There's a presupposition that tattoos are requisite for bikers and chefs.
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Both rely upon the presupposition of guilt, one by race, the other by religion.
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Technological contracts that embody an incentive model at the individual's expense further erode this presupposition.
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That's something I had as a presupposition going in, but it became very literal in interviewing all these people.
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It is a presupposition of that debate that Germany's "reckoning with its past" had been going on for some time before that.
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"We are presupposing it is going to cause a deficit and I am not sure that is a correct presupposition," added Sen.
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What makes this experience possible is a presupposition: When you see a green light, vehicles on the cross street see a red light.
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He put the St Patrick's Day problem to 50 experimental subjects—80% said that if the presupposition was false, the offer was no longer operative.
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Their effect is to establish a presupposition that people in your set share a contempt for those groups at whom such abuse is typically directed.
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A friend of mine always says that "astrology is fake until it's real" — that is, until it confirms a presupposition or dovetails with a future outcome.
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"Articulating others' suffering is the presupposition of all claims to truth," Professor Metz said when he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Vienna in 1994.
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The Avalanches have never been a 'press' band, preferring mystery and the presupposition of others to do the talking for them but Chater is in good spirits and eager to chat.
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Taking that as a potential trade-off, I don't agree with the presupposition in that analysis, that the point of any charitable giving incentive is always and everywhere to be harnessed to the production of objectively good human welfare improvements.
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There is a philosophically problematic presupposition that also figures in widespread surprise at the very idea of violence perpetrated by Buddhists — that there is a straightforward relationship between the beliefs people hold and the likelihood that they will behave in corresponding ways.
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And as LGBTQ Americans continue to be accepted within their communities, running as an LGBTQ candidate no longer means campaigning with the presupposition that voters will be unable to look past one's sexuality to see who they are as a citizen and community member.
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Presupposition triggers that disallow accommodation are called anaphoric presupposition triggers.
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A presupposition trigger is a lexical item or linguistic construction which is responsible for the presupposition, and thus "triggers" it.Kadmon, Nirit. Formal pragmatics: semantics, pragmatics, presupposition, and focus. Great Britain: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001, page 10.
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A presupposition of a part of an utterance is sometimes also a presupposition of the whole utterance, and sometimes not. For instance, the phrase my wife triggers the presupposition that I have a wife. The first sentence below carries that presupposition, even though the phrase occurs inside an embedded clause. In the second sentence, however, it does not.
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This process of an addressee assuming that a presupposition is true, even in the absence of explicit information that it is, is usually called presupposition accommodation. We have just seen that presupposition triggers like my wife (definite descriptions) allow for such accommodation. In "Presupposition and Anaphora: Remarks on the Formulation of the Projection Problem",Kripke, Saul (2009) "Presupposition and Anaphora: Remarks on the Formulation of the Projection Problem," Linguistic Inquiry, Vol. 40, No. 3, Pages 367-386.
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It is a presupposition because communication would not proceed if those involved did not think it was at least approximately satisfied (in this case that a shared language was being used). It is idealized because no matter how closely it is approximated it is always counterfactual (because, in this case, the fact is that all meanings are to some degree personally defined). # Another, basic idealized presupposition of argumentation is the presupposition that no relevant argument is suppressed or excluded by the participants. # Another is the presupposition that no persuasive force except that of the better argument is exerted.
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The antecedent is the part preceded by the word "if," and the consequent is the part that is (or could be) preceded by "then." If the consequent contains a presupposition trigger, and the triggered presupposition is explicitly stated in the antecedent of the conditional, then the presupposition is blocked. Otherwise, it is allowed to project up to the entire conditional. Here is an example: :If I have a wife, then my wife is blonde.
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A complex question, trick question, multiple question or (Latin, 'of many questions') is a question that has a presupposition that is complex. The presupposition is a proposition that is presumed to be acceptable to the respondent when the question is asked. The respondent becomes committed to this proposition when he gives any direct answer. The presupposition is called "complex" because it is a conjunctive proposition, a disjunctive proposition, or a conditional proposition.
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He rejected the "theoretical isolationism" of Sovietology and its widely held presupposition that Soviet politics was "a unique subject matter".
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To describe a presupposition in the context of propositional calculus and truth-bearers, Belnap defines "A sentence is a presupposition of a question if the truth of the sentence is a necessary condition of the question's having some true answer." Then referring to the semantic theory of truth, interpretations are used to formulate a presupposition: "Every interpretation which makes the question truly answerable is an interpretation which makes the presupposed sentence true as well." A sentence that expresses a presupposition in a question may be characterized as follows: the question has some true answer if and only if the sentence is true.Nuel D. Belnap, Jr. (1966) "Questions, Answers, and Presuppositions", The Journal of Philosophy 63(20): 609–11, American Philosophical Association Eastern Division Sixty-Third Annual Meeting.
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In this way the connexive concept of implication accounts for a necessary presupposition of all conditional and a fortiori logical orientation.
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Entailments do not allow these reinterpretations. Entailment also differs from presupposition in that in presupposition, the truth of what one is presupposing is taken for granted. The classic and often mentioned example of this is, "the king of France is not ill". This sentence presupposes that there is a king of France, which there is currently not.
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However, intertextuality is not always intentional and can be utilised inadvertently. There are two types of Intertextuality: iterability and presupposition. Iterability makes reference to the "repeatability" of certain text that is composed of "traces", pieces of other texts that help constitute its meaning. Presupposition makes a reference to assumptions a text makes about its readers and its context.
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He is trapped in a dichotomist play arising from the inherent presupposition that a difference exists between the free and not free.
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Fairclough, Norman (1992). Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press, 117. The former signifies intertextual elements such as presupposition, negation, parody, irony, etc.
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Habermas understands presupposition (5) to be responsible for generating the self-understanding and continuation of theoretical and practical discourses. Presupposition (5) points out that the validity of an understanding reached in theoretical or practical discourse, concerning some factual knowledge or normative principle, is always expanded beyond the immediate context in which it is achieved. The idea is that participants in discourses such as these presuppose that any understanding reached could attain universal agreement concerning its universal validity if these discourses could be relieved of the constraints of time and space. This idealized presupposition directs discourses concerning truth and normative certainty beyond the contingencies of specific communicative situations and towards the idealized achievements of universal consensus and universal validity.
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The construction hypothesis says that if a true piece of information being provided can alter a respondent's answer, then so can a false piece of information. Construction hypothesis has major implications for explanations on the malleability of memory. Upon asking a respondent a question that provides a presupposition, the respondent will provide a recall in accordance with the presupposition (if accepted to exist in the first place). The respondent will recall the object or detail.
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Two schools of presuppositionalism exist, based on the different teachings of Cornelius Van Til and Gordon Haddon Clark. Presuppositionalism contrasts with classical apologetics and evidential apologetics. Presuppositionalists compare their presupposition against other ultimate standards such as reason, empirical experience, and subjective feeling, claiming presupposition in this context is: Critics of presuppositional apologetics claim that it is logically invalid because it begs the question of the truth of Christianity and the non- truth of other worldviews.
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He also argues that it is necessary to presuppose that the epistemic agent possesses empirical knowledge of particular truths in order to make assumptions about the epistemic state of cognitive states that are independent of inference. However, Sellars reasons, because presupposition is inferential, empirical knowledge, regardless of being non-inferentially acquired, is nevertheless epistemically dependent if based on the presupposition that the epistemic agent possesses other pertinent empirical knowledge. Therefore, he concludes that cognitions that are organized propositionally do not qualify as “the given”.
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He describes as "astounding" their presupposition that God "used processes which are not now operating anywhere in the natural universe." They state they cannot discover by scientific investigation anything about the creative processes used by the Creator.
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Thus, when during communication it is discovered that the belief that these presuppositions are satisfied is not justified it is always taken as problematic. As a result, steps are usually taken to reestablish and maintain the belief that they are approximately satisfied, or communication is simply called off. # The most basic of these idealized presuppositions is the presupposition that participants in communicative exchange are using the same linguistic expressions in the same way. This is an obvious but interesting point, which clearly illustrates what an idealized presupposition is.
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Tonhauser's topics of interest include Presupposition projection, Prosody and Meaning, Temporal Anaphora and Reference, and empirical methods in Semantics and Pragmatics. She is also an Associate Editor of Semantics and Pragmatics, a journal of the Linguistic Society of America.
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Crossover, sometimes referred to as cross-pollination, is a philosophical presupposition of Liberal arts, Great books, and Integrative learning approaches to education. The value of such crossover is disputed by those who adhere to certain versions of Pragmatism, especially John Dewey.
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Moreover, Adams takes issue with the presupposition behind conjectural retroversions to conform to a supposed Hebrew text; that the author of Baruch understood the principle of literal translation, and aspired to follow that principle; and yet lamentably failed to do so.
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Some argue that this claim is neither true nor false because it presupposes that there is currently a king of France, but there is not. The claim suffers from "presupposition failure". Richard argues for this form of moral nihilism under the name "fictionalism".
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6, paragraph 35-65, see 37; and in Philosophical Writings of Peirce pp. 324-38, and The Essential Peirce v. 1, pp 298-311. One of the principal arguments of the necessitarians is that their position involves a presupposition of all science.
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Our inferences depend on this presupposition,... This presupposition thus gives us a built-in advantage in understanding what the world is like, and thereby makes inductive understanding of the world a real possibility. : When a population [kind] is uniform with respect to some [generic] property, [inductive] inferences from small samples, and indeed, from a single case, are perfectly reliable. If I note that a [generic] sample of [universal] copper conducts electricity and straightaway conclude that all copper conducts electricity, then I will do just as well as someone ... checking a very large number of copper samples for their conductivity. Kornblith didn't explain how tedious modern induction accurately generalizes from a few generic traits to all of some universal kind.
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In epistemology, a presupposition relates to a belief system, or Weltanschauung, that is required for the argument to make sense. A variety of Christian apologetics, called presuppositional apologetics, argues that the existence or non-existence of God is the basic presupposition of all human thought, and that all people arrive at a worldview which is ultimately determined by the theology they presuppose. Evidence and arguments are only developed after the fact in an attempt to justify the theological assumptions already made. According to this view, it is impossible to demonstrate the existence of God unless one presupposes that God exists, with the stance that modern science relies on methodological naturalism, and thus is incapable of discovering the supernatural.
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The concept of reverse onus is a shift in burden of proof with the presupposition that the applicant (usually prosecution) will be granted their application by the courts. The onus is on the respondent to make a reasonable application of the rule of law with which the application is incompatible.
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According to Kant, in problematic idealism the existence of objects is doubtful or impossible to prove while in dogmatic idealism, the existence of space and therefore of spatial objects is impossible. In contradistinction, Kant holds that external objects may be directly perceived and that such experience is a necessary presupposition of self-consciousness.
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A teleology of human aims played a crucial role in the work of economist Ludwig von Mises, especially in the development of his science of praxeology. More specifically, Mises believed that human action (i.e. purposeful behavior) is teleological, based on the presupposition that an individual's action is governed or caused by the existence of their chosen ends.von Mises, Ludwig.
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REs carry a presupposition of the existence of the referent(s), in some universe of discourse, including fictional universes. There are many other technical issues surrounding the nature of reference. Some of these are discussed from the perspective of linguistics in Lyons (1977, vol. I: chapter 7); Cann (1993: chapters 9 and 10); Saeed (1997: chapters 2, 7, 11).
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Some of them are unperformable, but each deliberately examines a certain presupposition about the nature of music and art and carries ideas to an extreme. One instructs: "draw a straight line and follow it" (a directive which he has said has guided his life and work since).Young 1963, "Composition 1960 #10 to Bob Morris," 117.
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On the other hand, Phyllis Bird thinks that the story presupposes the stereotypical biblical image of the prostitute as a selfish liar. The true mother is revealed when her motherly essence – which is also stereotypical – surpasses her selfish essence.Phyllis Ann Bird, "The Harlot as Heroine: Narrative Art and Social Presupposition in Three Old Testament Texts", Semeia 46 (1989), pp.
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David Ian Beaver is a professor of linguistics and philosophy at the University of Texas at Austin, where he also directs the cognitive science program and serves as Graduate Studies Advisor of the Human Dimensions of Organizations Master's program. His work concerns the semantics and pragmatics of natural languages, including, in particular, research on presupposition, anaphora, topic and focus.
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Hosted by Darwin College, her fellowship passed at the Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics of Cambridge University. She carried out her research in Pragmatics, Presupposition being her spotlight. In 2009 Hranush Tovmasyan was granted the academic title of Associate Professor in Linguistics from Yerevan Brusov State Linguistic University. In August 2010, 2011 and 2012 Tovmasyan studied at University for Foreigners of Perugia, attending the course of Italian language and culture. In 2011 she launched her doctoral research which resulted in her dissertation “Lingvo-Cognitive Aspect of Presupposition as a Text Cohesion Means.” In 2018 she defended her Doctoral dissertation at the Institute of Language of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia, earning the academic degree of Doctor of Philological Sciences (General and Comparative Linguistics).
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The pneuma of the Stoics is the primitive substance which existed before the universe. It is the everlasting presupposition of particular things; the totality of all existence; out of it the whole visible universe proceeds, eventually to be consumed by it. It is the creative force (God) which develops and shapes the universal order (cosmos). God is everything that exists.
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The presumptive mood is used in Romanian and Hindi to express presupposition or hypothesis, regardless of the fact denoted by the verb, as well as other more or less similar attitudes: doubt, curiosity, concern, condition, indifference, inevitability. Often, no exact translation, which conveys the same nuance, can be constructed in English for the sentences Presumptive mood in Hindi and Romanian.
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' I asked him, 'without God and immortal life? All things are lawful then, they can do what they like?'"For Kant, the presupposition of God, soul, and freedom was a practical concern, for "Morality, by itself, constitutes a system, but happiness does not, unless it is distributed in exact proportion to morality. This, however, is possible in an intelligible world only under a wise author and ruler.
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A-not-A questions are often interpreted as having a "neutral" presupposition or are used in neutral contexts,Law, Ann (2001) A-not-A questions in Cantonese. UCLWPL 13, 295-318. meaning that the interrogator does not presume the truth value of the proposition expressed in the question. The overarching principle is the value- neutral contrast of the positive and negative forms of a premise.
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", "Expressed as a single grand statement, science presupposes that the physical world is orderly and comprehensible. The most obvious components of this comprehensive presupposition are that the physical world exists and that our sense perceptions are generally reliable." # that reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Stanley Sobottka said, "The assumption of external reality is necessary for science to function and to flourish.
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So, according to Kierkegaard, anxiety precedes sin, and it is anxiety that leads Adam to sin. Haufniensis mentions that anxiety is the presupposition for hereditary sin. However, Haufniensis mentions that anxiety is a way for humanity to be saved as well. Anxiety informs us of our choices, our self-awareness and personal responsibility, and brings us from a state of un-self-conscious immediacy to self-conscious reflection.
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Britain and France resumed their war in 1803, just after the Purchase. Both challenged American neutrality and tried to disrupt American trade with its enemy. The presupposition was that small neutral nations could benefit from the wars of the great powers. Jefferson distrusted both Napoleon and Great Britain, but saw Britain (with its monarchism, aristocracy and great navy and position in Canada) as the more immediate threat to American interests.
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Decantation is a form of prosodic reduction. a. Ten years after John inherited an old farm, he SOLD [ _the shed]_ Given Here the shed is decanted because it is referring to the prior mentioned farm. Decantation is conditioned by Common Ground Management and can be seen as presuppositional because it expresses a presupposition of a situationally salient antecedent of a particular sort. Decantation can also occur in indefinite noun phrases: a.
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The French writer Georges Bataille, in La part Maudite, uses Mauss's argument in order to construct a theory of economy: the structure of gift is the presupposition for all possible economy. Bataille is particularly interested in the potlatch as described by Mauss, and claims that its agonistic character obliges the receiver to confirm their own subjection. Thus gifting embodies the Hegelian dipole of master and slave within the act.
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However, now that we are done discussing this Derridean strategy, let us get back to the concept of sous rature. To understand it properly, we need to learn about Heidegger's existentialist theories. In doing so, we will also explore the link between existentialism and structuralism. Heidegger said that the possibility of 'being', or what he called "Dasein" (meaning being-there), is the presupposition behind any definition, any defined entity.
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Here, the presupposition triggered by the expression my wife (that I have a wife) is blocked, because it is stated in the antecedent of the conditional: That sentence doesn't imply that I have a wife. In the following example, it is not stated in the antecedent, so it is allowed to project, i.e. the sentence does imply that I have a wife. :If it's already 4am, then my wife is probably angry.
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The lack of witnesses seems to create a legal impasse that only the wise king can solve. It also clarifies why the women are not represented by their husbands, as is customary in biblical society.Phyllis Ann Bird, "The Harlot as Heroine: Narrative Art and Social Presupposition in Three Old Testament Texts", Semeia 46 (1989), p. 132. Solomon is depicted as a king accessible to all of his subjects, even those in the margins of society.
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Thus, humility, love, and the knowledge of signs are an essential hermeneutical presupposition for a sound interpretation of the Scriptures. Although Augustine endorses some teaching of the Platonism of his time, he recasts it according to a theocentric doctrine of the Bible. Similarly, in a practical discipline, he modifies the classical theory of oratory in a Christian way. He underscores the meaning of diligent study of the Bible and prayer as more than mere human knowledge and oratory skills.
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Capone is full professor of linguistics at the University of Messina, Department of Cognitive Science. He obtained his Doctorate in linguistics in 1998 at the University of Oxford with a thesis entitled ‘Modality and Discourse’, supervised by Professor Yan Huang and examined by Prof. James Higginbotham and Sally McConnell-Ginet. He published more than 100 papers and authored several monographs on linguistic and philosophical issues, including quotation and reporting, modality, speech acts, explicatures, legal pragmatics, presupposition.
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Such a presupposition involves making the distinction between empirical temperature and absolute temperature. Rather, the definition of absolute thermodynamic temperature is best left till the second law is available as a conceptual basis. In the eighteenth century, the law of conservation of energy was not yet fully formulated or established, and the nature of heat was debated. One approach to these problems was to regard heat, measured by calorimetry, as a primary substance that is conserved in quantity.
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In The Open Society and Its Enemies and The Poverty of Historicism, Popper developed a critique of historicism and a defence of the "Open Society". Popper considered historicism to be the theory that history develops inexorably and necessarily according to knowable general laws towards a determinate end. He argued that this view is the principal theoretical presupposition underpinning most forms of authoritarianism and totalitarianism. He argued that historicism is founded upon mistaken assumptions regarding the nature of scientific law and prediction.
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A key ingredient to the beginning stages of perception requires the attention of the observer on some focal point or stimulus. There is a presupposition that if one visually perceives an object, one knows that one is seeing it (excluding the exception of perceptual illusions). Whatever sensory stimuli are attended to can be declared knowledge. Stimuli that are directly attended to are projected onto the fovea, the central point of the retina that corresponds to the focal point in visual space.
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Furthermore, "Kaskel in Dresden" was added in pencil. Baron Karl von Kaskel, who was also friends with Giacomo Meyerbeer and Richard Wagner, was a banker and a patron of the arts in Dresden. If the autograph was indeed dedicated to Kaskel, he must have been an amateur clarinettist; judging by the relatively simple clarinet part, the sonata was apparently meant for an amateur and not for a virtuoso. There is no evidence for the presupposition that the work is dedicated to Heinrich Baermann.
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12 Her critique on Locke originates in her Bernard de Mandeville commentary [on the Fable of the Bees]. She confronts us with her resolute statement in favor of universal principles which precondition human knowledge and action, and maintains that this kind of law is innate. […] Du Châtelet claims the necessity of a universal presupposition, because if there is no such beginning, all our knowledge is relative. In that way, Du Châtelet rejects John Locke's aversion of innate ideas and prior principles.
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Patrick argues that the task of biblical theology is to present a comprehensive image of God rather than simply a prominent one. Some have claimed that Fretheim's process theology (a term Fretheim himself never embraces) is to blame for the lack of material on holiness. However, given Fretheim's presupposition that transcendence and sovereignty have been overemphasized, it is easy to see why he doesn't spend time affirming them. His stated goal is not to replace ideas of holiness, but to bring balance to them.
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Most Classic Islamic Philosophers believed in a naive realism or intuition based theories for achieving knowledge from the external world. Either of these perspectives or a combination of them has led some to conclude that a science based on religion can lead to infallible knowledge. However, Bagheri argues that a religious science is only possible through interference of religious elements in the presupposition of a theory and hence will remain a science tout court, and its religious presuppositions will not guarantee an infallible knowledge.Bagheri Noaparast.
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He argues that while the natural sciences, in discovering scientific laws, must presuppose a strict regularity in the occurrence of causes and effects, i.e. determinism, such a presupposition cannot be held in the case of human action. He argues further that the social sciences must take thoughts, ideas, and judgments of value as ultimately given in the analysis of human action. Our ignorance of the origins and causes of these phenomena, Mises argues, forces us – at least for the time being – to adopt a dualistic approach.
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Anything less is a presupposition and therefore innately unreal. This totality is the act of thinking, not thoughts so regarded by thinking. While realists agree that the world known to them is the only one they possibly know 'as a static concept,' they continue to regard something real about the concept having nothing to do with their thinking. Actual idealists disregard the static concept, as totally false, in regard to the world for them where the only real is in 'the act of thinking' within being.
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Negative capability was a phrase first used by Romantic poet John Keats in 1817 to characterise the capacity of the greatest writers (particularly Shakespeare) to pursue a vision of artistic beauty even when it leads them into intellectual confusion and uncertainty, as opposed to a preference for philosophical certainty over artistic beauty. The term has been used by poets and philosophers to describe the ability of the individual to perceive, think, and operate beyond any presupposition of a predetermined capacity of the human being.
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Vern L. Bullough, Bonnie Bullough, Human Sexuality: An EncyclopediaDaphne Hampson, After ChristianityThomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, question 154. "...it follows that in this matter [the sin of unnatural vice] is gravest of all. After it comes incest... With regard to the other species of lust, they imply a transgression merely of that which is determined by right reason, on the presupposition, however, of natural principles." Here, unnatural vice includes, in decreasing order of sinfulness, bestiality, homosexual intercourse, any unconventional form of heterosexual intercourse, and 'uncleanness' (masturbation).
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In praxeology, methodological dualism is an epistemological position which states that it is necessary ─ based on our current state of knowledge and understanding ─ to use a different method in analysing the actions of human beings than the methods of the natural sciences (such as physics, chemistry, physiology, etc.).Mises. (1957). Theory and history, p. 1. This position is based on the presupposition that humans differ radically from other objects in the external world. Namely, humans purposefully aim at chosen ends and employ chosen means to attain them (i.e.
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In the view of the new mysterians, their contention that the hard problem of consciousness is unsolvable is not a presupposition, but rather a philosophical conclusion reached by thinking carefully about the issue. The standard argument is as follows: Subjective experiences by their very nature cannot be shared or compared side-by-side. Therefore, it is impossible to know what subjective experiences another person is having. Noam Chomsky distinguishes between problems, which seem solvable, at least in principle, through scientific methods, and mysteries, which do not seem solvable, even in principle.
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Thus, the presupposition shared by individuals involved in discourse is taken to reflect this. The pursuit of truth and normative certainty is taken to be motivated and grounded, not in some objective or social world that is treated as a "given", but rather in a learning process. Indeed, Habermas himself is always careful to formulate his work as a research project, open to refinement. In any case, reconstructing the presuppositions and validity dimensions inherent to communication is valuable because it brings into relief the inescapable foundations of everyday practices.
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In pragmatics, entailment falls in a category with implicature and presupposition. All three deal with assumptions made by the listener or reader about a situation. Entailment differs from implicature in that for the latter the truth of A suggests the truth of B, but does not require it. For example, the sentence "Jack missed the meeting after his car broke down" implies that Jack missed the meeting because his car broke down; but in reality Jack could have missed the meeting four days after his car broke down because he slept in too late.
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14 the point x is a Pareto optimum which does not satisfy the definition of competitive equilibrium. The question of whether the economy would settle at such a point is quite separate from whether it satisfies an arbitrary definition of equilibrium; evidently in this case it would do so. Arrow and Debreu always included the convexity of indifference curves amongst their ‘assumptions’. Unfortunately the term ‘assumptions’ is a vague one which might refer to a presupposition underlying definitions as well as theorems, or to a premise which is needed only for the latter.
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Haddock description: The rabbit in the hat This noun phrase is felicitous to use in this context, even though there is no unique hat. What seems to license this surprising use of the definite description is the fact that the context contains a unique rabbit-containing hat. To cash out this idea, it has been proposed that the uniqueness presupposition of "the hat" takes scope separately from the rest of the definite's meaning. In other words, a witness set is establishes low in the structure, but is checked for singletonness higher up.
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Marxian economist John Milios (2003) argues for a monetary theory of value, where "Money is the necessary form of appearance of value (and of capital) in the sense that prices constitute the only form of appearance of the value of commodities." According to this analysis, when money incorporates production into its M-C-M' circulation, it functions as capital implementing the capitalist relation and the exploitation of labor power constitutes the actual presupposition for this incorporation.John Milios, "Marx's Monetary Theory of Value, Fictitious Capital and Finance", 6 November 2015, p. 6.
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Retrieved April, 2006 were concerned with the "metaphysics of presence," and this is the main subject of deconstructivist philosophy in architecture theory. The presupposition is that architecture is a language capable of communicating meaning and of receiving treatments by methods of linguistic philosophy. The dialectic of presence and absence, or solid and void occurs in much of Eisenman's projects, both built and unbuilt. Both Derrida and Eisenman believe that the locus, or place of presence, is architecture, and the same dialectic of presence and absence is found in construction and deconstructivism.
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Wallace describes the inductive approach by enlisting the Presbyterian theologian Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield: > In his Inspiration and Authority of the Bible, Warfield lays out an argument > for inerrancy that has been virtually ignored by today's evangelicals. > Essentially, he makes a case for inerrancy on the basis of inductive > evidence, rather than deductive reasoning. Most evangelicals today follow E. > J. Young's deductive approach toward bibliology, forgetting the great > articulator of inerrancy. But Warfield starts with the evidence that the > Bible is a historical document, rather than with the presupposition that it > is inspired.
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Nevertheless, the state allows private property, > education, occupation, to act in their way – i.e., as private property, as > education, as occupation, and to exert the influence of their special > nature. Far from abolishing these real distinctions, the state only exists > on the presupposition of their existence; it feels itself to be a political > state and asserts its universality only in opposition to these elements of > its being. On this note Marx moves beyond the question of religious freedom to his real concern with Bauer's analysis of "political emancipation".
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And this interpretation is revelatory not merely psychological and human. This means that it is only when a person is within the revelation, as all the saints lived, that he can grasp this understanding completely (see theoria). The second presupposition is that mankind has and is composed of nous, word and spirit like the trinitarian mode of being. Man's nous, word and spirit are not hypostases or individual existences or realities, but activities or energies of the soul - whereas in the case with God or the Persons of the Holy Trinity, each are indeed hypostases.
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By the Carathéodory way it is presupposed as known from experiment that there actually physically exist enough such adiabatic processes, so that there need be no recourse to calorimetry for measurement of quantity of energy transferred as heat. This presupposition is essential but is explicitly labeled neither as a law of thermodynamics nor as an axiom of the Carathéodory way. In fact, the actual physical existence of such adiabatic processes is indeed mostly supposition, and those supposed processes have in most cases not been actually verified empirically to exist.Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966), p. 15.
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Flynn posed the question, "Will Catholics accept the presupposition that those who sexually abuse 17-year-olds have an entire different moral or psychological pathology than those who sexually abuse 18-year-olds, or who coerce them into the veneer of consent against the backdrop of an extraordinary power imbalance?" Some commentators questioned whether the steps taken at the summit would lead to greater accountability of bishops and thus prevent such a situation as arose with McCarrick. For Anne Barrett Doyle, co-director of BishopAccountability.org, Francis' closing speech was a "stunning letdown".
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"Judge Tuttle's opinion in Hawkins specifically recognized the potential controversy by noting that the court's action was subject to the argument that 'the correction of this problem is not a judicial function.' Mindful of the 'fundamental institutional problems involved' and aware 'of the distinctions between the roles played by the coordinate branches of government,' Judge Tuttle justified the decision to intervene by calling upon the doctrine of separation of powers with its presupposition of a system of checks and balances." In a concurring opinion, judge Griffin Bell invoked the case of Hadnott v. City of Prattville, 309 F. Supp.
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This classic depiction of dinosaurs remained the status quo until the 1960s, when a minor scientific revolution began changing the perceptions of dinosaurs as tail-dragging, sluggish animals to active, alert creatures.Witton (2018) p. 32. This reformation took place following the 1964 discovery of Deinonychus by paleontologist John Ostrom. Ostrom's description of this nearly-complete birdlike dinosaur, published in 1969, challenged the presupposition of dinosaurs as cold-blooded, slow-moving reptiles, instead finding that many of these animals were likely reminiscent of birds, not just in evolutionary history and classification but in appearance and behavior as well.
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Loftus developed what some refer to as "the skeleton theory" after having run an experiment involving 150 subjects from the University of Washington. Loftus noticed that when a presupposition was one of false information it could only be explained by the construction hypothesis and not the strength hypothesis. Loftus then stated that a theory needed to be created for complex visual experiences where the construction hypothesis plays a significantly more important role than situational strength. She presented a diagram as a “skeleton” of this theory, which later became referred to by some as the skeleton theory.
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Silverstein introduces some components of the semiotic theory of Charles Sanders Peirce as the basis for a pragmatics which, rather than assuming that reference and predication are the essential communicative functions of language with other nonreferential functions being mere addenda, instead attempts to capture the total meaning of linguistic signs in terms of all of their communicative functions. From this perspective, the Peircean category of indexicality turns out to "give the key to the pragmatic description of language." This theoretical framework became an essential presupposition of work throughout the discipline in the 1980s and remains so in the present.
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This approach attempts to solve how the material world connects with the mental world, but not completely explaining it. When pushed on this point, Dharmakīrti then drops a presupposition of the Sautrāntrika position and shifts to a kind of Yogācāra position that extramental objects never really occur but arise from the habitual tendencies of mind. So he begins a debate with Hindu schools positing external objects then later to migrate the discussion to how that is logically untenable. Note there are two differing interpretations of Dharmakīrti's approach later in Tibet, due to differing translations and interpretations.
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If critics object to the presuppositions of argumentation, their argument might be turned on them to demonstrate that their argument has already granted the existence of whatever specific presupposition of argument they object to. However, if such a performative contradiction cannot be found, then the presuppositions of argumentation must be revised to take account of the criticism and the moral system derived from these presuppositions altered accordingly. In other words, "performative contradiction" is not a trump card to dismiss all objections but a fair test of those objections. The dialectical nature of Habermas's argument often goes unrecognized.
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Another more general impediment is often attributed to land which is legally not for sale in Mozambique. All land is property of the state for which the state grants the rights to use the land. This presupposition combined with historical problems in managing inheritance and documentation have led to complications which discourage investment and expansion of the city. Land, while not sold officially, is actively traded and exchanged on a secondary market leading to the development of unplanned areas and slums in metropolitan areas which the Government, due to the lack of tax money, has no capacity to equip with infrastructure.
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Climate activism manifests itself through a range of expressions. One aspect of climate change framing that is commonly observed is the frame of dire messaging that has been criticized as alarmist and pessimistic, resulting in a dismissal of evidence- based messages. The just-world theory supports the notion that some individuals must rely on their presupposition of a just-world in order to substantiate beliefs. “Research on just-world theory has demonstrated that when individuals’ need to believe in a just world is threatened, they commonly employ defensive responses, such as dismissal or rationalization of the information that threatened their just-world beliefs”.
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The Hebrew Bible contains assumptions about the nature of knowledge, belief, truth, interpretation, understanding and cognitive processes. Pluralism is the norm, so that no unified epistemology can be reconstructed, however, an ethnoepistemology can be found. Ethnoepistemology examines the "entire gamut of human epistemological practices from ordinary folk to diviners, shamans, priests", and the authors themselves. Ethicist Michael V. Fox writes the primary axiom in Proverbs is that "the exercise of the human mind is the necessary and sufficient condition of right and successful behavior in all reaches of life: practical, ethical and religious" revealing a "folk presupposition" of epistemology: virtue is knowledge.
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We never actually perceive that one event causes another, but only experience the "constant conjunction" of events. This problem of induction means that to draw any causal inferences from past experience it is necessary to presuppose that the future will resemble the past, a presupposition which cannot itself be grounded in prior experience. An opponent of philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passions rather than reason govern human behaviour, famously proclaiming that "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions". Hume was also a sentimentalist who held that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle.
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An example of calculus of relations arises in erotetics, the theory of questions. In the universe of utterances there are statements S and questions Q. There are two relations π and α from Q to S: q α a holds when a is a direct answer to question q. The other relation, q π p holds when p is a presupposition of question q. The converse relation πT runs from S to Q so that the composition πT;α is a homogeneous relation on S. The art of putting the right question to elicit a sufficient answer is recognized in Socratic method dialogue.
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Police interrogation tactics can be classified into two general categories: maximization and minimization. Maximization techniques involve eliciting information from the suspect by emphasizing potential consequences for refusing to admit guilt, presenting false evidence, or accusing the suspect of having committed the act. Minimization techniques entail minimizing the suspect's hand in the crime and the associated consequences of his or her actions for the purposes of eliciting a confession. As a maximization tactic inspired by the Reid technique, presupposition-bearing questions (PBQs) are questions that interrogators may use to indirectly gain from suspects confirmation of incriminating information.
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But he says : :[I]n spite of its five hundred pages the book is much too short. Many chapters dealing with important questions are compressed into five or six pages, and in some places, especially in the most avowedly controversial parts, the argument is almost too condensed to follow. And the philosopher who attempts to read the book will be especially puzzled by the constant presupposition of a whole philosophical system utterly unlike any of those usually accepted. In 1904 another review appeared in Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society (11(2):74–93) written by Edwin Bidwell Wilson.
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A suggestive question is one that implies that a certain answer should be given in response, or falsely presents a presupposition in the question as accepted fact. Such a question distorts the memory thereby tricking the person into answering in a specific way that might or might not be true or consistent with their actual feelings, and can be deliberate or unintentional. For example, the phrasing "Don't you think this was wrong?" is more suggestive than "Do you think this was wrong?" despite the difference of only one word. The former may subtly pressure the respondent into responding "yes", whereas the latter is far more direct.
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Writing in The Christian Century, Lawrence S. Cunningham said, > In terms of sheer scholarship, this series [the Presence of God] is the most > important contribution to the field of theology in the past quarter century. > McGinn takes readers from the biblical materials through the Western > tradition to detect the ways in which classical spiritual texts give > evidence of the experience of the presence of God. With four volumes in > print and a fifth to come, McGinn's magisterial work is stunning in its > sophisticated methodology and its close reading of texts. Both historical in > approach and profoundly theological in presupposition, these volumes > constitute a classic work that will not soon be overtaken.
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Peirce elsewhere argues (1897) that logic's presupposition of fallibilism leads at length to the view that chance and continuity are very real (tychism and synechism). The First Rule of Logic pertains to the mind's presuppositions in undertaking reason and logic; presuppositions, for instance, that truth and the real do not depend on yours or my opinion of them but do depend on representational relation and consist in the destined end in investigation taken far enough (see below). He describes such ideas as, collectively, hopes which, in particular cases, one is unable seriously to doubt.Peirce (1902), The Carnegie Institute Application, Memoir 10, MS L75.361–62, Arisbe Eprint.
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A presupposition of a sentence must normally be part of the common ground of the utterance context (the shared knowledge of the interlocutors) in order for the sentence to be felicitous. Sometimes, however, sentences may carry presuppositions that are not part of the common ground and nevertheless be felicitous. For example, I can, upon being introduced to someone, out of the blue explain that my wife is a dentist, this without my addressee having ever heard, or having any reason to believe that I have a wife. In order to be able to interpret my utterance, the addressee must assume that I have a wife.
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This inference is less reliable (and thus more likely commit the fallacy of hasty generalization) than a statistical generalization, first, because the sample events are non-random, and second because it is not reducible to mathematical expression. Statistically speaking, there is simply no way to know, measure and calculate as to the circumstances affecting performance that will obtain in the future. On a philosophical level, the argument relies on the presupposition that the operation of future events will mirror the past. In other words, it takes for granted a uniformity of nature, an unproven principle that cannot be derived from the empirical data itself.
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Kant's teleology has influenced contemporary biological thought, particularly with scientists use of functional language in their characterisation of organism's parts and biological processes. Kant's writing on teleology has impacted contemporary biology as he addressed the problem of how it is possible for organisms to have functions and for biological purposes to exist without the presupposition of a divine designer existing. One particular example of a contemporary biologist influenced by Kant's ideas may be seen in Roth(2014). The anti reductionist approach proposed by Kant, that organisms cannot be understood as composed of pre-existing parts, Roth(2014) argues that this approach may be used as a model for contemporary biology.
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Finally, the insurance plan must provide for "reasonable access" to insured services by insured persons, "on uniform terms and conditions, unprecluded, unimpeded, either directly or indirectly, by charges (user charges or extra-billing) or other means (age, health status or financial circumstances);" (Section 12.a). This section also provides for "reasonable compensation for...services rendered by medical practitioners or dentists" and payments to hospitals that cover the cost of the health services provided. Note that neither reasonable access nor reasonable compensation are defined by the Act, although there is a presupposition that certain processes (e.g., negotiations between the provincial governments and organizations representing the providers) satisfy the condition.
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In another vein of criticism, Andre Gunder Frank's Re-Orient argues that despite Needham's contributions in the field of Chinese technological history, he still struggled to break free from his preconceived notions of European exceptionalism. Re-Orient criticizes Needham for his Eurocentric assumptions borrowed from Marx and the presupposition of Needham's famous Grand Question that science was a uniquely Western phenomenon. Frank observes: > Alas, it was also originally Needham's Marxist and Weberian point of > departure. As Needham found more and more evidence about science and > technology in China, he struggled to liberate himself from his Eurocentric > original sin, which he had inherited directly from Marx, as Cohen also > observes.
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Of course, Habermas's reconstruction is different because it is intersubjective. That is, Habermas (unlike Kant or Rawls) formulates the moral point of view as it arises out of the multiple perspectives of those affected by a norm under consideration. The moral point of view explicated in (U) is not the property of an individual subject but the property of a community of interlocutors, the results of a complex dialogical process of role taking and perspective exchanging. Furthermore, (U) is deduced from a rational reconstruction of the presupposition of communication, which downgrades the strong transcendentalism of Kantian ethics by establishing a foundation in inner-worldly processes of communication.
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Project leaders begin the outcome map design by writing two short essays about what effect they would like to see their project have on the community and how they believe those influences would come about, written from a wishful thinking type of perspective, with the presupposition that their project is successful beyond their wildest dreams. The sole purpose of writing the essays is to facilitate a mind-shift among project leaders to the larger environment in which their project resides. In outcome mapping terminology, these essays are termed a vision and mission statement, but they have little in common with vision and mission statements used in strategic planning.
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An existential fallacy is committed in a medieval categorical syllogism because it has two universal premises and a particular conclusion with no assumption that at least one member of the class exists, an assumption which is not established by the premises. In modern logic, the presupposition that a class has members is seen as unacceptable. In 1905, Bertrand Russell wrote an essay entitled "The Existential Import of Proposition", in which he called this Boolean approach "Peano's interpretation". The fallacy does not occur in enthymemes, where hidden premises required to make the syllogism valid assume the existence of at least one member of the class.
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To avoid any presupposition and because the sherd has no decisive diagnostic lexeme that could give a hint about the language it is written in, Lehmann & Zernecke decided to analyse the script only with regard to the writing process itself and to reconstruct the broken letters on a strictly comparative palaeographic base alone. They suggest a reading either M-Q-P-Ḥ-N-M-Ṣ-N or N-Ṣ-M-N-Ḥ-P-Q-M, depending on the writing direction. This can not be set without a decisive clue about the language, which in Jerusalem at that time would not be restricted to only Hebrew.
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Given the relative status of the > particular there must, though, be a ground which enables us to be aware of > that relativity, and this ground must have a different status from the > knowable world of finite particulars. At the same time, if the ground were > wholly different from the world of relative particulars the problems of > dualism would recur. As such the absolute is the finite, but we do not know > this in the manner we know the finite. Without the presupposition of > ‘absolute identity’, therefore, the evident relativity of particular > knowledge becomes inexplicable, since there would be no reason to claim that > a revised judgement is predicated of the same world as the preceding — now > false — judgement.
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With D. M. Armstrong, Campbell is one of the founders of so-called Australian materialism and, within it, of a variety of trope theory. He also has a distinctive view of concrete and abstract objects: the former can exist by themselves, and the latter are incapable of independent existence. He refuses, following Frank P. Ramsey, the necessity of choice between realism and nominalism in the problem of universals, because they both share "a false presupposition being that any quality or relation must be a universal" (Campbell 1991, preface). The separation between the University of Sydney's Departments of Traditional and Modern Philosophy and of General Philosophy is attributed to his organising the proposal in 1973.
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The location of a single source can be determined by computing the "center of gravity" (centroid) of the light distribution extending over several adjacent pixels (see figure on the left). Provided that there is enough light, this can be achieved with arbitrary precision, very much better than pixel width of the detecting apparatus and the resolution limit for the decision of whether the source is single or double. This technique, which requires the presupposition that all the light comes from a single source, is at the basis of what has become known as super-resolution microscopy, e.g. stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM), where fluorescent probes attached to molecules give nanoscale distance information.
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Nimbarka is conventionally dated at the 12th or 13th century, but this dating has been questioned, suggesting that Nimbarka lived somewhat earlier than Shankara, in the 6th or 7th century CE. According to Roma Bose, Nimbarka lived in the 13th century, on the presupposition that Śrī Nimbārkāchārya was the author of the work Madhvamukhamardana. Bhandarkar has placed him after Ramanuja, suggesting 1162 AD as the date of his demise.R.G.Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivaism and minor Religious system (Indological Book House, Varanasi, India) page 62-63 S.N.Dasgupta dated Nimbarka to around middle of 14th century,A History of Indian Philosophy (Vol. 3) by Surendranath Dasgupta, (Cambridge: 1921) page 420 while S. A. A. Rizvi assigns a date of c.
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However, the rights that Nozick takes to be fundamental and the basis for regarding them to be such are different from the equal basic liberties included in justice as fairness and Rawls conjectures that they are thus not inalienable. In Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy (2007), Rawls notes that Nozick assumes that just transactions are "justice preserving" in much the same way that logical operations are "truth preserving". Thus, as explained in Distributive justice above, Nozick holds that repetitive applications of "justice in holdings" and "justice in transfer" preserve an initial state of justice obtained through "justice in acquisition or rectification". Rawls points out that this is simply an assumption or presupposition and requires substantiation.
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Thus the criticism that sense data cannot really be red is made from a position of presupposition inconsistent with a theory of sense data—so it is bound to seem to make the theory seem wrong. More recent opposition to the existence of sense data appears to be simply regression to naïve realism. By objectifying and partially externalising a subject's basic experiences of the world as 'sense-data', positing their necessity for perception and higher order thinking and installing them permanently between the perceiving subject and the 'real world', sense-data theories tend towards solipsism. Attempts to repair this must avoid both obscurantism and over-dependence on psychology (and therefore empiricism, and potentially circularity).
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30 In them he thought he had discovered what, according to Plato,Plato Timaeus God alone knows, and he among men who is loved by him, namely, the elements or principia of the Platonic triangles. He seems to have described them as first, original lines, and in a similar sense to have spoken of original plain figures and bodies,Simplicius, in Arist. de Caelo convinced that the principia of the existent should be sought not in the material, not in the divisible which attains to the condition of a phenomenon, but merely in the ideal definitude of form. He may very well, in accordance with this, have regarded the point as a merely subjectively admissible presupposition, and a passage of Aristotle respecting this assumptionAristotle, de Anima, i.
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Discourses often occur within institutionalized forms of argumentation that self-reflectively refine their procedures of communication, and as a result, have a more rigorous set of presuppositions in addition to the ones listed above. A striking feature of discourse is that validity claims tend to be explicitly thematized and there is the presupposition that all possible interlocutors would agree to the universal validity of the conclusions reached. Habermas especially highlights this in what he calls theoretical discourses and practical discourses. These are tied directly to two of the three dimensions of validity discussed above: theoretical discourse being concerned with validity claims thematized regarding objective states of affairs (IT); practical discourse being concerned with validity claims thematized concerning the rightness of norms governing social interactions (WE).
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Abbott's research in areas of semantics and pragmatics examines topics in reference and noun phrase interpretation, looking at philosophically-influenced aspects of word meaning, presupposition, and conditional sentences. She has been pivotal in both uniting formal semantics—which adapts analytical techniques from logic to natural languages—and analytical pragmatics—which clarifies the workings of definite and indefinite noun phrases in English. Her work surveying the uses of definiteness in different languages shows how it has mainly been seen in terms of familiarity or uniqueness. Her book Reference, focusing on noun phrases as referring expressions, shows that the issue of speakers' use of language forms to refer to entities has been at the heart of debate among linguists and philosophers for centuries.
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Only one's thought reached from -and thus put outside of- thinking can be surpassed; but only by thinking, not by an abstract external. Actual idealism, therefore, rejects the Hegelian 'Absolute' as being a presupposition unprovable to the mind, unless considered to be synonymous with what's known or the totality of the act of thinking. Which therein would put the dialectical processes making 'self' & 'not self' a consideration proving external existence real, insofar as it is in reality part of the self's own thinking, since the self, regarded alone, is always a concept and cannot be given reality as such. Neither does Actual idealism admit archetypal concepts in that possible conception of them in relation to all else gives them no reality.
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The features of clean interviewing include: the specificity of the technique; minimising unintended influence; data collection from the perspective of the interviewee; its applicability to in-depth interviews; elicitation of naturally occurring autogenic metaphor; investigating tacit knowledge; evaluation research; modelling mental models; and the verifiability of the adherence to the method.Lawley, 2017Lawley & Linder-Pelz, 2016Linder- Pelz & Lawley, 2015Nehyba & Svojanovsky, 2017 CLI seeks to address the issues raised by research that demonstrates responses can materially be affected by: question construction;Loftus & Palmer, 1974Harris, 1973 framing;Tversky & Kahneman, 1981 changing a single word;Loftus & Zanni, 1975Heritage et al., 2007 introduced metaphors;Thibodeau & Boroditsky, 2011Thibideau & Boroditsky, 2013 presupposition;Loftus, 1975 and the nonverbal behaviour of the interviewer such as paralanguageDuncan et al.,1969 and gesture.
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Such tests may have revealed that none of the ossuaries are related—hence defeating the underlying presupposition that the crypt was in fact a family tomb, and thereby eliminating any valid basis at all for producing and showing the film." William G. Dever said that some of the inscriptions on the ossuaries are unclear, but that all of the names are common. "I've known about these ossuaries for many years and so have many other archaeologists, and none of us thought it was much of a story because these are rather common Jewish names from that period. It's a publicity stunt, and it will make these guys very rich, and it will upset millions of innocent people because they don't know enough to separate fact from fiction.
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Dynamic semantics is a framework in logic and natural language semantics which treats the meaning of a sentence as its potential to update a context. In static semantics, knowing the meaning of a sentence amounts to knowing when it is true; in dynamic semantics, knowing the meaning of a sentence means knowing "the change it brings about in the information state of anyone who accepts the news conveyed by it." In dynamic systems, sentences are mapped to functions called context change potentials which take an input context and return an output context. Dynamic semantics was originally developed by Irene Heim and Hans Kamp in 1981 to model anaphora, but has since been applied widely to phenomena including presupposition, plurals, questions, discourse relations, and modality.
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The Fregean analysis of definite descriptions, implicit in the work of Frege and later defended by Strawson among others, represents the primary alternative to the Russellian theory. On the Fregean analysis, definite descriptions are construed as referring expressions rather than quantificational expressions. Existence and uniqueness are understood as a presupposition of a sentence containing a definite description, rather than part of the content asserted by such a sentence. The sentence 'The present King of France is bald', for example, is not used to claim that there exists a unique present King of France who is bald; instead, that there is a unique present King of France is part of what this sentence presupposes, and what it says is that this individual is bald.
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If the presupposition fails, the definite description fails to refer, and the sentence as a whole fails to express a proposition. The Fregean view is thus committed to the kind of truth value gaps (and failures of the law of excluded middle) that the Russellian analysis is designed to avoid. Since there is currently no King of France, the sentence 'The present King of France is bald' fails to express a proposition, and therefore fails to have a truth value, as does its negation, 'The present King of France is not bald'. The Fregean will account for the fact that these sentences are nevertheless meaningful by relying on speakers' knowledge of the conditions under which either of these sentences could be used to express a true proposition.
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The post–Cold War era has been marked by discussions of Islamist terrorism framing views on the extent to which the culture of the Arab world and Islam is a threat to that of the West. The essence of this debate reflects a presupposition for which Orientalism has been criticized - that the 'Orient' is defined exclusively by Islam. Such considerations as these were seen to have occurred in the wider context of the way in which many Western scholars responded to international politics in the post–Cold War world; and they were arguably heightened following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.Zachary Lockman, Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004), pp. 223–233.
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1016) :Plato, describes the idea of the good, or the Godhead, sometimes teleologically, as the ultimate purpose of all conditioned existence; sometimes cosmologically, as the ultimate operative cause; and has begun to develop the cosmological, as also the physico- theological proof for the being of God; but has referred both back to the idea of the Good, as the necessary presupposition to all other ideas, and our cognition of them. (p. 402) The book The Works of Aristotle (1908, p. 80 Fragments) mentioned :Aristotle says the poet Orpheus never existed; the Pythagoreans ascribe this Orphic poem to a certain Cercon (see Cercops). Bertrand Russell (1947) noted :The Orphics were an ascetic sect; wine, to them, was only a symbol, as, later, in the Christian sacrament.
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The possibility of identifying, in the explicit and implicit memory respectively, the repressed and unrepressed unconscious opens new and stimulating perspectives for an integration of neuroscience with psychoanalysis, and for a possible anatomic localization of the functions of these two different forms of unconscious. This depends on a presupposition: that the experiences, emotions, phantasies, and defences that help organize an individual's unconscious psychic reality, from birth throughout life, are stored in the nervous structures concerning memory, both implicit and explicit. This is, after all, in line with Freud's conviction: 'latent conceptions, if we have any reason to suppose that they exist in the mind—as we had in the case of memory—let them be denoted by the term "unconscious"' (1912, p. 260). There are usually two approaches to studying implicit memory.
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Disambiguation of direct and indirect speech in Japanese depends on switches in deictic expressions and expressions of "speaker-addressee relationship". One language-specific diagnostics of direct speech is so-called "addressee-oriented expressions," which trigger a presupposition that there is an addressee in the discourse context. Some examples are listed below: > sentence final particles: さ -sa 'let me tell you'; ね -ne 'you know'; よ -yo > 'I tell you'; わ -wa 'I want you to know' > imperative forms: 「走れ！」hashire 'Run!’ > polite verbs/polite auxiliary verbs: です desu; ございます gozaimasu; ますmasu For example, in (3), [Ame da yo] in the complement of the verb 言う iu (past tense: itta) is unambiguously interpreted as direct speech because of the sentence final particle よ -yo 'I tell you'.
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Bastiaanse et al. (subm.) hold the key. In their study, one reads that both tense and aspect are impaired and, most importantly, that reference to the past is selectively impaired both through simple verb forms (such as simple present in English) and through periphrastic verb forms (such as the present perfect in English). Bastiaanse et al. (subm.) argued that reference to the past is discourse linked and reference to the present and future is not. This is in line with Avrutin (2000) who suggests discourse linking is impaired in Broca’s aphasia. The notion of discourse linking is originally due to Pesetsky (1987) and should be seen in regard to discourse presupposition which is a basic notion in linguistics and, more concretely, in semantics and pragmatics (for further information: Stalnaker, 1973).
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In 1989, in Justice, and Only Justice, Ateek wrote, "The preservation of Israel as a Jewish state is important not only to Israeli Jews but to Jews all over the world. I believe that we must honor their wish and accept it. In fact, the Palestinians should eventually guarantee the survival of Israel by accepting it as a Jewish state" (166). In 2013, Friends of Sabeel – North America's website FAQ answered the question, "Does FOSNA support the existence of Israel as a Jewish state?" as follows: > This question is rooted in a presupposition, which needs to be carefully > examined: that the State of Israel can only exist as a Jewish state, that > is, as a state in which Jews are the overwhelming demographic majority and > only Jews have full citizenship.
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Of the Original Contract Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract. Both Rousseau's and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature.
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Dunsmoore is selected to lead the group, with the assumption that his experience with decrypting anthropological artefacts on earth will aid in establishing communiqué with the Jovians. The years tick by without consequence as Dunsmoore and his team search in vain for evidence of alien life on Jupiter's moons, convinced by terrestrial scientists that the planet itself is entirely inhospitable to life (he is warned of the danger of this erroneous presupposition by, appropriately enough, contemporary science-fiction authors). As the tension on Earth grows unbearable, Prudence Odingo flies her personal craft out to give Dunsmoore's team a push in what she believes to be the correct direction. Hacking into one of the probes that Dunsmoore's been carefully bobbing around the lifeless stratosphere of Jupiter, Odingo's team sends the RCV into the lower atmosphere, immediately encountering alien lifeforms both advanced and simplistic.
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Clean language interviewing (CLI), sometimes shortened to clean interviewing, aims to maximise the reliability that information collected during an interview derives from the interviewee. CLI seeks to address some of the "threats to validity and reliability"Seidman, 2006 that can occur during an interview and to increase the "trustworthiness" of the data collected.Lincoln & Guba, 1985 It does this by employing a technique that minimises the unintended introduction of interviewer content, assumption, leading question structure, presupposition, framing, priming, tacit metaphor and nonverbal aspects such as paralanguage and gesture that may compromise the authenticity of the data collected.Tosey, 2015 At the same time clean language interviewing seeks to minimise common interviewee biases, such as the consistency effect, acquiescence bias and the friendliness effect which may mean an interviewee (unconsciously) looks for cues from the interviewer about how to answer.
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The first issue reflected through its essays and text that forms the same theoretical presupposition: Life understood with a constructive union between the whole individuals. It also exacerbates having a value in creativity with an indispensable likeliness in all of the areas including arts and politics, condemning in a less objective form, which had mixed up the elements which annulled the potentials. Its third issue was relatively the first that it adopted the contributors from the reviews Presença, the former Orpheu, notably by the writers including the great Fernando Pessoa, Mário de Sá-Carneiro, Luís de Montalvor, Raul Leal, Alfredo Guisado, Alvaro de Campos, João Gaspar Simões, José Régio Adolfo Casais Monteiro, Saúl Dias, Carlos Queirós, Carlos Ramos, Pardal Monteiro and Mário Saa, along with its illustrations by Sara Afonso and Mário Eloy. It never published the fourth issue.
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Ode Ogede penned a scathing critique of the work and noted of it to be an express example about how oral history can be abused to fulfill preset goals, without any veneer of scholarly rigor and objectivity; he also deemed her to be ignorant about recent studies concerning Olaudah Equiano's autobiography. Christopher Fyfe reviewing for International Journal of African Historical Studies noted it to be a fascinating contribution to African folk-history but also noted of Edward's critiques, and the presupposition of her findings on the validity of genealogical records assigning extraordinarily long time-spans to Equiano's relatives. Erving Beauregard of the University of Dayton deemed it as an interesting work, that made a plausible case for its central assertion despite her accepting oral testimonies from persons claiming to be 200 years old. Catherine had rejected her critics, and has been accused of engaging in ad-hominem attacks against them.
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A presupposition of most recent discussion has been that science sometimes provides explanations (rather than “mere description”) and that the task of a “theory” or “model” of scientific explanation is to characterize the structure of such explanations. It is thus assumed that there is a single kind or form of explanation that is “scientific”. In fact, the notion of “scientific explanation” suggests a contrast between those “explanations” that are characteristic of “science” and those explanations that are not, and, second, a contrast between “explanation” and something else. However, the tendency in much of the recent philosophical literature has been to assume that there is a substantial continuity between the sorts of explanations found in science and at least some forms of explanation found in more ordinary non-scientific contexts, with the latter embodying in a more or less inchoate way features that are present in a more detailed, precise, rigorous etc.
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One of the most basic presupposition for which there is responsibility on the part of the Administration is the existence of a qualified damage to the property or rights of a natural or legal person. Point out that not only refers to pecuniary goods, but also of another nature, such as moral damages, which in the case will also involve a pecuniary compensation. Among the qualities that administrative damage must meet in order to comply with this requirement, it is necessary to emphasize, first of all, the illegality of the action of the Administration. Unlike the regime of responsibility regulated in the Civil Code, where the illegality occurs when there is fraud or guilt, in the system of objective responsibility of the Administration, the criterion of illegality focuses on the existence or nonexistence of a duty to support the damage that laws can attribute to subjects.
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An 1897 magazine article titled "The Greatest Nation on Earth" boasted, "[T]he sun never sets on Uncle Sam".; cited by In 1906, William Jennings Bryan wrote, "If we can not boast that the sun never sets on American territory, we can find satisfaction in the fact that the sun never sets on American philanthropy"; after which, The New York Times received letters attempting to disprove his presupposition. A 1991 history book discussion of U.S. expansion states, "Today ... the sun never sets on American territory, properties owned by the U.S. government and its citizens, American armed forces abroad, or countries that conduct their affairs within limits largely defined by American power." Although most of these sentiments have a patriotic ring, the phrase is sometimes used critically with the implication of American imperialism, as in the title of Joseph Gerson's book, The Sun Never Sets: Confronting the Network of Foreign U.S. Military Bases.
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" Anthony Hartley of The Spectator was archly dismissive of the play's denouement, in which Terriford concedes to the British Government the right to use the burning glass for war in event of uttermost need – "Why not [to] the Russians?... [Terriford] presupposes that he knows who is bad and who is good in this complicated world... The presupposition is social: the one took your mother out to dances [in the play, the Prime Minister and Terriford's mother had dated], the other was educated half in Buda and half in Pest. To whom would you give the secret of the burning glass, chum?... all the characters except [the enemy agent] Hardlip devote themselves to proclaiming the unspoken assumptions of the English upper classes.... What purports to be a play of ideas conveys a country-house ethic of the necessity for having the right chaps in the right places... This solution solves nothing, excites no question, stimulates no reaction.
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Therefore, this postulate maintains that thinking is an active process and the static conception of a thought is its dialectical opposite. Where thinking is the vitality of psychological being, a thought is opposed to that vitality and therefore would be opposed to that immanent quality where alone existence takes on its reality to the actual idealist. No sense or imagining of something beyond or external to the act of thinking in itself for the thinker can be real, and therefore cannot be said to exist, even if, to continue the act of thinking it must be said that it does exist as a creation of the act of thinking if even then it remains unreal. Which in considering it the measure of its existence is realized for then it is exposed to the act of thinking and is subject to reality; from an a priori beginning to a non-empirical conclusion without presupposition.
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Scholars and contributors at the center believe that freedom is the fountainhead of economic and political progress, and religious tolerance. The Center for Vision & Values at Grove City College works on the presupposition that God is sovereign, that man is made in the image of God and is therefore of inestimable and eternal value, and that the God of the Bible is the indispensable starting point for understanding truth. Hence, the center aims to share the results of their scholarship that helps the public to understand that the pursuit of truth is inextricably linked to personal freedom, political and economic freedom, religious freedom, and orderly progress. The center's purpose is to convince people to comprehend that God's truth pertains to all areas of life and reality while providing answers for today's difficult issues using scholarly methodologies that presuppose truth and human value – as opposed to relativism and chance – as the proper foundation for addressing society's challenges.
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Therefore, the prayer asks in the second line for a restoration to Christian wholeness and integrity, foreshadowing the petition of the third line that the supplicant might have the temptation to judge others removed from them (cf. Matt. 7:1–5).See Alexander Schmemann's article The Lenten Prayer of St Ephrem the Syrian and his book Great Lent (Crestwood, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1969)See also, Olivier Clément, Three Prayers: The Lord's Prayer, O Heavenly King, Prayer of St. Ephrem, translated by Michael Breck (Crestwood, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2000. It is possible that the choice to translate σωφροσύνης as 'chastity' reflects both the affection for the Cranmerian prose of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer present in some anglophone Orthodox (which frequently leads to an ambiguity of meaning in liturgical and scriptural texts, as exemplified here) and also the presupposition that a concern for sexual purity is predominant in the Orthodox tradition. Sometimes the phrase "idle talk" is substituted by the Latinate word , which carries about the same meaning.
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Coucke departed from this presupposition- based approach, using instead the data of the biblical texts as his starting place (an inductive approach). From those data, he came to the following conclusions: 1) During the period of the divided kingdom, Judah’s regnal year began in the fall month of Tishri, whereas that of the northern kingdom, Israel, began in Nisan. (Coucke also allowed that the northern kingdom may have begun its calendar in the Egyptian month of Thoth, since Jeroboam resided in Egypt for many years before becoming the first king of Israel, but Coucke was wrong in assuming that at the time of Egypt’s Third Intermediate Period, Thoth came in the spring at the same time as the Hebrew Nisan.) 2) For the first few years of the divided kingdom, Judah used accession reckoning for its kings, whereas Israel used nonaccession reckoning.Accession reckoning counts the partial calendar year in which a king came to the throne as his "zero" year, whereas nonaccession reckoning counts it as his first year.
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The Two Kinds of Righteousness is a Lutheran paradigm (like the Two Kingdoms of God). It attempts to define man's identity in relation to God and to the rest of creation. The Two Kinds of Righteousness is explicitly mentioned in Luther's 1518 sermon entitled Two Kinds of Righteousness, in Luther's Galatians Commentary (1535), in his Bondage of the Will, Melanchthon's Apology of the Augsburg Confession, and in the third article of the Formula of Concord. It is also the implicit presupposition governing Luther's Freedom of a Christian as well as other works. In theology “to be righteous is to be human as God envisioned in creation, and again in redemption.”Charles Arand, "Two Kinds of Righteousness as a Framework for Law and Gospel in the Apology," Lutheran Quarterly XV (2001): 420. Lutherans believe that there are “two dimensions to being a human creature,” or two relationships that define human nature.Charles Arand, "Two Kinds of Righteousness as a Framework for Law and Gospel in the Apology," Lutheran Quarterly XV (2001): 420-421.
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He claims that the structure of communication itself demonstrates that normative and evaluative concerns can (and ought to) be resolved through rational procedures. The clearest way to see this is to recognize that the validity dimensions implicit in communication signify that a speaker is open to the charge of being irrational if they place normative validity claims outside of rational discourse. Following Habermas, the argument relies on the following assumptions: ::(a) that communication can proceed between two individuals only on the basis of a consensus (usually implicit) regarding the validity claims raised by the speech acts they exchange; ::(b) that these validity claims concern at least three dimensions of validity: :::: I, truthfulness :::: WE, rightness :::: IT, truth ::(c) that a mutual understanding is maintained on the basis of the shared presupposition that any validity claim agreed upon could be justified, if necessary, by making recourse to good reasons. From these premises it is concluded that any individual engaging in communication is accountable for the normative validity of the claims they raise.
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328, quoted in a review by Dennis Pardee, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 1977 and in 1975 John Van Seters' 'Abraham in History and Tradition' reached a similar conclusion about the usefulness of tradition history: "A vague presupposition about the antiquity of the tradition based upon a consensus approval of such arguments should no longer be used as a warrant for proposing a history of the tradition related to early premonarchic times." At the same time a new generation of archaeologists, notably William G. Dever, criticized biblical archaeology for failing to take note of the revolution in archaeology known as processualism, which saw the discipline as a scientific one allied to anthropology, rather than as a part of the corpus of the humanities linked to history and theology. Biblical archaeology, Dever said, remained "altogether too narrowly within a theological angle of vision,"Joel Ng, "Introduction to Biblical Archaeology", 2003 (revised 2004), at Edwardtbabinski.com and should be abandoned and replaced with a regional Syro-Palestinian archaeology operating within a processual framework.
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Bohr's response was to illustrate Einstein's idea more clearly using the diagram in Figure C. (Figure C shows a fixed screen S1 that is bolted down. Then try to imagine one that can slide up or down along a rod instead of a fixed bolt.) Bohr observes that extremely precise knowledge of any (potential) vertical motion of the screen is an essential presupposition in Einstein's argument. In fact, if its velocity in the direction X before the passage of the particle is not known with a precision substantially greater than that induced by the recoil (that is, if it were already moving vertically with an unknown and greater velocity than that which it derives as a consequence of the contact with the particle), then the determination of its motion after the passage of the particle would not give the information we seek. However, Bohr continues, an extremely precise determination of the velocity of the screen, when one applies the principle of indeterminacy, implies an inevitable imprecision of its position in the direction X. Before the process even begins, the screen would therefore occupy an indeterminate position at least to a certain extent (defined by the formalism).
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