family 13 member 2 is a protein that is encoded in humans by the SLC13A2 gene.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A9 gene.
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Solute carrier family 25 member 39 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A39 gene.
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Solute carrier family 12 member 7 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC12A7 gene.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 18 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A18 gene.
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Solute carrier family 39 member 11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC39A11 gene.
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They can lower intracellular chloride concentrations below the electrochemical equilibrium potential. They are of solute carrier family 12.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 24 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A24 gene.
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In that case, the freezing point depression depends on particular properties of the solute other than its concentration.
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Solute carrier family 15, member 4 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the SLC15A4 gene.
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Solute carrier family 39 member 12 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC39A12 gene.
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Solute carrier family 16 member 12 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC16A12 gene.
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Solute carrier family 17 member 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC17A9 gene.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 14 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A14 gene.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the gene SLC22A1.
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Solute carrier family 9 member A4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC9A4 gene.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 15 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A15 gene.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 13 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A13 gene.
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Solute carrier family 23 member 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC23A1 gene.
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Solute carrier family 38 member 5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC38A5 gene.
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Solute carrier family 38 member 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC38A9 gene.
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Distribution law or the Nernst's distribution law gives a generalisation which governs the distribution of a solute between two non miscible solvents. This law was first given by Nernst who studied the distribution of several solutes between different appropriate pairs of solvents. C1/C2 = Kd Where Kd is called the distribution coefficient or the partition coefficient. Concentration of X in solvet A/concentration of X in solvent B=Kď If C1 denotes the concentration of solute X in solvent A & C2 denotes the concentration of solute X in solvent B; Nernst's distribution law can be expressed as C1/C2 = Kd. This law is only valid if the solute is in the same molecular form in both the solvents.
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Monocarboxylate transporter 10 (MCT 10), also known as aromatic amino acid transporter 1 and T-type amino acid transporter 1 (TAT1) and solute carrier family 16 member 10 (SLC16A10), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC16A10 gene. SLC16A10 is a member of the solute carrier family.
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According to the IUPAC definition, solubility is the analytical composition of a saturated solution expressed as a proportion of a designated solute in a designated solvent. Solubility may be stated in various units of concentration such as molarity, molality, mole fraction, mole ratio, mass (solute) per volume (solvent) and other units.
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An organic cation transport protein mediates the transport of organic cations across the cell membrane. These proteins are members of the solute carrier family, subfamily 22. This family of proteins can also transport zwitterions and anions, though it is a different subfamily of solute carrier proteins than the organic anion transporters.
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This equilibrium needs to be taken into account at high pH and when the solute concentration is extremely low.
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It often takes 3 or more hours after the solute is added for the static osmometer to reach equilibrium.
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In plants, this entails the water moving from the low concentration solute outside the cell, into the cell's vacuole.
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If 1kg of solvent has two moles of solute dissolved in it than it is a 2 molal solution.
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This results in favorable solute-solvent interactions and is also entropically favorable as the mixture is more disordered than when the solute and solvent are not mixed. Dissolution often occurs when the solute-solvent interactions are similar to the solvent-solvent interactions, signified by the term like dissolves like. Hence, polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents, whereas nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents. There is no one measure of solvent polarity and so classification of solvents based on polarity can be carried out using different scales.
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The "elution time" of a solute is the time between the start of the separation (the time at which the solute enters the column) and the time at which the solute elutes. In the same way, the elution volume is the volume of eluent required to cause elution. Under standard conditions for a known mix of solutes in a certain technique, the elution volume may be enough information to identify solutes. For instance, a mixture of amino acids may be separated by ion-exchange chromatography.
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Success of liquid–liquid extraction is measured through separation factors and decontamination factors. The best way to understand the success of an extraction column is through the liquid–liquid equilibrium (LLE) data set. The data set can then be converted into a curve to determine the steady state partitioning behavior of the solute between the two phases. The y-axis is the concentration of solute in the extract (solvent) phase, and the x-axis is the concentration of the solute in the raffinate phase.
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The polarity of the solute is crucial for the choice of stationary compound, which in an optimal case would have a similar polarity as the solute. Common stationary phases in open tubular columns are cyanopropylphenyl dimethyl polysiloxane, carbowax polyethyleneglycol, biscyanopropyl cyanopropylphenyl polysiloxane and diphenyl dimethyl polysiloxane. For packed columns more options are available.
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Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 3A1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLCO3A1 gene.
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Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 4A1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLCO4A1 gene.
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Osmotic concentration, formerly known as osmolarity,IUPAC goldbook is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre (L) of solution (osmol/L or Osm/L). The osmolarity of a solution is usually expressed as Osm/L (pronounced "osmolar"), in the same way that the molarity of a solution is expressed as "M" (pronounced "molar"). Whereas molarity measures the number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution, osmolarity measures the number of osmoles of solute particles per unit volume of solution. This value allows the measurement of the osmotic pressure of a solution and the determination of how the solvent will diffuse across a semipermeable membrane (osmosis) separating two solutions of different osmotic concentration.
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First, a cavity must form in the solvent to make space for a solute. This is both entropically and enthalpically unfavorable, as solvent ordering increases and solvent-solvent interactions decrease. Stronger interactions among solvent molecules leads to a greater enthalpic penalty for cavity formation. Next, a particle of solute must separate from the bulk.
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Many substances dissolve congruently (i.e. the composition of the solid and the dissolved solute stoichiometrically match). However, some substances may dissolve incongruently, whereby the composition of the solute in solution does not match that of the solid. This solubilization is accompanied by alteration of the "primary solid" and possibly formation of a secondary solid phase.
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Peptide transporter 1 (PepT 1) also known as solute carrier family 15 member 1 (SLC15A1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by SLC15A1 gene. PepT 1 is a solute carrier for oligopeptides. It functions in renal oligopeptide reabsorption and in the intestines in a proton dependent way, hence acting like a cotransporter.
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Diffusion is an example of the law of large numbers. Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (magenta line) and none on the right. The barrier is removed, and the solute diffuses to fill the whole container. _Top:_ With a single molecule, the motion appears to be quite random.
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When one substance dissolves into another, a solution is formed. A solution is a homogeneous mixture consisting of a solute dissolved into a solvent. The solute is the substance that is being dissolved, while the solvent is the dissolving medium. Solutions can be formed with many different types and forms of solutes and solvents.
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She looks to understand the relationship between ecosystem processes in lowland tropical systems and surface–subsurface water interactions. In streams around La Selva solute-rich groundwater is transferred through subsurface flow, which alters nearby ecosystems. She showed that this solute-rich ground water is responsible for almost half of stream discharge and can cause the build up of cations in streams during the dry season. Solute-rich groundwater is associated with underlying volcanic activity, which alters the chemistry of the water through geothermal modification in Puerto Viejo Sarapiquí, a town near La Selva Biological Station.
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Solvation involves different types of intermolecular interactions: hydrogen bonding, ion-dipole interactions, and van der Waals forces (which consist of dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and induced dipole-induced dipole interactions). Which of these forces are at play depends on the molecular structure and properties of the solvent and solute. The similarity or complementary character of these properties between solvent and solute determines how well a solute can be solvated by a particular solvent. Nile red at daylight (top row) and UV-light (second row) in different solvents.
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The Stokes radius or Stokes–Einstein radius of a solute is the radius of a hard sphere that diffuses at the same rate as that solute. Named after George Gabriel Stokes, it is closely related to solute mobility, factoring in not only size but also solvent effects. A smaller ion with stronger hydration, for example, may have a greater Stokes radius than a larger ion with weaker hydration. This is because the smaller ion drags a greater number of water molecules with it as it moves through the solution.
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The generalized transport reaction usually catalyzed by the members of this family is: solute (out) + nNa+ (out) → solute (in) + nNa+ (in). An ordered binding model of sodium/substrate transport suggests that sodium binds to the empty transporter first, thereby inducing a conformational alteration which increases the affinity of the transporter for the solute. The formation of the ternary complex induces another structural change that exposes sodium and substrate to the other site of the membrane. Substrate and sodium are released, and the empty transporter re-orientates in the membrane, allowing the cycle to start again.
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Osmolarity is distinct from molarity because it measures osmoles of solute particles rather than moles of solute. The distinction arises because some compounds can dissociate in solution, whereas others cannot. Ionic compounds, such as salts, can dissociate in solution into their constituent ions, so there is not a one- to-one relationship between the molarity and the osmolarity of a solution. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) dissociates into Na+ and Cl− ions. Thus, for every 1 mole of NaCl in solution, there are 2 osmoles of solute particles (i.e.
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The change in chemical potential of a solvent when a solute is added explains why boiling point elevation takes place. The boiling point elevation is a colligative property, which means that it is dependent on the presence of dissolved particles and their number, but not their identity. It is an effect of the dilution of the solvent in the presence of a solute. It is a phenomenon that happens for all solutes in all solutions, even in ideal solutions, and does not depend on any specific solute–solvent interactions.
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The process of osmosis over a semi-permeable membrane. The blue dots represent particles driving the osmotic gradient. Osmosis () is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.Osmosis, Encyclopædia Britannica on-line It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves across a selectively permeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations.
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Both of these notions have been conclusively refuted. The diffusion model of osmosis is rendered untenable by the fact that osmosis can drive water across a membrane toward a higher concentration of water. The "bound water" model is refuted by the fact that osmosis is independent of the size of the solute molecules—a colligative property—or how hydrophilic they are. It is hard to describe osmosis without a mechanical or thermodynamic explanation, but essentially there is an interaction between the solute and water that counteracts the pressure that otherwise free solute molecules would exert.
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Figure 1: Basic principle of extraction with SIR. Figure 1 to the right explains the basic principle, in which the organic extractant E is contained inside the pores of a porous particle. The solute S, which is initially dissolved in the aqueous phase surrounding the SIR particle, physically dissolves in the organic extractant phase during the extraction process. Furthermore, the solute S can react with the extractant to form a complex ES. This complexation of the solute with the extractant shifts the overall extraction equilibrium further towards the organic phase.
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Organic solute transporter beta, also known as OST-beta, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the OSTB gene.
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Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in the soil by reacting with H+ ions to form monosilicic acid (H4SiO4), a neutral solute.
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Solute carrier family 17 (vesicular glutamate transporter), member 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC17A6 gene.
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Solute carrier family 2 (facilitated glucose transporter), member 13 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A13 gene.
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Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 12 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A12 gene.
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Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A6 gene.
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Organic solute transporter alpha, also known as OST-alpha, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the OSTA gene.
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An amino acid transporter is a membrane transport protein that transports amino acids. They are mainly of the solute carrier family.
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For use in adsorption from liquids the equation is expressed based on solute density (molecules per volume) rather than the pressure.
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Solute carrier family 17 (organic anion transporter), member 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC17A3 gene.
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The degree of dissociation is the fraction of the original solute molecules that have dissociated. It is usually indicated by the Greek symbol \alpha. There is a simple relationship between this parameter and the van 't Hoff factor. If a fraction \alpha of the solute dissociates into n ions, then : i = \alpha n + (1 - \alpha) = 1 + \alpha (n - 1).
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Solvation is the process of reorganizing solvent and solute molecules into solvation complexes. Solvation involves bond formation, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. Solvation of a solute by water is called hydration. Solubility of solid compounds depends on a competition between lattice energy and solvation, including entropy effects related to changes in the solvent structure.
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Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1A2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLCO1A2 gene. This gene encodes a sodium- independent transporter which mediates cellular uptake of organic ions in the liver. Its substrates include bile acids, bromosulphophthalein, and some steroidal compounds. The protein is a member of the SLC21A family of solute carriers.
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As a result, a soft solute will strengthen a crystal more than a hard solute due to the synergistic strengthening by combining both size and modulus effects. The elastic interaction effects (i.e. size and modulus effects) dominate solid- solution strengthening for most crystalline materials. However, other effects, including charge and stacking fault effects, may also play a role.
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Membrane osmometry measurements are best used for 30,000 < M_n < 1,000,000 grams/mole. For M_n above 1,000,000 grams/mole, the solute is too dilute to create a measurable osmotic pressure. For M_n below 30,000 grams per mole, the solute permeates through the membrane and the measurements are inaccurate. Another issue for membrane osmometer is the limited membrane types.
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These properties are colligative in systems where the solute is essentially confined to the liquid phase. Boiling point elevation (like vapour pressure lowering) is colligative for non-volatile solutes where the solute presence in the gas phase is negligible. Freezing point depression is colligative for most solutes since very few solutes dissolve appreciably in solid solvents.
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The dissociation degree is the fraction of original solute molecules that have dissociated. It is usually indicated by the Greek symbol α. More accurately, degree of dissociation refers to the amount of solute dissociated into ions or radicals per mole. In case of very strong acids and bases, degree of dissociation will be close to 1.
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Solute carrier family 8 (sodium/lithium/calcium exchanger), member B1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC8B1 gene.
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Refilling involves the product flux-splitting from the biggest to the smallest cask, leading to the solute dislocation along the barrel set.
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Creep mechanisms which involve both dislocation creep and diffusional creep include solute-drag creep, dislocation climb-glide creep, and Harper-Dorn creep.
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Solute carrier family 6, member 18 also known as SLC6A18 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the SLC6A18 gene.
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Solute carrier family 6, member 20 also known as SLC6A20 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the SLC6A20 gene.
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Evidence from Bacillus cereus indicates thiamine uptake is coupled to proton translocation. This family includes human solute transporters SLC19A1, SLC19A2 and SLC19A3.
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If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell. Water passing through a semi-permeable membrane When the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane. The mechanism responsible for driving osmosis has commonly been represented in biology and chemistry texts as either the dilution of water by solute (resulting in lower concentration of water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore a diffusion of water along a concentration gradient) or by a solute's attraction to water (resulting in less free water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore net movement of water toward the solute).
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Monocarboxylate transporter 9 (MCT9, solute carrier family 16, member 9, SLC16A9) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC16A9 gene.
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Solute carrier family 22, member 4, also known as SLC22A4, is a human gene; the encoded protein is known as the ergothioneine transporter.
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Family of osmotic membrane processes, including reverse osmosis and forward osmosisThe simplest equation describing the relationship between osmotic and hydraulic pressures and water (solvent) flux is: J_w = A \left(\Delta \pi - \Delta P \right) where J_w is water flux, A is the hydraulic permeability of the membrane, Δπ is the difference in osmotic pressures on the two sides of the membrane, and ΔP is the difference in hydrostatic pressure (negative values of J_w indicating reverse osmotic flow). The modeling of these relationships is in practice more complex than this equation indicates, with flux depending on the membrane, feed, and draw solution characteristics, as well as the fluid dynamics within the process itself. The solute flux (J_s) for each individual solute can be modelled by Fick's Law J_s = B \Delta c Where B is the solute permeability coefficient and \Delta c is the trans-membrane concentration differential for the solute. It is clear from this governing equation that a solute will diffuse from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
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Osmometric thirst occurs when the solute concentration of the interstitial fluid increases. This increase draws water out of the cells, and they shrink in volume. The solute concentration of the interstitial fluid increases by high intake of sodium in diet or by the drop in volume of extracellular fluids (such as blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid) due to loss of water through perspiration, respiration, urination and defecation. The increase in interstitial fluid solute concentration causes water to migrate from the cells of the body, through their membranes, to the extracellular compartment, by osmosis, thus causing cellular dehydration.
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In biology, the "%" symbol is sometimes incorrectly used to denote mass concentration, also called "mass/volume percentage." A solution with 1 g of solute dissolved in a final volume of 100 mL of solution would be labeled as "1%" or "1% m/v" (mass/volume). The notation is mathematically flawed because the unit "%" can only be used for dimensionless quantities. "Percent solution" or "percentage solution" are thus terms best reserved for "mass percent solutions" (m/m = m% = mass solute/mass total solution after mixing), or "volume percent solutions" (v/v = v% = volume solute per volume of total solution after mixing).
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As mentioned before, osmosis may be opposed by increasing the pressure in the region of high solute concentration with respect to that in the low solute concentration region. The force per unit area, or pressure, required to prevent the passage of water (or any other high-liquidity solution) through a selectively permeable membrane and into a solution of greater concentration is equivalent to the osmotic pressure of the solution, or turgor. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the property depends on the concentration of the solute, but not on its content or chemical identity.
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All implicit solvation models rest on the simple idea that nonpolar atoms of a solute tend to cluster together or occupy nonpolar media, whereas polar and charged groups of the solute tend to remain in water. However, it is important to properly balance the opposite energy contributions from different types of atoms. Several important points have been discussed and investigated over the years.
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A colorimeter is a device used in colorimetry that measures the absorbance of particular wavelengths of light by a specific solution.Nuffield Advanced Chemistry (2003) It is commonly used to determine the concentration of a known solute in a given solution by the application of the Beer–Lambert law, which states that the concentration of a solute is proportional to the absorbance.
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Solute carrier family 25 member 46 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A46 gene. This protein is a member of the SLC25 mitochondrial solute carrier family. It is a transmembrane protein located in the mitochondrial outer membrane involved in lipid transfer from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to mitochondria. Mutations in this gene result in neuropathy and optic atrophy.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 8, or organic anion transporter 3 (OAT3), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A8 gene.
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Potassium-dependent sodium-calcium exchanger also known as solute carrier family 24 (SLC24) is a type of sodium-calcium exchanger that requires potassium to function.
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Sodium/hydrogen exchanger 10, also known as solute carrier family 9 member 10, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC9A10 gene.
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Solute carrier family 9, subfamily B (NHA2, cation proton antiporter 2), member 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC9B2 gene.
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The sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC5A2 (solute carrier family 5 (sodium/glucose cotransporter)) gene.
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Active phloem loading requires less carbon, allowing carbon allocation to other sinks in the plant, such as growth. Active phloem loading allows for higher growth potential. Herbaceous plants have a relatively high growth rate and many are active phloem loaders. Active loaders tend to have a high hydraulic conductivity and low solute concentrations, while passive loaders have high solute concentrations and a low hydraulic conductivity.
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NKCC proteins are membrane transport proteins that transport sodium (Na), potassium (K), and chloride (Cl) ions across the cell membrane. Because they move each solute in the same direction, NKCC proteins are considered symporters. They maintain electroneutrality by moving two positively charged solutes (sodium and potassium) alongside two parts of a negatively charged solute (chloride). Thus the stoichiometry of the transported solutes is 1Na:1K:2Cl.
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Weak bases and weak acids are generally weak electrolytes. In an aqueous solution there will be some CH3COOH and some CH3COO− and H+. A strong electrolyte is a solute that exists in solution completely or nearly completely as ions. Again, the strength of an electrolyte is defined as the percentage of solute that is ions, rather than molecules. The higher the percentage, the stronger the electrolyte.
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This distinguishes a suspension from a colloid, in which the suspended particles are smaller and do not settle.The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Colloids and suspensions are different from solution, in which the dissolved substance (solute) does not exist as a solid, and solvent and solute are homogeneously mixed. A suspension of liquid droplets or fine solid particles in a gas is called an aerosol.
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As the solution cools, the solubility of the solute in the solvent will gradually become smaller. The resultant solution is described as supersaturated, meaning that there is more solute dissolved in the solution than would be predicted by its solubility at that temperature. Crystallization can then be induced from this supersaturated solution and the resultant pure crystals removed by such methods as vacuum filtration and centrifugal separators. The remaining solution, once the crystals have been filtered out, is known as the mother liquor, and will contain a portion of the original solute (as predicted by its solubility at that temperature) as well as any impurities that were not filtered out.
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The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure and presence of other chemicals (including changes to the pH) of the solution. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration, where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution and begins to precipitate the excess amount of solute. Insolubility is the inability to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent. Most often, the solvent is a liquid, which can be a pure substance or a mixture.
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Solubility is commonly expressed as a concentration; for example, as g of solute per kg of solvent, g per dL (100mL) of solvent, molarity, molality, mole fraction, etc. The maximum equilibrium amount of solute that can dissolve per amount of solvent is the solubility of that solute in that solvent under the specified conditions. The advantage of expressing solubility in this manner is its simplicity, while the disadvantage is that it can strongly depend on the presence of other species in the solvent (for example, the common ion effect). Solubility constants are used to describe saturated solutions of ionic compounds of relatively low solubility (see solubility equilibrium).
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In any form of chromatography, the rate at which the solute moves down the column is a direct reflection of the percentage of time the solute spends in the mobile phase. To achieve separation in either elution or displacement chromatography, there must be appreciable differences in the affinity of the respective solutes for the stationary phase. Both methods rely on movement down the column to amplify the effect of small differences in distribution between the two phases. Distribution between the mobile and stationary phases is described by the binding isotherm, a plot of solute bound to (or partitioned into) the stationary phase as a function of concentration in the mobile phase.
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For example, in co-transport use is made of the gradients of certain solutes to transport a target compound against its gradient, causing the dissipation of the solute gradient. It may appear that, in this example, there is no energy use, but hydrolysis of the energy provider is required to establish the gradient of the solute transported along with the target compound. The gradient of the co-transported solute will be generated through the use of certain types of proteins called biochemical pumps. The discovery of the existence of this type of transporter protein came from the study of the kinetics of cross-membrane molecule transport.
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Schematic of semipermeable membrane during hemodialysis, where blood is red, dialysing fluid is blue, and the membrane is yellow. Semipermeable membrane is a type of biological or synthetic, polymeric membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it by Osmosis—or occasionally by more specialized processes of facilitated diffusion, passive transport or active transport. The rate of passage depends on the pressure, concentration, and temperature of the molecules or solutes on either side, as well as the permeability of the membrane to each solute. Depending on the membrane and the solute, permeability may depend on solute size, solubility, properties, or chemistry.
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Osmosis may be used directly to achieve separation of water from a solution containing unwanted solutes. A "draw" solution of higher osmotic pressure than the feed solution is used to induce a net flow of water through a semi- permeable membrane, such that the feed solution becomes concentrated as the draw solution becomes dilute. The diluted draw solution may then be used directly (as with an ingestible solute like glucose), or sent to a secondary separation process for the removal of the draw solute. This secondary separation can be more efficient than a reverse osmosis process would be alone, depending on the draw solute used and the feedwater treated.
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New York: Grune & Stratton, Inc., 1972; 228. It may also have some effect on the solute content and white blood cell concentration within the joint fluid.
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Members of the SSS family have been identified in bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. Almost all functionally well-characterized members normally catalyze solute uptake via Na+ symport.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 25 (SLC22A25), also known as organic anion transporter UST6, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A25 gene.
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Sodium/potassium/calcium exchanger 4 also known as solute carrier family 24 member 4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC24A4 gene.
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Cryoprotectants operate by increasing the solute concentration in cells. However, in order to be biologically viable they must easily penetrate and must not be toxic to cells.
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The adsorption and absorption rate of a diluted solute in gas or liquid solution to a surface or interface can be calculated using Fick's laws of diffusion.
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AdiC mirrors the common fold observed unexpectedly in four phylogenetically unrelated families of Na+-coupled solute transporters: BCCT (2.A.15), NCS1 (2.A.39), SSS (2.
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Acetyl-coenzyme A transporter 1 also known as solute carrier family 33 member 1 (SLC33A1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC33A1 gene.
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Solute carrier family 35, member F1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC35F1 gene. The gene is also known as C6orf169 or dJ230I3.1.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 10 (SLC22A10), also known as organic anion transporter 5 (OAT5), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A10 gene.
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Major facilitator superfamily domain containing 11 (MFSD11) is an atypical Solute carrier found in plasma membranes. HGNC ID:25458 TCDB: 2.A.1.58.3 MFSD11 cluster to AMTF10.
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Solute carrier family 12 member 8 (SLC12A8), also known as cation-chloride cotransporter 9 (CCC9), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC12A8 gene.
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HydroGeoSphere (HGS) is a 3D control-volume finite element groundwater model, and is based on a rigorous conceptualization of the hydrologic system consisting of surface and subsurface flow regimes. The model is designed to take into account all key components of the hydrologic cycle. For each time step, the model solves surface and subsurface flow, solute and energy transport equations simultaneously, and provides a complete water and solute balance.
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This stabilizes the system and creates a solvation shell (or hydration shell in the case of water) around each particle of solute. The solvent molecules in the immediate vicinity of a solute particle often have a much different ordering than the rest of the solvent, and this area of differently ordered solvent molecules is called the cybotactic region.Eric V. Anslyn; Dennis A. Dougherty (2006). Modern Physical Organic Chemistry.
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Solvents such as water can both donate and accept hydrogen bonds, making them excellent at solvating solutes that can donate or accept (or both) H-bonds. Some chemical compounds experience solvatochromism, which is a change in color due to solvent polarity. This phenomenon illustrates how different solvents interact differently with the same solute. Other solvent effects include conformational or isomeric preferences and changes in the acidity of a solute.
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There are two types of electrolytes: strong and weak. Strong electrolytes usually undergo complete ionization, and therefore they have higher conductivity than weak electrolytes, which undergo only partial ionization. For strong electrolytes, such as salts, strong acids and strong bases, the molar conductivity depends only weakly on concentration. On dilution there is a regular increase in the molar conductivity of strong electrolyte, due to the decrease in solute–solute interaction.
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Furthermore, the more solute molecules present, the more negative the solute potential is. Osmotic potential has important implications for many living organisms. If a living cell is surrounded by a more concentrated solution, the cell will tend to lose water to the more negative water potential (\Psi_w) of the surrounding environment. This can be the case for marine organisms living in sea water and halophytic plants growing in saline environments.
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When solute and solvent atoms differ in size, local stress fields are created that can attract or repel dislocations in their vicinity. This is known as the size effect. By relieving tensile or compressive strain in the lattice, the solute size mismatch can put the dislocation in a lower energy state. In substitutional solid solutions, these stress fields are spherically symmetric, meaning they have no shear stress component.
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Dissolved stream solutes can be considered either reactive or conservative. Reactive solutes are readily biologically assimilated by the autotrophic and heterotrophic biota of the stream; examples can include inorganic nitrogen species such as nitrate or ammonium, some forms of phosphorus (e.g., soluble reactive phosphorus), and silica. Other solutes can be considered conservative, which indicates that the solute is not taken up and used biologically; chloride is often considered a conservative solute.
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Sodium/substrate symport (or co-transport) is a widespread mechanism of solute transport across cytoplasmic membranes of pro- and eukaryotic cells. The energy stored in an inwardly directed electrochemical sodium gradient (sodium motive force, SMF) which is used to drive solute accumulation against a concentration gradient. The SMF is generated by primary sodium pumps (e.g. sodium/potassium ATPases, sodium translocating respiratory chain complexes) or via the action of sodium/proton antiporters.
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Another option is to obtain, at an approximately constant temperature, the precipitation of the crystals by increasing the solute concentration above the solubility threshold. To obtain this, the solute/solvent mass ratio is increased using the technique of evaporation. This process is insensitive to change in temperature (as long as hydration state remains unchanged). All considerations on control of crystallization parameters are the same as for the cooling models.
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As stress is applied, the dislocation velocity increases until the dislocation breaks away from the solute atoms. Then, the stress begins to decrease as the dislocation is breaking away, so the dislocation velocity decreases. This permits solute atoms to catch up to the dislocation, thereby increasing the stress once more. The stress then increases, and the cycle begins again, resulting in the serrations observed in the stress-strain diagram.
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This arrangement is mediated by the respective chemical properties of the solvent and solute, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole moment and polarizability.Lowery and Richardson, pp. 181–183 Solvation does not cause a chemical reaction or chemical configuration changes in the solute. However, solvation resembles a coordination complex formation reaction, often with considerable energetics (heat of solvation and entropy of solvation) and is thus far from a neutral process.
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Solute carrier family 22 (organic anion/cation transporter), member 12, also known as SLC22A12 and URAT1, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the SLC22A12 gene.
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CHED exhibits autosomal recessive inheritance, with 80% of cases linked to mutations in SLC4A11 gene. The SLC4A11 gene encodes solute carrier family 4, sodium borate transporter, member 11.
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Zinc transporter proteins (Zrt), or simply zinc transporters, are membrane transport proteins of the solute carrier family which control the membrane transport of zinc and regulate its intracellular and cytoplasmic concentrations. They include two major groups: (1) the zinc transporter (ZnT) or solute carrier 30 (SLC30) family, which controls the efflux of zinc from the cytoplasm out of the cell and from the cytoplasm into vesicles; and (2) the zinc importer, Zrt- and Irt-like protein (ZIP), or solute carrier 39A (SLC39A) family, which controls the influx of zinc into the cytoplasm from outside the cell and from vesicles. At least one zinc transporter, ZIP9, is also a G protein-coupled receptor and membrane androgen receptor.
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Equilibrium segregation is associated with the lattice disorder at interfaces, where there are sites of energy different from those within the lattice at which the solute atoms can deposit themselves. The equilibrium segregation is so termed because the solute atoms segregate themselves to the interface or surface in accordance with the statistics of thermodynamics in order to minimize the overall free energy of the system. This sort of partitioning of solute atoms between the grain boundary and the lattice was predicted by McLean in 1957. Non-equilibrium segregation, first theorized by Westbrook in 1964, occurs as a result of solutes coupling to vacancies which are moving to grain boundary sources or sinks during quenching or application of stress.
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Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 2B1 also known as organic anion-transporting polypeptide 2B1 (OATP2B1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the gene SLCO2B1.
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A.52), (7) organic solute transporters (OST); TC# 2.A.82), (8) phosphate:Na+ symporters (PNaS); TC# 2.A.58) and (9) lysosomal cystine transporters (LCT); TC# 2.A.43).
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Water Resources Program. Princeton Univ. Princeton, NJ.van Genuchten, M. Th. 1987. A numerical model for water and solute movement in and below the root zone. Research Report No 121.
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Supersaturation occurs with a chemical solution when the concentration of a solute exceeds the concentration specified by the value equilibrium solubility. Most commonly the term is applied to a solution of a solid in a liquid. A supersaturated solution is in a metastable state; it may be brought to equilibrium by forcing the excess of solute to separate from the solution. The term can also be applied to a mixture of gases.
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In 2011, Acta Materialia bestowed the Gold Medal to Narayan for acting as a pioneer in solid state materials science and his leadership worldwide. The idea that solute trapping can be utilized to fabricate novel materials was introduced by John Cahn in the early 1970s, which resulted in the development of quasicrystals on Mn solute trapping in Al-Mn alloys and eventual 2011 Nobel prize award to Dan Schetman for his work on quasicrystals.
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Research into high-entropy alloys has found that in multi-component systems, these rules tend to be relaxed slightly. In particular, the rule that solvent and solute elements must have the same crystal structure does not seem to apply, as Fe, Ni, Cr, Co, and Mn have 4 different crystal structures as pure elements (and when the elements are present in equal concentrations, there can be no meaningful distinction between "solvent" and "solute" elements).
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For ionic solids where electrostatic interaction dictates bond strength, charge effect is also important. For example, addition of divalent ion to a monovalent material may strengthen the electrostatic interaction between the solute and the charged matrix atoms that comprise a dislocation. However, this strengthening is to a less extent than the elastic strengthening effects. For materials containing a higher density of stacking faults, solute atoms may interact with the stacking faults either attractively or repulsively.
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Upon injection of the sample, solute molecules will exchange with the buffer ions as each competes for the binding sites on the resin. The length of retention for each solute depends upon the strength of its charge. The most weakly charged compounds will elute first, followed by those with successively stronger charges. Because of the nature of the separating mechanism, pH, buffer type, buffer concentration, and temperature all play important roles in controlling the separation.
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P. W. Atkins, Physical Chemistry, 4th Ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994, , p. 222-225 The phenomenon of freezing-point depression is analogous to boiling point elevation. However, the magnitude of the freezing point depression is larger than the boiling point elevation for the same solvent and the same concentration of a solute. Because of these two phenomena, the liquid range of a solvent is increased in the presence of a solute.
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They excrete highly concentrated urine which is approximately isosmotic to blood plasma, i.e. urine solute to plasma solute ratio is close to 1 (U/P≅1). Because of this, solely excreting urine is not sufficient to resolve the osmoregulatory problem in tunas. In turn, they excrete only the minimum volume of urine necessary to rid of solutes that are not excreted by other routes, and the salt is mostly excreted via gills.
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The Köhler curve is the visual representation of the Köhler equation. It shows the supersaturation at which the cloud drop is in equilibrium with the environment over a range of droplet diameters. The exact shape of the curve is dependent upon the amount and composition of the solutes present in the atmosphere. The Köhler curves where the solute is sodium chloride are different from when the solute is sodium nitrate or ammonium sulfate.
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The ability of one compound to be dissolved in another is known as solubility; if this occurs in all proportions, it is called miscible. In addition to mixing, the substances in a solution interact with each other at the molecular level. When something is dissolved, molecules of the solvent arrange around molecules of the solute. Heat transfer is involved and entropy is increased making the solution more thermodynamically stable than the solute and solvent separately.
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A bottle of acetic acid, a liquid solvent A solvent (from the Latin solvō, "loosen, untie, solve") is a substance that dissolves a solute, resulting in a solution. A solvent is usually a liquid but can also be a solid, a gas, or a supercritical fluid. The quantity of solute that can dissolve in a specific volume of solvent varies with temperature. Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g.
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The pipe is filled with a water solution, frozen, and bent while cold. The solute (soap can be used) makes the ice flexible. This technique is used to make trombones.
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Solvent molecules pass preferentially through the membrane from the low- concentration solution to the solution with higher solute concentration. The transfer of solvent molecules will continue until equilibrium is attained.
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The SLC14A1 codes for a urea transporter (UTB) that is expressed in erythrocytes and kidney. SLC14A2 and SLC14A1 constitute solute carrier family 14. UTB proteins constitute the Kidd antigen system.
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Solute-solvent hydrogen bonds in the first solvation shell are important for solubility of organic molecules and especially ions. Their average energetic contribution can be reproduced with an implicit solvent model.
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Biomarkers are also important for the expected response to therapy. Currently it has been proposed the protein SLC9A9 (gen Solute carrier family 9) as biomarker for the response to interferon beta.
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Zinc transporter SLC39A7 (ZIP7), also known as solute carrier family 39 member 7, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC39A7 gene. Its fruit fly orthologue is Catsup.
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The channels are found in the cell envelope and help facilitate solute transfer. They have similar characteristics as bacterial and mitochondrial porins, indicating physiological overlaps over all three domains of life.
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Thiamine transporter 2 (ThTr-2), also known as solute carrier family 19 member 3, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC19A3 gene. SLC19A3 is a thiamine transporter.
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In cases where the n_{2} of the solute is small, large discrepancies can arise when reporting the nonlinearity of the solute since the NLR of the solvent and cells must be subtracted from that of the solution. Thus, the determination of solute nonlinearities in regions where the NLR is similar to or much smaller than the solvent or cells has been difficult. Similarly, this problem occurs for thin-films deposited on a substrate, where both film and substrate exhibit two-photon absorption and nonlinear refraction. Dual-arm Z-scan is a modified version of the conventional Z-scan that can address this issue by simultaneously measuring and subtracting the effect of the solvent (or substrate) from the sample under study.
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Solute carrier family 26 member 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC26A6 gene. It is an anion-exchanger expressed in the apical membrane of the kidney proximal tubule, the apical membranes of the duct cells in the pancreas, and the villi of the duodenum. This gene belongs to the solute carrier 26 family, whose members encode anion transporter proteins. This particular family member encodes a protein involved in transporting chloride, oxalate, sulfate and bicarbonate.
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The Freundlich equation or Freundlich adsorption isotherm, an adsorption isotherm, is an empirical relation between the concentration of a solute on the surface of an adsorbent to the concentration of the solute in the liquid with which it is in contact. In 1909, Herbert Freundlich gave an expression representing the isothermal variation of adsorption of a quantity of gas adsorbed by unit mass of solid adsorbent with pressure.Freundlich, Herbert. Kapillarchemie, eine Darstellung der Chemie der Kolloide und verwandter Gebiete.
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Phases may also be differentiated based on solubility as in polar (hydrophilic) or non-polar (hydrophobic). A mixture of water (a polar liquid) and oil (a non-polar liquid) will spontaneously separate into two phases. Water has a very low solubility (is insoluble) in oil, and oil has a low solubility in water. Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a solvent before the solute ceases to dissolve and remains in a separate phase.
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See also: Solubility equilibrium The dissociation of salts by solvation in a solution like water means the separation of the anions and cations. The salt can be recovered by evaporation of the solvent. An electrolyte refers to a substance that contains free ions and can be used as an electrically conductive medium. Most of the solute does not dissociate in a weak electrolyte whereas in a strong electrolyte a higher ratio of solute dissociates to form free ions.
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As someone becomes fit, the body becomes more efficient at regulating the body's temperature and sweat glands adapt along with the body's other systems. Sweat is not pure water; it always contains a small amount (0.2–1%) of solute. When a person moves from a cold climate to a hot climate, adaptive changes occur in the sweating mechanisms of the person. This process is referred to as acclimatisation: the maximum rate of sweating increases and its solute composition decreases.
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In pinocytosis, a cell takes in ("gulps") extracellular fluid into vesicles, which are formed when plasma membrane surrounds the fluid. The cell can take in any molecule or solute through this process.
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Organic ion transporters, such as SLC22A15, transport various medically and physiologically important compounds, including pharmaceuticals, toxins, hormones, neurotransmitters, and cellular metabolites. These transporters are also referred to as amphiphilic solute facilitators (ASFs).
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Hollow fiber flow FFF (HF5) was developed by Lee et al. (1974).Lee H.L., Reis J.F.G., and Lightfoot E.N. (1974). Single-phase chromatography: Solute retardation by ultrafiltration and electrophoresis. AIChE Journal, vol.
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Only in vitro interaction studies are available. In these, tipiracil was transported by the solute carrier proteins SLC22A2 and SLC47A1. Drugs that interact with these transporters could influence blood plasma concentrations of tipiracil.
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Solute carrier family 52 (riboflavin transporter), member 3, formerly known as chromosome 20 open reading frame 54 and riboflavin transporter 2, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC52A3 gene.
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When a paint coating is applied on a metallic surface contaminated with soluble salts, an osmotic blistering process takes place (Figure 8.10). Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules (water) through a semipermeable membrane (coating film) into a region of higher solute concentration (the salt contaminated substrate). The process drives to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides, but because salt cannot pass through the membrane (coating) it can never equalize. Water continues to permeate into the region.
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By an IUPAC definition, solvation is an interaction of a solute with the solvent, which leads to stabilization of the solute species in the solution. In the solvated state, an ion in a solution is surrounded or complexed by solvent molecules. Solvated species can often be described by coordination number, and the complex stability constants. The concept of the solvation interaction can also be applied to an insoluble material, for example, solvation of functional groups on a surface of ion-exchange resin.
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The osmotic potential is made possible due to the presence of both inorganic and organic solutes in the soil solution. As water molecules increasingly clump around solute ions or molecules, the freedom of movement, and thus the potential energy, of the water is lowered. As the concentration of solutes is increased, the osmotic potential of the soil solution is reduced. Since water has a tendency to move toward lower energy levels, water will want to travel toward the zone of higher solute concentrations.
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His invention of Nano-Pocket LEDs is the key architecture utilized in the efficient Gallium Nitride-based light emitting diodes. In the late 1970s Narayan pioneered in solute trapping of dopants in semiconductor materials with his discoveries of nanosecond laser annealing. This extensive solute trapping above the retrograde solubility limits resulted in formation of supersaturated semiconductor alloys used in current integrated circuits. This discovery resulted in him receiving US Department of Energy award in 1981 and IR-100 award in 1983.
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Leaching is the process of a solute becoming detached or extracted from its carrier substance by way of a solvent. Leaching is a naturally occurring process which scientists have adapted for a variety of applications with a variety of methods. Specific extraction methods depend on the soluble characteristics relative to the sorbent material such as concentration, distribution, nature, and size. Leaching can occur naturally seen from plant substances (inorganic and organic), solute leaching in soil, and in the decomposition of organic materials.
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This phenomenon is the Portevin-LeChatelier effect and is only observed over limited strain-rate conditions. If the strain rate is high enough, the flow stress is greater than the breakaway stress, and the dislocation continues to move and the solute atom cannot "catch up," thus serrated flow is not observed. Schematic stress- strain curve of a material exhibiting serrated flow. The local stress maxima are from the stress required for dislocation to breakaway from the solute atoms pinning them.
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Higher levels of potassium in the roots creates a greater amount of photosynthesis in the leaves by helping to control osmosis occurring throughout the cells. By controlling potassium, the HAK5 potassium transporter plays this important role in osmosis, and creates large influxes of water molecules to the plant to ensure its survival. By increasing the affinity of potassium uptake within the plant, it lowers the concentration of water within the cell. This increases the concentration of solute outside, creating a hypotonic solute.
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This system is not seen in animal cells, as the absence of a cell wall would cause the cell to lyse when under too much pressure. The pressure exerted by the osmotic flow of water is called turgidity. It is caused by the osmotic flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic flow of water through a semipermeable membrane is when the water travels from an area with a low-solute concentration, to one with a higher-solute concentration.
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Ladanyi's work improved our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of solvation dynamics and their dependence on the solute, the solvent, and the perturbation in solute-solvent interactions. She was the first to show that the solvent's response is highly nonlinear for a variety of solutes in hydrogen bonding solvents and that solute-solvent hydrogen-bond formation is an important solvation mechanism in these systems. She developed methods, including instantaneous normal mode analysis, to uncover mechanistic information about solvation in systems that exhibit approximately linear response. With the advent of ultrafast spectroscopic techniques, the short- time nondiffusive dynamics in liquids became experimentally accessible and Ladanyi actively developed and implemented the theoretical framework for identifying and analyzing the molecular mechanisms contributing to the short- time response of fluids to perturbations relevant to experimental probes.
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A second advantage of using electroosmosis to pass the mobile phase into the column is the plug-like flow velocity profile of EOF, which reduces the solute dispersion in the column, increasing column efficiency.
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Gaseous gallane is a hydrophilic (non-polar) aprotic solute. It dissolves in polar compounds such as tetramethylethylenediamine, from which it can be crystallised as gallane—N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethane-1,2-diamine (1/1).
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It drains a heavily forested region where the driest months are December to February, but rain is common in the dry season. It is a classic blackwater river with low pH, conductivity, solute and nutrients.
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Solute carrier family 12 member 9 (SLC12A9), also known as cation-chloride cotransporter 6 (CCC6) or cation-chloride cotransporter-interacting protein 1 (CIP1), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC12A9 gene.
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This is incorrect because the unit "%" can only be used for dimensionless quantities. Instead, the concentration should simply be given in units of g/mL. Percent solution or percentage solution are thus terms best reserved for mass percent solutions (m/m, m%, or mass solute/mass total solution after mixing), or volume percent solutions (v/v, v%, or volume solute per volume of total solution after mixing). The very ambiguous terms percent solution and percentage solutions with no other qualifiers continue to occasionally be encountered.
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In active transport a solute is moved against a concentration or electrochemical gradient; in doing so the transport proteins involved consume metabolic energy, usually ATP. In primary active transport the hydrolysis of the energy provider (e.g. ATP) takes place directly in order to transport the solute in question, for instance, when the transport proteins are ATPase enzymes. Where the hydrolysis of the energy provider is indirect as is the case in secondary active transport, use is made of the energy stored in an electrochemical gradient.
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If the solute is a crystalline solid, the argument is much the same. A crystal has no spatial uncertainty at all, except for crystallographic defects, and a (perfect) crystal allows us to localize the molecules using the crystal symmetry group. The fact that volumes do not add when dissolving a solid in a liquid is not important for condensed phases. If the solute is not crystalline, we can still use a spatial lattice, as good an approximation for an amorphous solid as it is for a liquid.
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Although materials with higher melting points are more stable at room temperatures, consolidating nanocrystalline feedstock into a macroscopic component often requires exposing the material to elevated temperatures for extended periods of time, which will result in coarsening of the nanocrystalline microstructure. Thus, thermally stable nanocrystalline alloys are of considerable engineering interest. Experiments have shown that traditional microstructural stabilization techniques such as grain boundary pinning via solute segregation or increasing solute concentrations have proven successful in some alloy systems, such as Pd-Zr and Ni-W .
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Sodium/hydrogen exchanger 11, also known as solute carrier family 9, member 11, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC9A11 gene. SLC9A11 is a member of the sodium-hydrogen exchanger (NHE) family.
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Membrane-associated transporter protein (MATP), also known as solute carrier family 45 member 2 (SLC45A2) or melanoma antigen AIM1, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC45A2 gene. chromosome 5 at position 13.2.
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The sodium-hydrogen antiporter 1 (NHE-1) also known as sodium/hydrogen exchanger 1 or SLC9A1 (SoLute Carrier family 9A1) is an isoform of sodium–hydrogen antiporter that in humans is encoded by the SLC9A1 gene.
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When limestone contains cracks, water oozes into the rock and starts to widen the cracks and solute caves inside the layers. Through the cooling and heating of this water, the formation of the caves are made.
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The programs are for this purpose written in such a way that almost any application that can be run in a direct mode can equally well be run in an inverse mode, and thus for model calibration and parameter estimation. The HYDRUS packages use a Microsoft Windows based graphical user interface (GUI) to manage the input data required to run the program, as well as for nodal discretization and editing, parameter allocation, problem execution, and visualization of results. All spatially distributed parameters, such as those for various soil horizons, the root water uptake distribution, and the initial conditions for water, heat and solute movement, are specified in a graphical environment. The program offers graphs of the distributions of the pressure head, water content, water and solute fluxes, root water uptake, temperature and solute concentrations in the subsurface at pre-selected times.
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The solute carriers and atypical SLCs are secondary active or facilitative transporters in humans. Collectively membrane transporters and channels are transportome. Transportomes govern cellular influx and efflux of not only ions and nutrients but drugs as well.
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Sodium/bile acid cotransporter also known as the Na+-taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP) or liver bile acid transporter (LBAT) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC10A1 (solute carrier family 10 member 1) gene.
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By spinning samples at constant angular velocity ω and observing the variation in the concentration c(r, t), one may estimate the parameters s and D and, thence, the (effective or equivalent) buoyant mass of the solute.
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Major facilitator superfamily domain containing 14B (MFSD14B, HIATL1) is an atypical solute carrier of MFS type. It locates to intracellular membranes. HGNC:23376 TCDB: 2.A.1.2.30 MFSD14B cluster to AMTF1, together with MFSD9, MFSD10 and MFSD14A.
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The Casparian strip, a cell wall outside the stele but within the root, prevents passive flow of water and nutrients, helping to regulate the uptake of nutrients and water. Xylem moves water and mineral ions within the plant and phloem accounts for organic molecule transportation. Water potential plays a key role in a plant's nutrient uptake. If the water potential is more negative within the plant than the surrounding soils, the nutrients will move from the region of higher solute concentration—in the soil—to the area of lower solute concentration - in the plant.
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The brain endothelial tight junctions virtually eliminate the paracellular pathway of solute transport across the microvascular endothelial wall in brain. In contrast, the endothelial barrier in peripheral organs does not express tight junctions, and solute movement through the paracellular pathway is prominent at the endothelial barrier in organs other than the brain or spinal cord. Receptor-mediated transcytosis, or RMT, across the BBB is a potential pathway for drug delivery to the brain, particularly for biologic drugs such as recombinant proteins. The non-transportable drug, or therapeutic protein, is genetically fused to a transporter protein.
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Time- lapse of growth of a citric acid crystal. The video covers an area of 2.0 by 1.5 mm and was captured over 7.2 min. The crystallization process consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth which are driven by thermodynamic properties as well as chemical properties. In crystallization Nucleation is the step where the solute molecules or atoms dispersed in the solvent start to gather into clusters, on the microscopic scale (elevating solute concentration in a small region), that become stable under the current operating conditions.
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This approximation breaks down as the solute concentration is increased (for example, in water–NaCl mixtures). High solute concentrations are often not physiologically relevant, but are occasionally encountered in pharmacology, where the mass per volume notation is still sometimes encountered. An extreme example is saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI) which attains 100 "%" m/v potassium iodide mass concentration (1 gram KI per 1 mL solution) only because the solubility of the dense salt KI is extremely high in water, and the resulting solution is very dense (1.72 times as dense as water).
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Solvent models have been extensively tested and reviewed in scientific literature. The various models can generally be divided into two classes, explicit and implicit models, all of which have their own advantages and disadvantages. Implicit models are generally computationally efficient and can provide a reasonable description of the solvent behavior, but fail to account for the local fluctuations in solvent density around a solute molecule. The density fluctuation behavior is due to solvent ordering around a solute and is particularly prevalent when one is considering water as the solvent.
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When a solute dissolves, it may form several species in the solution. For example, an aqueous suspension of ferrous hydroxide, , will contain the series [x(OH)x](2x)+ as well as other species. Furthermore, the solubility of ferrous hydroxide and the composition of its soluble components depend on pH. In general, solubility in the solvent phase can be given only for a specific solute that is thermodynamically stable, and the value of the solubility will include all the species in the solution (in the example above, all the iron-containing complexes).
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For the solvent, the presence of the solute decreases its vapor pressure by dilution. A nonvolatile solute has a vapor pressure of zero, so the vapor pressure of the solution is less than the vapor pressure of the solvent. Thus, a higher temperature is needed for the vapor pressure to reach the surrounding pressure, and the boiling point is elevated. Put in chemical potential terms, at the boiling point, the liquid phase and the gas (or vapor) phase have the same chemical potential (or vapor pressure) meaning that they are energetically equivalent.
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Therefore, a smaller solute will remain within the pore for a longer period of time compared to a larger solute. Another use of size exclusion chromatography is to examine the stability and characteristics of natural organic matter in water. In this method, Margit B. Muller, Daniel Schmitt, and Fritz H. Frimmel tested water sources from different places in the world to determine how stable the natural organic matter is over a period of time. Even though, size exclusion chromatography is widely utilized to study natural organic material, there are limitations.
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The enthalpy of solution, enthalpy of dissolution, or heat of solution is the enthalpy change associated with the dissolution of a substance in a solvent at constant pressure resulting in infinite dilution. The enthalpy of solution is most often expressed in kJ/mol at constant temperature. The energy change can be regarded as being made of three parts, the endothermic breaking of bonds within the solute and within the solvent, and the formation of attractions between the solute and the solvent. An ideal solution has a null enthalpy of mixing.
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Hydrus is a suite of Windows-based modeling software that can be used for analysis of water flow, heat and solute transport in variably saturated porous media (e.g., soils). HYDRUS suite of software is supported by an interactive graphics-based interface for data-preprocessing, discretization of the soil profile, and graphic presentation of the results. While HYDRUS-1D simulates water flow, solute and heat transport in one-dimension, and is a public domain software, HYDRUS 2D/3D extends the simulation capabilities to the second and third dimensions, and is distributed commercially.
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Plasma osmolality measures the body's electrolyte-water balance."Osmolality," Lab Tests Online, accessed 2012-01-11. There are several methods for arriving at this quantity through measurement or calculation. Osmolality and osmolarity are measures that are technically different, but functionally the same for normal use. Whereas osmolality (with an “l”) is defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per kilogram of solvent (osmol/kg or Osm/kg), osmolarity (with an “r”) is defined as the number of osmoles of solute per liter (L) of solution (osmol/L or Osm/L).
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Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its identity. Osmosis is a vital process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids as well as to small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size.
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375px Osmosis is the process in which water flows from an area with a low solute concentration, to an adjacent area with a higher solute concentration until equilibrium between the two areas is reached. All cells are surrounded by a lipid bi-layer cell membrane which permits the flow of water in and out of the cell while also limiting the flow of solutes. In hypertonic solutions, water flows out of the cell which decreases the cell's volume. When in a hypotonic solution, water flows into the membrane and increases the cell's volume.
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This reduced delivery of solute to the collecting tubule and medullary collecting duct allows increased water resorption and higher concentration of urine, which leads to reversal of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus by a means that is independent of vasopressin.
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Solute flow is driven by a difference in hydraulic pressure created from the unloading of solutes in the sink tissues.Lambers, Hans (2008). Plant Physiological Ecology. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. p. 153. .
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Major facilitator superfamily domain containing 3 (MFSD3) is a protein belonging to the MFS Pfam clan. It is an Atypical solute carrier located to the neuronal plasma membrane. HGNC:25157 TCDB: 2.A.1.25.4 MFSD3 belongs to AMTF15.
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The whorls are rather convex, the body whorl scarcely angled. The margin of the umbilicus is dentate. The columella is very oblique, not solute above and terminates below in a simple denticle. The lip is thickened and corrugated within.
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Transport may involve one or more of each type of solute. For example, the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger, found in the plasma membrane of many cells, moves three sodium ions in one direction, and one calcium ion in the other.
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However, brain interstitial fluid pressure and water content were unaffected. These data suggested that meningeal lymphatic vessels are important for the clearance of macromolecules from the brain parenchyma, but in physiological settings the brain can compensate in solute clearance.
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This way, the extraction of the solute is enhanced.Babić, K.; van der Ham, A. G. J.; de Haan, A. B. (2008). “Sorption kinetics for the removal of aldehydes from aqueous streams with extractant impregnated resins.” Adsorption 14: 357-366.
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Specific proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the kidney with podocin and nephrin expressed in glomeruli, Solute carrier family protein SLC22A8 expressed in proximal tubules, calbindin expressed in distal tubules and aquaporin 2 expressed in the collecting duct cells.
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The low affinity sodium-glucose cotransporter also known as the sodium/glucose cotransporter 3 (SGLT3) or solute carrier family 5 member 4 (SLC5A4) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC5A4 gene. It functions as a sugar sensor.
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ADP/ATP translocase 3, also known as solute carrier family 25 member 6, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A6 gene. Identical copies of this gene reside on the pseudoautosomal regions of the X and Y chromosomes.
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Spray drying nozzles. Schematic illustration of spray drying process. A spray dryer takes a liquid stream and separates the solute or suspension as a solid and the solvent into a vapor. The solid is usually collected in a drum or cyclone.
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Solute carrier family 13 (sodium-dependent citrate transporter), member 5 also known as the Na+/citrate cotransporter or mIndy is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC13A5 gene. It is the mammalian homolog of the fly Indy (gene).
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Osmobiosis is the least studied of all types of cryptobiosis. Osmobiosis occurs in response to increased solute concentration in the solution the organism lives in. Little is known for certain, other than that osmobiosis appears to involve a cessation of metabolism.
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Integrating field work and modelling: The Birkenes case. I: Trudgill, S.T. (ed.), Solute Modelling in Catchment Systems. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 387-415 There, he emphasized the impact of acid rain on acidification of waters and on fish mortality.
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Major facilitator superfamily domain containing 14A (MFSD14A, HIAT1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MFSD14A gene. MFSD14A is an atypical solute carrier of MFS type . HGNC:23363 MFSD14A cluster to AMTF1, together with MFSD9, MFSD10 and MFSD14B.
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The COSMO-RS dispersion energy of a solute depends on an element (k) specific prefactor γ and the amount of exposed surface A of this element. It is not part of the interaction energy but enters the chemical potential directly.
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Major facilitator superfamily domain containing 5 (MFSD5, hsMOT) is an atypical SLC expressed in neuronal plasma membranse. It is a plausible Solute carrier transporter. It transports molybdate anions, and it interacts with GLP-1R. HGNC:28156 MFSD5 belongs to AMTF6.
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This is commonly used on the small scale in chemical labs. It is normal to use a separating funnel. Processes include DLLME and direct organic extraction. After equilibration, the extract phase containing the desired solute is separated out for further processing.
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Photographer: Armin Kübelbeck, CC-BY-SA, Wikimedia Commons Solvent polarity is the most important factor in determining how well it solvates a particular solute. Polar solvents have molecular dipoles, meaning that part of the solvent molecule has more electron density than another part of the molecule. The part with more electron density will experience a partial negative charge while the part with less electron density will experience a partial positive charge. Polar solvent molecules can solvate polar solutes and ions because they can orient the appropriate partially charged portion of the molecule towards the solute through electrostatic attraction.
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Leaching can also be applied affectedly to enhance water quality and contaminant removal, as well as for disposal of hazardous waste products such as fly ash, or rare earth elements (REEs). Understanding leaching characteristics is important in preventing or encouraging the leaching process and preparing for it in the case where it is inevitable. In an ideal leaching equilibrium stage, all the solute is dissolved by the solvent, leaving the carrier of the solute unchanged. The process of leaching however is not always ideal, and can be quite complex to understand and replicate, and often different methodologies will produce different results.
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Osmotic shock or osmotic stress is physiologic dysfunction caused by a sudden change in the solute concentration around a cell, which causes a rapid change in the movement of water across its cell membrane. Under conditions of high concentrations of either salts, substrates or any solute in the supernatant, water is drawn out of the cells through osmosis. This also inhibits the transport of substrates and cofactors into the cell thus “shocking” the cell. Alternatively, at low concentrations of solutes, water enters the cell in large amounts, causing it to swell and either burst or undergo apoptosis.
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The very ambiguous terms "percent solution" and "percentage solutions" with no other qualifiers, continue to occasionally be encountered. This common usage of % to mean m/v in biology is because of many biological solutions being dilute and water-based or an aqueous solution. Liquid water has a density of approximately 1 g/cm3 (1 g/mL). Thus 100 mL of water is equal to approximately 100 g. Therefore, a solution with 1 g of solute dissolved in final volume of 100 mL aqueous solution may also be considered 1% m/m (1 g solute in 99 g water).
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In chemistry and biology, the dilution ratio is the ratio of solute to solvent. It is often used for simple dilutions, one in which a unit volume of a liquid material of interest is combined with an appropriate volume of a solvent liquid to achieve the desired concentration. The diluted material must be thoroughly mixed to achieve the true dilution. For example, in a 1:5 dilution, with a 1:5 dilution ratio, entails combining 1 unit volume of solute (the material to be diluted) with 5 unit volumes of the solvent to give 6 total units of total volume.
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Frank and Hess studies the Sporendonema epizoum (synonym of W. sebi) that grow on dried salted fish and suggested it to be halophilic in 1941. Wallemia sebi is now recognized as xerophilic fungi because of independence of solute used to lower the water activity. Pitt and Hocking report that W.sebi grows more rapidly in NaCl that other solutes at neutral pH, but have no requirement for NaCl as a solute in 1977. This species is abundant in house dust and suspected to be a causative agent for atopic diseases in the study conducted by Sakamono et al.
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It can also occur as a result of solute pile-up at a moving interface. There are two main features of non- equilibrium segregation, by which it is most easily distinguished from equilibrium segregation. In the non-equilibrium effect, the magnitude of the segregation increases with increasing temperature and the alloy can be homogenized without further quenching because its lowest energy state corresponds to a uniform solute distribution. In contrast, the equilibrium segregated state, by definition, is the lowest energy state in a system that exhibits equilibrium segregation, and the extent of the segregation effect decreases with increasing temperature.
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Segregation of a solute to surfaces and grain boundaries in a solid produces a section of material with a discrete composition and its own set of properties that can have important (and often deleterious) effects on the overall properties of the material. These ‘zones’ with an increased concentration of solute can be thought of as the cement between the bricks of a building. The structural integrity of the building depends not only on the material properties of the brick, but also greatly on the properties of the long lines of mortar in between. Image:segregation in materials 1.
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Appropriate ADH secretion is regulated by osmoreceptors on the hypothalamic cells that synthesize and store ADH: plasma hypertonicity activates these receptors, ADH is released into the blood stream, the kidney increases solute-free water return to the circulation, and the hypertonicity is alleviated. Inappropriate (increased) ADH secretion causes an unrelenting increase in solute-free water ("free water") absorption by the kidneys, with two consequences. First, in the extracellular fluid (ECF) space, there is a dilution of blood solutes, causing hypoosmolality, including a low sodium concentration - hyponatremia. Then virtually simultaneously, in the intracellular space, cells swell, i.e.
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Solvophobic theory attempts to explain interactions between polar solvents and non-polar solutes. In the pure solvent, there are relatively strong cohesive forces between the solvent molecules due to hydrogen bonding or other polar interactions. Hence, non-polar solutes tend not to be soluble in polar solvents because these solvent-solvent binding interactions must be overcome first. When applied to liquid chromatography (LC), solvophobic theory attributes the retention of solutes on the stationary phase partly to the rejection of solute molecules by the solvent, and partly to the attraction of the solute molecules by the stationary phase.
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Molecular weight cut-off or MWCO refers to the lowest molecular weight solute (in daltons) in which 90% of the solute is retained by the membrane, or the molecular weight of the molecule (e.g. globular protein) that is 90% retained by the membrane. This definition is not however standardized, and MWCOs can also be defined as the molecular weight at which 80% of the analytes (or solutes) are prohibited from membrane diffusion. Commercially available microdialysis probes typically have molecular weight cutoffs that range from 1,000 to 300,000 Da, and larger thresholds of filtration are measured in µm.
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Unc-93 homolog A (C. elegans) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UNC93A gene. Unc93A is a major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and a putative solute carrier in humans. It belongs to the atypical SLCs that was recently listed.
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These are "pores that are sufficiently small that water within these pores is considered immobile, but available for plant extraction." Because there is little movement of water in these pores, solute movement is mainly by the process of diffusion. Size 5–30 μm.
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The SLC6 family of proteins, which includes SLC6A18, acts as specific transporters for neurotransmitters, amino acids, and osmolytes like betaine, taurine, and creatine. SLC6 proteins are sodium cotransporters that derive the energy for solute transport from the electrochemical gradient for sodium ions.
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It is better to abandon such concepts as 'pure substance' or 'solute' is such cases and speak of phases instead. The study of such phases has traditionally been more the domain of metallurgy than of chemistry, although the two fields overlap considerably.
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It is basic in nature with a pH of 12.4. Limewater may be prepared by mixing calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) with water and removing excess undissolved solute (e.g. by filtration). When excess calcium hydroxide is added (or when environmental conditions are altered, e.g.
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Most authors place the extent of this effect between 5 and 45 cal/(Å2 mol). Note that this surface area pertains to the solute, while the hydrophobic effect is mostly entropic in nature at physiological temperatures and occurs on the side of the solvent.
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The γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) receptor (GHBR), originally identified as GPR172A, is an excitatory G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that binds the neurotransmitter and psychoactive drug γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). As solute carrier family 52 member 2 (SLC52A2), it is also a transporter for riboflavin.
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Water absorption is passive and isotonic - depending on the speed and direction of solute flow. Other factors influencing fluid absorption are osmolarity and the specific intestinal region. Regulated selective permability is performed through two major routes: the transcellular (transepithelial) route and the paracellular route.
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Atypical SLCs are novel plausible secondary active or facilitative transporter proteins that share ancestral background with the known solute carriers. However, they have not been assigned a name according to the SLC root system, or been classified into any of the existing SLC families.
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The current generated from a microbial fuel cell is directly proportional to the organic-matter content of wastewater used as the fuel. MFCs can measure the solute concentration of wastewater (i.e., as a biosensor). Wastewater is commonly assessed for its biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) values.
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The analyte combines with its reciprocal ion in the IRP, this corresponds to retention time. Often organic salts are selected to pair with solute(s). The formation of this pair affects the interaction of the pair with the mobile phase and the stationary phase.
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Voltage-gated chloride channels display a variety of important physiological and cellular roles that include regulation of pH, volume homeostasis, organic solute transport, cell migration, cell proliferation and differentiation. Based on sequence homology the chloride channels can be subdivided into a number of groups.
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The partial pressure gradient, also known as the concentration gradient, can be used as a model for the driving mechanism of diffusion. The partial pressure gradient is the variation of partial pressure (or more accurately, the concentration) of the solute (dissolved gas) from one point to another in the solvent. The solute molecules will randomly collide with the other molecules present, and tend over time to spread out until the distribution is statistically uniform. This has the effect that molecules will diffuse from regions of higher concentration (partial pressure) to regions of lower concentration, and the rate of diffusion is proportional to the rate of change of the concentration.
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Despite formal recommendation to the contrary, the term partition coefficient remains the predominantly used term in the scientific literature. In contrast, the IUPAC recommends that the title term no longer be used, rather, that it be replaced with more specific terms. For example, partition constant, defined as where KD is the process equilibrium constant, [A] represents the concentration of solute A being tested, and "org" and "aq" refer to the organic and aqueous phases respectively. The IUPAC further recommends "partition ratio" for cases where transfer activity coefficients can be determined, and "distribution ratio" for the ratio of total analytical concentrations of a solute between phases, regardless of chemical form.
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As mentioned above, a crystal is formed following a well-defined pattern, or structure, dictated by forces acting at the molecular level. As a consequence, during its formation process the crystal is in an environment where the solute concentration reaches a certain critical value, before changing status. Solid formation, impossible below the solubility threshold at the given temperature and pressure conditions, may then take place at a concentration higher than the theoretical solubility level. The difference between the actual value of the solute concentration at the crystallization limit and the theoretical (static) solubility threshold is called supersaturation and is a fundamental factor in crystallization.
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In particular, ionic liquids, which are molten salts with melting points below 100 °C, are a type of highly conductive non-aqueous electrolytes and thus have found more and more applications in fuel cells and batteries. An electrolyte in a solution may be described as "concentrated" if it has a high concentration of ions, or "diluted" if it has a low concentration. If a high proportion of the solute dissociates to form free ions, the electrolyte is strong; if most of the solute does not dissociate, the electrolyte is weak. The properties of electrolytes may be exploited using electrolysis to extract constituent elements and compounds contained within the solution.
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Ladanyi contributed to research on the molecular aspects of solvation thermodynamics in polar liquids. She and her coworkers calculated quantities of significance in electronic spectroscopy and electron transfer reactions. This work generally found that solvation free energies exhibit relatively weak deviations from linearity, but that nonlinearities are more evident in free energy derivatives. She considered both simple model solutes and realistic representations of chromophores used in experiments in supercritical CO2 and CHF3 to investigate how the density- and temperature- dependence of solvatochromic shifts in solute electronic spectra relate to local solvation structure and how different types of solute-solvent interactions contribute to the predicted shifts.
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Chlortalidone (or other thiazide medication) is a key component of treatment of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus occurs when the kidney is unable to produce concentrated urine because it has an inadequate response to vasopressin-dependent removal of free water from the renal tubular filtrate. By blocking sodium ion resorption in the distal convoluted tubule, chlortalidone induces an increase in excretion of sodium ion in urine (natriuresis). Giving chlortalidone while simultaneously restricting dietary sodium intake causes mild hypovolemia (low intravascular volume), which induces isotonic reabsorption of solute from the proximal renal tubule, reducing solute delivery in the renal collecting tubule and renal medullary collecting duct.
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As in any chromatography, equilibrium is established between molecules of a given kind bound to the matrix and those of the same kind free in solution. Because the number of binding sites is finite, when the concentration of molecules free in solution is large relative to the dissociation constant for the sites, those sites will mostly be filled. This results in a downward-curvature in the plot of bound vs free solute, in the simplest case giving a Langmuir isotherm. A molecule with a high affinity for the matrix (the displacer) will compete more effectively for binding sites, leaving the mobile phase enriched in the lower- affinity solute.
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For certain solutes it was noted that the transport velocity reached a plateau at a particular concentration above which there was no significant increase in uptake rate, indicating a log curve type response. This was interpreted as showing that transport was mediated by the formation of a substrate- transporter complex, which is conceptually the same as the enzyme-substrate complex of enzyme kinetics. Therefore, each transport protein has an affinity constant for a solute that is equal to the concentration of the solute when the transport velocity is half its maximum value. This is equivalent in the case of an enzyme to the Michaelis–Menten constant.
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For a substance in solution (solute), the standard state is the hypothetical state it would have at the standard state molality or amount concentration but exhibiting infinite-dilution behavior. The reason for this unusual definition is that the behavior of a solute at the limit of infinite dilution is described by equations which are very similar to the equations for ideal gases. Hence taking infinite-dilution behavior to be the standard state allows corrections for non-ideality to be made consistently for all the different solutes. Standard state molality is 1 mol kg−1, while standard state amount concentration is 1 mol dm−3.
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HYDRUS models may be used to analyze water and solute movement in unsaturated, partially saturated, or fully saturated homogeneous of layered media. The codes incorporates hysteresis by assuming that drying scanning curves are scaled from the main drying curve, and wetting scanning curves from the main wetting curve. Root water uptake can be simulated as a function of both water and salinity stress, and can be either compensated or uncompensated. The HYDRUS software packages additionally implement a Marquardt–Levenberg type parameter estimation technique for inverse estimation of soil hydraulic and/or solute transport and reaction parameters from measured transient or steady-state flow and/or transport data.
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Using molecular dynamics simulation, the team is able to measure the contact angle of water nanodroplet on the planar networks (caHydrophobicity). In the other hand, previous studies show that the minimum of excess chemical potential of a hard-sphere solute with respect to that in the bulk exhibits a linear dependence on cosine value of contact angle. Based on the computed excess chemical potentials of the purely repulsive methane-sized Weeks–Chandler–Andersen solute with respect to that in the bulk, the extrapolated values of cosine value of contact angle are calculated(ccHydrophobicity), which can be used to quantify the hydrophobicity of amino acid side chains with complete wetting behaviors.
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However, sometimes a different reference is more useful. For example, if the sample is a dilute solute dissolved in water in a beaker, then a good reference measurement might be to measure pure water in the same beaker. Then the reference measurement would cancel out not only all the instrumental properties (like what light source is used), but also the light-absorbing and light-reflecting properties of the water and beaker, and the final result would just show the properties of the solute (at least approximately). A common way to compare to a reference is sequentially: first measure the reference, then replace the reference by the sample and measure the sample.
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When healthy, the kidneys are responsible for the continuous filtration of blood in order to maintain fluid, electrolyte, and organic solute balance in the body.Mahan, K., Escott-Stump, S., and Raymond, J. Krause’s Food and the Nutrition Care Process. 13th ed. St. Louis, MO; Saunders: 2012.
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The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal osmotic pressures of several times atmospheric pressure that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions. Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several µm in thickness.
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The ions are then easily transported away from their crystalline lattice into solution. An example of a nonionic solute is table sugar. The water dipoles make hydrogen bonds with the polar regions of the sugar molecule (OH groups) and allow it to be carried away into solution.
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Solute carrier family 25 member 22 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A22 gene. This gene encodes a mitochondrial glutamate carrier. Mutations in this gene are associated with early infantile epileptic encephalopathy. Expression of this gene is increased in colorectal tumor cells.
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Pure water injected into the veins will cause the breakdown (lysis) of red blood cells (erythrocytes). When fresh water is unavailable (e.g. at sea or in a desert), seawater or drinks with significant alcohol concentration will worsen the condition. Urine contains a lower solute concentration than seawater.
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Growth, compatible solute and salt accumulation of five mycorrhizal fungal species grown over a range of NaCl concentrations. Mycorrhiza, 16(2), 99-109. and the production of heat shock proteins.Kerner, R., Delgado-Eckert, E., Del Castillo, E., Müller-Starck, G., Peter, M., Kuster, B., ... & Pritsch, K. (2012).
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4F2 cell-surface antigen heavy chain is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC3A2 (solute carrier family 3 member 2) gene. SLC3A2 comprises the heavy subunit of the large neutral amino acid transporter (LAT1) that is also known as CD98 (cluster of differentiation 98).
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Stern's Introductory Plant Biology, 13th Ed. Bidlack, James E., and Jansky, Shelley H. p. 56 The term transfer cell was coined by B. E. S. Gunning and J. S. Pate. Their presence is generally correlated with the existence of extensive solute influxes across the plasma membrane.
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In metal alloys with substitutional solute elements, such as aluminum-magnesium alloys, dynamic strain aging leads to negative strain rate sensitivity which causes instability in plastic flow.Aboulfadi, H., Deges, J., Choi, P., Raabe, D. (2015) "Dynamic strain aging studied at the atomic scale," Acta Materialia 86:34-42 The diffusion of solute elements around a dislocation can be modeled based on the energy required to move a solute atom across the slip plane of the dislocation.Curtin, W.A., Olmsted, D.L., Hector Jr., L.G. (2006) "A predictive mechanism for dynamic strain ageing in aluminium-magnesium alloys," Nature Materials 5:875-880 An edge dislocation produces a stress field which is compressive above the slip plane and tensile below.Cai, W., Nix, W.D. (2016) "Imperfections in Crystalline Solids," Cambridge University Press, In Al-Mg alloys, the Mg atom is larger than an Al atom and has lower energy on the tension side of the dislocation slip plane; therefore, Mg atoms in the vicinity of an edge dislocation are driven to diffuse across the slip plane (see figure).
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Chloride is also a useful and reliable chemical indicator of river / groundwater fecal contamination, as chloride is a non-reactive solute and ubiquitous to sewage & potable water. Many water regulating companies around the world utilize chloride to check the contamination levels of the rivers and potable water sources.
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Varying the amount of hydrogen and other alloying elements, and their form in the chromium hydride either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases, expedites the movement of dislocations in chromium, and thus controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting chromium hydride.
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This phase change severely decreases the solubility of the mixture and results in precipitation of particles. The less time it takes the solution to expand and the solute to precipitate, the narrower the particle size distribution will be. Faster precipitation times also tend to result in smaller particle diameters.
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For some examples of this effect, see liquid-liquid extraction. It is possible to extract a solute from one liquid phase to another without a chemical reaction. Examples of such solutes are noble gases and osmium tetroxide. The process of absorption means that a substance captures and transforms energy.
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However, Dan still has the original paper, which had been attached to the vial, and solves the puzzle for the clue: iron solute. Amy's internet searches for Franklin also have led them to the probable location of the second Clue: Vienna, Austria, the home of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
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Multidrug and toxin extrusion protein 1 (MATE1), also known as solute carrier family 47 member 1, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC47A1 gene. SLC47A1 belongs to the MATE (multidrug and toxic compound extrusion) family of transporters that are found in bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes.
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Generally, higher solubility is seen when solvent and solute atoms are similar in atomic size (15% according to the Hume-Rothery rules) and adopt the same crystal structure in their pure form. Examples of completely miscible binary systems are Cu-Ni and the Ag-Au face-centered cubic (FCC) binary systems, and the Mo-W body-centered cubic (BCC) binary system. Interstitial solutes in lattice Interstitial solid solutions form when the solute atom is small enough (radii up to 57% the radii of the parent atoms) to fit at interstitial sites between the solvent atoms. The atoms crowd into the interstitial sites, causing the bonds of the solvent atoms to compress and thus deform.
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Normal solute diffusion and binding to effector proteins (like growth factors and enzymes) is also reliant on the 3D cellular matrix, so it is critical for the establishment of tissue scale solute concentration gradients For the purposes of drug toxicology screening, it is much more useful to test gene expression of in vitro cells grown in 3D than 2D, since the gene expression of the 3D spheroids will more closely resemble gene expression in vivo. Lastly, 3D cell cultures have greater stability and longer lifespans than cell cultures in 2D. This means that they are more suitable for long-term studies and for demonstrating long-term effects of the drug. 3D environments also allow the cells to grow undisturbed.
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The partially negative dipole ends of the water are attracted to positively charged components of the solute, and vice versa for the positive dipole ends. In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are relatively soluble in water, and non-polar substances such as fats and oils are not. Non-polar molecules stay together in water because it is energetically more favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van der Waals interactions with non-polar molecules. An example of an ionic solute is table salt; the sodium chloride, NaCl, separates into cations and anions, each being surrounded by water molecules.
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For a solid that dissolves in a redox reaction, solubility is expected to depend on the potential (within the range of potentials under which the solid remains the thermodynamically stable phase). For example, solubility of gold in high- temperature water is observed to be almost an order of magnitude higher (i.e. about ten times higher) when the redox potential is controlled using a highly oxidizing Fe3O4-Fe2O3 redox buffer than with a moderately oxidizing Ni-NiO buffer. 400px Solubility (metastable, at concentrations approaching saturation) also depends on the physical size of the crystal or droplet of solute (or, strictly speaking, on the specific surface area or molar surface area of the solute).
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To be "selective", this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as solvent molecules, i.e., water, H2O) to pass freely. In the normal osmosis process, the solvent naturally moves from an area of low solute concentration (high water potential), through a membrane, to an area of high solute concentration (low water potential). The driving force for the movement of the solvent is the reduction in the Gibbs free energy of the system when the difference in solvent concentration on either side of a membrane is reduced, generating osmotic pressure due to the solvent moving into the more concentrated solution.
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Unlike many other types of echinoderm, solute homalozoans lack radial symmetry (such as the five limbs of a starfish).A. B. Smith Deuterostome phylogeny and the interpretation of problematic fossil echinoderms, page 543-544 in Thomas Heinzeller, James H. Nebelsick Echinoderms: München, CRC Press, 2004 , Solutes are the sole order of the class Homoiostelea. Solute fossils have an irregularly shaped flattened body covered in calcite plates, and are up to about 10 cm long. The body has two appendages, interpreted as a "feeding arm" at one end, bearing tube feet at its end, and a "stele" at the other, which may have been used by the animal to propel itself along the sea floor.
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An inflow from the north by mineral springs in the playa's northern karst zone contribute a smaller volume of water but its much higher solute concentration greatly affects the lake and its sediments. North Hulsan Lake's sediments have a relatively higher potassium content than most other lakes in the playa.
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LOBPCG from BLOPEX is used for preconditioner setup in Multilevel Balancing Domain Decomposition by Constraints (BDDC) solver library BDDCML, which is incorporated into OpenFTL (Open Finite element Template Library) and Flow123d simulator of underground water flow, solute and heat transport in fractured porous media. LOBPCG has been implemented in LS-DYNA.
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The bluish-white shell is semi translucent and has an elongate-conic shape. Its length is 4.7 mm. The 2½ whorls of the protoconch form a rather solute, elevated, helicoid spire. Its axis is at right angles to the succeeding turns, in the first of which it is slightly immersed.
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An osmotic pressure is introduced to equalize the concentration of solute throughout the system by driving water to flow from the low concentration areas to the high concentration areas. In short, the influx and outflux of water within mucus, managed by the polyelectrolyte effect, contribute to mucus' tunable swelling capacity.
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Polyethylene glycol is an example of a solute with a high molecular weight that is used to induce cytorrhysis under experimental conditions. Environmental stressors which can lead to occurrences of cytorrhysis in a natural setting include intense drought, freezing temperatures, and pathogens such as the rice blast fungus (Magnaporthe grisea).
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Example for a dissolved solid (left). M ammonium sulfate solution. The solution was initially prepared at 20 °C and then stored for 2 days at 4 °C. Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent.
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Cells that don't have a cell wall, such as animal cells, could burst in this solution. A hypertonic solution is when the solute concentration is higher (think of hyper - as high) than the concentration inside the cell. In hypertonic solution, the water will move out, causing the cell to shrink.
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A low concentration solution is created by adding a small amount of polymer to a solvent. This solution is separated from pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane. Solute cannot cross the semipermeable membrane but the solvent is able to cross the membrane. Solvent flows across the membrane to dilute the solution.
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Because of its tetraether lipid material, the membrane of extreme thermophilic Archaea is unique in its composition. Archaea lipids are a promising source of liposomes with exceptional stability of temperature and pH and tightness against leakage of solute. Such archaeosomes are possible instruments for the delivery of medicines, vaccines, and genes.
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Glycerol facilitators function as solute nonspecific channels, and may transport glycerol, dihydroxyacetone, propanediol, urea and other small neutral molecules in physiologically important processes. Some members of the family, including the yeast Fps1 protein (TC# 1.A.8.5.1) and tobacco NtTIPa (TC# 1.A.8.10.2) may transport both water and small solutes.
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Reversed phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) is the most important chromatographic method for measuring solute hydrophobicity. The non polar stationary phase mimics biological membranes. Peptide usage has many advantages because partition is not extended by the terminal charges in RPLC. Also, secondary structures formation is avoided by using short sequence peptides.
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Soil moisture sensors are used in numerous research applications, e.g. in agricultural science and horticulture including irrigation planning, climate research, or environmental science including solute transport studies and as auxiliary sensors for soil respiration measurements.Decagon Devices "List of peer-reviewed publications using Decagon soil moisture sensors". Retrieved: 20 July 2015.
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The sulfate transporter is a solute carrier family protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC26A2 gene. SLC26A2 is also called the diastrophic dysplasia sulfate transporter (DTDST), and was first described by Hästbacka et al. in 1994. This sulfate (SO42−) transporter also accepts chloride, hydroxyl ions (OH−), and oxalate as substrates.
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Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 11 (SLC2A11) also known as glucose transporter type 10/11 (GLUT-10/11) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A11 gene. SLC2A11 belongs to a family of plasma membrane proteins that mediate transport of sugars across the membrane by facilitative diffusion.
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A method of removal of POPs from marine environments that has been explored is adsorption. It occurs when an absorbable solute comes into contact with a solid with a porous surface structure. This technique was investigated by Mohamed Nageeb Rashed of Aswan University, Egypt.Rashed, M.N. Organic pollutants - Monitoring, risk and treatment. Intech.
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In cirrhosis and CHF, impaired delivery of solute to the diluting sites or diminished glomerular filtration rate causes impairment of maximal water-excretory capacity, resulting in persistence of vasopressin release leading to water retention. Vasopressin receptor antagonists include the new class of "vaptan drugs" such as conivaptan, tolvaptan, mozavaptan, lixivaptan, satavaptan etc.
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After a bit of brainstorming, Dan solves the puzzle and discovers the clue: "iron solute", an anagram for the word "resolution". There is also a secret piece of sheet music. Amy's internet searches lead to the probable location of the second Clue: Vienna, the home of the famous Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
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Fatty acids of various lengths are eventually released into the surrounding water, but vesicle formation requires a higher concentration of fatty acids, so it is suggested that protocell formation started at land-bound hydrothermal vents such as geysers, mud pots, fumaroles and other geothermal features where water evaporates and concentrates the solute.
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Wallemia sebi have lower limits for growth below water activity of 0.75 (0.69-0.75)aw, while most microorganisms are limited to 0.95 and above. Wallemia sebi has been isolated from hair, hay, textiles and man. It can grow slowly without additional solute in the growth medium, and form small, reddish-brown, powdery colonies.
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After the last solute has been eluted, it is necessary to strip the displacer from the column. Since the displacer was chosen for high affinity, this can pose a challenge. On reverse-phase materials, a wash with a high percentage of organic solvent may suffice. Large pH shifts are also often employed.
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The SWMS_2D code for simulating water flow and solute transport in two-dimensional variably saturated media, Version 1.1, Research Report No. 126, U. S. Salinity Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Riverside, CA.) developed later at US Salinity Laboratory. The SWMS_2D model (Šimůnek et al., 1992Šimůnek, J., T. Vogel and M. Th. van Genuchten. 1992.
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Excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) also known as solute carrier family 1 member 2 (SLC1A2) and glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC1A2 gene. Alternatively spliced transcript variants of this gene have been described, but their full-length nature is not known.
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This enables the ratio, transmittance, to be obtained. For quantitative measurements transmittance is converted to absorbance which is proportional to the solute concentration according to Beer's law. This makes possible the quantitative determination of the amount of a substance in solution. The user could also switch between phototubes without removing the sample holder.
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Three CLC subfamilies are found in animals. CLCN1 is involved in setting and restoring the resting membrane potential of skeletal muscle, while other channels play important parts in solute concentration mechanisms in the kidney. These proteins contain two CBS domains. Chloride channels are also important for maintaining safe ion concentrations within plant cells.
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Saltwater freezing point Freezing-point depression is the decrease of the freezing point of a solvent on the addition of a non-volatile solute. Examples include salt in water, alcohol in water, or the mixing of two solids such as impurities into a finely powdered drug. In all cases, the substance added/present in smaller amounts is considered the solute, while the original substance present in larger quantity is thought of as the solvent. The resulting liquid solution or solid-solid mixture has a lower freezing point than the pure solvent or solid because the chemical potential of the solvent in the mixture is lower than that of the pure solvent, the difference between the two being proportional to the natural logarithm of the mole fraction.
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For example, a very polar (hydrophilic) solute such as urea is very soluble in highly polar water, less soluble in fairly polar methanol, and practically insoluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene. In contrast, a non-polar or lipophilic solute such as naphthalene is insoluble in water, fairly soluble in methanol, and highly soluble in non-polar benzene. Dissolution of sodium chloride in water. In even more simple terms a simple ionic compound (with positive and negative ions) such as sodium chloride (common salt) is easily soluble in a highly polar solvent (with some separation of positive (δ+) and negative (δ-) charges in the covalent molecule) such as water, as thus the sea is salty as it accumulates dissolved salts since early geological ages.
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This term is often used in the field of metallurgy to refer to the extent that an alloying element will dissolve into the base metal without forming a separate phase. The solvus or solubility line (or curve) is the line (or lines) on a phase diagram that give the limits of solute addition. That is, the lines show the maximum amount of a component that can be added to another component and still be in solid solution. In the solid's crystalline structure, the 'solute' element can either take the place of the matrix within the lattice (a substitutional position; for example, chromium in iron) or take a place in a space between the lattice points (an interstitial position; for example, carbon in iron).
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The heat transport equation considers conduction as well as advection with flowing water. The solute transport equations assume advective-dispersive transport in the liquid phase, and diffusion in the gaseous phase. The transport equations further include provisions for nonlinear and/or non-equilibrium reactions between the solid and liquid phases, linear equilibrium reactions between the liquid and gaseous phases, zero-order production, and two first-order degradation reactions: one which is independent of other solutes, and one which provides the coupling between solutes involved in sequential first order decay reactions. In addition, physical non-equilibrium solute transport can be accounted for by assuming a two-region, dual-porosity type formulation which partitions the liquid phase into mobile and immobile regions.
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One fact to take note of is that heat from the surroundings is able to be converted into mechanical energy (water rising). Many thermodynamic explanations go into the concept of chemical potential and how the function of the water on the solution side differs from that of pure water due to the higher pressure and the presence of the solute counteracting such that the chemical potential remains unchanged. The virial theorem demonstrates that attraction between the molecules (water and solute) reduces the pressure, and thus the pressure exerted by water molecules on each other in solution is less than in pure water, allowing pure water to "force" the solution until the pressure reaches equilibrium. Osmotic pressure is the main cause of support in many plants.
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A sodium cation is solvated by water molecules with their partially negative charged lone pairs pointing inwards towards the positively charged sodium ion The hydration number, or solvation number of a compound is defined as the average number of molecules bound to the compound more strongly (by 13.3 kcal/mol or more) than they are bound to other water molecules. The hydration number is dependent on the concentration of the compound in solution, and the identity of the compound. When compounds are dissolved in water, the water molecules form a solvation shell surrounding the solute. For charged species, the orientation of water molecules around the solute is dependent on its ionic charge, with cations attracting water’s electronegative oxygen and anions attracting the hydrogens.
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In consequence, the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a dilute solution of nonvolatile solute is equal to the mole fraction of solute in the solution. Mathematically, Raoult's law for a single component in an ideal solution is stated as : p_i = p_i^\star x_i, where p_i is the partial pressure of the component i in the gaseous mixture (above the solution), p_i^\star is the equilibrium vapor pressure of the pure component i, and x_i is the mole fraction of the component i in the mixture (in the solution).A to Z of Thermodynamics by Pierre Perrot. . Where two volatile liquids A and B are mixed with each other to form a solution, the vapour phase consists of both components of the solution.
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Trees also exhibit high solute concentrations and low hydraulic conductivity and thus are thought to be passive loaders. Based on early research, scientists correlated herbaceous species with active loading and trees and other woody species with passive loading. However, in 2011, Davidson et al. examined the correlation between growth from and phloem-loading strategy.
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The salt (and other solid matter) cannot evaporate as water does. Instead it leaves the ocean surface in fine droplets of drop impacts or bubble bursts. Wave-crests and other turbulence form foam. When drops splash or bubbles burst, fine droplets of solute are ejected from the water or bubble surface into the air.
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When measuring the concentration of a solute in a supersaturated gaseous or liquid mixture it is obvious that the pressure inside the cuvette may be greater than the ambient pressure. When this is so a specialized cuvette must be used. The choice of analytical technique to use will depend on the characteristics of the analyte.
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Grazoprevir is transported by the solute carrier proteins SLCO1B1 and SLCO1B3. Drugs that inhibit this proteins, such as rifampicin, ciclosporin, and a number of HIV medications (atazanavir, darunavir, lopinavir, saquinavir, tipranavir, cobicistat), can cause a significant increase in grazoprevir blood plasma levels. Combination of elbasvir/grazoprevir with these drugs is therefore contraindicated. on Zepatier.
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The ability to produce hyposmotic urine is from the medullary cones. Urine is mixed with digestive fluids rather than directly eliminated. Consequently, the avian gut plays an important role in water and salt regulation. In mammals, the osmotic gradient is urea, whereas in birds, sodium chloride is the major solute in the medullary cones.
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The unit of osmotic concentration is the osmole. This is a non-SI unit of measurement that defines the number of moles of solute that contribute to the osmotic pressure of a solution. A milliosmole (mOsm) is 1/1,000 of an osmole. A microosmole (μOsm) (also spelled micro-osmole) is 1/1,000,000 of an osmole.
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For example, the intracellular fluid and extracellular can be hyperosmotic, but isotonic – if the total concentration of solutes in one compartment is different from that of the other, but one of the ions can cross the membrane (in other words, a penetrating solute), drawing water with it, thus causing no net change in solution volume.
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In many cases, the radiation flux is non-stoichiometric, which causes segregation within the alloy. This non-stoichiometric flux can result in significant change in local composition near grain boundaries, where the movement of atoms and dislocations is impeded. When this flux continues, solute enrichment at sinks can result in the precipitation of new phases.
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The salt effects Section 2.14 (salting in and salting-out) refers to the fact that the presence of a salt which has no ion in common with the solute, has an effect on the ionic strength of the solution and hence on activity coefficients, so that the equilibrium constant, expressed as a concentration quotient, changes.
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Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution and phase joining (e.g. precipitation of solids). The solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate. The term solubility is also used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis.
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Using these techniques Nicholson showed that solute and water movement through the brain parenchyma slows as the extracellular volume fraction decreases and becomes more tortuous. As an alternative explanation to diffusion, Cserr and colleagues proposed that convective bulk flow of interstitial fluid from the brain parenchyma to the CSF was responsible for efficient waste clearance.
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In those that are hypovolemic (low body volume load), give isotonic saline. In those that are hypervolemic (high body volume load), diuresis should be induced. Elderly patients may present in any of these volume states. However, "tea and toast" syndrome patients typically present euvolemic hyponatremia since their hyponatremia is caused by low solute intake.
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Solid chloroauric acid is a hydrophilic (ionic) protic solute. It is soluble in water and other oxygen-containing solvents, such as alcohols, esters, ethers, and ketones. For example, in dry dibutyl ether or diethylene glycol, the solubility exceeds 1 mol/L. Saturated solutions in the organic solvents often are the liquid solvates of specific stoichiometry.
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These boundary conditions correspond to the physical requirement that no solute pass through the top and bottom of the cell, i.e., that the flux there be zero. The cell is assumed to be rectangular and aligned with the Cartesian axes (Fig. 1), so that the net flux through the side walls is likewise zero.
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Overdose of intravenous sodium bicarbonate results in solute and/or fluid overload, potentially leading to edema, including pulmonary edema. Also, it can cause metabolic alkalosis (with signs including muscular twitchings, irritability and tetany). Hypernatremia is also possible. Repeated fractional doses and frequent monitoring by laboratory tests are recommended to minimize the possibility of overdosing.
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The treatment for minor dehydration that is often considered the most effective is drinking water and stopping fluid loss. Plain water restores only the volume of the blood plasma, inhibiting the thirst mechanism before solute levels can be replenished. Solid foods can contribute to fluid loss from vomiting and diarrhea."Healthwise Handbook," Healthwise, Inc.
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The energy released by solvation of the ammonium ions and nitrate ions is less than the energy absorbed in breaking up the ammonium nitrate ionic lattice and the attractions between water molecules. Dissolving potassium hydroxide is exothermic, as more energy is released during solvation than is used in breaking up the solute and solvent.
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UNSATCHEM: Unsaturated water and solute transport model with equilibrium and kinetic chemistry. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 61:1633–1646.) for simulating carbon dioxide transport as well as the multi-component transport of major ions. The UNSATCHEM major ion module was recently included also in version 2 of HYDRUS (2D/3D) (Šimůnek et al.
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Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLCO1B1 gene. Pharmacogenomic research indicates that genetic variations in this gene are associated with response to simvastatin. Clinical guidelines exist that can guide dosing of simvastatin based on SLCO1B1 gene variant using genotyping or whole exome sequencing.
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KIAA0408 has 694 amino acids and a molecular weight of 79.2 kdal. 12.0% of the protein has levels of serine that are higher than average. These results also indicate that at a neutral pH, my protein tends to be more basic. Evidence collected from Expasy suggests that KIAA0408 could potentially be involved in solute.
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Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid. The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephron. For example, they convert a precursor of vitamin D to its active form, calcitriol; and synthesize the hormones erythropoietin and renin.
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SLC2A4 regulator is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A4RG gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a nuclear transcription factor involved in the activation of the solute carrier family 2 member 4 gene. The encoded protein interacts with another transcription factor, myocyte enhancer factor 2, to activate transcription of this gene.
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A typical ABC transporter is composed of two nucleotide binding domains that energize transport via ATP hydrolysis and of two membrane spanning domains that act as a membrane channel for the substrate. Importers require a solute binding protein that recognizes and binds the substrate. The different partners of an ABC system are generally encoded by neighboring genes.
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When performing calculations regarding the reacting of one or more aqueous solutions, in general one must know the concentration, or molarity, of the aqueous solutions. Solution concentration is given in terms of the form of the solute prior to it dissolving. Aqueous solutions may contain, especially in alkaline zone or subjected to radiolysis, hydrated atomic hydrogen and hydrated electrons.
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This increases the diffusion rate to the tip. In opposition to this is the action of the surface tension tending to flatten the protuberance and setting up a flux of solute atoms from the protuberance out to the sides. However, overall, the protuberance becomes amplified. This process occurs again and again until a dendrite is produced.
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Percent concentration does not refer to this quantity. This improper name persists, especially in elementary textbooks. In biology, the unit "%" is sometimes (incorrectly) used to denote mass concentration, also called mass/volume percentage. A solution with 1g of solute dissolved in a final volume of 100mL of solution would be labeled as "1%" or "1% m/v" (mass/volume).
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Solute carrier family 2 (facilitated glucose transporter), member 14 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A14 gene. Members of the glucose transporter (GLUT) family, including SLC2A14, are highly conserved integral membrane proteins that transport hexoses such as glucose and fructose into all mammalian cells. GLUTs show tissue and cell-type specific expression.
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Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B3 (SLCO1B3) also known as organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1B3 (OATP1B3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLCO1B3 gene. OATP1B3 is a 12-transmembrane domain influx transporter. Normally expressed in the liver, the transporter functions to uptake large, non-polar drugs and hormones from the portal vein.
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Bahr's research focuses on physical, geochemical, and biogeochemical controls on the movement of groundwater. She also looks at solute transport and transformation processes. Bahr also studies core and outcrop studies that show the geochemical properties and hydrological properties of aquifers. She also looks at anthropogenic contaminants in shallow and deeper aquifers as well as groundwater as a resource.
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Dislocation avalanches are rapid discreet events during plastic deformation, in which defects are reorganized collectively. This intermittent flow behavior has been observed in microcrystals, whereas macroscopic plasticity appears as a smooth process. Intermittent plastic flow has been observed in several different systems. In AlMg Alloys, interaction between solute and dislocations can cause sudden jump during dynamic strain aging.
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Hydridocopper is a hydrophilic (polar) solute, and so dissolves in polar compounds. As hydridocopper is an electron-deficient compound, its dominant behaviour is to polymerise, first to oligomers, then to copper hydride. A well-known oligomer is octahedro- hexacuprane(6), occurring in Stryker's reagent. Hydridocopper has acidic behavior for the same reason as normal copper hydride.
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The 6 to 7 whorls are rather rounded with a convex base, the last one is scarcely angled. The margin of the narrow umbilicus is dentate. The columella is very oblique, not solute above and terminates below in a simple, small denticle. The outer lip is thickened within with five folds but near the edge with numerous wrinkles.
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The; white base of the shell is convex. The penultimate whorl contains six series of granules, with the interstices as wide as the ridges, and is obliquely striate. The body whorl has eight series of granules above, nine on the base. The oblique columella is solute above, the edge rugose- denticulate, terminating below in a prominent tooth.
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Analysis of genetically modified mice that lacked the AQP4 gene revealed that the bulk flow-dependent clearance of interstitial solutes decreases by 70% in the absence of AQP4. Based upon this role of AQP4-dependent glial water transport in the process of paravascular interstitial solute clearance, Iliff and Nedergaard termed this brain-wide glio-vascular pathway the "glymphatic system".
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Members of the organic solute transporter (OST) family (TC# 2.A.82) (Slc51 genes) have been characterized from a small bottom feeding species of fish called the little skate, Raja erinacea. Members have also been characterized from humans and mice. The OST family is a member of the larger group of secondary carriers, the APC superfamily.
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This concept is related to multi-compartmentalization. Any drugs within an organism will act as a solute and the organism's tissues will act as solvents. The differing specificities of different tissues will give rise to different concentrations of the drug within each group. Therefore, the chemical characteristics of a drug will determine its distribution within an organism.
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Less powerful acids and bases will have lesser degree of dissociation. There is a simple relationship between this parameter and the van 't Hoff factor i. If the solute substance dissociates into n ions, then :i = 1 + \alpha (n - 1) For instance, for the following dissociation :KCl K+ \+ Cl− As n = 2, we would have that i = 1 + \alpha.
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14 (1959) 1. In terms of thermodynamics, the hydrophobic effect is the free energy change of water surrounding a solute. A positive free energy change of the surrounding solvent indicates hydrophobicity, whereas a negative free energy change implies hydrophilicity. In this way, the hydrophobic effect not only can be localized but also decomposed into enthalpic and entropic contributions.
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By combining the above equation with px(σ) for a solute x, and adding the σ-independent combinatorial and dispersive contributions, the chemical potential for a solute X in a solvent S results in: In analogy to activity coefficient models used in chemical engineering, such as NRTL, UNIQUAC or UNIFAC, the final chemical potential can be split into a combinatorial and a residual (non ideal) contribution. The interaction energies Eint(σ,σ') of two surface pieces are the crucial part for the final performance of the method and different formulations are used within the various implementations. In addition to the liquid phase terms a chemical potential estimate for the ideal gas phase µgas has been added to COSMO-RS to enable the prediction of vapor pressure, free energy of solvation and related quantities.
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As such, surface heat fluxes across the land surface were also incorporated into HydroGeoSphere. A complete description of the physical processes and governing flow and solute transport equations that form the basis of HydroGeoSphere can be found in Therrien et al. [2007] and therefore will not be presented here. The general equation for variably saturated subsurface thermal energy transport following Molson et al.
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In analytical chemistry, a standard solution is a solution containing a precisely known concentration of an element or a substance. A known weight of solute is dissolved to make a specific volume. It is prepared using a standard substance, such as a primary standard. Standard solutions are used to determine the concentrations of other substances, such as solutions in titration.
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Mitochondrial carriers are proteins from a solute carrier family which transfer molecules across the membranes of the mitochondria. Mitochondrial carriers are also classified in the Transporter Classification Database. The Mitochondrial Carrier (MC) Superfamily has been expanded to include both the original Mitochondrial Carrier (MC) family (TC# 2.A.29) and the Mitochondrial Inner/Outer Membrane Fusion (MMF) family (TC# 9.B.25).
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The pronephros develops from the intermediate mesoderm, as do the later kidneys. It is a paired organ, consisting of a single giant nephron that processes blood filtrate produced from glomeruli or glomera- large embryonic glomeruli. The filtrate is deposited into the coelom. It then passes through thin ciliated tubules into the pronephric nephron where it is processed for solute recovery.
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Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A9 gene. This gene encodes a member of the SLC2A facilitative glucose transporter family. Members of this family play a significant role in maintaining glucose homeostasis. The encoded protein may play a role in the development and survival of chondrocytes in cartilage matrices.
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Impurities remain in the supernatant liquid. In some cases crystals do not form quickly and the solution remains supersaturated after cooling. This is because there is a thermodynamic barrier to the formation of a crystal in a liquid medium. Commonly this is overcome by adding a tiny crystal of the solute compound to the supersaturated solution, a process known as "seeding".
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Solute carrier family 12 member 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC12A6 gene. This gene is a member of the K-Cl cotransporter (KCC) family. K-Cl cotransporters are integral membrane proteins that lower intracellular chloride concentrations below the electrochemical equilibrium potential. The proteins encoded by this gene are activated by cell swelling induced by hypotonic conditions.
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Macromolecules often have unusual physical properties that do not occur for smaller molecules. Another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar solvents, instead forming colloids. Many require salts or particular ions to dissolve in water. Similarly, many proteins will denature if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low.
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Building a map of groundwater contours Ground water is water beneath Earth's surface, often pumped for drinking water. Groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology) considers quantifying groundwater flow and solute transport. Problems in describing the saturated zone include the characterization of aquifers in terms of flow direction, groundwater pressure and, by inference, groundwater depth (see: aquifer test). Measurements here can be made using a piezometer.
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In addition, dynamic imaging modalities have been used to investigate thrombus perviousness/permeability in animal and laboratory studies Voronov RS, Stalker TJ, Brass LF, Diamond SL. Simulation of Intrathrombus Fluid and Solute Transport Using In Vivo Clot Structures with Single Platelet Resolution. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 2013Laurens N, Koolwijk P, de Maat MPM. Fibrin structure and wound healing. J Thromb Haemost 2006.
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In response, the host reacts by producing gum in the xylem which further clogs the xylem preventing water and solute transport. Due to clogging of the xylem water stress symptoms appear. It has been found that toxic substances produced by P. tracheiphila play a role in pathogenesis. In a study done in Israel it was found by Nachmias et al.
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It is possible to include a layer or sphere of water molecules around the solute, and model the bulk with an implicit solvent. Such an approach is proposed by M. J. Frisch and coworkers and by other authors. For instance in Ref. the bulk solvent is modeled with a Generalized Born approach and the multi-grid method used for Coulombic pairwise particle interactions.
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Soxhlet extractor Extraction in chemistry is a separation process consisting in the separation of a substance from a matrix. Common examples include liquid-liquid extraction, and solid phase extraction. The distribution of a solute between two phases is an equilibrium condition described by partition theory. This is based on exactly how the analyte moves from the initial solvent into the extracting solvent.
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As in dialysis, in hemofiltration one achieves movement of solutes across a semi-permeable membrane. However, solute movement with hemofiltration is governed by convection rather than by diffusion. With hemofiltration, dialysate is not used. Instead, a positive hydrostatic pressure drives water and solutes across the filter membrane from the blood compartment to the filtrate compartment, from which it is drained.
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Thiamine transporter 1, also known as thiamine carrier 1 (TC1) or solute carrier family 19 member 2 (SLC19A2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC19A2 gene. SLC19A2 is a thiamine transporter. Mutations in this gene cause thiamine-responsive megaloblastic anemia syndrome (TRMA), which is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by diabetes mellitus, megaloblastic anemia and sensorineural deafness.
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Sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption may increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension, in children and adults. Such health effects of salt have long been studied. Accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods.
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Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 7 also known as glucose transporter 7 (GLUT7) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A7 gene. SLC2A7 belongs to a family of transporters that catalyze the uptake of sugars through facilitated diffusion. This family of transporters shows conservation of 12 transmembrane helices as well as functionally significant amino acid residues.
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Zinc transporter ZIP10, also known as solute carrier family 39 member 10, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC39A10 gene. ZIP10 belongs to a subfamily of proteins that show structural characteristics of zinc transporters, and have 14 members in the human genome: ZIP1, ZIP2, ZIP3, ZIP4, ZIP5, ZIP6, ZIP7, ZIP8, ZIP9, ZIP10, ZIP11, ZIP12, ZIP13 and ZIP14.
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In collaboration with pharmaceutical companies and academia, 11 chemical probes, and version 1.0 of 187 chemogenomic inhibitors (aka KCGS) for 215 kinases have been co-developed. #Integral membrane proteins are permanently attached to the cell membrane. The family includes the solute carrier (SLC) proteins. The SLCs are largely unexplored therapeutically ~30% are considered ‘orphaned’ because their substrate specificity and biological function are unknown.
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Reverse osmosis instead involves solvent diffusion across a membrane that is either nonporous or uses nanofiltration with pores 0.001 micrometers in size. The predominant removal mechanism is from differences in solubility or diffusivity, and the process is dependent on pressure, solute concentration, and other conditions.Crittenden, John; Trussell, Rhodes; Hand, David; Howe, Kerry and Tchobanoglous, George (2005). Water Treatment Principles and Design, 2nd ed.
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The volume fraction is analogous to the mole fraction, but is weighted to take account of the relative sizes of the molecules. For a small solute, the mole fractions would appear instead, and this modification is the innovation due to Flory and Huggins. In the most general case the mixing parameter, \chi, is a free energy parameter, thus including an entropic component.
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Neutral organic compounds tend to be hydrophobic; that is, they are less soluble in water than in organic solvents. Exceptions include organic compounds that contain ionizable groups as well as low molecular weight alcohols, amines, and carboxylic acids where hydrogen bonding occurs. Otherwise, organic compounds tend to dissolve in organic solvents. Solubility varies widely with the organic solute and with the organic solvent.
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Dialyzers come in many different sizes. A larger dialyzer with a larger membrane area (A) will usually remove more solutes than a smaller dialyzer, especially at high blood flow rates. This also depends on the membrane permeability coefficient K0 for the solute in question. So dialyzer efficiency is usually expressed as the K0A – the product of permeability coefficient and area.
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The currently known aquaporins cluster loosely together as do the known glycerol facilitators. MIP family proteins are believed to form aqueous pores that selectively allow passive transport of their solute(s) across the membrane with minimal apparent recognition. Aquaporins selectively transport glycerol as well as water while glycerol facilitators selectively transport glycerol but not water. Some aquaporins can transport NH3 and CO2.
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Nanocrystalline creep is considered to follow the Coble creep mechanism, the diffusion of atoms along grain boundaries at low stress levels and high temperatures. One method used to reduce coarsening, is by employing an alloy in which one component has good solubility with another. Since grain size decreases with high solute concentration, the rate of coarsening is slowed until inconsequential.
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Reverse osmosis production train, North Cape Coral Reverse Osmosis PlantIn 1977 Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use the RO process on a large scale with an initial operating capacity of 11.35 million liters (3 million US gal) per day. By 1985, due to the rapid growth in population of Cape Coral, the city had the largest low-pressure reverse-osmosis plant in the world, capable of producing 56.8 million liters (15 million US gal) per day (MGD).2012 Annual Consumer Report on the Quality of Tap Water. City of Cape Coral Formally, reverse osmosis is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of high solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region of low-solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure.
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Solute carrier family 45 member 3 (SLC45A3), also known as prostate cancer- associated protein 6 or prostein, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC45A3 gene. SLC45A3 is expressed in a prostate-specific manner by normal tissues and at a significantly lower level in prostate tumor cell lines. Treatment of prostate cancer cell lines with androgens upregulates the expression of SLC45A3.
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The SLC46A3 gene, also known by its aliases solute carrier family 46 member 3 and FKSG16, is located at 13q12.3 on the reverse strand in humans. The gene spans 18,950 bases from 28,700,064 to 28,719,013 (GRCh38/hg38), flanked by POMP upstream and CYP51A1P2 downstream. SLC46A3 contains 6 exons and 5 introns. There are two paralogs for this gene, SLC46A1 and SLC46A2, and orthologs as distant as fungi.
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Metals can be heat treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness or resistance to corrosion. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation hardening, quenching, and tempering. The annealing process softens the metal by allowing recovery of cold work and grain growth. Quenching can be used to harden alloy steels, or in precipitation hardenable alloys, to trap dissolved solute atoms in solution.
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PAINT works by maintaining a balance between the dye adsorption/absorption and photobleaching/desorption rates. This balance can be estimated with statistical principles. The adsorption or absorption rate of a dilute solute to a surface or interface in a gas or liquid solution can be calculated using Fick's laws of diffusion. The photobleaching/desorption rate can be measured for a given solution condition and illumination power density.
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Solubility of gases in liquids is influenced by the nature of the solvent liquid and the solute, the temperature, pressure, and the presence of other solutes in the solvent. Diffusion is faster in smaller, lighter molecules of which helium is the extreme example. Diffusivity of helium is 2.65 times faster than nitrogen. The concentration gradient, can be used as a model for the driving mechanism of diffusion.
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Parameters like relative pressure and temperature, solute concentration, and antisolvent to solvent ratio are varied to adjust the output to the producer's needs. The supercritical fluid methods result in finer control over particle diameters, distribution of particle size and consistency of morphology. Because of the relatively low pressure involved, many supercritical fluid methods can incorporate thermolabile materials. Modern techniques involve renewable, nonflammable and nontoxic chemicals.
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Solute atoms, both deliberate additions and impurities, have a profound influence on the recrystallization kinetics. Even minor concentrations may have a substantial influence e.g. 0.004% Fe increases the recrystallization temperature by around 100 °C (Humphreys and Hatherly 2004). It is currently unknown whether this effect is primarily due to the retardation of nucleation or the reduction in the mobility of grain boundaries i.e. growth.
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Polymers with charged molecules are called polyelectrolytes. Mucins, a kind of polyelectrolyte proteoglycans, are the main component of mucus, which provides the polyelectrolyte effect in mucus. The process of inducing this effect comprises two steps: attraction of counter-ions and water compensation. When exposed in physiological ionic solution, the charged groups in the polyelectrolytes attract counter-ions with opposite charges, thereby leading to a solute concentration gradient.
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Co-solvents (in water solvent) are defined as kosmotropic (order-making) if they contribute to the stability and structure of water-water interactions. Kosmotropes cause water molecules to favorably interact, which also (in effect) stabilizes intramolecular interactions in macromolecules such as proteins. Chaotropic agents (disorder-makers) have the opposite effect, disrupting water structure, increasing the solubility of nonpolar solvent particles, and destabilizing solute aggregates.
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Protein precipitation is widely used in downstream processing of biological products in order to concentrate proteins and purify them from various contaminants. For example, in the biotechnology industry protein precipitation is used to eliminate contaminants commonly contained in blood. The underlying mechanism of precipitation is to alter the solvation potential of the solvent, more specifically, by lowering the solubility of the solute by addition of a reagent.
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A popular aphorism used for predicting solubility is "like dissolves like" also expressed in the Latin language as "Similia similibus solventur". This statement indicates that a solute will dissolve best in a solvent that has a similar chemical structure to itself. This view is simplistic, but it is a useful rule of thumb. The overall solvation capacity of a solvent depends primarily on its polarity.
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Displacement chromatography is a chromatography technique in which a sample is placed onto the head of the column and is then displaced by a solute that is more strongly sorbed than the components of the original mixture. The result is that the components are resolved into consecutive “rectangular” zones of highly concentrated pure substances rather than solvent-separated “peaks”.N. Tugcu . Purification of proteins using displacement chromatography.
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Boiling-point elevation describes the phenomenon that the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) will be higher when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a higher boiling point than a pure solvent. This happens whenever a non-volatile solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure solvent, such as water. The boiling point can be measured accurately using an ebullioscope.
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Using an explicit solvent is computationally expensive, requiring inclusion of roughly ten times more particles in the simulation. But the granularity and viscosity of explicit solvent is essential to reproduce certain properties of the solute molecules. This is especially important to reproduce chemical kinetics. In all kinds of molecular dynamics simulations, the simulation box size must be large enough to avoid boundary condition artifacts.
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Persephonella marina was used as a model organism for the characterization of genes and enzymes for the synthesis of glucosylglycerate found for the first time in a thermophile. Glucosylglycerate protects the microbe from thermal stresses and helps in adaptation to starvation conditions. This is of great importance to scientists who wish to study extremophiles. This solute is also important in the advancement of biotechnology.
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Congenital chloride diarrhea (CCD, also congenital chloridorrhea or Darrow Gamble syndrome) is a genetic disorder due to an autosomal recessive mutation on chromosome 7. The mutation is in downregulated-in-adenoma (DRA), a gene that encodes a membrane protein of intestinal cells. The protein belongs to the solute carrier 26 family of membrane transport proteins. More than 20 mutations in the gene are known to date.
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Also, amino acid side chain affinity for water was measured using vapor phases. Vapor phases represent the simplest non polar phases, because it has no interaction with the solute. The hydration potential and its correlation to the appearance of amino acids on the surface of proteins was studied by Wolfenden. Aqueous and polymer phases were used in the development of a novel partitioning scale.
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Preparation of serum cups for a lipids panel designed to test cholesterol levels in a patient's blood Serum () is the fluid and solute component of blood which does not play a role in clotting. It may be defined as blood plasma without fibrinogens. Serum includes all proteins not used in blood clotting; all electrolytes, antibodies, antigens, hormones; and any exogenous substances (e.g., drugs or microorganisms).
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Prestin is a protein that is critical to sensitive hearing in mammals. It is encoded by the SLC26A5 (solute carrier anion transporter family 26, member 5) gene. Prestin is the motor protein of the outer hair cells of the inner ear of the mammalian cochlea. It is highly expressed in the outer hair cells, and is not expressed in the nonmotile inner hair cells.
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Two conditions usually required to allow vitrification are an increase of the viscosity and a decrease of the freezing temperature. Many solutes do both, but larger molecules generally have a larger effect, particularly on viscosity. Rapid cooling also promotes vitrification. For established methods of cryopreservation, the solute must penetrate the cell membrane in order to achieve increased viscosity and decrease freezing temperature inside the cell.
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Osmotic diuretics (e.g. mannitol) are substances that increase osmolarity but have limited tubular epithelial cell permeability. They work primarily by expanding extracellular fluid and plasma volume, therefore increasing blood flow to the kidney, particularly the peritubular capillaries. This reduces medullary osmolality and thus impairs the concentration of urine in the loop of Henle (which usually uses the high osmotic and solute gradient to transport solutes and water).
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The van 't Hoff factor i is a measure of the effect of a solute upon colligative properties such as osmotic pressure, relative lowering in vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point and freezing point depression. The van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance is dissolved, and the concentration of a substance as calculated from its mass.
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Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 4C1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLCO4C1 gene, which is located on chromosome 5q21. The OATP4C1 protein is expressed in the basolateral membrane of the nephron of the human kidney, where it is involved in the uptake of organic anions for elimination in the urine. The drug digoxin is an important substrate of this transporter.
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The molecular free energy of solvation is computed as the sum of three terms: :Gsol = Ges \+ Gdr \+ Gcav ::Ges = electrostatic ::Gdr = dispersion-repulsion ::Gcav = cavitation The Charge-transfer effect is also considered as a part of solvation in cases. The PCM solvation model is available for calculating energies and gradients at the Hartree-Fock and density functional theory (DFT) levels in several quantum chemical computational packages such as Gaussian, GAMESS and JDFTx. The authors of a 2002 paper observe that PCM has limitations where non- electrostatic effects dominate the solute-solvent interactions. They write in the abstract: "Since only electrostatic solute-solvent interactions are included in the PCM, our results lead to the conclusion that, for the seven molecules studied, in cyclohexane, acetone, methanol, and acetonitrile electrostatic effects are dominant while in carbon tetrachloride, benzene, and chloroform other nonelectrostatic effects are more important."B.
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The usual measure of the strength of an acid is its acid dissociation constant (Ka), which can be determined experimentally by titration methods. Stronger acids have a larger Ka and a smaller logarithmic constant (pKa=−logKa) than weaker acids. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determine the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths also depend on the stability of the conjugate base. While the pKa value measures the tendency of an acidic solute to transfer a proton to a standard solvent (most commonly water or DMSO), the tendency of an acidic solvent to transfer a proton to a reference solute (most commonly a weak aniline base) is measured by its Hammett acidity function, the H0 value.
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A strong electrolyte is a solution/solute that completely, or almost completely, ionizes or dissociates in a solution. These ions are good conductors of electric current in the solution. Originally, a "strong electrolyte" was defined as a chemical that, when in aqueous solution, is a good conductor of electricity. With a greater understanding of the properties of ions in solution, its definition was replaced by the present one.
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Recently, gold atoms were recognized as a highly efficient healing agents in Fe-based alloys. A defect-induced mechanism is indicated for the Au precipitation, i.e. the Au solute remains dissolved until defects are formed. Autonomous repair of high-temperature creep damage was reported by alloying with a small amount of Au. Healing agents selectively precipitate at the free surface of a creep cavity, resulting in pore filling.
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It usually increases from the winter and spring floods and decreases during the summer and autumn. In 2014, it was as small as and as wide as . In the especially dry year of 2000, it was only . An inflow from the north by mineral springs in the playa's northern karst zone contribute a smaller volume of water but its much higher solute concentration greatly affects the lake and its sediments.
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Solute carrier family 13 member 3 also called sodium-dependent dicarboxylate transporter (NaDC3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC13A3 gene. Mammalian sodium-dicarboxylate cotransporters transport succinate and other Krebs cycle intermediates. They fall into 2 categories based on their substrate affinity: low affinity and high affinity. Both the low- and high- affinity transporters play an important role in the handling of citrate by the kidneys.
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Since dislocation motion is the primary mechanism behind plastic deformation, increasing the stress required to move dislocations directly increases the yield strength of the material. The theory of stress fields can be applied to various strengthening mechanisms for materials. Stress fields can be created by adding different sized atoms to the lattice (solute strengthening). If a smaller atom is added to the lattice a tensile stress field is created.
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Spectrophotometry: Quantitative measurement of transmittance based on wavelength. It is important in a number of biomedical fields ranging from the measurement of a solute in a sample to determining enzyme kinetics for a given substrate-enzyme pair. Spectrophotometry requires multiple wavelengths for a wide variety of samples. Therefore, an arc lamp is used to generate multiple wavelengths for collimating mirrors and diffraction gratings to generate collimated light at narrow bandwidths.
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The first German settlers were from the places of Sharpeville, Saint Hubert and Solute. Typically, the settlers arrived in groups originating from the same area, so their lifestyles, customs, as well as their language were preserved. The settlers transformed a useless swampland into a land that produced many useful crops. The farmers produced crops such as corn, sugar beet, hemp, tobacco, sunflower, poppy, as well as various other fruits and vegetables.
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Band 3 anion transport protein, also known as anion exchanger 1 (AE1) or band 3 or solute carrier family 4 member 1 (SLC4A1), is a protein that is encoded by the SLC4A1 gene in humans. Band 3 anion transport protein is a phylogenetically-preserved transport protein responsible for mediating the exchange of chloride (Cl−) with bicarbonate (HCO3−) across plasma membranes. Functionally similar members of the AE clade are AE2 and AE3.
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There is an upregulation of this SUR1/ TRPM4 nonselective cation channel followed by brain tumor, ischemic injury, and traumatic brain injury. This channel which is activated by ATP depletion is found on neurons, neuroglia and endothelium. This channel enables the passive transport of water and solute and represents the ATP independent stage of cerebral formation. Opening of these channels result in cellular depolarization and blebbing causing cytotoxic edema.
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Changeable optics filters are used in the colorimeter to select the wavelength which the solute absorbs the most, in order to maximize accuracy. The usual wavelength range is from 400 to 700 nm. If it is necessary to operate in the ultraviolet range then some modifications to the colorimeter are needed. In modern colorimeters the filament lamp and filters may be replaced by several (light-emitting diode) of different colors.
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Each independent solution can then be extracted again with additional batches of solvent, used for other physical or chemical processes. If the goal was to separate a soluble material from mixture, the solution containing that desired product can sometimes simply be evaporated to leave behind the purified solute. For this reason, it is a practical benefit to use volatile solvents for extracting the desired material from the mixture.
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Adipsia, also known as hypodipsia, is a symptom of inappropriately decreased or absent feelings of thirst. It involves an increased osmolality or concentration of solute in the urine, which stimulates secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the hypothalamus to the kidneys. This causes the person to retain water and ultimately become unable to feel thirst. Due to its rarity, the disorder has not been the subject of many research studies.
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The term fully dissociated is applied to a solute when the concentration of the products of its dissociation are below the detection limits, that is, when the product's concentrations are too low to measured. Quantitatively, this is expressed as log K < -2, or in some texts log K < -1.76. This means that the value of the dissociation constant cannot be obtained from experimental measurements. The value can, however, be estimated theoretically.
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If the anisotropy is large enough, the dendrite may present a faceted morphology. The microstructural length scale is determined by the interplay or balance between the surface energy and the temperature gradient (which drives the heat/solute diffusion) in the liquid at the interface.J. A. Dantzig, M. Rappaz,Solidification, EPFL Press, 2009, pp. 287–298, As solidification proceeds, an increasing number of atoms lose their kinetic energy, making the process exothermic.
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Surface of a freshly cut plank of Eucalyptus camaldulensis displaying thin-layer chromatography. The horizontal blue strip is from a reaction between the iron bandsaw supports and the acidic timber. Separation of compounds is based on the competition of the solute and the mobile phase for binding sites on the stationary phase. For instance, if normal-phase silica gel is used as the stationary phase, it can be considered polar.
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Salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing. Removal of water and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, slowing down their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. In addition, salt causes the soluble proteins to come to the surface of the meat that was used to make the sausages.
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GABA transporters (Gamma-Aminobutyric acid transporters) belong to the family of neurotransmitters known as sodium symporters, also known as solute carrier 6 (SLC6). These are large family of neurotransmitter which are Na+ concentration dependent. They are found in various regions of the brain in different cell types, such as neurons and astrocytes. These transporters are primarily responsible for the regulation of extracellular GABA concentration during basal and synaptic activity.
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This is reflected in the absorption or emission spectrum of the solute as differences in the position, intensity, and shape of the spectroscopic bands. When the spectroscopic band occurs in the visible part of the spectrum solvatochromism is observed as a change of colour. This is illustrated by Reichardt's dye, as shown at the right. Negative solvatochromism corresponds to a hypsochromic shift (or blue shift) with increasing solvent polarity.
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An intercellular cleft is a channel between two cells through which molecules may travel and gap junctions and tight junctions may be present. Most notably, intercellular clefts are often found between epithelial cells and the endothelium of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, also helping to form the blood-nerve barrier surrounding nerves. Intercellular clefts are important for allowing the transportation of fluids and small solute matter through the endothelium.
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For a better understanding of the fugacity capacity concept, heat capacity may provide a precedent for introducing Z as a capacity of a phase to absorb particular quantity of chemical. However, phases with high fugacity capacity do not necessarily retain high fugacity. In calculations of fugacity capacity key factors would be (a) the nature of the solute (chemical), (b) the nature of the medium or compartment, (c) temperature.
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The operating principle of a membrane osmometer. Water (below) is connected to the solution to be measured (above) via a membrane that lets water through. A membrane osmometer is a device used to indirectly measure the number average molecular weight (M_n) of a polymer sample. One chamber contains pure solvent and the other chamber contains a solution in which the solute is a polymer with an unknown M_n.
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Most commonly it is used to measure the concentration of a solute in an aqueous solution. It can also be used as a useful tool to differentiate between different types of gemstone, due to the unique chatoyance each individual stone displays. A refractometer is the instrument used to measure refractive index. For a solution of sugar, the refractive index can be used to determine the sugar content (see Brix).
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The figure above shows three Köhler curves of sodium chloride. Consider (for droplets containing solute with diameter equal to 0.05 micrometers) a point on the graph where the wet diameter is 0.1 micrometers and the supersaturation is 0.35%. Since the relative humidity is above 100%, the droplet will grow until it is in thermodynamic equilibrium. As the droplet grows, it never encounters equilibrium, and thus grows without bound.
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SLC1A2 / EAAT2 is a member of a family of the solute carrier family of proteins. The membrane-bound protein is the principal transporter that clears the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate from the extracellular space at synapses in the central nervous system. Glutamate clearance is necessary for proper synaptic activation and to prevent neuronal damage from excessive activation of glutamate receptors. EAAT2 is responsible for over 90% of glutamate reuptake within the brain.
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Solute carrier family 23 member 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC23A2 gene. The absorption of vitamin C into the body and its distribution to organs requires two sodium-dependent vitamin C transporters. This gene encodes one of the two required transporters and the encoded protein accounts for tissue-specific uptake of vitamin C. Previously, this gene had an official symbol of SLC23A1.
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Only in vitro interaction studies are available. In these, trifluridine used the concentrative nucleoside transporter 1 (CNT1) and equilibrative nucleoside transporters 1 (ENT1) and 2 (ENT2), and tipiracil was transported by the solute carrier proteins SLC22A2 and SLC47A1. Drugs that interact with these transporters could influence blood plasma concentrations of trifluridine and tipiracil. Trifluridine, being a thymidine phosphorylase inhibitor, could also interact with substrates of this enzyme such as zidovudine.
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Hydraulic signaling is fast and effective because of the cohesion and tension properties of water. Hydraulic signals can be propagated downward or upward, relaying water potential gradients throughout the entire plant. Hydraulic signals can be sensed in a few ways all relating to how an increase in water potential affects the plants. Because water leaves the cell, there is a reduction in the pressure potential and an increase in solute concentration.
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Thus each half of the protein forms 3.5 TMSs surrounding the channel. The structure explains why GlpF is selectively permeable to straight chain carbohydrates, and why water and ions are largely excluded. Aquaporin-1 (AQP1) and the bacterial glycerol facilitator, GlpF can transport O2, CO2, NH3, glycerol, urea, and water to varying degrees. For small solutes passing through AQP1, there is an anti-correlation between permeability and solute hydrophobicity.
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It is important to investigate the rate at which the solute is transferred between the two phases, in some cases by an alteration of the contact time it is possible to alter the selectivity of the extraction. For instance, the extraction of palladium or nickel can be very slow because the rate of ligand exchange at these metal centers is much lower than the rates for iron or silver complexes.
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Wimley- White whole-residue hydrophobicity scales The hydrophobicity scales developed by physical property methods are based on the measurement of different physical properties. Examples include, partial molar heat capacity, transition temperature and surface tension. Physical methods are easy to use and flexible in terms of solute. The most popular hydrophobicity scale was developed by measuring surface tension values for the naturally occurring 20 amino acids in NaCl solution.
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The second technique for cryoconservation is vitrification or flash freezing. Vitrification is the transformation from a liquid to solid state without the formation of crystals. The process and mechanics of vitrification are similar to slow freezing, the difference lying in the concentration of the medium. The vitrification method applies a selected medium which has a higher concentration of solute so the water will leave the cells via osmosis.
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Michael H Abraham is a prominent chemist and also an artist. He works in the fields of physical and organic chemistry at University College London, where he holds the seat of professor. Specifically his research interests include hydrogen bonding, linear free energy relationships (LFER), quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) and solute-solvent interactions. His work has led to him being on Thomson Reuters' list of most cited scientists.
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The SWMS_3D code for simulating water flow and solute transport in three-dimensional variably saturated media. Version 1.0, Research Report No. 139, U.S. Salinity Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Riverside, California, 155 pp.). This software package is a complete rewrite of HYDRUS-2D and its extensions for two- and three-dimensional geometries. In addition to features and processes available in HYDRUS-2D and SWMS_3D, the new computational modules of HYDRUS (2D/3D) consider (a) water flow and solute transport in a dual-porosity system, thus allowing for preferential flow in fractures or macropores while storing water in the matrix, (b) root water uptake with compensation, (c) the spatial root distribution functions, (d) the soil hydraulic property models of Kosugi and Durner, (e) the transport of viruses, colloids, and/or bacteria using an attachment/detachment model, filtration theory, and blocking functions, (f) a constructed wetland module (only in 2D), (g) the new hysteresis model to eliminate pumping by keeping track of historical reversal points, and many other options.
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In liquid-state NMR spectroscopy, the sample to be studied is dissolved in a solvent. Typically, the concentration of the solvent is much higher than the concentration of the solutes of interest. The signal from the solvent can overwhelm that of the solute, and the NMR instrument may not collect any meaningful data. Solvent suppression techniques are particularly important in protein NMR where the solvent often includes H2O as well as D2O.
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Glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT-4), also known as solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 4, is a protein encoded, in humans, by the SLC2A4 gene. GLUT4 is the insulin-regulated glucose transporter found primarily in adipose tissues and striated muscle (skeletal and cardiac). The first evidence for this distinct glucose transport protein was provided by David James in 1988. The gene that encodes GLUT4 was cloned and mapped in 1989.
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Salmon prepared for curing Salt (sodium chloride) is a primary ingredient used to cure fish and other foods. Removal of water and addition of salt to fish creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, retarding their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. Iodized table salt may be used, but the iodine generally causes a dark end product and a bitter taste.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 7 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the gene SLC22A7. The protein encoded by this gene is involved in the sodium- independent transport and excretion of organic anions, some of which are potentially toxic. The encoded protein is an integral membrane protein and appears to be localized to the basolateral membrane of the kidney. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been described.
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A sodium ion solvated by water molecules. Solvation describes the interaction of solvent with dissolved molecules. Both ionized and uncharged molecules interact strongly with solvent, and the strength and nature of this interaction influence many properties of the solute, including solubility, reactivity, and color, as well as influencing the properties of the solvent such as the viscosity and density. In the process of solvation, ions are surrounded by a concentric shell of solvent.
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Plasmolysis is the process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution. The reverse process, deplasmolysis or cytolysis, can occur if the cell is in a hypotonic solution resulting in a lower external osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell. Through observation of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis, it is possible to determine the tonicity of the cell's environment as well as the rate solute molecules cross the cellular membrane.
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Solute carrier family 25 (mitochondrial carrier; Graves disease autoantigen), member 16 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the SLC25A16 gene. This gene encodes a protein that contains three tandemly repeated mitochondrial carrier protein domains. The encoded protein is localized in the inner membrane and facilitates the rapid transport and exchange of molecules between the cytosol and the mitochondrial matrix space. This gene has a possible role in Graves' disease.
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Grazoprevir is transported by the solute carrier proteins SLCO1B1 and SLCO1B3. Drugs that inhibit this proteins, such as rifampicin, ciclosporin, and a number of AIDS medications (atazanavir, darunavir, lopinavir, saquinavir, tipranavir, cobicistat), can cause a significant increase in grazoprevir blood plasma levels. The substance is degraded by the liver enzyme CYP3A4. Combination with drugs that induce this enzyme, such as efavirenz, carbamazepine or St. John's wort, can lead to ineffectively low plasma levels of grazoprevir.
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The protein–protein interactions thus become stronger than the solvent–solute interactions and the protein molecules associate by forming hydrophobic interactions with each other. After dissociation in a given solvent, the negatively charged atoms from a chosen salt begin to compete for interactions with positively charged molecules present in the solution. Similarly, the positively charged cations compete for interactions with the negatively charged molecules of the solvent. This process is known as salting out.
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Multiphase flows are not restricted to only three phases. An example of a four phase flow system would be that of direct- contact freeze crystallization in which, for example, butane liquid is injected into solution from which the crystals are to be formed, and freezing occurs as a result of the evaporation of the liquid butane. In this case, the four phases are, respectively, butane liquid, butane vapor, solute phase and crystalline (solid) phase.
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Explicit solvent models treat explicitly (i.e. the coordinates and usually at least some of the molecular degrees of freedom are included) the solvent molecules. This is a more intuitively realistic picture in which there are direct, specific solvent interactions with a solute, in contrast to continuum models. These models generally occur in the application of molecular mechanics (MM) and dynamics (MD) or Monte Carlo (MC) simulations, although some quantum chemical calculations do use solvent clusters.
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The most common atmospheric pressure ionisation techniques used in LC-MS/MS are electrospray ionization (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI). APCI is less prone to pronounced ion suppression than ESI, an inherent property of the respective ionisation mechanisms. In APCI, the sole source of ion suppression can be attributed to the change of colligative properties in the solute during evaporization (King et al, J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom 2000, 11, 942-950).
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During rapid crystal growth from the melting, dopant concentrations can far exceed the thermodynamic solubility limit through a solute trapping phenomenon. This is necessary to achieve sufficiently high free carrier concentrations, since these dopants tend to be deep donors with high ionization energies. It took researchers only 15 minutes to make one carat of Q-carbon. The initial research created Q-carbon from a thin plate of sapphire coated with amorphous (non-crystalline) carbon.
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Hydronium is the cation that forms from water in the presence of hydrogen ions. These hydrons do not exist in a free state - they are extremely reactive and are solvated by water. An acidic solute is generally the source of the hydrons, but hydronium ions exist even in pure water. This special case of water reacting with water to produce hydronium (and hydroxide) ions is commonly known as the self-ionization of water.
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To maintain this internal negative voltage so that entry of potassium ions does not stop, negative ions balance the influx of potassium. In some cases, chloride ions enter, while in other plants the organic ion malate is produced in guard cells. This increase in solute concentration lowers the water potential inside the cell, which results in the diffusion of water into the cell through osmosis. This increases the cell's volume and turgor pressure.
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At high pressure 1/n = 0, hence extent of adsorption becomes independent of pressure. It is used in cases where the actual identity of the solute is not known, such as adsorption of colored material from sugar, vegetable oil etc. The Freundlich equation is unique; consequently, if the data fit the equation, it is only likely, but not proved, that the surface is heterogeneous. The heterogeneity of the surface can be confirmed with calorimetery.
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Monocarboxylate transporter 2 (MCT2) also known as solute carrier family 16 member 7 (SLC16A7) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC16A7 gene. MCT2 is a proton-coupled monocarboxylate transporter. It catalyzes the rapid transport across the plasma membrane of many monocarboxylates such as lactate, branched-chain oxo acids derived from leucine, valine and isoleucine, and the ketone bodies acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate. It also functions as high-affinity pyruvate transporter.
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Monocarboxylate transporter 3 (MCT3) also known as solute carrier family 16 member 8 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC16A8 gene. MCT is a proton-coupled monocarboxylate transporter. It catalyzes the rapid transport across the plasma membrane of many monocarboxylates such as lactate, pyruvate, branched-chain oxo acids derived from leucine, valine and isoleucine, and the ketone bodies acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetate. It also functions as high-affinity pyruvate transporter.
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Citrin also known as solute carrier family 25, member 13 (citrin) or SLC25A13 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the SLC25A13 gene. Citrin is associated with type II citrullinemia and neonatal intrahepatic cholestasis caused by citrin deficiency (NICCD). The term Citrin when referring to Vitamin-P was the most active Bio-flavonoid in lemons, it was found to be Eriodictyol (but a more active form constituent was found there decades later).
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There are a number of ways to increase the concentration of the wanted minerals: in any particular case, the method chosen will depend on the relative physical and surface chemical properties of the mineral and the gangue. Concentration is defined as the number of moles of a solute in a volume of the solution. In case of mineral processing, concentration means the increase of the percentage of the valuable mineral in the concentrate.
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Throughout several games, Holmes uses his magnifying glass when he inspects things such as crime scenes, mutilated bodies, fingerprints, gashes and scratches—and uses it mostly for finding evidence. It is the only item to appear in most of the series. He also uses his microscope in checking clues unseen by the naked eye. He has a chemistry set in his flat which he uses to dissolve solute, dissect clues, and find evidence.
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The solute carrier (SLC) group of membrane transport proteins include over 400 members organized into 66 families. Most members of the SLC group are located in the cell membrane. The SLC gene nomenclature system was originally proposed by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) and is the basis for the official HGNC names of the genes that encode these transporters. A more general transmembrane transporter classification can be found in TCDB database.
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While Hermitian cubic finite element numerical schemes were used in SUMATRA and linear finite elements in WORM and the older HYDRUS code for solution of both the water flow and solute transport equations, SWMI used finite differences to solve the flow equation. Various features of these four early models were combined first in the DOS-based SWMI_ST model (Šimůnek et al., 1993), and later in the Windows-based HYDRUS-1D simulator (Šimůnek et al., 1998).
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Excessive ADH causes an inappropriate increase in the reabsorption in the kidneys of solute-free water ("free water"): excess water moves from the distal convoluted tubules (DCT)s and collecting tubules of the nephrons - via activation of aquaporins, the site of the ADH receptors - back into the circulation. This has two consequences. First, in the extracellular fluid (ECF) space, there is a dilution of blood solutes, causing hypoosmolality, including a low sodium concentration - hyponatremia.
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Its successors are MIKE SHE (DHI) and SHETRAN (School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Newcastle University). Shetran plan view of the Dunsop catchment The SHE model was renamed SHETRAN at School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Newcastle University, after the introduction of the sediment and solute transport component. Since then it has undergone further improvements. The biggest change was the introduction of a fully 3-dimensional subsurface or variably saturated subsurface (VSS) component.
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Vesicular monoamine transporter 1 (VMAT1) also known as chromaffin granule amine transporter (CGAT) or solute carrier family 18 member 1 (SLC18A1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC18A1 gene. VMAT1 is an integral membrane protein, which is embedded in synaptic vesicles and serves to transfer monoamines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin, between the cytosol and synaptic vesicles. SLC18A1 is an isoform of the vesicular monoamine transporter.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A11 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is involved in the sodium- independent transport and excretion of organic anions, some of which are potentially toxic. The encoded protein is an integral membrane protein and is found mainly in the kidney and in the placenta, where it may act to prevent potentially harmful organic anions from reaching the fetus.
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The high-affinity choline transporter (ChT) also known as solute carrier family 5 member 7 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the SLC5A7 gene. It is a cell membrane transporter and carries choline into acetylcholine- synthesizing neurons. Hemicholinium-3 is an inhibitor of the ChT and can be used to deplete acetylcholine stores, while coluracetam is an enhancer of the ChT and can increase cholinergic neurotransmission by enhancing acetylcholine synthesis.
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"Soil Quality and Sustainability Evaluation - An integrated approach to support soil-related policies of the European Union ", EUR 22721 EN. 40 pp. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. . Soil quality reflects how well a soil performs the functions of maintaining biodiversity and productivity, partitioning water and solute flow, filtering and buffering, nutrient cycling, and providing support for plants and other structures. Soil management has a major impact on soil quality.
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From 1964 to 1983, Goldstein was a professor of Materials Science and Engineering at Lehigh University. During a sabbatical year in 1975, Goldstein discovered that analytical electron microscopy could resolve the solute profiles in synthetic meteoritic materials. He used the technique of AEM to supplement his extensive Scanning Electron Microscopy techniques. He initiated the Lehigh University Summer Microscopy School in 1970 and these continue today, teaching both SEM and AEM microprobe techniques.
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Also osmosis is another principle that makes dialysis work. During osmosis, fluid moves from areas of high water concentration to lower water concentration across a semi-permeable membrane until equilibrium. In dialysis, excess fluid moves from sample to the dialysate through a membrane until the fluid level is the same between sample and dialysate. Finally, Ultrafiltration which is the convective flow of water and dissolved solute down a pressure gradient caused by hydrostatic forces or osmotic forces.
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The different types of functional receptor cell types are mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors (osmoreceptor), thermoreceptors, and nociceptors. Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of sound and body position (balance), are interpreted through a mechanoreceptor. Photoreceptors convert light (visible electromagnetic radiation) into signals. Chemical stimuli can be interpreted by a chemoreceptor that interprets chemical stimuli, such as an object's taste or smell, while osmoreceptors respond to a chemical solute concentrations of body fluids.
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A solution of a chemical compound in a liquid will become supersaturated when the temperature of the saturated solution is changed. In most cases solubility decreases with decreasing temperature; in such cases the excess of solute will rapidly separate from the solution as crystals or an amorphous powder. In a few cases the opposite effect occurs. The example of sodium sulphate in water is well-known and this was why it was used in early studies of solubility.
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A symporter uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its concentration gradient). Both molecules are transported in the same direction. An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which co-transports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell. This symporter is located in the small intestines, heart, and brain.
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This gene is a member of the mitochondrial carrier subfamily of solute carrier protein genes. The product of this gene, adenine nucleotide translocator 2 (ANT2), functions as a major constituent of the mitochondrial permeability-transition pore complex that catalyzes the exchange of mitochondrial ATP with cytosolic ADP. As a result of its antiporter function, ANT2 maintains mitochondrial membrane potential by regulating ADP/ATP ratios in oxidative phosphorylation. ANT2 facilitates uncoupling of the mitochondrial membrane when acylated by SIRT4.
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With the formula below, freezing-point depression can be used to measure the degree of dissociation or the molar mass of the solute. This kind of measurement is called cryoscopy (Greek cryo = cold, scopos = observe; "observe the cold"BIOETYMOLOGY – Biomedical Terms of Greek Origin. cryoscopy. bioetymology.blogspot.com.) and relies on exact measurement of the freezing point. The degree of dissociation is measured by determining the van 't Hoff factor i by first determining mB and then comparing it to msolute.
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Membrane bound oxaloacetate decarboxylase was the first enzyme of the Na+ transport decarboxylase family demonstrated to act as primary Na+ pump. This enzyme family includes methylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase, malonate decarboxylase, and glutanoyl-CoA decarboxylase, all of which are found exclusively in anaerobic bacteria.; Decarboxylating the beta-keto acid of oxaloacetate affords the necessary free energy to pump sodium ions across the lipid bilayer. The resulting sodium gradient drives the synthesis of ATP, solute transport, and motility.
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Zinc transporter ZIP9, also known as Zrt- and Irt-like protein 9 (ZIP9) and solute carrier family 39 member 9, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC39A9 gene. This protein is the 9th member out of 14 ZIP family proteins, which is a membrane androgen receptor (mAR) coupled to G proteins, and also classified as a zinc transporter protein. ZIP family proteins transport zinc metal from the extracellular environment into cells through cell membrane.
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Dry mouth is often a side effect of medications used in the treatment of some mental disorders, rather than being caused by the underlying condition. Such medications include antipsychotics, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, alpha agonists and anticholinergics. It should also be ensured that the thirst isn't caused by diuretic use (particularly thiazide diuretics), MDMA use, excessive solute intake or chronic alcoholism. Alcoholism may cause physiological thirst since ethanol inhibits vasopressin, the hormone primarily responsible for water retention in osmoregulation.
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Its importance can be measured by the many and continuing citations it has received and its use by other. She applied this simple model to solvation dynamics in confined environments, predicting that chromophore- surfactant interactions can lead to dramatically different results for solutes that repelled by and attracted to the surfactant layer. She also showed that solute motion relative to the interface plays a role, opening up a relaxation channel that is absent in bulk liquids.
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Mitochondrial 2-oxodicarboxylate carrier also known as solute carrier family 25 member 21 (SLC25A21) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A21 gene. It is a homolog of the S. cerevisiae ODC proteins, mitochondrial carriers that transport C5-C7 oxodicarboxylates across inner mitochondrial membranes. One of the species transported by ODC is 2-oxoadipate, a common intermediate in the catabolism of lysine, tryptophan, and hydroxylysine in mammals. Within mitochondria, 2-oxoadipate is converted into acetyl-CoA.
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For example, many metals and their oxides are said to be "soluble in hydrochloric acid", although in fact the aqueous acid irreversibly degrades the solid to give soluble products. It is also true that most ionic solids are dissolved by polar solvents, but such processes are reversible. In those cases where the solute is not recovered upon evaporation of the solvent, the process is referred to as solvolysis. The thermodynamic concept of solubility does not apply straightforwardly to solvolysis.
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Solubility is defined for specific phases. For example, the solubility of aragonite and calcite in water are expected to differ, even though they are both polymorphs of calcium carbonate and have the same chemical formula. The solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of intermolecular forces between the solvent and solute, and the entropy change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will alter this balance, thus changing the solubility.
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Long-term chronic dialysis, however, the highest standards should be applied to these children to preserve their future "cardiovascular life"—which might include more dialysis time and on-line hemodiafiltration online hdf with synthetic high flux membranes with the surface area of 0.2sq.m to 0.8sq.m and blood tubing lines with the low volume yet large blood pump segment of 6.4/8.0mm, if we are able to improve on the rather restricted concept of small-solute urea dialysis clearance.
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Reversible fouling can be removed by a strong shear force or backwashing. Formation of a strong matrix of fouling layer with the solute during a continuous filtration process will result in reversible fouling being transformed into an irreversible fouling layer. Irreversible fouling is the strong attachment of particles which cannot be removed by physical cleaning.Choi, H., Zhang, K., Dionysiou, D.D.,Oerther, D.B.& Sorial, G.A. (2005) Effect of permeate flux and tangential flow on membrane fouling for wastewater treatment.
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Factors that affect membrane fouling: Recent fundamental studies indicate that membrane fouling is influenced by numerous factors such as system hydrodynamics, operating conditions, membrane properties, and material properties (solute). At low pressure, low feed concentration, and high feed velocity, concentration polarisation effects are minimal and flux is almost proportional to trans- membrane pressure difference. However, in the high pressure range, flux becomes almost independent of applied pressure.Ghosh, R., 2006, Principles of Bioseparation Engineering, World Scientific Publishing Pvt Ltd.
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SLC45A4 is a member of the SLC45 family of solute carriers. Analysis of the protein function in a recombinant yeast expression assay show that it can: (i) transport a disaccharide,sucrose, as well simple sugars such as glucose and fructose (ii) perform secondary active transport in a proton-dependent manner. It is associated with sugar transport in the spermatozoa. Additionally, it has been itdentified as a necessary component in the cell death caused of the compound paraquat.
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In an example, ABA response to a hydraulic signal from the roots- a decrease in water potential- is thought to reach the guard cells to stimulate stomatal closure. Despite an unidentified hydraulic sensor(s) and the mechanism of which this sensor detects decreases in pressure and solute potential in the parenchyma, this primary site of ABA biosynthesis is thought to additionally participate as the main location of hydraulic signal perception, vital to mediation of water potential in the plant.
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Nutritional support is necessary in all patients with acute brain injury. Enteral feeding, or through mouth via tube, is the preferred method, unless contraindicated. Additional attention must be placed on the solute concentration of the formulations to avoid free water intake, decreased serum osmolality, and worsening of the cerebral edema. Elevated blood glucose, or hyperglycemia, is associated with increased edema in patients with cerebral ischemia and increases the risk of a hemorrhagic transformation of ischemic stroke.
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The diagnosis of AKI encompasses tests of the blood, urine, and imaging of the kidneys. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is used as an index of kidney function and the most frequently used diagnostic test to calculate GFR is the serum creatinine level. GFR also factors in urine and plasma solute concentration. Unfortunately, serum creatinine is highly variable depending on age, sex, metabolic state, body composition (muscle mass), and rate of excretion by the kidney itself.
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The role of osmoregulation—the maintenance of a precise balance of solute and water concentrations within the body—is performed by a number of bodily functions working together. In P. ruber, the kidney, the lower gastrointestinal tract, and the salt glands work together to maintain the homeostasis between ions and fluids. In mammals, the kidneys and urinary bladder are the primary organs used in osmoregulation. Birds, however, lack a urinary bladder and must compensate using these three organs.
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This soil level is generally referred to as the "permanent wilting point". This term is confusing because many plant species do not actually "wilt". Damkohler Number The Damkohler number is a unitless ratio that predicts whether the time in which a particular nutrient or solute is in specific pool or flux of water will be sufficient time for a specific reaction to occur. Da = Where T is the time of either the transport or the reaction.
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A weak electrolyte is a substance whose solute exists in solution mostly in the form of molecules (which are said to be "undissociated"), with only a small fraction in the form of ions. Simply because a substance does not readily dissolve does not make it a weak electrolyte. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) and ammonium (NH4+) are good examples. Acetic acid is extremely soluble in water, but most of the compound dissolves into molecules, rendering it a weak electrolyte.
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Free water clearance can be used as an indicator of how the body is regulating water. A free water clearance of zero means the kidney is producing urine isosmotic with respect to the plasma. Values greater than zero imply that the kidney is producing dilute urine through the excretion of solute-free water. Values less than zero imply that the kidney is conserving water (likely under the influence of antidiuretic hormone, ADH), resulting in the production of concentrated urine.
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The norepinephrine transporter (NET), also known as noradrenaline transporter (NAT) and solute carrier family 6 member 2 (SLC6A2), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC6A2 gene. NET is a monoamine transporter and is responsible for the sodium-chloride (Na+/Cl−)-dependent reuptake of extracellular norepinephrine (NE), which is also known as noradrenaline. NET can also reuptake extracellular dopamine (DA). The reuptake of these two neurotransmitters is essential in regulating concentrations in the synaptic cleft.
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If any of these conditions are not fulfilled, there will be deviations from the Beer–Lambert law. The Beer–Lambert law is not compatible with Maxwell's equations. Being strict, the law does not describe the transmittance through a medium, but the propagation within that medium. It can be made compatible with Maxwell's equations if the transmittance of a sample with solute is ratioed against the transmittance of the pure solvent which explains why it works so well in spectrophotometry.
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The volume of water lost in sweat daily is highly variable, ranging from 100 to 8,000 mL/day. The solute loss can be as much as 350 mmol/d (or 90 mmol/d acclimatised) of sodium under the most extreme conditions. During average intensity exercise, sweat losses can average up to 2 litres of water/hour. In a cool climate and in the absence of exercise, sodium loss can be very low (less than 5 mmol/d).
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The adsorption of ensemble molecules on a surface or interface can be divided into two processes: adsorption and desorption. If the adsorption rate wins the desorption rate, the molecules will accumulate over time giving the adsorption curve over time. If the desorption rate is larger, the number of molecules on the surface will decrease over time. The adsorption rate is dependent on the temperature, the diffusion rate of the solute, and the energy barrier between the molecule and the surface.
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The conductivity of a solution depends on the solvation of its ions. Nonpolar solvents cannot solvate ions, and ions will be found as ion pairs. Hydrogen bonding among solvent and solute molecules depends on the ability of each to accept H-bonds, donate H-bonds, or both. Solvents that can donate H-bonds are referred to as protic, while solvents that do not contain a polarized bond to a hydrogen atom and cannot donate a hydrogen bond are called aprotic.
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Solute carrier family 35 member C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC35C2 gene. Oxygenation levels play an important role in the regulation of cellular invasiveness which occurs during early implantation when the trophoblast cells invade the uterus as well as during tumour progression and metastasis. This gene, which is regulated by oxygen tension, is induced in hypoxic trophoblast cells and is overexpressed in ovarian cancer. Two protein isoforms are encoded by transcript variants of this gene.
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Solute carrier family 46 member 3 (SLC46A3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC46A3 gene. Also referred to as FKSG16, the protein belongs to the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) and SLC46A family. Most commonly found in the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum (ER), SLC46A3 is a multi-pass membrane protein with 11 α-helical transmembrane domains. It is mainly involved in the transport of small molecules across the membrane through the substrate translocation pores featured in the MFS domain.
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Some plants such as willow trees and poplars have been found to clean both lead and cadmium from soil. Typical background concentrations of cadmium do not exceed 5 ng/m3 in the atmosphere; 2 mg/kg in soil; 1 μg/L in freshwater and 50 ng/L in seawater. Concentrations of cadmium above 10 μg/l may be stable in water having low total solute concentrations and p H and can be difficult to remove by conventional water treatment processes.
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In the case of a plant cell, the flow of water out of the cell may eventually cause the plasma membrane to pull away from the cell wall, leading to plasmolysis. Most plants, however, have the ability to increase solute inside the cell to drive the flow of water into the cell and maintain turgor. This effect can be used to power an osmotic power plant.Statkraft to build world's first osmotic power plant A soil solution also experiences osmotic potential.
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In December 1918 he returned to Czechoslovakia to battle the Hungarians, who were claiming a part of Czechoslovak territory, as a part of Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919. After the successful fights, he moved to Cieszyn Silesia and helped the army to solute the problems with Poland. He won in Jablunkov, as well as in Třinec and was promoted to Major. During the mobilization in 1938 he was already a divisional general and commander of the 3rd Czechoslovak Army Corps.
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The majority of the computer models available for water and solute transport in the soil (e.g. Swatre,Swatre DrainMod Drainmod ) are based on Richard's differential equation for the movement of water in unsaturated soil in combination with a differential salinity dispersion equation. The models require input of soil characteristics like the relation between unsaturated soil moisture content, water tension, hydraulic conductivity and dispersivity. These relations vary to a great extent from place to place and are not easy to measure.
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Function of symporters and antiporters. In an antiporter two species of ion or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high one. An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger or antiporter, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out.
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The strength of a material is dependent on how easily dislocations in its crystal lattice can be propagated. These dislocations create stress fields within the material depending on their character. When solute atoms are introduced, local stress fields are formed that interact with those of the dislocations, impeding their motion and causing an increase in the yield stress of the material, which means an increase in strength of the material. This gain is a result of both lattice distortion and the modulus effect.
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This lowers the stacking fault energy, leading to repulsion of the partial dislocations, which thus makes the material stronger. Surface carburizing, or case hardening, is one example of solid solution strengthening in which the density of solute carbon atoms is increased close to the surface of the steel, resulting in a gradient of carbon atoms throughout the material. This provides superior mechanical properties to the surface of the steel without having to use a higher-cost material for the component.
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Pattern matching algorithms can measure this distortion and calculate a qualitative density field of the flow. The method of synthetic schlieren can be used to observe any flow which has variations in refractive index. Commonly these are caused by variations in concentration of a solute in an aqueous solution, or variations in the density of a compressible flow, caused by temperature or pressure variations. As with the optical schlieren method, the clearest results are obtained from flows which are largely two-dimensional.
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Dendritic crystallization forms a natural fractal pattern. Dendritic crystals can grow into a supercooled pure liquid or form from growth instabilities that occur when the growth rate is limited by the rate of diffusion of solute atoms to the interface. In the latter case, there must be a concentration gradient from the supersaturated value in the solution to the concentration in equilibrium with the crystal at the surface. Any protuberance that develops is accompanied by a steeper concentration gradients at its tip.
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A large portion of the soil has been affected by over salinity and it has been known to limit the growth of many plants. Globally, the total area of saline soil was 397,000,000 ha and in continents like Africa, it makes up 2 percent of the soil. The amount of soil salinization has reached 19.5% of the irrigated land and 2.1% of the dry-land agriculture around the world. Soil salinization affects the plants using osmotic potential by net solute accumulation.
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Osteocyte apoptosis is thought to be related to decreased mechanotransduction, which possibly leads to the development of osteoporosis. Apoptotic osteocytes release apoptotic bodies expressing RANKL to recruit osteoclasts. Mechanical loading increases osteocyte viability in vitro, and contributes to solute transport through the lacuno-canalicular system in bone, which enhances oxygen and nutrient exchange and diffusion to osteocytes. Skeletal unloading has been shown to induce osteocyte hypoxia in vivo, this is when osteocytes undergo apoptosis and recruit osteoclasts to resorb bone.
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In the presence of two phases ( and ), the surface (surface phase) is located in between the phase and phase . Experimentally, it is difficult to determine the exact structure of an inhomogeneous surface phase that is in contact with a bulk liquid phase containing more than one solute. Inhomogeneity of the surface phase is a result of variation of mole ratios. A model proposed by Josiah Willard Gibbs proposed that the surface phase as an idealized model that had zero thickness.
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Water molecules freely diffuse through the plasma membrane in both directions, and as the rate of water diffusion is the same in each direction, the cell will neither gain nor lose water. An iso-osmolar solution can be hypotonic if the solute is able to penetrate the cell membrane. For example, an iso-osmolar urea solution is hypotonic to red blood cells, causing their lysis. This is due to urea entering the cell down its concentration gradient, followed by water.
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The dissolution of a compound in a pure solvent results in the generation of gas bubbles in the solvent, due to the lowering of gas solubility in the resulting solution, as well as the introduction of gases with the solute. The presence of these gas bubbles increases the compressibility of the solution, thereby lowering the velocity of sound in the solution. This effect can be monitored by means of the frequency change of acoustic resonances that are mechanically produced in the solvent.
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The multidrug efflux transporter NorM from V. parahaemolyticus which mediates resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents (norfloxacin, kanamycin, ethidium bromide etc.) and its homologue from E. coli were identified in 1998, which is the first of Solute carrier family 47 member. NorM seems to function as drug/sodium antiporter which is the first example of Na+-coupled multidrug efflux transporter. NorM is a prototype of a new transporter family and Brown et al. named it the multidrug and toxic compound extrusion family.
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The crystal growth is the subsequent size increase of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size. Crystal growth is a dynamic process occurring in equilibrium where solute molecules or atoms precipitate out of solution, and dissolve back into solution. Supersaturation is one of the driving forces of crystallization, as the solubility of a species is an equilibrium process quantified by Ksp. Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may be predominant over the other, dictating crystal size.
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Osmolarity and tonicity are related but distinct concepts. Thus, the terms ending in -osmotic (isosmotic, hyperosmotic, hyposmotic) are not synonymous with the terms ending in -tonic (isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic). The terms are related in that they both compare the solute concentrations of two solutions separated by a membrane. The terms are different because osmolarity takes into account the total concentration of penetrating solutes and non-penetrating solutes, whereas tonicity takes into account the total concentration of non- freely penetrating solutes only.
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As of 2007, the oil reserves of the region amounted to 204 million tons. In addition, Novosibirsk Oblast had free gas reserves of 600 million cubic meters, solute gas reserves of 5.2 billion cubic meters, and gas condensate reserves of 121,000 tons. Most of the oil and gas reserves are located in the Severny and Kyshtovsky districts. The following metals can be found in the region: zirconium dioxide (0.7 million tons), titanium dioxide (2.9 million tons), bauxite (2,068,000 tons), and tin (588,000 tons).
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The loading of trioctylamine for a given carboxylic acid depends on the nature of the solute and its concentration. The apparent extraction equilibrium constants depend on the hydrophobicity and acidity of the carboxylic acid, as well as the specific basicity of trioctylamine. Trioctylamine production can be used as a mineral extraction reagent, an extractant for reactor fuel processing, and its use as an extractant for identification of dyes may result in its release to the environment through various waste streams.
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If a substance has properties that do not allow it to overcome these strong intermolecular forces, the molecules are precipitated out from the water. Contrary to the common misconception, water and hydrophobic substances do not "repel", and the hydration of a hydrophobic surface is energetically, but not entropically, favorable. When an ionic or polar compound enters water, it is surrounded by water molecules (hydration). The relatively small size of water molecules (~ 3 angstroms) allows many water molecules to surround one molecule of solute.
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Later workers derived additional methods for generating random numbers according to Gillespie's function p(τ,j) which offer computational advantages in various specific situations. Gillespie's original derivation of the SSA applied only to a well-stirred dilute gas. It was widely assumed/hoped that the SSA would also apply when the reactant molecules are solute molecules in a well-stirred dilute solution, a case more appropriate to cellular chemistry. In fact it does, but that was not definitively established until 2009.
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The oblique aperture is somewhat contracted and subcircular. The outer and basal lips are thickened and finely crenulated within. The columella is oblique, with a tooth-like fold above, solute, and deeply inserted upon the side of the umbilicus The middle portion is concave, with a reflexed subdenticulate edge, ending beneath in a minute denticle. The profound umbilicus is smooth and polished within, bordered by a strong rib bearing 6 or 7 projecting white teeth, the upper one the largest.
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Most ABC transporters that mediate the uptake of nutrients and other molecules in bacteria rely on a high-affinity solute binding protein (BP). BPs are soluble proteins located in the periplasmic space between the inner and outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive microorganisms lack a periplasm such that their binding protein is often a lipoprotein bound to the external face of the cell membrane. Some gram- positive bacteria have BPs fused to the transmembrane domain of the transporter itself.
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Ammonia transporters (TC# 1.A.11) are structurally related membrane transport proteins called Amt proteins (ammonia transporters) in bacteria and plants, methylammonium/ammonium permeases (MEPs) in yeast, or Rhesus (Rh) proteins in chordates. In humans, the RhAG, RhBG, and RhCG Rhesus proteins constitute solute carrier family 42 whilst RhD and RhCE form the Rh blood group system. The three-dimensional structure of the ammonia transport protein AmtB from Escherichia coli has been determined by x-ray crystallography; ; revealing a hydrophobic ammonia channel.
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443 One of the biggest factors that affect active space size will be the water conductance mediated by solute concentration in the water. It has been shown that mormyrids have adapted its optimal active range in lower- conductivity habitats. One natural phenomenon that supports such theory is that, many species spawn during the time when rivers/ lakes have the lowest conductivity due to heavy rains. Having bigger active space in water with low conductivity will therefore benefit mating and courting.
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These glasses containing red dye demonstrate qualitative changes in concentration. The solutions on the left are more dilute, compared to the more concentrated solutions on the right. Often in informal, non-technical language, concentration is described in a qualitative way, through the use of adjectives such as "dilute" for solutions of relatively low concentration and "concentrated" for solutions of relatively high concentration. To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute (for example, alcohol), or reduce the amount of solvent (for example, water).
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Instead, phase separation will occur, leading to coexisting phases, either completely separated or mixed as a suspension. The point of saturation depends on many variables such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the solvent and solute. Concentrations are often called levels, reflecting the mental schema of levels on the vertical axis of a graph, which can be high or low (for example, "high serum levels of bilirubin" are concentrations of bilirubin in the blood serum that are greater than normal).
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Distribution of VMAT2 in the human brain. The vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) also known as solute carrier family 18 member 2 (SLC18A2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC18A2 gene. VMAT2 is an integral membrane protein that transports monoamines--particularly neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine--from cellular cytosol into synaptic vesicles. In nigrostriatal pathway and mesolimbic pathway dopamine-releasing neurons, VMAT2 function is also necessary for the vesicular release of the neurotransmitter GABA.
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Infantile free sialic acid storage disease (ISSD) is a lysosomal storage disease. ISSD occurs when sialic acid is unable to be transported out of the lysosomal membrane and instead accumulates in the tissue, causing free sialic acid to be excreted in the urine. Mutations in the SLC17A5 (solute carrier family 17 (anion/sugar transporter), member 50) gene cause all forms of sialic acid storage disease. The SLC17A5 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 6 between positions 14 and 15.
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The majority of the common ostrich's internal solutes are made up of sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+), chloride ions (Cl-), total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), and acetate. The caecum contains a high water concentration with reduced levels nearing the terminal colon, and exhibits a rapid fall in Na+ concentrations and small changes in K+ and Cl-. The colon is divided into three sections and take part in solute absorption. The upper colon largely absorbs Na+ and SCFA, and partially absorbs KCl.
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In refrigeration and air conditioning systems, the suction pressure' (also called the low-side pressure) is the intake pressure generated by the system compressor while operating. The suction pressure, along with the suction temperature and the wet bulb temperature of the discharge air are used to determine the correct refrigerant charge in a system. If some solute is dissolved in water, its diffusion pressure decreases. The difference between diffusion pressure of pure water and solution is called diffusion pressure deficit (DPD).
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SLC45A1 is a member of the SLC45 family of solute carriers. Analysis of the protein function in a recombinant yeast expression assay show that it can: (i) transport a disaccharide, such as glucose and sucrose (ii) perform secondary active transport in a proton-dependent manner. It is associated with sugar transport in the brain, and rare mutations in the gene are associated with intellectual disability and epilepsy. analgous to the effect of mutation of the cerebral glucose transporter GLUT1(SLC2A1).
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Grain boundaries can cause failure mechanically by embrittlement through solute segregation (see Hinkley Point A nuclear power station) but they also can detrimentally affect the electronic properties. In metal oxides it has been shown theoretically that at the grain boundaries in Al2O3 and MgO the insulating properties can be significantly diminished.Guhl, H., Lee, H.-S., Tangney, P., Foulkes, W. M. C., Heuer, A. H., Nakagawa, T., … Finnis, M. W. (2015). Structural and electronic properties of Σ7 grain boundaries in α-Al2O3.
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Stool osmotic gap is a measurement of the difference in solute types between serum and feces, used to distinguish among different causes of diarrhea. Feces is normally in osmotic equilibrium with blood serum, which the human body maintains between 290–300 mOsm/kg. However, the solutes contributing to this total differ. Serum is mostly sodium and potassium salts (as reflected in the formulas for serum osmol gap and anion gap), while the digestive tract contains significant amounts of other compounds.
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Elements of the second category affect DSA by altering the behavior of the first-class elements. Some substitutional solute atoms, like Mn, Mo, and Cr, stress-induced ordering of substitutional-interstitial pairs, and thus reduce the mobility of carbon and nitrogen. Some elements, for example, Ti, Zr, and Nb introduce carbides, nitrides and so on, which then shift the DSA region to higher temperature zone. Sandra Cunninghham (1999), "Effect of substitutional elements on dynamic strain aging in steel",McGill University.
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Plant cells can inherently produce hydrostatic pressure due to a solute concentration gradient between the cytoplasm and external surroundings (osmotic potential). Further, plants can adjust this concentration through the movement of ions across the cell membrane. This then changes the shape and volume of the plant as it responds to this change in hydrostatic pressure. This pressure derived shape evolution is desirable for soft robotics and can be emulated to create pressure adaptive materials through the use of fluid flow.
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Dissolved load is typically measured by taking samples of water from a river and running various scientific tests on them. First, the pH, conductivity, and bicarbonate alkalinity of the sample are measured. Next, samples are filtered to remove any suspended sediments and preserved with chloroform to prevent growth of microorganisms, while the others are acidified with hydrochloric acid added to keep dissolved ions from precipitating out of solution. Then, various chemical tests were applied to determine the concentration of each solute.
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The Theory of NMR – Solvents for NMR spectroscopy In addition, it is chemically unreactive and unlikely to exchange its deuterium with its solute, and its low boiling point allows for easy sample recovery. The properties of CDCl3 are virtually identical to those of regular chloroform, although biologically, it is slightly less toxic to the liver than CHCl3, due to its C–D bond, which is stronger than a C–H bond, making it somewhat less prone to form the destructive trichloromethyl radical (•CCl3).
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Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect, which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface. At small radii, the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large, that it does not happen naturally. Raoult's law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution. At high concentrations, when the cloud droplets are small, the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus.
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This is more common among workers addressing solute transport and water flow. Others define the capillary fringe as including both the tension-saturated and unsaturated portions. This is the preferred definition among workers dealing with the remediation of salt affected soils as well as those dealing with the vapor phase of soil processes and bioremediation. It is not uncommon to see the capillary fringe treated as a boundary condition separating the water table from the unsaturated zone, without defining it as a significant part of either.
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A quantitative measure for solvation power of solvents is given by donor numbers. Although early thinking was that a higher ratio of a cation's ion charge to ionic radius, or the charge density, resulted in more solvation, this does not stand up to scrutiny for ions like iron(III) or lanthanides and actinides, which are readily hydrolyzed to form insoluble (hydrous) oxides. As these are solids, it is apparent that they are not solvated. Strong solvent-solute interactions make the process of solvation more favorable.
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A calcium silicate feedstock, made from processed steel slag, can also be used to neutralize active acidity in AMD systems by removing free hydrogen ions from the bulk solution, thereby increasing pH. As the silicate anion captures H+ ions (raising the pH), it forms monosilicic acid (H4SiO4), a neutral solute. Monosilicic acid remains in the bulk solution to play many roles in correcting the adverse effects of acidic conditions. In the bulk solution, the silicate anion is very active in neutralizing H+ cations in the soil solution.
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Leaching in soil is highly dependent on the characteristics of the soil, which makes modeling efforts difficult. Most leaching comes from infiltration of water, a washing effect much like that described for the leaching process of biological substances. The leaching is typically described by solute transport models, such as Darcy's Law, mass flow expressions, and diffusion-dispersion understandings. Leaching is controlled largely by the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, which is dependent on particle size and relative density that the soil has been consolidated to via stress.
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Pendred syndrome has an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance. Pendred syndrome is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, meaning that one would need to inherit an abnormal gene from each parent to develop the condition. This also means that a sibling of a patient with Pendred syndrome has a 25% chance of also having the condition if the parents are unaffected carriers. It has been linked to mutations in the PDS gene, which codes for the pendrin protein (solute carrier family 26, member 4, SLC26A4).
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The ECF can also be seen as having two components – plasma and lymph as a delivery system, and interstitial fluid for water and solute exchange with the cells. The extracellular fluid, in particular the interstitial fluid, constitutes the body's internal environment that bathes all of the cells in the body. The ECF composition is therefore crucial for their normal functions, and is maintained by a number of homeostatic mechanisms involving negative feedback. Homeostasis regulates, among others, the pH, sodium, potassium, and calcium concentrations in the ECF.
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In mammalian cells, urea is the chief end-product of nitrogen catabolism and plays an important role in the urinary concentration mechanism. Thus, the plasma membrane of erythrocytes and some renal epithelial cells exhibit an elevated urea permeability that is mediated by highly selective urea transporters. In mammals, two urea transporters have been identified: the renal tubular urea transporter, UT2 (UT-A), and the erythrocyte urea transporter, UT11 (also called UT-B, coded for by the SLC14A1 gene). SLC14A2 and SLC14A1 constitute solute carrier family 14.
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Holly Michael is an Associate Professor of geology at the University of Delaware. Her research focuses on coastal hydrogeology, groundwater-surface water interactions, and water resource management, and is often aimed at better understanding how groundwater flows and solute levels affect ecosystem and human health. Prior to serving as an associate professor at the University of Delaware in 2008, Michael performed research at Stanford University and with the US Geologic Survey. Michael's academic work has had a significant impact on the discipline of hydrogeology.
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Broadband acoustic resonance dissolution spectroscopy (also known as BARDS) is a technique developed in the late 2000sD. Fitzpatrick, 2009, "Instrumentation and analytical techniques suitable for broadband acoustic resonance dissolution spectroscopy", US Patent, US8813566B2, which is used in analytical chemistry. It involves the analysis of the changes in sound frequency generated when a solute dissolves in a solvent, by harnessing the hot chocolate effect first described by Frank S. Crawford. The technique is partly based on the solubility difference of gas in pure solvents and in solutions.
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This is because as the particle sizes get smaller, the interstitial voids (the spaces between the particles) do as well, and it is harder to push the compounds through the smaller spaces. Modern HPLC systems are generally designed to withstand about of backpressure in order to deal with this problem. Monoliths also have very short diffusion distances, while also providing multiple pathways for solute dispersion. Packed particle columns have pore connectivity values of about 1.5, while monoliths have values ranging from 6 to greater than 10.
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Netter's, plate 337 The renal medulla is hypertonic to the filtrate in the nephron and aids in the reabsorption of water. Blood is filtered in the glomerulus by solute size. Ions such as sodium, chloride, potassium, and calcium are easily filtered, as is glucose. Proteins are not passed through the glomerular filter because of their large size, and do not appear in the filtrate or urine unless a disease process has affected the glomerular capsule or the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the nephron.
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Green tea leaves steeping in a gaiwan (type of tea cup) Steeping is the soaking in liquid (usually water) of a solid, usually so as to extract flavours or to soften it. The specific process of teas being prepared for drinking by leaving the leaves in heated water to release the flavour and nutrients is known as steeping. Herbal teas may be prepared by decoction, infusion, or maceration. Some solids are soaked to remove an ingredient, such as salt, where the solute is not the desired product.
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In order to scale up the perovskite layer while maintaining high efficiency, various techniques have been developed to coat the perovskite film more uniformly. For example, some physical approaches are developed to promote supersaturation through rapid solvent removal, thus getting more nucleations and reducing grain growth time and solute migration. Heating, gas flow, vacuum, and anti-solvent can all assist solvent removal. And chemical additives, such as chloride additives, Lewis base additives, surfacant additive, and surface modification, can influence the crystal growth to control the film mophology.
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Structural biology of human proteins – The SGC has so far contributed over 2000 protein structures of human proteins of potential relevance for drug discovery into the public domain since 2003. Structures that constitute complexes with synthetic small molecules is aided by a partnership with the Diamond synchrotron in Oxfordshire. The chemical probe program prioritizes (members of) protein families that are relatively understudied, or which may be currently relevant to human biology and drug discovery. These families include epigenetic signaling, solute transport, protein proteostasis, and protein phosphorylation.
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It is also possible to predict solubility from other physical constants such as the enthalpy of fusion. The octanol-water partition coefficient, usually expressed as its logarithm (Log P) is a measure of differential solubility of a compound in a hydrophobic solvent (1-octanol) and a hydrophilic solvent (water). The logarithm of these two values enables compounds to be ranked in terms of hydrophilicity (or hydrophobicity). The energy change associated with dissolving is usually given per mole of solute as the enthalpy of solution.
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A variety of models exist to describe and predict the effects of cosolvents. Relying heavily on the application of mathematical models and chemical theory, these models range from simple to relatively complex. The first model and also the simplest is still in use today: the model of Yalkowsky. Yalkowsky’s model utilizes the algebraic mixing rule or log-linear model: logXm = ƒ1logX1 \+ ƒ2logX2 Where Xm is the mole fraction solubility of the solute, X1 and X2 denote the mole fraction solubility in neat cosolvent and water.
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While this model is only correlative in nature, further analysis allows for the creation of a predictive element. Simplifying the above equation to: logXm = logX2 \+ σ • ƒ1 Where σ is the solubilization power of the cosolvent and theoretically is equal to log(X1/X2). One can incorporate the work of Valvani et al., which shows: σ = M • logKow \+ N Where M and N are cosolvent constants that are not dependent on the nature of the solute, and have been tabulated for many commonly-used cosolvents.
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The mobile phase generally consists of an aqueous portion with an organic addition, such as methanol or acetonitrile. When a solution of analytes is injected into the system, the components begin to partition out of the mobile phase and interact with the stationary phase. Each component interacts with the stationary phase in a different manner depending upon its polarity and hydrophobicity. In reverse phase HPLC, the solute with the greatest polarity will interact less with the stationary phase and spend more time in the mobile phase.
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Glucose transporter 3 (or GLUT3), also known as solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 3 (SLC2A3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A3 gene. GLUT3 facilitates the transport of glucose across the plasma membranes of mammalian cells. GLUT3 is most known for its specific expression in neurons and has originally been designated as the neuronal GLUT. GLUT3 has been studied in other cell types with specific glucose requirements, including sperm, preimplantation embryos, circulating white blood cells and carcinoma cell lines.
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Simplified diagram of a sodium potassium pump showing alpha and beta units. A pump is a protein that hydrolyses ATP to transport a particular solute through a membrane, and in doing so, generating an electrochemical gradient membrane potential. This gradient is of interest as an indicator of the state of the cell through parameters such as the Nernst potential. In terms of membrane transport the gradient is of interest as it contributes to decreased system entropy in the co-transport of substances against their gradient.
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In the Isotonic solution, the water molecules still moves between the solutions, but the rates are the same from both directions, thus the water movement is balanced between the inside of the cell as well as the outside of the cell. A hypotonic solution is when the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than the concentration inside the cell. In hypotonic solutions, the water moves into the cell, down its concentration gradient (from higher to lower water concentrations). That can cause the cell to swell.
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When tested in lab, glucosylglycerate increased the melting temperature of essential enzymes in basic metabolic pathways. It has an effect on a microbe's ability to withstand high-pressure environments. This rare solute has only been found in a few other halophilic bacteria and one Archaeon, but has never been encountered in a hyperthermophile such as P. marina. It is also worth noting that P. marina has led to the discovery of α(1,6)glucosyl-α-(1,2)glucosylglycerate by proton NMR and is still currently under study.
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Dynamic hydrogen bonds between molecules of liquid water The origin of the hydrophobic effect is not fully understood. Some argue that the hydrophobic interaction is mostly an entropic effect originating from the disruption of highly dynamic hydrogen bonds between molecules of liquid water by the nonpolar solute. A hydrocarbon chain or a similar nonpolar region of a large molecule is incapable of forming hydrogen bonds with water. Introduction of such a non- hydrogen bonding surface into water causes disruption of the hydrogen bonding network between water molecules.
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A droplet of water forms a spherical shape, minimizing contact with the hydrophobic leaf. The hydrophobic effect is the observed tendency of nonpolar substances to aggregate in an aqueous solution and exclude water molecules. The word hydrophobic literally means "water-fearing", and it describes the segregation of water and nonpolar substances, which maximizes hydrogen bonding between molecules of water and minimizes the area of contact between water and nonpolar molecules. In terms of thermodynamics, the hydrophobic effect is the free energy change of water surrounding a solute.
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The resulting region of lower solute concentration above the slip plane weakens the material in the region near the pinned dislocation, such that when the dislocation becomes mobile again, the stress required to move it is temporarily reduced. This effect can manifest as serrations in the stress-strain curve (Portevin-Le Chatelier effect). Stress field around an edge dislocation core, with schematic atomic positions overlaid. The filled circles represent larger substitutional impurities, which are driven across the slip plane during dynamic strain aging (shown by the arrow).
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Prof. Maroncelli's research interests include solvation and solvent effects on chemical reaction, liquid- phase dynamics, electron and proton transfer reactions, supercritical fluids and expanded liquids, ionic liquids, ultrafast spectroscopy, and computer simulation. Maroncelli’s research seeks to develop a fundamental understanding of the molecular nature of solvation and how it affects chemical reactions taking place in solution. Solvation involves the interactions between dissolved molecules (solutes) and molecules of the solvent. Favorable arrangements of solvent molecules around the solute lower its energy, which leads to dissolution.
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Complex cycling systems of Malpighian tubules have been described in other insect orders. Hemipteran insects use tubules that permit movement of solutes into the distal portion of the tubules while reabsorption of water and essential ions directly to the hemolymph occurs in the proximal portion and the rectum. Both Coleoptera and Lepidoptera use a cryptonephridial arrangement where the distal end of the tubules are embedded in fat tissue surrounding the rectum. Such an arrangement may serve to increase the efficiency of solute processing in the Malpighian tubules.
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He also delivered several award orations and featured lectures; Special lecture at the XVII International Conference on Coordination Chemistry (1977), Plenary lecture at the XIX International Conference on Coordination Chemistry (1978), Plenary lecture at the IV International Conference on Solute-Solvent Interaction (1978), Clarence Karcher Memorial Lecture of University of Oklahoma (1982), the inaugural Foundation Lecture of the Federation of Asian Chemical Societies (1987) and N. R. Dhar Memorial Award Lecture of the National Academy of Science, India (1991) are some of the notable ones.
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In pure Ni3Al phase atoms of aluminium are placed at the vertices of the cubic cell and form the sublattice A. Atoms of nickel are located at centers of the faces and form the sublattice B. The phase is not strictly stoichiometric. There may exist an excess of vacancies in one of the sublattices, which leads to deviations from stoichiometry. Sublattices A and B of the γ'-phase can solute a considerable proportion of other elements. The alloying elements are dissolved in the γ-phase as well.
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In some ways this can be thought of as being similar to the reversible liquid–liquid extraction of an inert gas such as xenon or radon (or some other solute which does not undergo a chemical change during the extraction) from water to another phase. While a chemical change does occur during the extraction of the sulfur dioxide from the gas mixture, it is the case that the extraction equilibrium is shifted by changing the temperature rather than by the use of a chemical reagent.
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Theoretically, however, the two approaches are equivalent. Conversely, one could define a potential corresponding to pH as a potential difference between a solute and pH neutral water, separated by porous membrane (that is permeable to hydrogen ions). Such potential differences actually do occur from differences in acidity on biological membranes. This potential (where pH neutral water is set to 0 V) is analogous with redox potential (where standardized hydrogen solution is set to 0 V), but instead of hydrogen ions, electrons are transferred across in the redox case.
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A high positive E_{h} indicates an environment that favors oxidation reaction such as free oxygen. A low negative E_{h} indicates a strong reducing environment, such as free metals. Sometimes when electrolysis is carried out in an aqueous solution, water, rather than the solute, is oxidized or reduced. For example, if an aqueous solution of NaCl is electrolyzed, water may be reduced at the cathode to produce H2(g) and OH− ions, instead of Na+ being reduced to Na(s), as occurs in the absence of water.
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Experiments have to take place on the ISS due to the long-duration required to solidify samples with the objective to study the CET. Indeed, the length scale of the grain structure when columnar growth takes place is of the order of the casting scale rather than the microstructure scale. This is due to the fact that, to a first approximation, it is the heat flow that controls the transition rather than the solute flow. Experimental programs are being carried out on aluminium-nickel and aluminium-silicon alloys.
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EamA (named after the O-acetyl-serine/cysteine export gene in E. coli) is a protein domain found in a wide range of proteins including the Erwinia chrysanthemi PecM protein, which is involved in pectinase, cellulase and blue pigment regulation, the Salmonella typhimurium PagO protein (function unknown), and some members of the solute carrier family group 35 (SLC35) nucleoside-sugar transporters. Many members of this family have no known function and are predicted to be integral membrane proteins and many of the proteins contain two copies of the domain.
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If the aqueous solution is saturated with a given salt solute, any additional such salt precipitates out of the solution. In the more general Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory (1923), a base is a substance that can accept hydrogen cations (H+)—otherwise known as protons. This does include aqueous hydroxides since OH- does react with H+ to form water, so that Arrhenius bases are a subset of Brønsted bases. However there are also other Brønsted bases which accept protons, such as aqueous solutions of ammonia (NH3) or its organic derivatives (amines).
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Although, liquid water will only move in response to such differences in osmotic potential if a semipermeable membrane exists between the zones of high and low osmotic potential. A semipermeable membrane is necessary because it allows water through its membrane while preventing solutes from moving through its membrane. If no membrane is present, movement of the solute, rather than of the water, largely equalizes concentrations. Since regions of soil are usually not divided by a semipermeable membrane, the osmotic potential typically has a negligible influence on the mass movement of water in soils.
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Knox's work over this period included development of the Knox Equation, now used commonly to describe the spreading of a solute into bands in liquid chromatography. John Knox was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1971 and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1984. Knox was awarded the Golay Medal for Capillary Chromatography in 2000. Since 2008 the Royal Society of Chemistry's Separation Science Group has honoured his contributions with the Knox Award to recognise individuals for influential work in the field.
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There are two basic types of implicit solvent methods: models based on accessible surface areas (ASA) that were historically the first, and more recent continuum electrostatics models, although various modifications and combinations of the different methods are possible. The accessible surface area (ASA) method is based on experimental linear relations between Gibbs free energy of transfer and the surface area of a solute molecule. This method operates directly with free energy of solvation, unlike molecular mechanics or electrostatic methods that include only the enthalpic component of free energy.
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In: Cryosurgery. Rand R.W., Rinfret A.P., von Lode H., Eds. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1968) and by Mazur (1984): ice formation begins in the intercellular spaces The vapor pressure of the ice is lower than the vapor pressure of the solute water in the surrounding cells and as heat is removed at the freezing point of the solutions, the ice crystals grow between the cells, extracting water from them. As the ice crystals grow, the volume of the cells shrinks, and the cells are crushed between the ice crystals.
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Additionally, as the cells shrink, the solutes inside the cells are concentrated in the remaining water, increasing the intracellular ionic strength and interfering with the organization of the proteins and other organized intercellular structures. Eventually, the solute concentration inside the cells reaches the eutectic and freezes. The final state of frozen tissues is pure ice in the former extracellular spaces, and inside the cell membranes a mixture of concentrated cellular components in ice and bound water. In general, this process is not reversible to the point of restoring the tissues to life.
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Pendrin is an anion exchange protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC26A4 gene (solute carrier family 26, member 4). Pendrin was initially identified as a sodium-independent chloride-iodide exchanger with subsequent studies showing that it also accepts formate and bicarbonate as substrates. Pendrin is similar to the Band 3 transport protein found in red blood cells. Pendrin is the protein which is mutated in Pendred syndrome, which is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by sensorineural hearing loss, goiter and a partial organification problem detectable by a positive perchlorate test.
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In the physical sciences, a partition coefficient (P) or distribution coefficient (D) is the ratio of concentrations of a compound in a mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium. This ratio is therefore a comparison of the solubilities of the solute in these two liquids. The partition coefficient generally refers to the concentration ratio of un-ionized species of compound, whereas the distribution coefficient refers to the concentration ratio of all species of the compound (ionized plus un-ionized). In the chemical and pharmaceutical sciences, both phases usually are solvents.
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The serotonin transporter (SERT or 5-HTT) also known as the sodium-dependent serotonin transporter and solute carrier family 6 member 4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC6A4 gene. SERT is a type of monoamine transporter protein that transports serotonin from the synaptic cleft back to the presynaptic neuron. This transport of serotonin by the SERT protein terminates the action of serotonin and recycles it in a sodium-dependent manner. This protein is the target of many antidepressant medications of the SSRI and tricyclic antidepressant classes.
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All of the colligative properties result from a lowering of the chemical potential of the solvent in the presence of a solute. This lowering is an entropy effect. The greater randomness of the solution (as compared to the pure solvent) acts in opposition to freezing, so that a lower temperature must be reached, over a broader range, before equilibrium between the liquid solution and solid solution phases is achieved. Melting point determinations are commonly exploited in organic chemistry to aid in identifying substances and to ascertain their purity.
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Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH) is released in response to solute concentration in the blood, decreased blood volume, or blood pressure. Some other inputs come from the brainstem, including from some of the noradrenergic neurons of the nucleus of the solitary tract and the ventrolateral medulla. However, many of the direct inputs to the supraoptic nucleus come from neurons just outside the nucleus (the "perinuclear zone"). Of the afferent inputs to the supraoptic nucleus, most contain either the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA or the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, but these transmitters often co-exist with various peptides.
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Modern empirical study of biofouling began in the early 19th century with Davy's experiments linking the effectiveness of copper to its solute rate. Insights into the stages of formation grew in the 1930s when the microbiologist Claude ZoBell defined the sequence of events initiating the fouling of submerged surfaces. He showed that the attachment of organisms must be preceded by the adsorption of organic compounds now referred to as extracellular polymeric substances. One trend of research is the study of the relationship between wettability and anti-fouling effectiveness.
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Calcium silicate, also known as slag, is produced when molten iron is made from iron ore, silicon dioxide and calcium carbonate in a blast furnace. When this material is processed into a highly refined, re-purposed calcium silicate aggregate, it is used in the remediation of acid mine drainage (AMD) on active and passive mine sites. Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in AMD systems by removing free hydrogen ions from the bulk solution, thereby increasing pH. As its silicate anion captures H+ ions (raising the pH), it forms monosilicic acid (H4SiO4), a neutral solute.
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Diagram of ion concentrations and charge across a semi-permeable cellular membrane. An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane. The gradient consists of two parts, the chemical gradient, or difference in solute concentration across a membrane, and the electrical gradient, or difference in charge across a membrane. When there are unequal concentrations of an ion across a permeable membrane, the ion will move across the membrane from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration through simple diffusion.
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Sepate junction in developing trachea in Drosophyla Septate junctions are intercellular junctions found in invertebrate epithelial cells, appearing as ladder-like structures under electron microscopy. They are thought to provide structural strength and a barrier to solute diffusion through the intercellular space. They are considered somewhat analogous to the (vertebrate) tight junctions; however, tight and septate junctions are different in many ways. Known insect homologues of tight junction components are components of conserved signalling pathways that localize to either adherens junctions, the subapical complex, or the marginal zone.
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This association between solvent and solute is referred to as solvation and is a stabilizing interaction, that is, the solvent molecules can move and rotate until the energy of the interaction is minimized. The interaction itself involves electrostatic and van der Waals forces and can also include hydrogen bonds. Franck–Condon principles can be applied when the interactions between the chromophore and the surrounding solvent molecules are different in the ground and in the excited electronic state. This change in interaction can originate, for example, due to different dipole moments in these two states.
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His main current research areas include: (i) bacterial cell-volume regulation: elucidation of the homeostatic mechanisms that control the physicochemistry of the cell; (ii) building of synthetic cells: construction of functional out-of-equilibrium systems for metabolic energy conservation and development of cell volume regulatory networks. What tasks should a living cell minimally perform and how this can be accomplished with a minimal set of components? and (iii) the molecular mechanisms of membrane transport proteins: understanding the dynamics, energetics and mechanisms of solute transporters in the plasma membrane.
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The separatory funnel relies on the concept of "like dissolves like", which describes the ability of polar solvents to dissolve polar solutes and non-polar solvents to dissolve non-polar solutes. When the separatory funnel is agitated, each solute migrates to the solvent (also referred to as "phase") in which it is more soluble. The solvents normally do not form a unified solution together because they are immiscible. When the funnel is kept stationary after agitation, the liquids form distinct physical layers - lower density liquids will stay above higher density liquids.
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In the case of desalination of sea water or in Zero Liquid Discharge plants, the reverse purpose applies; evaporation removes the desirable drinking water from the undesired solute/product, salt. One of the most important applications of evaporation is in the food and beverage industry. Foods or beverages that need to last for a considerable amount of time or need to have certain consistency, like coffee, go through an evaporation step during processing. In the pharmaceutical industry, the evaporation process is used to eliminate excess moisture, providing an easily handled product and improving product stability.
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If the hydration energy is greater than the lattice energy, then the enthalpy of solution is negative (heat is released), otherwise it is positive (heat is absorbed). The hydration energy should not be confused with solvation energy, which is the change in Gibb's free energy (not enthalpy) as solute in the gaseous state is dissolved. If the solvation energy is positive, then the solvation process is endergonic; otherwise, it is exergonic. For instance, water warms when treated with CaCl2 (anhydrous calcium chloride) as a consequence of the large heat of hydration.
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The amino acid-polyamine-organocation (APC) superfamily is the second largest superfamily of secondary carrier proteins currently known, and it contain several Solute carriers. Originally, the APC superfamily consisted of subfamilies under the transporter classification number (TC #) 2.A.3. This superfamily has since been expanded to include eighteen different families. The most recent families added include the PAAP (Putative Amino Acid Permease), LIVCS (Branched Chain Amino Acid:Cation Symporter), NRAMP (Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Protein), CstA (Carbon starvation A protein), KUP (K+ Uptake Permease), BenE (Benzoate:H+ Virginia Symporter), and AE (Anion Exchanger).
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As the lower parts of the frond expand and toughen up, they begin to photosynthesize, supporting the further growth and expansion of the frond. By photosynthesizing, the frond increases the amount of solute inside the frond, which lowers the internal water gradient and facilitates an increase in volume that forces uncoiling. In the case of many fronds, long hairs or scales provide additional protection to the growing tips before they are fully uncoiled. Circinate vernation may also be observed in the extension of leaflets, in the compound leaves of cycads.
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Other elements and inclusions act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations. The hydrogen in typical iron hydrides may contribute up to 13 ppm in its weight. Varying the amount of hydrogen, as well as controlling its chemical and physical makeup in the final iron hydride (either as a solute element, or as a precipitated phase), hastens the movement of those dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and undermines its qualities. Varying the other alloying elements and controlling their chemical and physical makeup also controls, but enhances its qualities.
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This proton extrusion establishes a proton gradient that drives electrogenic antiporters—which drive intracellular Na+ out of the cell in exchange for a greater number of H+ ions, leading to the net accumulation of internal protons. This proton accumulation leads to a lowering of cytosolic pH. The extruded Na+ can be used for solute symport, which are necessary for cellular processes. It has been noted that Na+/H+ antiport is required for alkaliphilic growth, whereas either K+/H+ antiporters or Na+/H+ antiporters can be utilized by neutrophilic bacteria.
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Crystal formation can begin by spontaneous nucleation or may be encouraged by the use of a seed. As material precipitates out of the solution, the amount of solute in the flux decreases and the temperature at which the solution is saturated lowers. This process repeats itself as the furnace continues to cool until the solution reaches its melting point or the reaction is stopped artificially. One advantage of this method is that the crystals grown often display natural facets, which often makes preparing crystals for measurement significantly easier.
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A significant portion of Ladanyi's research after 2000 explored the properties of aqueous interfaces and nanoconfined liquids. Her first paper in this area presented a reduced model, including continuum and atomistic portions, for the interior region of reverse micelles and determined how water structure and mobility varied with reverse micelle water content, i.e., the size of the confining volume, as well as with the proximity to the surfactant interface. Although quite simple, this model helped to explain many observed trends in water and solute dynamics in reverse micelles.
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Such membranes are robust, thermally stable, and possess high selectivity. The goal here is to immobilize CNTs such that their surfaces are free to interact directly with the solute. The membrane produced by this method has shown dramatic enhancements in flux and selectivity in various applications, such as sea water desalination (8,9), membrane extraction (10), water purification by the removal of volatile organics from water (11) and for micro scale membrane extraction for the analysis of water pollutants (12-14). In 2016, large format commercial scale CNT membranes were introduced for the first time.
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Found in vertebrate epithelia, tight junctions act as barriers that regulate the movement of water and solutes between epithelial layers. Tight junctions are classified as a paracellular barrier which is defined as not having directional discrimination; however, movement of the solute is largely dependent upon size and charge. There is evidence to suggest that the structures in which solutes pass through are somewhat like pores. Physiological pH plays a part in the selectivity of solutes passing through tight junctions with most tight junctions being slightly selective for cations.
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Pure water containing no exogenous ions is an excellent insulator, but not even "deionized" water is completely free of ions. Water undergoes auto-ionization in the liquid state, when two water molecules form one hydroxide anion () and one hydronium cation (). Because water is such a good solvent, it almost always has some solute dissolved in it, often a salt. If water has even a tiny amount of such an impurity, then the ions can carry charges back and forth, allowing the water to conduct electricity far more readily.
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The SSA is one component of stochastic chemical kinetics, a field that Gillespie played a major role in developing and clarifying through his later publications. The SSA is physically accurate only for systems that are both dilute and well- mixed in the reactant (solute) molecules. An extension of the SSA which is aimed at circumventing the globally well-mixed requirement is the reaction- diffusion SSA (RD-SSA). It subdivides the system volume into cubic subvolumes or “voxels” which are small enough that each can be considered well-mixed.
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The risk of statin-induced rhabdomyolysis increases with older age, use of interacting medications such as fibrates, and hypothyroidism. Coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone) levels are decreased in statin use; CoQ10 supplements are sometimes used to treat statin- associated myopathy, though evidence of their efficacy is lacking . The gene SLCO1B1 (Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1) codes for an organic anion-transporting polypeptide that is involved in the regulation of the absorption of statins. A common variation in this gene was found in 2008 to significantly increase the risk of myopathy.
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However, many hydrotropes do not seem to self-aggregate at all, unless a solubilizate has been added. Examples of hydrotropes include urea, tosylate, cumenesulfonate and xylenesulfonate. The term hydrotropy was originally put forward by Carl Neuberg to describe the increase in the solubility of a solute by the addition of fairly high concentrations of alkali metal salts of various organic acids. However, the term has been used in the literature to designate non-micelle-forming substances, either liquids or solids, organic or inorganic, capable of solubilizing insoluble compounds.
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Sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) also known as solute carrier family 5 member 1 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the SLC5A1 gene which encodes the production of the SGLT1 protein to line the absorptive cells in the small intestine and the epithelial cells of the kidney tubules of the nephron for the purpose of glucose uptake into cells. Through the use of the sodium glucose cotransporter 1 protein, cells are able to obtain glucose which is further utilized to make and store energy for the cell.
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In Nov., 1574, after he had been confined to his own house in the city of York for nearly nine months, he was sent into solitary confinement in Hull Castle. Edmund Grindal describes him as "sophistical, disdainful, and illuding arguments with irrision, when he was not able to solute the same by learning", and adds that "his great anchor-hold was in urging the literal sense of hoc est corpus meum, thereby to prove transubstantiation". By June, 1579, he was back again in his house, where Mass was again said.
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Monodisperse aerosol generation interface for coupling liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 1984, 56, 2625-2632. It was based on the conversion of the solute into a beam of particles, after the formation of spray droplets and the elimination of the solvent vapors through a multi-stage momentum separator. Although its efficient interfacing mechanism and a unique trait, particle beam performance was sometimes inadequate to an increasing number of new, demanding applications and was quickly replaced by a family of atmospheric pressure ionization-based interfaces (API) when they became commercially available.
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Diyala Weir, also known as the Diyala Barrage, is a diversion dam on the Diyala River 90 km northeast of Baghdad, Iraq. It was constructed between 1966 and 1969. The main purpose of the dam is to divert outflow of the Hemrin Dam (11 km upstream) on the Diyala River to the Khalis and Sadr Al-Mushtarak canals for irrigation.Suspended and solute loads on the Lower Diyala River The weir and its associated extensive irrigation scheme, were designed in the 1960s by the Consulting Engineers Sir Murdoch McDonald and Partners, of High Holborn, London.
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When high purity is required, such as in semiconductor industry, the impure end of the boule is cut off, and the refining is repeated. In zone refining, solutes are segregated at one end of the ingot in order to purify the remainder, or to concentrate the impurities. In zone leveling, the objective is to distribute solute evenly throughout the purified material, which may be sought in the form of a single crystal. For example, in the preparation of a transistor or diode semiconductor, an ingot of germanium is first purified by zone refining.
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Spiral counter-current heat exchange schematic In countercurrent flow, the two flows move in opposite directions. Two tubes have a liquid flowing in opposite directions, transferring a property from one tube to the other. For example, this could be transferring heat from a hot flow of liquid to a cold one, or transferring the concentration of a dissolved solute from a high concentration flow of liquid to a low concentration flow. The counter-current exchange system can maintain a nearly constant gradient between the two flows over their entire length of contact.
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Processing in situ for the purpose of extracting high-value minerals will reduce the energy requirements for transporting the materials, although the processing facilities must first be transported to the mining site. In situ mining will involve drilling boreholes and injecting hot fluid/gas and allow the useful material to react or melt with the solvent and extract the solute. Due to the weak gravitational fields of asteroids, any activities, like drilling, will cause large disturbances and form dust clouds. These might be confined by some dome or bubble barrier.
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The solubility of a given solute in a given solvent is function of temperature. Depending on the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of the dissolution reaction, i.e., on the endothermic (ΔG > 0) or exothermic (ΔG < 0) character of the dissolution reaction, the solubility of a given compound may increase or decrease with temperature. The van 't Hoff equation relates the change of solubility equilibrium constant (Ksp) to temperature change and to reaction enthalpy change (ΔH). For most solids and liquids, their solubility increases with temperature because their dissolution reaction is endothermic (ΔG > 0).
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Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements. The most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its melting point and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid, which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base. For example, in its liquid state, titanium is a very strong solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements. In addition, it readily absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen.
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Hutchinson was born in 1910 in Houston, Texas, the daughter of a clothing store owner. She received her Bachelor of Science degree from Rice Institute in 1932 and her Doctor of Science degree in chemical engineering from MIT in 1937, the first woman to earn a doctorate in the subject in the USA. Her thesis topic was The effect of solute on the liquid film resistance in gas absorption. On 1 May 1939, she married William Caubu Rousseau, a co-worker at E.B. Badger & Sons, who was later a chemical engineering lecturer at MIT.
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"Valley Falls, Oregon: Period of Record General Climate Summary – Precipitation", period 1948 to 2003, NOAA Weather Station Identification: 358812 (Valley Falls, OR), Valley Falls, Oregon, 30 July 2014.Van Denburgh, A. S., "Climate" (PDF), Solute Balance at Abert and Summer Lakes, South-Central Oregon, Geological Survey Professional Paper 502-C, United States Geological Survey, United States department of Interior, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, District of Columbia, 1975, p. C4."Oregon Topics: Weather/Climate", Oregon Blue Book, Oregon State Archives, Oregon Secretary of State, Salem, Oregon, January 2013.
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When transmitting electric signals in aquatic environment, the physical and chemical nature of the surroundings can make big differences to signal transmission. Environmental factors that might impose influences include solute concentration, temperature, and background electrical noise (lightning or artificial facilities), etc. To understand the effectiveness of electric signal transmission, it is necessary to define the term "active space-" the area/ volume within which a signal can elicit responses from other organisms. The active space of an electric fish normally has an ellipsoid shape due to the arrangement of dipoles formed by its electric organs.
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The Vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) is a neurotransmitter transporter which is responsible for loading acetylcholine (ACh) into secretory organelles in neurons making acetylcholine available for secretion. It is encoded by Solute carrier family 18, member 3 (SLC18A3) gene, located within the first intron of the choline acetyltransferase gene. VAChT is able to transport ACh into vesicles by relying on an exchange between protons (H+) that were previously pumped into the vesicle diffusing out, thus acting as an antiporter. ACh molecules are then carried into the vesicle by the action of exiting protons.
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All these proteins share a signature sequence of six conserved amino acids comprising the FXYD motif in the NH2-terminus, and two glycines and one serine residue in the transmembrane domain. FXYD proteins are widely distributed in mammalian tissues with prominent expression in tissues that perform fluid and solute transport or that are electrically excitable. Initial functional characterization suggested that FXYD proteins act as channels or as modulators of ion channels. However, studies have revealed that most FXYD proteins have another specific function and act as tissue-specific regulatory subunits of the Na,K-ATPase.
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The formation of small particles of a substance with a narrow size distribution is an important process in the pharmaceutical and other industries. Supercritical fluids provide a number of ways of achieving this by rapidly exceeding the saturation point of a solute by dilution, depressurization or a combination of these. These processes occur faster in supercritical fluids than in liquids, promoting nucleation or spinodal decomposition over crystal growth and yielding very small and regularly sized particles. Recent supercritical fluids have shown the capability to reduce particles up to a range of 5-2000 nm.
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The main application of gel-filtration chromatography is the fractionation of proteins and other water-soluble polymers, while gel permeation chromatography is used to analyze the molecular weight distribution of organic-soluble polymers. Either technique should not be confused with gel electrophoresis, where an electric field is used to "pull" or "push" molecules through the gel depending on their electrical charges. The amount of time a solute remains within a pore is dependent on the size of the pore. Larger solutes will have access to a smaller volume and vice versa.
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High osmotic pressure in the stomach, caused by high sucrose concentration, can lead to water transfer from the hemolymph to the stomach, thus resulting in hyperosmotic stress and eventually to the death of the insect. Aphids avoid this fate by osmoregulating through several processes. Sucrose concentration is directly reduced by assimilating sucrose toward metabolism and by synthesizing oligosaccharides from several sucrose molecules, thus reducing the solute concentration and consequently the osmotic pressure. Oligosaccharides are then excreted through honeydew, explaining its high sugar concentrations, which can then be used by other animals such as ants.
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In some situations where segregation is important, the segregant atoms do not have sufficient time to reach their equilibrium level as defined by the above adsorption theories. The kinetics of segregation become a limiting factor and must be analyzed as well. Most existing models of segregation kinetics follow the McLean approach. In the model for equilibrium monolayer segregation, the solute atoms are assumed to segregate to a grain boundary from two infinite half-crystals or to a surface from one infinite half-crystal. The diffusion in the crystals is described by Fick’s laws.
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Diffusiophoresis, by definition, moves colloidal particles, and so the applications of diffusiophoresis are to situations where we want to move colloidal particles. Colloidal particles are typically between 10 nanometres and a few micrometres in size. Simple diffusion of colloids is fast on lengthscales of a few micrometres, and so diffusiophoresis would not be useful, whereas on lengthscales larger than millimetres, diffusiophoresis may be slow as its speed decreases with decreasing size of the solute concentration gradient. Thus, typically diffusiophoresis is employed on lengthscales approximately in the range a micrometre to a millimetre.
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We first calculate the entropy of mixing, the increase in the uncertainty about the locations of the molecules when they are interspersed. In the pure condensed phases — solvent and polymer — everywhere we look we find a molecule. Of course, any notion of "finding" a molecule in a given location is a thought experiment since we can't actually examine spatial locations the size of molecules. The expression for the entropy of mixing of small molecules in terms of mole fractions is no longer reasonable when the solute is a macromolecular chain.
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Baricity is one factor that determines the spread of a spinal anaesthetic but the effect of adding a solute to a solvent, i.e. solvation or dissolution, also has an effect on the spread of the spinal anaesthetic. In tetracaine spinal anaesthesia, it was discovered that the rate of onset of analgesia was faster and the maximum level of analgesia was higher with a 10% glucose solution than with a 5% glucose spinal anaesthetic solution. Also, the amount of ephedrine required was less in the patients who received the 5% glucose solution.
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Many have played a role in developing dialysis as a practical treatment for renal failure, starting with Thomas Graham of Glasgow, who first presented the principles of solute transport across a semipermeable membrane in 1854.Graham T. The Bakerian lecture: on osmotic force. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in London. 1854;144:177–228. The artificial kidney was first developed by Abel, Rountree, and Turner in 1913,Abel, J. J., Rountree, L. G., and Turner, B. B. The removal of diffusible substances from the circulating blood by means of dialysis.
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The osmolar gap is the difference between the measured osmolality and the calculated osmolarity. The difference in units is attributed to the difference in the way that blood solutes are measured in the laboratory versus the way they are calculated. The laboratory value measures the freezing point depression, properly called osmolality while the calculated value is given in units of osmolarity. Even though these values are presented in different units, when there is a small amount of solute compared to total volume of solution, the absolute values of osmolality vs.
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If several known chemicals are dissolved in a single solution, the concentrations of each can be calculated using a light absorption analysis. First, the mass attenuation coefficients of each individual solute or solvent, ideally across a broad spectrum of wavelengths, must be measured or looked up. Second, the attenuation coefficient of the actual solution must be measured. Finally, using the formula :\mu = (\mu/\rho)_1 \rho_1 + (\mu/\rho)_2 \rho_2 + \ldots, the spectrum can be fitted using ρ1, ρ2, … as adjustable parameters, since μ and each are functions of wavelength.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 2 (also termed OCT2 or organic cation transporter-2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A2 gene. Polyspecific organic cation transporters in the liver, kidney, intestine, and other organs are critical for elimination of many endogenous small organic cations as well as a wide array of drugs and environmental toxins. This gene is one of three similar cation transporter genes located in a cluster on chromosome 6. The encoded protein contains twelve putative transmembrane domains and is a plasma integral membrane protein.
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When measuring turgor pressure in plants, many things have to be taken into account. It is generally stated that fully turgid cells have a turgor pressure value which is equal to that of the cell and that flaccid cells have a value at or near zero. Other cellular mechanisms taken into consideration include the protoplast, solutes within the protoplast (solute potential), transpiration rates of the plant and the tension of cell walls. Measurement is limited depending on the method used, some of which are explored and explained below.
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A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve, but get suspended throughout the bulk of the solvent, left floating around freely in the medium.Chemistry: Matter and Its Changes, 4th Ed. by Brady, Senese, The internal phase (solid) is dispersed throughout the external phase (fluid) through mechanical agitation, with the use of certain excipients or suspending agents. An example of a suspension would be sand in water. The suspended particles are visible under a microscope and will settle over time if left undisturbed.
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At the hotter end the nutrient solute dissolves, while at the cooler end it is deposited on a seed crystal, growing the desired crystal. Advantages of the hydrothermal method over other types of crystal growth include the ability to create crystalline phases which are not stable at the melting point. Also, materials which have a high vapour pressure near their melting points can be grown by the hydrothermal method. The method is also particularly suitable for the growth of large good-quality crystals while maintaining control over their composition.
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Concentrations of solutes in subglacial lakes, including major ions and nutrients like sodium, sulfate, and carbonates, are low compared to typical surface lakes. These solutes enter the water column from glacial ice melting and from sediment weathering. Despite their low solute concentrations, the large volume of subglacial waters make them important contributors of solutes, particularly iron, to their surrounding oceans. Subglacial outflow from the Antarctic Ice Sheet, including outflow from subglacial lakes, is estimated to add a similar amount of solutes to the Southern Ocean as some of the world's largest rivers.
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Lancet 2, August 5, 1978, pp. 300–301. “The discovery that sodium transport and glucose transport are coupled in the small intestine, so that glucose accelerates absorption of solute and water, was potentially the most important medical advance this century.” Since the adoption of this inexpensive and easily applied intervention, the worldwide mortality rate for children with acute infectious diarrhea has plummeted from 5 million to about 1.3 million deaths per year. Over fifty million lives have been saved in the past 40 years by the implementation of ORT.
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As protons are being pumped out, a negative electrical potential was formed across the plasma membrane. This hyperpolarization of the membrane allowed the accumulation of charged potassium (K+) ions and chloride (Cl−) ions, which in turn, increases the solute concentration causing the water potential to decrease. The negative water potential allows for osmosis to occur in the guard cell, so that water entered, allowing the cell to become turgid. Opening and closure of the stomatal pore is mediated by changes in the turgor pressure of the two guard cells.
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In the first part of the paper they presented the first ever theory of chromatography that attempted to explain the concentration of the solute at any point in the column and also how the resolution of the column was affected by various factors including the column's length. Looking at the figures they present for resolution in terms of Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate (HETP), underlying the importance of their work at that time. The HETP is a measure of the resolution that can be obtained by the column. There are several factors that affect HETP.
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Glucose transporter 1 (or GLUT1), also known as solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 1 (SLC2A1), is a uniporter protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC2A1 gene. GLUT1 facilitates the transport of glucose across the plasma membranes of mammalian cells. This gene encodes a major glucose transporter in the mammalian blood-brain barrier. The encoded protein is found primarily in the cell membrane and on the cell surface, where it can also function as a receptor for human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV) I and II. One good source of GLUT1 is erythrocyte membranes.
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Models like PB and GB allow estimation of the mean electrostatic free energy but do not account for the (mostly) entropic effects arising from solute-imposed constraints on the organization of the water or solvent molecules. This is termed the hydrophobic effect and is a major factor in the folding process of globular proteins with hydrophobic cores. Implicit solvation models may be augmented with a term that accounts for the hydrophobic effect. The most popular way to do this is by taking the solvent accessible surface area (SASA) as a proxy of the extent of the hydrophobic effect.
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In 1999, the nacre mutation was identified in the zebrafish ortholog of the mammalian MITF transcription factor. Mutations in human MITF result in eye defects and loss of pigment, a type of Waardenburg Syndrome. In December 2005, a study of the golden strain identified the gene responsible for its unusual pigmentation as SLC24A5, a solute carrier that appeared to be required for melanin production, and confirmed its function with a Morpholino knockdown. The orthologous gene was then characterized in humans and a one base pair difference was found to strongly segregate fair-skinned Europeans and dark-skinned Africans.
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The freezing point is the temperature at which the liquid solvent and solid solvent are at equilibrium, so that their vapour pressures are equal. When a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile liquid solvent, the solution vapour pressure will be lower than that of the pure solvent. As a result, the solid will reach equilibrium with the solution at a lower temperature than with the pure solvent. This explanation in terms of vapor pressure is equivalent to the argument based on chemical potential, since the chemical potential of a vapor is logarithmically related to pressure.
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Donnan potential appears as a result of Donnan equilibrium, named after Frederick G. Donnan, which refers to the distribution of ion species between two ionic solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane or boundary. The boundary layer maintains an unequal distribution of ionic solute concentration by acting as a selective barrier to ionic diffusion. Some species of ions may pass through the barrier while others may not. The solutions may be gels or colloids as well as ionic liquids, and as such the phase boundary between gels or a gel and a liquid can also act as a selective barrier.
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For the solvent isotope effects to be measurable, a finite fraction of the solvent must have a different isotopic composition than the rest. Therefore, large amounts of the less common isotopic species must be available, limiting observable solvent isotope effects to isotopic substitutions involving hydrogen. Detectable kinetic isotope effects occur only when solutes exchange hydrogen with the solvent or when there is a specific solute-solvent interaction near the reaction site. Both such phenomena are common for protic solvents, in which the hydrogen is exchangeable, and they may form dipole-dipole interactions or hydrogen bonds with polar molecules.
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Willauer attended Berry College in Georgia, graduating with a bachelor's degree in chemistry in 1996. In mid-1999 she participated in the 11th International Conference on Partitioning in Aqueous Two-Phase Systems, held in Gulf Shores, Alabama. In 2002, she earned a doctorate in analytical chemistry from the University of Alabama, writing her thesis on "Fundamentals of phase behavior and solute partitioning in ABS and applications to the paper industry," the "ABS" an abbreviation for "aqueous biphasic systems". She began working with the NRL as an associate, then in 2004 she advanced to the position of research chemist.
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Water can be removed from solutions in ways other than evaporation, including membrane processes, liquid-liquid extractions, crystallization, and precipitation. Evaporation can be distinguished from some other drying methods in that the final product of evaporation is a concentrated liquid, not a solid. It is also relatively simple to use and understand since it has been widely used on a large scale, and many techniques are generally well known. In order to concentrate a product by water removal, an auxiliary phase is used which allows for easy transport of the solvent (water) rather than the solute.
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In molecular biology, the electroneutral cation-Cl (electroneutral potassium chloride cotransporter) family of proteins are a family of solute carrier proteins. This family includes the products of the Human genes: SLC12A1, SLC12A1, SLC12A2, SLC12A3, SLC12A4, SLC12A5, SLC12A6, SLC12A7, SLC12A8 and SLC12A9. The K-Cl co-transporter (KCC) mediates the coupled movement of K+ and Cl− ions across the plasma membrane of many animal cells. This transport is involved in the regulatory volume decrease in response to cell swelling in red blood cells, and has been proposed to play a role in the vectorial movement of Cl− across kidney epithelia.
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The Rigid-Band Model (or RBM) is one of the models used to describe the behavior of metal alloys. In some cases the model is even used for non-metal alloys such as Si alloys. According to the RBM the shape of the constant energy surfaces (hence the Fermi surface as well) and curve of density of states of the alloy are the same as those of the solvent metal under the following conditions: # The excess charge of the solute atoms localizes around them. # The mean free path of the electrons is much greater than the lattice spacing of the alloy.
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Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationships (QSAR)/Quantitative Structure–Property Relationships (QSPR), whilst unable to directly model the physical process occurring in a condensed solvent phase, can provide useful predictions of solvent and solvation properties and activities; such as the solubility of a solute. These methods come in a varied way from simple regression models to sophisticated machine learning methods. Generally, QSAR/QSPR methods require descriptors; these come in many different forms and are used to represent physical features and properties of a system of interest. Descriptors are generally single numerical values which hold some information about a physical property.
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Dicarboxylic aminoaciduria is a rare form of aminoaciduria (1:35 000 births) which is an autosomal recessive disorder of urinary glutamate and aspartate due to genetic errors related to transport of these amino acids. Mutations resulting in a lack of expression of the SLC1A1 gene, a member of the solute carrier family, are found to cause development of dicarboxylic aminoaciduria in humans. SLC1A1 encodes for EAAT3 which is found in the neurons, intestine, kidney, lung, and heart. EAAT3 is part of a family of high affinity glutamate transporters which transport both glutamate and aspartate across the plasma membrane.
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The Marine Unsaturated Model (MARUN model) is a two-dimensional (vertical slice) finite element model capable of simulating the migration of water and solutes in saturated-unsaturated porous media while accounting for the impact of solute concentration on water density and viscosity, as saltwater is heaving and more viscous than freshwater. The detailed formulation of the MARUN model is found in (Boufadel et al. 1998)Boufadel, M. C., M. T. Suidan, C. H. Rauch, A. D. Venosa and P. Biswas (1998). "2-D variably-saturated flow: Physical scaling and Bayesian estimation." Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 3(10): 223-231.
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The values commonly given for pKaaq(H3O+) are 0 or –1.74. The former uses the convention that the activity of the solvent in a dilute solution (in this case, water) is 1, while the latter uses the value of the concentration of water in the pure liquid of 55.5 M, and persuasive arguments can be given for each choice. The disagreement comes from the ambiguity that to define pKa of H3O+ in water, H2O has to act simultaneously as a solute and the solvent. The IUPAC has not given an official definition of pKa that would resolve this ambiguity.
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Staging of chronic kidney disease is based on categories of GFR as well as albuminuria and cause of kidney disease. Central to the physiologic maintenance of GFR is the differential basal tone of the afferent and efferent arterioles (see diagram). In other words, the filtration rate is dependent on the difference between the higher blood pressure created by vasoconstriction of the input or afferent arteriole versus the lower blood pressure created by lesser vasoconstriction of the output or efferent arteriole. GFR is equal to the renal clearance ratio when any solute is freely filtered and is neither reabsorbed nor secreted by the kidneys.
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Microdialysis takes advantage of a semi-permeable membrane, across which small molecules and ions can pass, while proteins and large polymers cannot cross. By establishing a gradient of solute concentration across the membrane and allowing the system to progress toward equilibrium, the system can slowly move toward supersaturation, at which point protein crystals may form. Microdialysis can produce crystals by salting out, employing high concentrations of salt or other small membrane-permeable compounds that decrease the solubility of the protein. Very occasionally, some proteins can be crystallized by dialysis salting in, by dialyzing against pure water, removing solutes, driving self-association and crystallization.
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Lysozyme crystals have been used to grow other functional materials for catalysis and biomedical applications. Lysozyme is a commonly used enzyme for lysing gram positive bacteria. Due to the unique function of lysozyme in which it can digest the cell wall and causes osmotic shock (burst the cell by suddenly changing solute concentration around the cell and thus the osmotic pressure), lysozyme is commonly used in lab setting to release proteins from bacterium periplasm while the inner membrane remains sealed as vesicles called the spheroplast. For example, E. coli can be lysed using lysozyme to free the contents of the periplasmic space.
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Natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 2 (NRAMP 2), also known as divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) and divalent cation transporter 1 (DCT1), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC11A2 (solute carrier family 11, member 2) gene. DMT1 represents a large family of orthologous metal ion transporter proteins that are highly conserved from bacteria to humans. As its name suggests, DMT1 binds a variety of divalent metals including cadmium (Cd2+), copper (Cu2+), and zinc (Zn2+,); however, it is best known for its role in transporting ferrous iron (Fe2+). DMT1 expression is regulated by body iron stores to maintain iron homeostasis.
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The NKCC1 cotransport protein is found throughout the body but NKCC2 is found only in the kidney and removes the sodium, potassium, and chloride found in the body's urine, so it can be absorbed into the blood. GABA transporter (GAT) – neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transporters are members of the solute carrier family 6 (SLC6) of sodium- and chloride- dependent neurotransmitter receptor transporters that are located in the plasma membrane and regulate the concentration of GABA in the synaptic cleft. The SLC6A1 gene encodes GABA transporters. The transporters are electrogenic and couples 2 Na+, 1 Cl− and 1 GABA for inward translocation.
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Typical laboratory findings for tea and toast syndrome include a low serum osmolality (hypotonicity) with a normal urine osmolality since antidiuretic hormone levels are normal. A common laboratory finding for the tea and toast phenomenon is manifestation as hyponatremia. This laboratory finding is not commonly symptomatic when paired with other abnormal electrolyte findings seen in the elderly such as hyperglycemia. Other laboratory tests to identify the cause of hyponatremia as being due to low solute intake include identifying a patient's protein intake through measures of urine urea content and through a history of their regular dietary intake.
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Rate-zonal centrifugation is a centrifugation technique employed to effectively separate particles of different sizes. The tube is first filled with different concentrations of sucrose or another solute establishing layers with different densities and viscosities, forming a density gradient, within which the particles to be separated are added. The larger particles will be able to travel to the bottom layer because they are more massive. The greater mass allows the particles to travel through layers with a greater viscosity, while the smaller particles will remain at the top, as they lack the mass to travel through the more viscous layers.
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Insulin glargine is formulated at an acidic pH 4, where it is completely water-soluble. After subcutaneous injection of the acidic solute (which can cause discomfort and a stinging sensation), when a physiologic pH (approximately 7.4) is achieved the increase in pH causes the insulin to come out of solution resulting in the formation of higher order aggregates of insulin hexamers. The higher order aggregation slows the dissociation of the hexamers into insulin monomers, the functional and physiologically active unit of insulin. This gradual process ensures that small amounts of insulin glargine are released into the body continuously, giving an almost peakless profile.
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The boiling point elevation happens both when the solute is an electrolyte, such as various salts, and a nonelectrolyte. In thermodynamic terms, the origin of the boiling point elevation is entropic and can be explained in terms of the vapor pressure or chemical potential of the solvent. In both cases, the explanation depends on the fact that many solutes are only present in the liquid phase and do not enter into the gas phase (except at extremely high temperatures). Put in vapor pressure terms, a liquid boils at the temperature when its vapor pressure equals the surrounding pressure.
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The chemical potential is dependent on the temperature, and at other temperatures either the liquid or the gas phase has a lower chemical potential and is more energetically favorable than the other phase. This means that when a nonvolatile solute is added, the chemical potential of the solvent in the liquid phase is decreased by dilution, but the chemical potential of the solvent in the gas phase is not affected. This means in turn that the equilibrium between the liquid and gas phase is established at another temperature for a solution than a pure liquid, i.e., the boiling point is elevated.
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Together with the formula above, the boiling-point elevation can in principle be used to measure the degree of dissociation or the molar mass of the solute. This kind of measurement is called ebullioscopy (Greek "boiling-viewing"). However, since superheating is difficult to avoid, precise ΔTb measurements are difficult to carry out, which was partly overcome by the invention of the Beckmann thermometer. Furthermore, the cryoscopic constant that determines freezing-point depression is larger than the ebullioscopic constant, and since the freezing point is often easier to measure with precision, it is more common to use cryoscopy.
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Soil structure is inherently a dynamic and complex system that is affected by different factors such as tillage, wheel traffic, roots, biological activities in soil, rainfall events, wind erosion, shrinking, swelling, freezing and thawing. In turn, reciprocally soil structure interacts and affects the root growth and function, soil fauna and biota, water and solute transport processes, gas exchange, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity, traffic bearing capacity, and many other aspects in relation with soil. Ignoring soil structure or viewing it as “static” can lead to poor predictions of soil properties and might significantly affect the soil management.
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Seldin has been recognized for his research in the field of nephrology. A 1990 book on the history of the National Kidney Foundation states that "Nephrology in the United States is what it is today because one day, many years ago, Donald W. Seldin decided to make it his major area of interest." He and Robert Tarail first described how glucose behaves as a solute causing water to exit cells due to the change in concentration gradient in uncontrolled diabetes. He is known as an author of one of the fundamental textbooks in Nephrology, Seldin and Giebisch's The Kidney.
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In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump.
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Filtration. Filtration is movement of water and solute molecules across the cell membrane due to hydrostatic pressure generated by the cardiovascular system. Depending on the size of the membrane pores, only solutes of a certain size may pass through it. For example, the membrane pores of the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys are very small, and only albumins, the smallest of the proteins, have any chance of being filtered through. On the other hand, the membrane pores of liver cells are extremely large, but not forgetting cells are extremely small to allow a variety of solutes to pass through and be metabolized.
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"The Guardian of Time", a sculpture by Lebanese artist Tony Farah outside the lower cave at Jeita. The Jeita caves are solutional karst caves which have formed over millions of years due to the dissolution of limestone. The limestone is dissolved by carbonic acid charged rain water and groundwater; when the limestone, which is originally waterproof, contains cracks produced by tectonic forces the water oozes into the rock and starts to widen the cracks and solute caves inside the layers. Jeita is the longest cave complex in the Middle East; it sits at above sea level and has a height difference of .
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Simplified Pressure-Volume Curve A more advance method that uses the pressure bomb in plant physiology is pressure-volume curves analysis or p-v curve. Through this method one measures the changes in leaf or stem water potential and relative water content to isolate the underlying components of total leaf or stem water potential. While the measurements can be time intensive, variable such as solute potential (Ψs), turgor loss point (Ψtlp), apoplastic water content and symplastic water content can all be determined using this method. The general protocol for measuring p-v curves involves repeated measure of water potential and mass in succession.
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Sodium–hydrogen antiporter 3 also known as sodium–hydrogen exchanger 3 (NHE3) or solute carrier family 9 member 3 (SLC9A3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC9A3 gene. SLC9A3 is a sodium–hydrogen antiporter. It is found on the apical side of the epithelial cells of the proximal tubule of the nephron of the kidney, in the apical membrane of enterocytes of the intestine, as well as the basolateral side of both duodenal and pancreatic cells responsible for the release of HCO−3 into the duodenal lumen. It is primarily responsible for maintaining the balance of sodium.
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This gene is a member of the solute carrier family 11 (proton-coupled divalent metal ion transporters) family and encodes a multi-pass membrane protein. The protein functions as a divalent transition metal (iron and manganese) transporter involved in iron metabolism and host resistance to certain pathogens. Mutations in this gene have been associated with susceptibility to infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and leprosy, and inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn's disease. Alternatively spliced variants that encode different protein isoforms have been described but the full-length nature of only one has been determined.
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Both HYDRUS models may be used to simulate movement of water, heat, and multiple solutes in variably saturated media. Both programs use linear finite elements to numerically solve the Richards equation for saturated-unsaturated water flow and Fickian-based advection dispersion equations for both heat and solute transport. The flow equation also includes a sink term to account for water uptake by plant roots as a function of both water and salinity stress. The unsaturated soil hydraulic properties can be described using van Genuchten, Brooks and Corey, modified van Genuchten, Kosugi, and Durner type analytical functions.
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Substances secreted include urea, creatinine, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. Some of the hormones which signal the tubules to alter the reabsorption or secretion rate, and thereby maintain homeostasis, include (along with the substance affected) antidiuretic hormone (water), aldosterone (sodium, potassium), parathyroid hormone (calcium, phosphate), atrial natriuretic peptide (sodium) and brain natriuretic peptide (sodium). A countercurrent system in the renal medulla provides the mechanism for generating a hypertonic interstitium, which allows the recovery of solute-free water from within the nephron and returning it to the venous vasculature when appropriate. Some diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules.
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Addition of solute to form a solution stabilizes the solvent in the liquid phase, and lowers the solvent chemical potential so that solvent molecules have less tendency to move to the gas or solid phases. As a result, liquid solutions slightly above the solvent boiling point at a given pressure become stable, which means that the boiling point increases. Similarly, liquid solutions slightly below the solvent freezing point become stable meaning that the freezing point decreases. Both the boiling point elevation and the freezing point depression are proportional to the lowering of vapour pressure in a dilute solution.
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The normal function of ADH on the kidneys is to control the amount of water reabsorbed by kidney nephrons. ADH acts in the distal portion of the renal tubule (Distal Convoluted Tubule) as well as on the collecting duct and causes the retention of water, but not solute. Hence, ADH activity effectively dilutes the blood (decreasing the concentrations of solutes such as sodium), causing hyponatremia; this is compounded by the fact that the body responds to water retention by decreasing aldosterone, thus allowing even more sodium wasting. For this reason, a high urinary sodium excretion will be seen.
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Red light hits leaves and depolarizes the plasma membrane of plant cells via photosensitive calcium and chloride ion channels. Chloride leaves the cells, while calcium enters. This depolarization causes an osmotic shift in ionic concentrations in the apoplast, which concurrently causes an increase in turgor pressure based on apoplastic solute potentials, forming an electrical gradient across the plasma membrane. The increase in turgor pressure causes the cells to expand, enabling the chloroplasts to shift to a different area, and the collective expansion of all the cells at once causes the leaf itself to become larger and more rigid.
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Osmosis in a U-shaped tube Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of its pure solvent across a semipermeable membrane. It is also defined as the measure of the tendency of a solution to take in pure solvent by osmosis. Potential osmotic pressure is the maximum osmotic pressure that could develop in a solution if it were separated from its pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane. Osmosis occurs when two solutions containing different concentrations of solute are separated by a selectively permeable membrane.
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Harmon Northrop Morse and Frazer showed that the equation applied to more concentrated solutions if the unit of concentration was molal rather than molar; so when the molality is used this equation has been called the Morse equation. For more concentrated solutions the van 't Hoff equation can be extended as a power series in solute concentration, c. To a first approximation, : \Pi = \Pi_0 + A c^2 where \Pi_0 is the ideal pressure and A is an empirical parameter. The value of the parameter A (and of parameters from higher-order approximations) can be used to calculate Pitzer parameters.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 3 (SLC22A3) also known as the organic cation transporter 3 (OCT3) or extraneuronal monoamine transporter (EMT) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A3 gene. Polyspecific organic cation transporters in the liver, kidney, intestine, and other organs are critical for elimination of many endogenous small organic cations as well as a wide array of drugs and environmental toxins. This gene is one of three similar cation transporter genes located in a cluster on chromosome 6. The encoded protein contains twelve putative transmembrane domains and is a plasma integral membrane protein.
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In the physiology of the kidney, free water clearance (CH2O) is the volume of blood plasma that is cleared of solute-free water per unit time. An example of its use is in the determination of an individual's state of hydration. Conceptually, free water clearance should be thought of relative to the production of isoosmotic urine, which would be equal to the osmolarity of the plasma. If an individual is producing urine more dilute than the plasma, there is a positive value for free water clearance, meaning pure water is lost in the urine in addition to a theoretical isoosmotic filtrate.
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This is well known in reverse osmosis where solutes from the feedwater diffuse to the product water, however in the case of forward osmosis the situation can be far more complicated. In FO processes we may have solute diffusion in both directions depending on the composition of the draw solution and the feed water. This does two things; the draw solution solutes may diffuse to the feed solution and the feed solution solutes may diffuse to the draw solution. Clearly these phenomena have consequences in terms of the selection of the draw solution for any particular FO process.
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Hydration bag before use One example of an application of this type may be found in "hydration bags", which use an ingestible draw solute and are intended for separation of water from dilute feeds. This allows, for example, the ingestion of water from surface waters (streams, ponds, puddles, etc.) that may be expected to contain pathogens or toxins that are readily rejected by the FO membrane. With sufficient contact time, such water will permeate the membrane bag into the draw solution, leaving the undesirable feed constituents behind. The diluted draw solution may then be ingested directly.
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An illustration of ice core drilling above subglacial Lake Vostok. These drilling efforts collected re-frozen lake water that has been analyzed to understand the lake's chemistry. Image credit: Nicolle Rager-Fuller / US National Science Foundation Since few subglacial lakes have been directly sampled, much of the existing knowledge about subglacial lake biogeochemistry is based on a small number of samples, mostly from Antarctica. Inferences about solute concentrations, chemical processes, and biological diversity of unsampled subglacial lakes have also been drawn from analyses of accretion ice (re-frozen lake water) at the base of the overlying glaciers.
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The riddle of water and nutrient transport through the plant remained. Physiologist Von Mohl explored solute transport and the theory of water uptake by the roots using the concepts of cohesion, transpirational pull, capillarity and root pressure. German dominance in the field of physiology was underlined by the publication of the definitive textbook on plant physiology synthesising the work of this period, Sach's e of 1882. There were, however, some advances elsewhere such as the early exploration of geotropism (the effect of gravity on growth) by Englishman Thomas Knight, and the discovery and naming of osmosis by Frenchman Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847).
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Vacuum evaporators as a class function because lowering the pressure above a bulk liquid lowers the boiling points of the component liquids in it. Generally, the component liquids of interest in applications of rotary evaporation are research solvents that one desires to remove from a sample after an extraction, such as following a natural product isolation or a step in an organic synthesis. Liquid solvents can be removed without excessive heating of what are often complex and sensitive solvent- solute combinations. Rotary evaporation is most often and conveniently applied to separate "low boiling" solvents such a n-hexane or ethyl acetate from compounds which are solid at room temperature and pressure.
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Mitochondrial ATP production is also vital for cell division and differentiation in infection in addition to basic functions in the cell including the regulation of cell volume, solute concentration, and cellular architecture. ATP levels differ at various stages of the cell cycle suggesting that there is a relationship between the abundance of ATP and the cell's ability to enter a new cell cycle. ATP's role in the basic functions of the cell make the cell cycle sensitive to changes in the availability of mitochondrial derived ATP. The variation in ATP levels at different stages of the cell cycle support the hypothesis that mitochondria play an important role in cell cycle regulation.
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The Diego antigen (or blood group) system is composed of 21 blood factors or antigens carried on the Band 3 glycoprotein, also known as Anion Exchanger 1 (AE1). The antigens are inherited through various alleles of the gene SLC4A1 (Solute carrier family 4), located on human chromosome 17. The AE1 glycoprotein is expressed only in red blood cells and, in a shortened form, in some cells in the kidney. The Diegoa antigen is fairly common in Indigenous peoples of the Americas (in both North and South America) and East Asians, but very rare or absent in most other populations, supporting the theory that the two groups share common ancestry.
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SaltMod components The majority of the computer models available for water and solute transport in the soil (e.g. SWAP,SWAP model DrainMod-S,DrainMod-S model UnSatChem,UnSatChem model and Hydrus Hydrus model ) are based on Richard's differential equation for the movement of water in unsaturated soil in combination with Fick's differential convection–diffusion equation for advection and dispersion of salts. The models require input of soil characteristics like the relations between variable unsaturated soil moisture content, water tension, water retention curve, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, dispersivity and diffusivity. These relations vary to a great extent from place to place and from time to time and are not easy to measure.
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This technological advancement made possible the verification and correction of van 't Hoff's theory. In a modern formulation, van 't Hoff's equation states that ΠV = nRT, where Π is the osmotic pressure, V is the volume of the solution, n is the number of moles of the solute, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature (compare with the ideal gas law). This equation can also be written as Π = cRT, where c = n/V is the molarity (mol/m3) of the solution. Morse showed experimentally that Π = bRT, where b is the molality (mol/kg) yields a better approximation of osmotic pressure.
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Volixibat (INN; development code SHP626) is a medication under development as a possible treatment for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), the most severe form of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). No other pharmacotherapy yet exists for NASH, so there is interest in whether volixibat can prove to be both safe and effective. To encourage development and testing, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued fast track status. Volixibat is an IBAT inhibitor, meaning that it blocks the function of the IBAT protein (ileal bile acid transporter), which is also called SLC10A2 (solute carrier family 10 member 2) or ASBT (apical sodium–bile acid transporter).
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Milk is an emulsified colloid of liquid butterfat globules dispersed within a water-based solution. In chemistry, a colloid is a phase separated mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble or soluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid; the term colloidal suspension refers unambiguously to the overall mixture (although a narrower sense of the word suspension is distinguished from colloids by larger particle size). Unlike a solution, whose solute and solvent constitute only one phase, a colloid has a dispersed phase (the suspended particles) and a continuous phase (the medium of suspension) that arise by phase separation.
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A faster method of log P determination makes use of high-performance liquid chromatography. The log P of a solute can be determined by correlating its retention time with similar compounds with known log P values. An advantage of this method is that it is fast (5–20 minutes per sample). However, since the value of log P is determined by linear regression, several compounds with similar structures must have known log P values, and extrapolation from one chemical class to another—applying a regression equation derived from one chemical class to a second one—may not be reliable, since each chemical classes will have its characteristic regression parameters.
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Freezing-point depression is used by some organisms that live in extreme cold. Such creatures have evolved means through which they can produce a high concentration of various compounds such as sorbitol and glycerol. This elevated concentration of solute decreases the freezing point of the water inside them, preventing the organism from freezing solid even as the water around them freezes, or as the air around them becomes very cold. Examples of organisms that produce antifreeze compounds include some species of arctic- living fish such as the rainbow smelt, which produces glycerol and other molecules to survive in frozen-over estuaries during the winter months.
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Monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4) also known as solute carrier family 16 member 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC16A3 gene. Northern and western blotting and EST database analyses showed MCT4 to be widely expressed and especially so in glycolytic tissues such as white skeletal muscle fibers, astrocytes, white blood cells, chondrocytes, and some mammalian cell lines. Because of this, it has been proposed that the properties of MCT4 might be especially appropriate for export of lactate derived from glycolysis. MCT4 exhibits a lower affinity for most substrates and inhibitors than MCT1, with Km and Ki values some 5–10-fold higher.
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The transport of Mg2+ into Paramecium has been characterised largely by R. R. Preston and his coworkers. Electrophysiological techniques on whole Paramecium were used to identify and characterise Mg2+ currents in a series of papers before the gene was cloned by Haynes et al. (2002). The open reading frame for the XNTA gene is 1707 bp in size, contains two introns and produces a predicted protein of 550 amino acids. The protein has been predicted to contain 11 TM domains and also contains the α1 and α2 motifs (see figure) of the SLC8 (Na+/Ca2+ exchanger) and SLC24 (K+ dependent Na+/Ca2+ exchanger) human solute transport proteins.
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In 2006 the glutamate receptor subunit gene GRIN2B (responsible for key functions in memory and learning) was associated with ADHD. This followed earlier studies showing a link between glutamate modulation and hyperactivity (2001), and then between the SLC1A3 solute carrier gene-encoding part of the glutamate transporter process that mapped to chromosome 5 (5p12) noted in multiple ADHD genome scans. Further mutations to four different metabotropic glutamate receptor genes were identified in a study of 1013 children with ADHD compared to 4105 controls with non-ADHD, replicated in a subsequent study of 2500 more patients. Deletions and duplications affected GRM1, GRM5, GRM7 and GRM8.
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It is likely that a number of genes are important to the development of OCD. Some of those candidate genes have been identified but none of the candidate gene studies have been consistently replicated except those relating to the glutamate transporter gene, SLC1A1 (solute carrier family 1, member 1), which codes for the glutamate transporter, EAAC1. It has been suggested that the difficulties in identifying candidate genes may be related to the fact that most gene research has ignored environmental factors.[9] Consequently, it may be necessary to develop models for the interaction between genetic and environmental factors for certain subtypes of OCD to further genetic research.
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Stage 2: Dewatering In rare cases, due to the even structure of the cakes formed, the steady flow profile of the ceramic filter media and the gas free filtrate flow cake, washing has proved to be efficient in ceramic disc filters. The formation of thicker cakes during filtration and higher vacuum level leads to greater removal of solute. Stage 3: Discharge The basic scraper works well when the cakes are relatively thick and non-sticky. The final cakes are discharged by blade or wire scrapers on either side of the discs However, other types of agitators should be considered and installed if the cake is sticky or thin.
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The interfacing mechanism is contained inside a common EI source, like that found in any GC-MS system. The liquid phase from a nano HPLC column is admitted from the capillary column port, where the connection tubing and the nebulizer are first introduced and sealed to prevent vacuum loss. The mechanism is based on the formation of an aerosol in high-vacuum conditions, followed by a quick droplet desolvation and final vaporization of the solute prior to the ionization. The completion of the process is quick and complete and reduces chances of thermal decomposition as reported in the Figure, where a scheme of the interface is shown.
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The core of the interface is represented by the micro-nebulizer. The nebulizer tip protrudes into the ion source so that the spray expansion is completely contained inside the ion volume. The eluate emerges as liquid phase at a flow rate of 300-500 nL/min, and any premature in-tube solvent evaporation is prevented by a convenient thermal insulation of the nebulizer and the connecting tubing from the surrounding source heat. The high temperature of the ion source, between 300 and 400°C, has a double function: to compensate for the latent heat of vaporization during the droplet desolvation, and to convert the solute into the gas phase.
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Sea salt being added to raw ham to make prosciuttoCuring is any of various food preservation and flavoring processes of foods such as meat, fish and vegetables, by the addition of salt, with the aim of drawing moisture out of the food by the process of osmosis. Because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the primary method of preserving meat and fish until the late-19th century. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing.
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Comparison of transport proteins Antiporter illustration An antiporter (also called exchanger or counter-transporter) is a cotransporter and integral membrane protein involved in secondary active transport of two or more different molecules or ions across a phospholipid membrane such as the plasma membrane in opposite directions, one into the cell and one out of the cell. Na+/H+ antiporters have been reviewed. In secondary active transport, one species of solute moves along its electrochemical gradient, allowing a different species to move against its own electrochemical gradient. This movement is in contrast to primary active transport, in which all solutes are moved against their concentration gradients, fueled by ATP.
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Most of the uptake systems also have an extracytoplasmic receptor, a solute binding protein. Some homologous ATPases function in non- transport-related processes such as translation of RNA and DNA repair. ABC transporters are considered to be an ABC superfamily based on the similarities of the sequence and organization of their ATP-binding cassette (ABC) domains, even though the integral membrane proteins appear to have evolved independently several times, and thus comprise different protein families. Like the ABC exporters, it is possible that the integral membrane proteins of ABC uptake systems also evolved at least 3 times independently, based on their high resolution 3-dimensional structures.
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While the male-female ratio in PDP is skewed, this cannot be fully explained by X-linked inheritance. Two genes have been associated with this condition: hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase 15-(NAD) (HPGD) and solute carrier organic anion transporter family, member 2A1/prostaglandin transporter (SLCO2A1).Khan AK, Muhammad N, Khan SA, Ullah W, Nasir A, Afzal S, Ramzan K, Basit S, Khan S (2017) A novel mutation in the HPGD gene causing primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy with digital clubbing in a Pakistani family. Ann Hum Genet doi: 10.1111/ahg.12239 The underlying pathophysiology appears to be an abnormality of prostglandin E2 but the details have yet to be elucidated.
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The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition: # H3O + Cl + NH3 → Cl + NH(aq) \+ H2O # HCl(benzene) \+ NH3(benzene) → NH4Cl(s) # HCl(g) \+ NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s) As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in benzene) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid.
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Experiments conducted at the University of Maryland in the 1980s by Patricia Grady and colleagues postulated the existence of solute exchange between the interstitial fluid of the brain parenchyma and the CSF via paravascular spaces. In 1985, Grady and colleagues suggested that cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid exchange along specific anatomical pathways within the brain, with CSF moving into the brain along the outside of blood vessels. Grady's group suggested that these 'paravascular channels' were functionally analogous to peripheral lymph vessels, facilitating the clearance of interstitial wastes from the brain. However, other laboratories at the time did not observe such widespread paravascular CSF–ISF exchange.
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A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution.
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Sodium-hydrogen exchange regulatory cofactor NHE-RF2 (NHERF-2) also known as tyrosine kinase activator protein 1 (TKA-1) or SRY-interacting protein 1 (SIP-1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC9A3R2 (solute carrier family 9 isoform A3 regulatory factor 2) gene. NHERF-2 is a scaffold protein that connects plasma membrane proteins with members of the ezrin/moesin/radixin family and thereby helps to link them to the actin cytoskeleton and to regulate their surface expression. It is necessary for cAMP-mediated phosphorylation and inhibition of SLC9A3. In addition, it may also act as scaffold protein in the nucleus.
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"The life saving power of oral rehydration therapy was first demonstrated in cholera patients. By 1971 there was sufficient knowledge to reduce death from 40% to less than 3%, even under chaotic field conditions — 'Now used for all diarrheal diseases it saves the lives of over one million children a year and if fully used could save 3–4 million lives every year." In 1978, The Lancet wrote: "the discovery that sodium transport and glucose transport are coupled in the small intestine, so that glucose accelerates absorption of solute and water, was potentially the most important medical advance this century."Editorial. "Water with sugar and salt".
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The main role of potassium is to provide the ionic environment for metabolic processes in the cytosol, and as such functions as a regulator of various processes including growth regulation. Plants require potassium ions (K+) for protein synthesis and for the opening and closing of stomata, which is regulated by proton pumps to make surrounding guard cells either turgid or flaccid. A deficiency of potassium ions can impair a plant's ability to maintain these processes. Potassium also functions in other physiological processes such as photosynthesis, protein synthesis, activation of some enzymes, phloem solute transport of photoassimilates into source organs, and maintenance of cation:anion balance in the cytosol and vacuole.
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This is also directly applicable to the hydrophobic region in lipid bilayers; if a critical concentration of a chaotropic solute is reached (in the hydrophobic region of the bilayer) then membrane integrity will be compromised, and the cell will lyse. Chaotropic salts that dissociate in solution exert chaotropic effects via different mechanisms. Whereas chaotropic compounds such as ethanol interfere with non-covalent intramolecular forces as outlined above, salts can have chaotropic properties by shielding charges and preventing the stabilization of salt bridges. Hydrogen bonding is stronger in non-polar media, so salts, which increase the chemical polarity of the solvent, can also destabilize hydrogen bonding.
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The partition coefficients can be transformed to free energy of transfer which includes enthalpic and entropic components, ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. These components are experimentally determined by calorimetry. The hydrophobic effect was found to be entropy-driven at room temperature because of the reduced mobility of water molecules in the solvation shell of the non-polar solute; however, the enthalpic component of transfer energy was found to be favorable, meaning it strengthened water-water hydrogen bonds in the solvation shell due to the reduced mobility of water molecules. At the higher temperature, when water molecules become more mobile, this energy gain decreases along with the entropic component.
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PCFT-mediated transport into cells is optimal at pH 5.5. The low- pH activity and the structural specificity of PCFT (high affinity for folic acid, and low affinity for PT523 - a non-polyglutamable analog of aminopterin) distinguishes this transporter functionally from the other major folate transporter, the reduced folate carrier (optimal activity at pH 7.4, very low affinity for folic acid and very high affinity for PT523), another member (SLC19A1) of the superfamily of solute transporters. Influx mediated by PCFT is electrogenic and can be assessed by current, cellular acidification, and radiotracer uptake. Influx has a Km range of 0.5 to 3µM for most folates and antifolates at pH 5.5.
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However, due to easy wind pollination, seeds were dispersed into the environment. A 2004 gene flow study (with scientific sampling methods) documents gene flow on a landscape level, with a maximum at and (respectively) in sentinel and resident plants observed by scientist, located in primarily nonagronomic places such as irrigation ditches. Other work in transgenic bentgrass looks into salinity tolerance. The improved performance of the transgenic plants was associated with higher relative water content, higher sodium uptake and lower solute leakage in leaf tissues, with higher concentrations of Na+, K+, Cl- and total phosphorus in root tissues, and with higher auxin accumulation rate in the root tissue.
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Interaction of the particles suspended in a droplet with the free surface of the droplet is important in creating a coffee ring. "When the drop evaporates, the free surface collapses and traps the suspended particles .. eventually all the particles are captured by the free surface and stay there for the rest of their trip towards the edge of the drop."Coffee-ring phenomenon explained in new theory. phys.org (December 20, 2016) This result means that surfactants can be used to manipulate the motion of the solute particles by changing the surface tension of the drop, rather than trying to control the bulk flow inside the drop.
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The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it was not until 1877 when the botanist Wilhelm Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889, Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes.
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Studies have shown that when lurasidone is taken with food, absorption increases about twofold. Peak blood plasma concentrations are reached after one to three hours. About 99% of the circulating substance are bound to plasma proteins. Lurasidone is mainly metabolized in the liver via the enzyme CYP3A4, but has negligible affinity to other cytochrome P450 enzymes. It is transported by P-glycoprotein and ABCG2 and also inhibits these carrier proteins in vitro. It also inhibits the solute carrier protein SLC22A1, but no other relevant transporters. Main metabolism pathways are oxidative N-dealkylation between the piperazine and cyclohexane rings, hydroxylation of the norbornane ring, and S-oxidation.
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Note that this is opposite to the outcome expected from solid solution strengthening, where adding Indium to the ternary system slows dislocation movement through dislocation-solute interaction and subsequently increases the material's strength. The fracture toughness can also be tuned with composition modifications. For example, the average toughness of Ti1-x(Zr, Hf)xNiSn ranges from 1.86 MPa m1/2 to 2.16 MPa m1/2, increasing with Zr/Hf content. The preparation of samples may affect the measured fracture toughness however, as elaborated by O’Connor et al. In their study, samples of Ti0.5Hf0.5Co0.5Ir0.5Sb1-xSnx were prepared using three different methods: a high-temperature solid state reaction, high-energy ball milling, and a combination of both.
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The van 't Hoff factor (named after Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff) is a measure of the effect of a solute upon colligative properties such as osmotic pressure, relative lowering in vapor pressure, boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression. The van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance is dissolved and the concentration of a substance as calculated from its mass. For most non-electrolytes dissolved in water, the van 't Hoff factor is essentially 1. For most ionic compounds dissolved in water, the van 't Hoff factor is equal to the number of discrete ions in a formula unit of the substance.
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Gas vesicles occur primarily in aquatic organisms as they are used to modulate the cell's buoyancy and modify the cell's position in the water column so it can be optimally located for photosynthesis or move to locations with more or less oxygen. Organisms that could float to the air–liquid interface out competes other aerobes that cannot rise in a water column, through using up oxygen in the top layer. In addition, gas vesicles can be used to maintain optimum salinity by positioning the organism in specific locations in a stratified body of water to prevent osmotic shock. High concentrations of solute will cause water to be drawn out of the cell by osmosis, causing cell lysis.
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The diversity of cell types within any part of a naturally grown plant (in vivo) makes it very difficult to investigate and understand some general biochemical phenomena of living plant cells. The transport of a solute in or out of the cell, for example, is difficult to study because the specialized cells in a multicellular organism behave differently. Cell suspension cultures such as tobacco BY-2 provide good model systems for these studies at the level of a single cell and its compartments because tobacco BY-2 cells behave very similarly to one another. The influence of neighbouring cells behavior is in the suspension is not as important as it would be in an intact plant.
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The solute content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as total dissolved solids and other constituents can dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms interact with their environment. Salt content, or salinity, is the most basic classification of water conditions. An aquarium may have freshwater (salinity below 0.5 PPT), simulating a lake or river environment; brackish water (a salt level of 0.5 to 30 PPT), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as estuaries; and salt water or seawater (a salt level of 30 to 40 PPT), simulating an ocean or sea environment. Even higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms.
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A red blood cell in a hypertonic solution, causing water to move out of the cell. A hypertonic solution has a greater concentration of solutes than another solution. In biology, the tonicity of a solution usually refers to its solute concentration relative to that of another solution on the opposite side of a cell membrane; a solution outside of a cell is called hypertonic if it has a greater concentration of solutes than the cytosol inside the cell. When a cell is immersed in a hypertonic solution, osmotic pressure tends to force water to flow out of the cell in order to balance the concentrations of the solutes on either side of the cell membrane.
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A Chemical and Physical Foundations Thermodynamics and kinetics Redox states Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers Solutions and equilibria Solute-solvent interactions Chemical interactions and bonding Chemical reaction mechanisms B Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics Small molecules Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids) Supramolecular complexes (e.g., membranes, ribosomes and multienzyme complexes) C Catalysis and Binding Enzyme reaction mechanisms and kinetics Ligand-protein interaction (e.g., hormone receptors, substrates and effectors, transport proteins and antigen-antibody interactions) D Major Metabolic Pathways Carbon, nitrogen and sulfur assimilation Anabolism Catabolism Synthesis and degradation of macromolecules E Bioenergetics (including respiration and photosynthesis) Energy transformations at the substrate level Electron transport Proton and chemical gradients Energy coupling (e.g.
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Produced water spills and subsequent contamination of groundwater also presents a risk for exposure to carcinogens. Research that modeled the solute transport of BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene) and naphthalene for a range of spill sizes on contrasting soils overlying groundwater at different depths found that benzene and toluene were expected to reach human health relevant concentration in groundwater because of their high concentrations in produced water, relatively low solid/liquid partition coefficient and low EPA drinking water limits for these contaminants. Benzene is a known carcinogen which affects the central nervous system in the short term and can affect the bone marrow, blood production, immune system, and urogenital systems with long term exposure.
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Crystal formation can be divided into two types, where the first type of crystals are composed of a cation and anion, also known as a salt, such as sodium acetate. The second type of crystals are composed of uncharged species, for example menthol. Crystal formation can be achieved by various methods, such as: cooling, evaporation, addition of a second solvent to reduce the solubility of the solute (technique known as antisolvent or drown-out), solvent layering, sublimation, changing the cation or anion, as well as other methods. The formation of a supersaturated solution does not guarantee crystal formation, and often a seed crystal or scratching the glass is required to form nucleation sites.
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Although there are examples to the contrary, it should be stressed that the commonly used "units" of % w/v are grams/milliliters (g/mL). 1% m/v solutions are sometimes thought of as being gram/100 mL but this detracts from the fact that % m/v is g/mL; 1g of water has a volume of approximately 1 mL (at standard temperature and pressure) and the mass concentration is said to be 100%. To make 10 mL of an aqueous 1% cholate solution, 0.1 grams of cholate are dissolved in 10mL of water. Volumetric flasks are the most appropriate piece of glassware for this procedure as deviations from ideal solution behavior can occur with high solute concentrations.
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Electrolyte solutions are normally formed when salt is placed into a solvent such as water and the individual components dissociate due to the thermodynamic interactions between solvent and solute molecules, in a process called "solvation". For example, when table salt (sodium chloride), NaCl, is placed in water, the salt (a solid) dissolves into its component ions, according to the dissociation reaction :NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) \+ Cl−(aq) It is also possible for substances to react with water, producing ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium, carbonate, and hydrogen carbonate ions. Molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity.
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The solute content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as total dissolved solids and other constituents dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms interact with their environment. Salt content, or salinity, is the most basic measure of water conditions. An aquarium may have freshwater (salinity below 500 parts per million), simulating a lake or river environment; brackish water (a salt level of 500 to 30,000 PPM), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as estuaries; and salt water or seawater (a salt level of 30,000 to 40,000 PPM), simulating an ocean environment. Rarely, higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms.
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A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H+. Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid. Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre, meaning 'sour'.Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: acid An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as "acid" (as in "dissolved in acid"), while the strict definition refers only to the solute.
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Antiporters and symporters both transport two or more different types of molecules at the same time in a coupled movement. An energetically unfavored movement of one molecule is combined with an energetically favorable movement of another molecule(s) or ion(s) to provide the power needed for transport. This type of transport is known as secondary active transport and is powered by the energy derived from the concentration gradient of the ions/molecules across the membrane the cotransporter protein is integrated within. Cotransporters undergo a cycle of conformational changes by linking the movement of an ion with its concentration gradient (downhill movement) to the movement of a cotransported solute against its concentration gradient (uphill movement).
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Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a partially permeable membrane to remove ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property that is driven by chemical potential differences of the solvent, a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and suspended chemical species as well as biological ones (principally bacteria) from water, and is used in both industrial processes and the production of potable water. The result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side.
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Bioturbation is important in the deep sea because deep-sea ecosystem functioning depends on the use and recycling of nutrients and organic inputs from the photic zone. In low energy regions (areas with relatively still water), bioturbation is the only force creating heterogeneity in solute concentration and mineral distribution in the sediment. It has been suggested that higher benthic diversity in the deep sea could lead to more bioturbation which, in turn, would increase the transport of organic matter and nutrients to benthic sediments. Through the consumption of surface-derived organic matter, animals living on the sediment surface facilitate the incorporation of particulate organic carbon (POC) into the sediment where it is consumed by sediment dwelling animals and bacteria.
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Beer makes use of the fact, derived from Bouguer's and Lambert's absorption laws, that the intensity of light transmitted through a solution at a given wavelength decreases exponentially with the path length d and the concentration c of the solute (the solvent is considered non-absorbing). Actually, the “Absorption Coëfficient” defined by Beer in his paper is the transmittance (or transmission ratio), T = I / I0. Thus, as pointed out by Beer, the transmittance of a concentrated solution can be derived from a measurement of the transmittance of a dilute solution. Indeed, the transmittance measured for any concentration and path length can be normalized to the corresponding transmittance for a standard concentration and path length.
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The sodium-chloride symporter (also known as Na+-Cl− cotransporter, NCC or NCCT, or as the thiazide-sensitive Na+-Cl− cotransporter or TSC) is a cotransporter in the kidney which has the function of reabsorbing sodium and chloride ions from the tubular fluid into the cells of the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron. It is a member of the SLC12 cotransporter family of electroneutral cation-coupled chloride cotransporters. In humans, it is encoded by the gene SLC12A3 (solute carrier family 12 member 3) located in 16q13. A loss of NCC function causes Gitelman syndrome, an autosomic recessive disease characterized by salt wasting and low blood pressure, hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis, hypomagnesemia and hypocalciuria.
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The overall pathway of hydraulic signaling in plants is similar to that of a sensory pathway, starting with basic perception of the signal by a sensor, which then converts the hydraulic signal into a chemical signal: abscisic acid or ABA. This conversion to a chemical signal leads to the control of different physiological responses in the plant since ABA is a plant hormone known to mediate many plant developmental processes including organ size, stomatal closure, and dormancy in the plants’ seeds and buds. Hydraulic signals are primarily detected as decreases in water potential, usually caused by increases in solute concentration or drought. This decrease in water potential is systemic and transferred throughout the plant vascular network via the xylem.
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Water follows down the water potential gradient from parenchyma cells into the xylem, ultimately leading to a decrease in pressure potential and osmotic potential in the adjacent cells to the xylem. The hydraulic sensor, which is yet to be known, resides on the inner membrane of the parenchyma cells and detects the decreases in pressure and solute potential through an unknown mechanism. After detection, the unidentified sensor initiates a signal cascade, leading to a calcium transient and subsequent reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. These ROS are proposed to go on to target ABA biosynthesis enzymes, leading to synthesis of ABA in the parenchyma and later export to regions of the plant requiring the appropriate responses.
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Discontinuous capillaries as found in sinusoidal tissues of bone marrow, liver and spleen have little or no filter function. The rate at which fluid is filtered across vascular endothelium (transendothelial filtration) is determined by the sum of two outward forces, capillary pressure ( P_c ) and interstitial protein osmotic pressure ( \pi_i ), and two absorptive forces, plasma protein osmotic pressure ( \pi_p ) and interstitial pressure ( P_i ). The Starling equation describes these forces in mathematical terms. It is one of the Kedem–Katchalski equations which bring nonsteady state thermodynamics to the theory of osmotic pressure across membranes that are at least partly permeable to the solute responsible for the osmotic pressure difference (Staverman 1951; Kedem and Katchalsky 1958).
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Okadaic acid (OA) and its relatives are known to strongly inhibit protein phosphatases, specifically serine/threonine phosphatases. Furthermore, of the 4 such phosphatases, okadaic acid and its relatives specifically target protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), at the exclusion of the other two, with dissociation constants for the two proteins of 150 nM and 30 pM respectively. Because of this, this class of molecules has been used to study the action of these phosphatases in cells. Once OA binds to the phosphatase protein(s), it results in hyperphosphorylation of specific proteins within the afflicted cell, which in turn reduces control over sodium secretion and solute permeability of the cell.
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Vasodilation of the afferent arteriole, which results in increased glomerular filtration pressure and tubular fluid flow, occurs when MD cells detect a chloride concentration that is below a target value. A higher fluid flow rate in the TAL allows less time for dilution of the tubular fluid so that MD chloride concentration increases. Glomerular flow is decreased if the chloride concentration is above the target value. Constricting the smooth muscle cells in the afferent arteriole, results in a reduced concentration of chloride at the MD. TGF stabilizes the fluid and solute delivery into the distal portion of the loop of Henle and maintain the rate of filtration near its ideal value using these mechanisms.
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For references, the osmolarity of seawater is on average, 1 Osm/L. Marine diatoms and algae in general tend to flourish in higher osmolar concentrations due to the increased presence of carbon dioxide and nutrients to be utilized as sustenance, but the low-solute environment Schobert found to be most optimal for the growth of C. meneghiana is consistent with most Cyclotella being found in low-productivity mesotrophic to oligotrophic environments. Species of cyclotella have been found in harsh aquatic environments such as coldwater regions in northern regions of the world. Another study by Van de Vijver and Dessein found a new species of Cyclotella, C. deceusteriana, in the sub-antarctic region.
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The hydrophobic interaction is mostly an entropic effect originating from the disruption of the highly dynamic hydrogen bonds between molecules of liquid water by the nonpolar solute forming a clathrate-like structure around the non-polar molecules. This structure formed is more highly ordered than free water molecules due to the water molecules arranging themselves to interact as much as possible with themselves, and thus results in a higher entropic state which causes non-polar molecules to clump together to reduce the surface area exposed to water and decrease the entropy of the system. Thus, the two immiscible phases (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic) will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal.
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Given the overwhelming abundance of liquid water found in biological systems and the high prevalence of dissolved ionic species, understanding the behavior of ions in solution is critical. Ions in solution must overcome not only the preferred entropic state of disordered water molecules in order to form a solvation shell, but also the powerful hydrogen bonding interactions found between water molecules. Attraction between the solute ion and water increases with the solute’s electric charge and decreases with its radius. Hydration number estimates are not limited to integer values (for instance, estimates for sodium include 4, 4.6, 5.3, 5.5, 5.6, 6, 6.5, and 8), with some of the spread of estimated values being due to differing detection methods.
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For an adsorption column, the column resin (the stationary phase) is composed of microbeads. Even smaller particles such as proteins, carbohydrates, metal ions, or other chemical compounds are conjugated onto the microbeads. Each binding particle that is attached to the microbead can be assumed to bind in a 1:1 ratio with the solute sample sent through the column that needs to be purified or separated. Binding between the target molecule to be separated and the binding molecule on the column beads can be modeled using a simple equilibrium reaction Keq = [CS]/([C][S]) where Keq is the equilibrium constant, [C] and [S] are the concentrations of the target molecule and the binding molecule on the column resin, respectively.
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Glycine/sarcosine/dimethylglycine N-methyltransferase (, GSDMT, glycine sarcosine dimethylglycine N-methyltransferase) is an enzyme with systematic name S-adenosyl-L-methionine:glycine(or sarcosine or N,N-dimethylglycine) N-methyltransferase (sarcosine(or N,N-dimethylglycine or betaine)-forming). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : 3 S-adenosyl-L- methionine + glycine \rightleftharpoons 3 S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine + betaine (overall reaction) :(1a) S-adenosyl-L-methionine + glycine \rightleftharpoons S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine + sarcosine :(1b) S-adenosyl-L-methionine + sarcosine \rightleftharpoons S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine + N,N-dimethylglycine :(1c) S-adenosyl-L-methionine + N,N-dimethylglycine \rightleftharpoons S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine + betaine This enzyme from the halophilic methanoarchaeon Methanohalophilus portucalensis can methylate glycine and all of its intermediates to form the compatible solute trimethylglycine.
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These genes include: solute carrier family 2 (GLUT1), hexokinase (HK), phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), phosphofructokinase (PFKL), fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (ALDO), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK), phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM), enolase 1 (ENOA), pyruvate kinase (PK), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, isozyme 1 (PDK1) and lactate dehydrogenase A (LDH-A). In addition to alterations in oxygen concentration associated with hypoxic microenvironments, glucose concentration gradients found in tumors also influence the rate of aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis. A carbohydrate-response element (ChoRE) is responsible for regulating glycolytic enzyme gene expression in response to changing glucose concentrations through a binding interaction at the same consensus sequence as HIF-1. Interactions of HIF-1 and ChoRE with the DNA sequence 5’-RCGTG-3’ leads to increased expression of genes listed above.
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If the chromophore starts in its ground state and is close to equilibrium with the surrounding solvent molecules and then absorbs a photon that takes it to the excited state, its interaction with the solvent will be far from equilibrium in the excited state. This effect is analogous to the original Franck–Condon principle: the electronic transition is very fast compared with the motion of nuclei—the rearrangement of solvent molecules in the case of solvation. We now speak of a vertical transition, but now the horizontal coordinate is solvent-solute interaction space. This coordinate axis is often labeled as "Solvation Coordinate" and represents, somewhat abstractly, all of the relevant dimensions of motion of all of the interacting solvent molecules.
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For example, mass spectrometry (MS) has very much gained in popularity as an on-line analytical technique following HPLC. It is limited, however, in that MS, like nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) or electrospray ionization techniques (ESI), is only feasible when using very small quantities of solute and solvent; LC-MS is used with nano or capillary scale techniques, but cannot be used in prep-scale. Another tactic for increasing selectivity in multi-dimensional chromatography is to use two columns with different selectivity orthogonally; ie... linking an ion exchange column to a C18 endcapped column. In 2007, Karger reported that, through multi-dimensional chromatography and other techniques, starting with only about 12,000 cells containing 1-4μg of protein, he was able to identify 1867 unique proteins.
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A serum sodium level of less than 135 mEq/L qualifies as hyponatremia, which is considered severe when the serum sodium level is below 125 mEq/L. The renin–angiotensin system and the atrial natriuretic peptide indirectly regulate the amount of signal transduction in the human central nervous system, which depends on sodium ion motion across the nerve cell membrane, in all nerves. Sodium is thus important in neuron function and osmoregulation between cells and the extracellular fluid; the distribution of sodium ions are mediated in all animals by sodium–potassium pumps, which are active transporter solute pumps, pumping ions against the gradient, and sodium-potassium channels. Sodium channels are known to be less selective in comparison to potassium channels.
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This is often confused with "dilution factor" which is an expression which describes the ratio of the aliquot volume to the final volume. Dilution factor is a notation often used in commercial assays. For example, in a 1:5 dilution, with a 1:5 dilution factor, (verbalize as "1 to 5" dilution) entails combining 1 unit volume of solute (the material to be diluted) with (approximately) 4 unit volumes of the solvent to give 5 units of total volume. Note that some solutions and mixtures take up slightly less volume than their components. The dilution factor can be expressed using exponents: 1:5 would be 5e−1 (5−1 i.e. one-fifth:one); 1:100 would be 10e−2 (10−2 i.e.
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A widely recognized heuristic for categorizing downstream processing operations divides them into four groups which are applied in order to bring a product from its natural state as a component of a tissue, cell or fermentation broth through progressive improvements in purity and concentration. Removal of insolubles is the first step and involves the capture of the product as a solute in a particulate-free liquid, for example the separation of cells, cell debris or other particulate matter from fermentation broth containing an antibiotic. Typical operations to achieve this are filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, precipitation, flocculation, electro-precipitation, and gravity settling. Additional operations such as grinding, homogenization, or leaching, required to recover products from solid sources such as plant and animal tissues, are usually included in this group.
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In biological systems, reactions often happen on small scales, involving small amounts of substances, so those substances are routinely described in terms of milliequivalents (symbol: officially mequiv; unofficially but often mEq or meq), the prefix milli- denoting a factor of one thousandth (10−3). Very often, the measure is used in terms of milliequivalents of solute per litre of solution (or milliNormal, where ). This is especially common for measurement of compounds in biological fluids; for instance, the healthy level of potassium in the blood of a human is defined between 3.5 and 5.0 mEq/L. A certain amount of univalent ions provides the same amount of equivalents while the same amount of divalent ions provides twice the amount of equivalents.
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The osmotic pressure of a solution is the difference in pressure between the solution and the pure liquid solvent when the two are in equilibrium across a semipermeable membrane, which allows the passage of solvent molecules but not of solute particles. If the two phases are at the same initial pressure, there is a net transfer of solvent across the membrane into the solution known as osmosis. The process stops and equilibrium is attained when the pressure difference equals the osmotic pressure. Two laws governing the osmotic pressure of a dilute solution were discovered by the German botanist W. F. P. Pfeffer and the Dutch chemist J. H. van’t Hoff: # The osmotic pressure of a dilute solution at constant temperature is directly proportional to its concentration.
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Due to the totally frictionless nature of the superfluid medium, the entire object then proceeds to act very much like a nanoscopic ball bearing, allowing effectively complete rotational freedom of the solvated chemical species. A quantum solvation shell consists of a region of non-superfluid helium-4 atoms that surround the molecule(s) and exhibit adiabatic following around the centre of gravity of the solute. As such, the kinetics of an effectively gaseous molecule can be studied without the need to use an actual gas (which can be impractical or impossible). It is necessary to make a small alteration to the rotational constant of the chemical species being examined, in order to compensate for the higher mass entailed by the quantum solvation shell.
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There are several MFS proteins in humans, where they are known as solute carriers (SLCs) and Atypical SLCs. There are today 52 SLC families, of which 16 families include MFS proteins; SLC2, 15 16, 17, 18, 19, SLCO (SLC21), 22, 29, 33, 37, 40, 43, 45, 46 and 49. Atypical SLCs are MFS proteins, sharing sequence similarities and evolutionary origin with SLCs, but they are not named according to the SLC root system, which originates from the hugo gene nomenclature system (HGNC). All atypical SLCs are listed in detail in, but they are: MFSD1, MFSD2A, MFSD2B, MFSD3, MFSD4A, MFSD4B, MFSD5, MFSD6, MFSD6L, MFSD8, MFSD9,MFSD10, MFSD11, MFSD12, MFSD13A, MFSD14A,MFSD14B,UNC93A, UNC93B1, SV2A, SV2B, SV2C, SVOP, SVOPL, SPNS1, SPNS2, SPNS3 and CLN3.
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The subglacial water column is influenced by the exchange of water between lakes and streams under ice sheets through the subglacial drainage system; this behavior likely plays an important role in biogeochemical processes, leading to changes in microbial habitat, particularly regarding oxygen and nutrient concentrations. Hydrologic connectivity of subglacial lakes also alters water residence times, or amount of time that water stays within the subglacial lake reservoir. Longer residence times, such as those found beneath the interior Antarctic Ice Sheet, would lead to greater contact time between the water and solute sources, allowing for greater accumulation of solutes than in lakes with shorter residence times. Estimated residence times of currently studied subglacial lakes range from about 13,000 years in Lake Vostok to just decades in Lake Whillans.
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John Wiley & Sons, NY, NY (1985) The stress required to cause dislocation motion is orders of magnitude lower than the theoretical stress required to shift an entire plane of atoms, so this mode of stress relief is energetically favorable. Hence, the hardness and strength (both yield and tensile) critically depend on the ease with which dislocations move. Pinning points, or locations in the crystal that oppose the motion of dislocations,Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, D., "Theory of Plastic Deformation," Materials Science and Engineering A, vol 113, pp 1-42, July 1989 can be introduced into the lattice to reduce dislocation mobility, thereby increasing mechanical strength. Dislocations may be pinned due to stress field interactions with other dislocations and solute particles, creating physical barriers from second phase precipitates forming along grain boundaries.
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Liquid-liquid extractions in the laboratory usually make use of a separatory funnel, where two immiscible phases are combined to separate a solute from one phase into the other, according to the relative solubility in each of the phases. Typically, this will be to extract organic compounds out of an aqueous phase and into an organic phase, but may also include extracting water-soluble impurities from an organic phase into an aqueous phase. Common extractants may be arranged in increasing order of polarity according to the Hildebrand solubility parameter: ethyl acetate < acetone < ethanol < methanol < acetone:water (7:3) < ethanol:water (8:2) < methanol:water (8:2) < water Solid-liquid extractions at laboratory scales can use Soxhlet extractors. A solid sample containing the desired compound along with impurities is placed in the thimble.
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Duration of exposure and field strength, gradient, rate of change, and orientation along or perpendicular to flow are variously cited as important to the results. Magnetic water treatment proponent Klaus Kronenberg proposed that the shapes of solute lime molecules are modified by strong magnetic fields, leading them to precipitate as spherical or round crystals rather than deposit as sheets or platelets of hard crystals. Simon Parsons of the School of Water Sciences at Cranfield University proposed that the magnetic field reduces the surface charge on small particles, increasing the tendency to coagulate as large particles that stay with the flow rather than depositing as scale. However, an internal study in 1996 at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory found no difference in preferred crystal structure of scale deposited in magnetic water treatment systems.
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For optically dense samples, this may allow for measurements with UV. Also, as no light path has to be established single shaft probes are used for process monitoring and are applicable in both the near and mid infrared spectrum. Recently, ATR-IR has been applied to microfluidic flows of aqueous solutions by engineering microreactors with built-in apertures for the ATR crystal, allowing the flow within microchannels to pass across the crystal surface for characterisation,Jesse Greener, Bardia Abbasi, Eugenia Kumacheva, Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform spectroscopy for on-chip monitoring of solute concentrations, Lab Chip, 10 (2010) 1561-1566. or in dedicated flow cells. The ability to passively characterise samples, with no sample preparation has also led to the use of ATR-FTIR in studying trace evidence in forensic science.
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Researchers have yet to fully characterize the solvation of hydronium ion in water, in part because many different meanings of solvation exist. A freezing-point depression study determined that the mean hydration ion in cold water is approximately : on average, each hydronium ion is solvated by 6 water molecules which are unable to solvate other solute molecules. Some hydration structures are quite large: the magic ion number structure (called magic because of its increased stability with respect to hydration structures involving a comparable number of water molecules – this is a similar usage of the word magic as in nuclear physics) might place the hydronium inside a dodecahedral cage. However, more recent ab initio method molecular dynamics simulations have shown that, on average, the hydrated proton resides on the surface of the cluster.
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Beer's law, also called Lambert–Beer law or Beer–Lambert law, in spectroscopy, is the physical law stating that the quantity of light absorbed by a substance dissolved in a nonabsorbing solvent is directly proportional to the concentration of the substance and the path length of the light through the solution. Beer's law is commonly written in the form A = ε cl, where A is the absorbance, c is the concentration in moles per liter, l is the path length in centimeters, and ε is a constant of proportionality known as the molar extinction coefficient. The law is accurate only for dilute solutions; deviations from the law occur in concentrated solutions because of interactions between molecules of the solute, the substance dissolved in the solvent.The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed.
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The coupling between ATP hydrolysis and transport is more or less a strict chemical reaction, in which a fixed number of solute molecules are transported for each ATP molecule that is hydrolyzed; for example, 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions inward per ATP hydrolyzed, for the Na+/K+ exchanger. Transmembrane ATPases harness the chemical potential energy of ATP, because they perform mechanical work: they transport solutes in a direction opposite to their thermodynamically preferred direction of movement—that is, from the side of the membrane where they are in low concentration to the side where they are in high concentration. This process is considered active transport. For example, the blocking of the vesicular H+-ATPases would increase the pH inside vesicles and decrease the pH of the cytoplasm.
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The single advantage which it brings to a chromatographic purification is that it allows the production of large quantities of highly purified material at a dramatically reduced cost. The cost reductions come about as a result of: the use of a smaller amount of chromatographic separation media stationary phase, a continuous and high rate of production, and decreased solvent and energy requirements. This improved economic performance is brought about by a valve-and-column arrangement that is used to lengthen the stationary phase indefinitely and allow very high solute loadings to the process. In the conventional moving bed technique of production chromatography the feed entry and the analyte recovery are simultaneous and continuous, but because of practical difficulties with a continuously moving bed, the simulated moving bed technique was proposed.
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Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) is characterized by excessive unsuppressible release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) either from the posterior pituitary gland, or an abnormal non-pituitary source. Unsuppressed ADH causes an unrelenting increase in solute-free water being returned by the tubules of the kidney to the venous circulation. The causes of SIADH are grouped into six categories: 1) central nervous system diseases that directly stimulate the hypothalamus, the site of control of ADH secretion; 2) various cancers that synthesize and secrete ectopic ADH; 3) various lung diseases; 4) numerous drugs that chemically stimulate the hypothalamus; 5) inherited mutations; and 6) miscellaneous largely transient conditions. ADH is derived from a preprohormone precursor that is synthesized in cells in the hypothalamus and stored in vesicles in the posterior pituitary.
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ReActive Transport (RAT) has been developed to solve reactive transport problems in subsurface porous media that involves highly nonlinearly coupled physical processes of fluid flow, solute transport, biogeochemical reactions and media-solution interactions. These problems are common in various subsurface-engineered systems, such as engineered environmental remediation, enhanced geothermal systems and carbon dioxide geological sequestration. Currently, the physics that could be coupled in RAT include: single-phase fluid flow in porous media, advection, dispersion and diffusion transport, aqueous kinetic reaction, aqueous equilibrium reaction, kinetic mineral precipitation/dissolution reaction, and Carmen-Kozeny porosity-permeability relationship. This software is not to be confused with the Reactor Analysis Tool (RAT) which is a toolkit based on ROOT and GEANT4 for microphysical simulations of scintillation detectors used in neutrino and dark matter experiments including Braidwood, SNO+, and DEAP-3600.
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The steel is first annealed at approximately for 15–30 minutes for thin sections and for 1 hour per 25 mm thickness for heavy sections, to ensure formation of a fully austenitized structure. This is followed by air cooling or quenching to room temperature to form a soft, heavily dislocated iron-nickel lath (untwinned) martensite. Subsequent aging (precipitation hardening) of the more common alloys for approximately 3 hours at a temperature of 480 to 500 °C produces a fine dispersion of Ni3(X,Y) intermetallic phases along dislocations left by martensitic transformation, where X and Y are solute elements added for such precipitation. Overaging leads to a reduction in stability of the primary, metastable, coherent precipitates, leading to their dissolution and replacement with semi-coherent Laves phases such as Fe2Ni/Fe2Mo.
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Mathematically, the URR is closely related to Kt/V, and the two quantities can be derived from another with more or less precision, depending on the amount of additional information available about a given dialysis session. Kt/V is one of the reference methods by which the amount of dialysis given is measured. Kt/V, like the URR, focuses on urea as the target solute, and is based on the assumption that removal of urea is from a single space – urea distribution volume, or V \, similar in capacity to the total body water. The urea distribution volume V \,, although traditionally thought of as 60% of body weight, may actually be closer to 50% of the body weight in women and 55% in men with stage V (GFR < 15 ml/min) chronic kidney disease.
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Whereas electrostatic embedding accounts for the polarisation of the QM system by the MM system, neglecting the polarization of the MM system by the QM system, polarized embedding accounts for both the polarization of the MM system by the QM. These models allow for flexible MM charges and fall into two categories. In the first category, the MM region is polarized by the QM electric field but then does not act back on the QM system. In the second category are fully self-consistent formulations which allow for mutual polarization between the QM and the MM systems. polarized embedding schemes have scarcely been applied to bio-molecular simulations and have essentially been restricted to explicit solvation models where the solute will be treated as a QM system and the solvent a polarizable force field.
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Because of the high solute concentration of the rumen fluid under such conditions, considerable water is translocated from the blood to the rumen along the osmotic potential gradient, resulting in dehydration which cannot be relieved by drinking, and which can ultimately lead to hypovolemic shock. As more lactate accumulates and rumen pH drops, the ruminal concentration of undissociated lactic acid increases. Undissociated lactic acid can cross the rumen wall to the blood, where it dissociates, lowering blood pH. Both L and D isomers of lactic acid are produced in the rumen; these isomers are metabolized by different metabolic pathways, and activity of the principal enzyme involved in metabolism of the D isomer declines greatly with lower pH, tending to result in an increased ratio of D:L isomers as acidosis progresses.
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Singh's early researches during his doctoral studies were funded by Harley-Davidson and were focused on single-track vehicles. Later, on Volkswagen and University of Stuttgart sponsorship, he worked on vehicle dynamics and tyre-pavement interaction and these studies assisted in improving the design of scooters as well as in the indigenization of their manufacturing. His work on welding technology covered weld pool solidification, effects of welding parameters on molten metal transfer, spatter, heat affected zones, changes in crystallographic structures, and solute redistribution and he proposed protocols for the analytical prediction and measurement of residual stresses in and around spot welds. Later in his career, he shifted his focus to tribological studies and contributed to widening the understanding of fluid film lubrication as well as hydrostatic and hydrodynamic lubrication.
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After dehydration, solute-rich fluids are released from the slab and metasomatise the overlying mantle wedge of MORB-like asthenosphere, enriching it with volatiles and large ion lithophile elements (LILE). The current belief is that the generation of andesitic magmas is multistage, and involves crustal melting and assimilation of primary basaltic magmas, magma storage at the base of the crust (underplating by dense, mafic magma as it ascends), and magma homogenization. The underplated magma will add a lot of heat to the base of the crust, thereby inducing crustal melting and assimilation of lower-crustal rocks, creating an area with intense interaction of the mantle magma and crustal magma. This progressively evolving magma will become enriched in volatiles, sulfur, and incompatible elements – an ideal combination for the generation of a magma capable of generating an ore deposit.
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Advantages of ion beam mixing as a means of synthesis over traditional modes of implantation include the process' ability to produce materials with high solute concentrations using lower amounts of irradiation, and better control of band gap variation and diffusion between layers. The cost of IM is also less prohibitive than that of other modes of film preparation on substrates, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Disadvantages include the inability to completely direct and control lattice displacements initiated in the process, which can result in an undesirable degree of disorder in ion mixed samples, rendering them unsuitable for applications in which precise lattice orderings are paramount. Ion beams cannot be perfectly directed, nor the collision cascade controlled, once IM effects propagate, which can result in leaking, electron diffraction, radiation enhanced diffusion (RED), chemical migration and mismatch.
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The concentrations of solutes normally found in the urine (for example potassium, phosphorus and urea) are undesirably high in the blood, but low or absent in the dialysis solution, and constant replacement of the dialysate ensures that the concentration of undesired solutes is kept low on this side of the membrane. The dialysis solution has levels of minerals like potassium and calcium that are similar to their natural concentration in healthy blood. For another solute, bicarbonate, dialysis solution level is set at a slightly higher level than in normal blood, to encourage diffusion of bicarbonate into the blood, to act as a pH buffer to neutralize the metabolic acidosis that is often present in these patients. The levels of the components of dialysate are typically prescribed by a nephrologist according to the needs of the individual patient.
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It is (in principle) easy to measure whether or not two regions (for example, two glasses of water) have the same electrochemical potential for a certain chemical species (for example, a solute molecule): Allow the species to freely move back and forth between the two regions (for example, connect them with a semi-permeable membrane that lets only that species through). If the chemical potential is the same in the two regions, the species will occasionally move back and forth between the two regions, but on average there is just as much movement in one direction as the other, and there is zero net migration (this is called "diffusive equilibrium"). If the chemical potentials of the two regions are different, more molecules will move to the lower chemical potential than the other direction. Moreover, when there is not diffusive equilibrium, i.e.
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Normally there are homeostatic processes in the body which maintain the concentration of body solutes within a narrow range, both inside and outside cells. The process occurs as follows: in some hypothalamic cells there are osmoreceptors which respond to hyperosmolality in body fluids by signalling the posterior pituitary gland to secrete ADH. This keeps serum sodium concentration - a proxy for solute concentration - at normal levels, prevents hypernatremia and turns off the osmoreceptors. Specifically, when the serum sodium rises above 142 mEq/L, ADH secretion is maximal (and thirst is stimulated as well); when it is below 135 mEq/L, there is no secretion. ADH activates V2 receptors on the basolateral membrane of principal cells in the renal collecting duct, initiating a cyclic AMP-dependent process that culminates in increased production of water channels (aquaporin 2), and their insertion into the cells’ luminal membranes.
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In the field of biophysics, a typical microviscosity problem is understanding how a biomolecule's mobility is hindered within a cellular compartment which will depend upon many factors such as the size, shape, charge, quantity and density of both the diffusing particle and all members of its environment. Microviscosity can be probed by measuring the rotational correlation time of a probe molecule using either fluorescence correlation spectroscopy or the linewidths of the probe's electron spin resonance. The friction experienced by a single particle can be thought of as a microscopic viscosity (microviscosity) and should not necessarily agree with the bulk viscosity since it is a measure of the probe's local friction whereas bulk viscosity analogously would be the measure of an infinitely large probe. Both the crowding density and relative size of each co-solute in a mixture will contribute to the measured microviscosity as assessed by altered translational mobility.
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Diffusion is a fundamental physical phenomenon, which Albert Einstein characterized as Brownian motion, that describes the random thermal movement of molecules and small particles in gases and liquids. It is an important phenomenon for small distances (it is essential for the achievement of thermodynamic equilibria), but, as the time necessary to cover a distance by diffusion is proportional to the square of the distance itself, it is ineffective for spreading a solute over macroscopic distances. The diffusion coefficient, D, is typically quite small, and its effect can often be considered negligible (unless groundwater flow velocities are extremely low, as they are in clay aquitards). It is important not to confuse diffusion with dispersion, as the former is a physical phenomenon and the latter is an empirical factor which is cast into a similar form as diffusion, because we already know how to solve that problem.
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The temperature dependence of the soil hydraulic properties was included by considering the effects of temperature on surface tension, dynamic viscosity and the density of water. The heat transport equation in CHAIN_2D considered transport due to conduction and advection with flowing water. The solute transport equations considered advective-dispersive transport in the liquid phase, as well as diffusion in the gaseous phase. The transport equations also included provisions for nonlinear nonequilibrium reactions between the solid and liquid phases, linear equilibrium reactions between the liquid and gaseous phase, zero-order production and two first- order degradation reactions: one which was independent of other solutes, and one which provided the coupling between solutes involved in the sequential first-order decay reactions. The SWMS_2D and CHAIN_2D models formed the bases of versions 1.0 (for 16-bit Windows 3.1) and 2.0 (for 32-bit Windows 95) of HYDRUS-2D (Šimůnek et al.
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The phospholipids that comprise the outer membrane give it the same semi-permeable characteristics as the cytoplasmic membrane The porin channel is partially blocked by a loop, called the eyelet, which projects into the cavity. In general, it is found between strands 5 and 6 of each barrel, and it defines the size of solute that can traverse the channel. It is lined almost exclusively with charged amino acyl residues arranged on opposite sides of the channel, creating a transversal electric field across the pore. The eyelet has a local surplus of negative charges from four glutamic acid and seven aspartic acid residues (in contrast to one histidine, two lysine and three arginine residues) is partially compensated for by two bound calcium atoms, and this asymmetric arrangement of molecules is thought to have an influence in the selection of molecules that can pass through the channel[3].
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The rapidly soluble components are thought to be from the inside of the leaves, where broken cell structures slow both the rate of solvent entering as well as solute leaving. The slowest soluble compounds are expected to have either high molecular mass, which would take longer to move through the cell matrices of the leaves, or products formed during hydrolysis over the course of the extraction. There are a variety of methods and machinery that can be used to perform extraction, but the general concept is that the leaves are treated with a solvent in order to extract the compounds within them. In the aforementioned study, it was stated that the maximum yield of solids that could be extracted was 35%. Over time, other chemical methods of increasing extraction yields have been discovered, such as using hydrogen peroxide on extracted leaves to obtain a yield of 42% solids.
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The cooling rates during solidification of the billet is several orders of magnitude slower than the cooling rate in the spray, at 1-20 Ks−1. Although one of the benefits of spray forming is purportedly the ability to produce bulk material with fine scale microsegregation and little or no macrosegregation work on Al- Mg-Li-Cu alloys showed that as a consequence of the interconnected liquid in the billet there was significant macrosegregation in large spray formed wrought Al billets. The distribution of Cu, Mg and Li in, for example, Al alloy 8091 showed surprisingly pronounced macrosegregation with the variation of Cu(wt%) in a spray formed 8091 billet, ranging from approximately 1.4 at the billet centre to 1.92 at the billet periphery. These macrosegregation patterns were explained in terms of inverse segregation in which solute rich liquid from the billet centre is sucked back through the primary Al-rich network to feed solidification shrinkage at the billet periphery.
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No matter which form of soluble boron is added, within the acceptable range of pH and boron concentration for swimming pools, boric acid is the predominant form in aqueous solution, as shown in the accompanying figure. The boric acid - borate system can be useful as a primary buffer system (substituting for the bicarbonate system with pK = 6.0 and pK = 9.4 under typical salt-water pool conditions) in pools with salt-water chlorine generators that tend to show upward drift in pH from a working range of pH 7.5 - 8.2. Buffer capacity is greater against rising pH (towards the pKa around 9.0), as illustrated in the accompanying graph. The use of boric acid in this concentration range does not allow any reduction in free HOCl concentration needed for pool sanitation, but it may add marginally to the photo-protective effects of cyanuric acid and confer other benefits through anti-corrosive activity or perceived water softness, depending on overall pool solute composition.
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Implicit solvation (sometimes termed continuum solvation) is a method to represent solvent as a continuous medium instead of individual “explicit” solvent molecules, most often used in molecular dynamics simulations and in other applications of molecular mechanics. The method is often applied to estimate free energy of solute-solvent interactions in structural and chemical processes, such as folding or conformational transitions of proteins, DNA, RNA, and polysaccharides, association of biological macromolecules with ligands, or transport of drugs across biological membranes. The implicit solvation model is justified in liquids, where the potential of mean force can be applied to approximate the averaged behavior of many highly dynamic solvent molecules. However, the interfaces and the interiors of biological membranes or proteins can also be considered as media with specific solvation or dielectric properties. These media are not necessarily uniform, since their properties can be described by different analytical functions, such as “polarity profiles” of lipid bilayers.
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As an example of the current research, in 2000 was noticed that patients with pattern II lesions were dramatically responsive to plasmapheresis,while others were irresponsive and in February 2016, it was granted the first patent to test the lesion pattern of a patient without biopsy.United States patent US9267945 Other examples could be the proposal for protein SLC9A9 (gen Solute carrier family 9) as biomarker for the response to interferon beta, as it happens for serum cytokine profiles The same was proposed to MxA protein mRNA. The presence of anti-MOG, even with CDMS diagnosis, can be considered as a biomarker against MS disease modifying therapies like fingolimod Diagnosis of MS has always been made by clinical examination, supported by MRI or CSF tests. According with both the pure autoimmune hypothesis and the immune-mediated hypothesis, researchers expect to find biomarkers able to yield a better diagnosis, and able to predict the response to the different available treatments.
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For more than a century the prevailing hypothesis was that the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which surrounds, but does not come in direct contact with the parenchyma of the CNS, could replace peripheral lymphatic functions and play an important role in the clearance of extracellular solutes. The majority of the CSF is formed in the choroid plexus and flows through the brain along a distinct pathway: moving through the cerebral ventricular system, into the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain, then draining into the systemic blood column via arachnoid granulations of the dural sinuses or to peripheral lymphatics along cranial nerve sheathes. Many researchers have suggested that the CSF compartment constitutes a sink for interstitial solute and fluid clearance from the brain parenchyma. However, the distances between the interstitial fluid and the CSF in the ventricles and subarachnoid space are too great for the efficient removal of interstitial macromolecules and wastes by simple diffusion alone.
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We take account of this dissymmetry in molecular sizes by assuming that individual polymer segments and individual solvent molecules occupy sites on a lattice. Each site is occupied by exactly one molecule of the solvent or by one monomer of the polymer chain, so the total number of sites is :N = N_1 + xN_2\, N_1 is the number of solvent molecules and N_2 is the number of polymer molecules, each of which has x segments. For a random walk on a lattice we can calculate the entropy change (the increase in spatial uncertainty) as a result of mixing solute and solvent. :\Delta S_m = -k[\,N_1\ln(N_1/N) + N_2\ln(xN_2/N)\,]\, where k is Boltzmann's constant. Define the lattice volume fractions \phi_1 and \phi_2 :\phi_1 = N_1/N\, :\phi_2 = xN_2/N\, These are also the probabilities that a given lattice site, chosen at random, is occupied by a solvent molecule or a polymer segment, respectively.
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If a solute molecule is more dense or less dense than the surrounding liquid, then in this accelerating environment, the molecule will move relative to the surrounding liquid. This relative motion is essentially the same phenomenon that occurs in a centrifuge, or more simply, it is essentially the same phenomenon that occurs when low-density objects float to the top of a glass of water, and high-density particles sink to the bottom (see the equivalence principle, which states that gravity is just like any other acceleration). The amount of relative motion depends on the balance between the molecule's effective mass (which includes both the mass of the molecule itself and any solvent molecules that are so tightly bound to the molecule that they follow along with the molecule's motion), its effective volume (related to buoyant force), and the viscous drag (friction) between the molecule and the surrounding fluid. IVI concerns the case where the particles in question are anions and cations.
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This adaptation is restricted to the moderately halophilic bacterial order Halanaerobiales, the extremely halophilic archaeal family Halobacteriaceae, and the extremely halophilic bacterium Salinibacter ruber. The presence of this adaptation in three distinct evolutionary lineages suggests convergent evolution of this strategy, it being unlikely to be an ancient characteristic retained in only scattered groups or passed on through massive lateral gene transfer. The primary reason for this is the entire intracellular machinery (enzymes, structural proteins, etc.) must be adapted to high salt levels, whereas in the compatible solute adaptation, little or no adjustment is required to intracellular macromolecules; in fact, the compatible solutes often act as more general stress protectants, as well as just osmoprotectants. Of particular note are the extreme halophiles or haloarchaea (often known as halobacteria), a group of archaea, which require at least a 2 M salt concentration and are usually found in saturated solutions (about 36% w/v salts).
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A Dictyostelium discoideum (slime mold) cell exhibiting a prominent contractile vacuole on its left side The way in which water enters the CV had been a mystery for many years, but several discoveries since the 1990s have improved understanding of this issue. Water could theoretically cross the CV membrane by osmosis, but only if the inside of the CV is hyperosmotic (higher solute concentration) to the cytoplasm. The discovery of proton pumps in the CV membrane and the direct measurement of ion concentrations inside the CV using microelectrodes led to the following model: the pumping of protons either into or out of the CV causes different ions to enter the CV. For example, some proton pumps work as cation exchangers, whereby a proton is pumped out of the CV and a cation is pumped at the same time into the CV. In other cases, protons pumped into the CV drag anions with them (carbonate, for example), to balance the pH. This ion flux into the CV causes an increase in CV osmolarity and as a result water enters the CV by osmosis.
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Poolman has made seminal contributions to the understanding of the dynamics and permeability of biological membranes and to the field of vectorial biochemistry, that is, the role of electrochemical gradients in the fuelling and regulation of membrane transport. He demonstrated that the exchange of different sugars can be more advantageous for a cell than sugar-proton symport, and showed that cells exploit the coupling of substrate import to product exchange to conserve metabolic energy. He is an expert in the field of ATP-binding cassette transporters, one of the largest known protein families, by combining functional and structural studies. Highlights include: discovery of export of hydrophobic compounds from the inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer; elucidation of sensing and gating mechanism of ABC importers involved in cell volume regulation; single-molecule fluorescence studies to elucidate the mechanism of solute capture and translocation; structural basis for peptide selection by receptors involved in nitrogen uptake; structural basis for vitamin recognition and transport by a new class of ABC importers; and the energy coupling stoichiometry of ABC importers.
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These were rolled-up ribbons of semi-permeable tubing which could be eaten at breakfast and examined on retrieval distended with faecal fluid allowing comparison of gastrointestinal solute transport in normal subjects and those with kidney failure. Wrong manufactured 5,000 of these "bags" in his laboratory, and while colleagues and family members were recruited as experimental subjects, he swallowed most of them himself. Stool Dialysis In a major medical insight, Wrong realised that a number of the patients he was seeing in one of his clinics at UCH had an apparently hereditary clinical syndrome very similar to that reported some 20 years earlier by Dent (his predecessor as Professor of Medicine at UCH) and Friedman in 1964. Dent and Friedman originally reported two unrelated patients with the condition they termed ‘Hypercalcuric Rickets’ without identifying any hereditary component. Wrong, based on his own additional clinical work, discovered that this was a new hereditary disease and with his co-workers Norden and Feest reported it as a form of the renal ‘Fanconi Syndrome’.
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The primary defect associated with iminoglycinuria is a homozygous (recessive) mutation of the SLC36A2 (PAT2) gene. One of several membrane transport proteins in the solute carrier family of amino acid transporters, PAT2 is the high-affinity renal transporter of glycine, proline and hydroxyproline found to be defective in both alleles when iminoglycinuria is present in an individual. This is in contrast to the fact that when only one PAT2 allele is defective, hyperglycinuria will be present instead of iminoglycinuria. These findings delineate iminoglycinuria as the homozygous form of hyperglycinuria, with the former having a higher degree of urinary excretion of glycine and imino acids correlating to mutations in both alleles. Another mutation suspected to convey the iminoglycinuria phenotype may be found in the SLC36A1 (PAT1) gene. Identified as the low-affinity intestinal transporter of glycine and imino acids, PAT1 works in cooperation with the renal sodium-hydrogen exchanger NHE3 (SLC9A3). As absorption and reabsorption of glycine, proline and hydroxyproline occurs through PAT1 as well, it is believed to play another role in expressing the malabsorptive iminoglycinuria phenotype. Recent reports, however, suggest a more diminished role from PAT1 in some cases of the disorder.
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The superscript Plimsoll on this symbol indicates that the process has occurred under standard conditions at the specified temperature (usually 25 °C or 298.15 K). Standard states are as follows: # For a gas: the hypothetical state it would have assuming it obeyed the ideal gas equation at a pressure of 1 bar # For a solute present in an ideal solution: a concentration of exactly one mole per liter (1 M) at a pressure of 1 bar # For a pure substance or a solvent in a condensed state (a liquid or a solid): the standard state is the pure liquid or solid under a pressure of 1 bar # For an element: the form in which the element is most stable under 1 bar of pressure. One exception is phosphorus, for which the most stable form at 1 bar is black phosphorus, but white phosphorus is chosen as the standard reference state for zero enthalpy of formation. For example, the standard enthalpy of formation of carbon dioxide would be the enthalpy of the following reaction under the above conditions: :C(s, graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) All elements are written in their standard states, and one mole of product is formed. This is true for all enthalpies of formation.
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