While there are no parasites of the genus Sphecodes that solely parasitize L. leucozonium, S. ephippius has been shown to parasitize it as well as other Lasioglossum.
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Pediculus humanus Phthiraptera, the lice, includes 5,000 described species divided into 4 suborders. The Amblycera is the most basal group and parasitize birds and mammals. The Ischnocera is the largest suborder and parasitize mostly birds and some groups of mammals. The Rhynchophthirina, the elephant lice, consists of only 3 species that parasitize elephants and wild pigs in Africa.
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Strigiphilus is the only genus of Ischnocera to exclusively parasitize owls.
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Polygynous colonies may contain 1500 workers. Larvae of Phengaris butterflies may parasitize their colonies.
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Some parasitic plants are generalists and parasitize many different species, even several different species at once. Dodder (Cassytha spp., Cuscuta spp.) and red rattle (Odontites vernus) are generalist parasites. Other parasitic plants are specialists that parasitize a few or just one species.
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Branchiurans, family Argulidae, order Arguloida are known as fish lice and parasitize fish in freshwater.
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The genus includes species parasitic on tiger beetles – an unusual trait among the bee-flies. A. anthrax larvae parasitize bees. Many North American species parasitize solitary wasps. The type species is Musca morio Linnaeus, 1758, later found to be a misidentification of Musca anthrax Schrank, 1781.
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The Elenchidae have two-segmented tarsi and four-segmented antennae, with the third segment having a lateral process. The Halictophagidae have three-segmented tarsi and seven-segmented antennae, with lateral processes from the third and fourth segments. The Stylopidae mostly parasitize wasps and bees, the Elenchidae are known to parasitize Fulgoroidea, while the Halictophagidae are found on leafhoppers, treehoppers, and mole cricket hosts. Strepsipteran insects in the genus Xenos parasitize Polistes carnifex, a species of social wasps.
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The eupelmids Arachnophaga abstrusa, A. ferruginea and A. picea parasitize Mastophora species, M. hutchinsoni and M. cornigera, respectively.
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These wasps mainly parasitize hymenoptera belonging to the species Pemphredon unicolor, Hylaeus confusus, Paranthidiellum lituratum and Anthidium manicatum.
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Zagrammosoma is a genus of hymenopteran insects of the family Eulophidae. They parasitize Lepidoptera and Diptera leafmining larvae.
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There is one common species of bombyliid flies known to parasitize the larvae of Xylocopa virginica: Xenox tigrinus.
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Other kinds of wasps, including Bracon hebetor and Venturia canescens, parasitize almond moth larvae in the later instars.
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Pleorchis magniporus is a species of flatworm which can parasitize Elasmobranchs, particularly the intestines of the spotted round ray.
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Chrysis scutellaris fly from late June to early August. The larvae parasitize solitary wasps (Eumenes pomiformis) and bees (Halictus maculatus).
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Cimex is a genus of insects in the family Cimicidae. Cimex species are ectoparasites that typically feed on the blood of birds and mammals. Two species, Cimex lectularius and Cimex hemipterus, are known as bed bugs and frequently feed on humans, although other species may parasitize humans opportunistically. Species that primarily parasitize bats are known as bat bugs.
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Their natural predators include the big-eye bug (Geocoris bullatis), and the tiny wasp (Eumicrosoma beneficum), which feast on or parasitize them.
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Known bacteria that parasitize the codling moth are Erwinia amylovora and Bacillus cereus. B. cereus parasitizes the larvae of the codling moth.
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Many plants can parasitize trees via root to root contact. Many of these parasitic plants originate in the tropical and subtropical climates.
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These worms exclusively parasitize birds by attaching themselves around the cloaca using their hook-covered proboscis. The bird hosts are of different orders.
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Due to its mediocre proficiency, inquiline wasps are only able to parasitize other species that exist in small colonies and have short cycles.
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Many species of wasps parasitize the juvenile (nymph); injecting their eggs using their ovipositor creating 'mummies' (so called because of their desiccated appearance).
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Dendronucleata parasitize freshwater fish and a salamander by attaching themselves in the intestines using their hook covered proboscis and adhesives secreted from cement glands.
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In many cases, a nearby colony with a fresh brood will populate the nest allowing the surviving large blues to sequentially parasitize multiple Myrmica colonies.
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Actia diffidens is a species of tachinid flies in the genus Actia of the family Tachinidae. It is known to parasitize Canadian tortricid moth larvae.
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The closely related M. furtiva and M. monticola parasitize two spider species that are also closely related, and it is believed that the two groups coevolved.
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Other species of fungi have been known to parasitize ascocarps. The use of a compound microscope is needed for accurate identification."Family: Geoglossaceae." The Hidden Forest.
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Two species of Kapala (Eucharitidae) have been reported to parasitize this ant in Mexico, and parasitism of E. ruidum by Kapala sp. is also known from Colombia.
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Yelicones delicatus Aleiodes The Rogadinae are a large subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Several Rogadinae species parasitize pest caterpillars and are important for naturally occurring biological control.
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The ischnoceran louse Austrophilopterus flavirostris is suspected to parasitize most if not all species of aracaris, with the possible exception of the green aracari (Price & Weckstein 2005).
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Rozella allomycis is one of the most extensively studied species; it was first described by Foust in 1937. Foust did not provide a Latin description, which invalidated the name; Doweld, in 2014, validated the name and corrected the specific epithet to allomycetis. Rozella allomycis can parasitize multiple Allomyces species, including A. macrogynus and A. arbuscula. For A. macrogynus, it is able to parasitize both the sporophyte and the gametophyte.
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2) Adult wasps emerge from the larvae after about 15 days, mate, and search for more beetle larvae to parasitize. Pediobius foveolatus wasps will also parasitize the larvae of squash beetle, Epilachna borealis, a closely related species that feeds on cucurbit crops. Pediobius foveolatus wasps are extremely small, about 1-2mm long (Fig. 1 and 3), and will not harm humans, beneficial insects, or any organisms outside the beetle genus Epilachna.
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Most are known from insects, but some are recorded from spiders, scorpions and crustaceans. A few are known to parasitize earthworms, leeches and molluscs, and a specimen is known from a spider preserved in Baltic amber. At least 25 species are known to parasitize mosquito larvae, making them of considerable interest in biological control. A species, probably Pheromermis vesparum, was recorded from the invasive Asian hornet (Vespa velutina) in France.
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Chrysidea pumila can reach a length of about .ChrysisChrysididae The basic color of the body is metallic blue-green with golden reflections. These cuckoo wasps parasitize Trypoxylon attenuatum (Sphecidae).
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Cistanche is a worldwide genus of holoparasitic desert plants in the family Orobanchaceae. They lack chlorophyll and obtain nutrients and water from the host plants whose roots they parasitize.
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Xoridinae are a worldwide subfamily of the parasitic wasp family Ichneumonidae. Xoridinae are idiobiont ectoparasitoids of wood‑boring Coleoptera and Hymenoptera (Symphyta). Most parasitize larvae. There are four genera.
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The longest lifespan recorded for a rufous-crowned sparrow is three years, two months. Two species of tick, Amblyomma americanum and Ixodes pacificus, are known to parasitize the sparrow.
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Trissolcus edessae female Trissolcus euschisti Trissolcus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae. There are at least 180 described species in Trissolcus. They parasitize eggs of Pentatomorpha.
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Trichogramma kaykai, a small parasitic wasp, parasitize Apodemia mormo deserti, primarily located in the Mojave Desert. These wasps lay clutches of 3-5 offspring in each Apodemia mormo deserti egg.
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Aureolaria pedicularia gets its nutrients from oak (Fagaceae). The part of the roots from the parasite (Aureolaria pedicularia) that take the nutrients from the oak selectively parasitize the favored hosts (oak).
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Trichoderma readily colonizes plant roots and some strains are rhizosphere competent i.e. able to grow on roots as they develop. Trichoderma spp. also attack, parasitize and otherwise gain nutrition from other fungi.
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Bee fly larvae often parasitize the immature stages of other insects for sustenance. Bee fly larvae are parasitoids which take extreme advantage of their hosts, often feeding on them or their eggs.
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Pea crabs, Pinnotheridae feba, are known to parasitize this species. As there is no reliable method for removing them, this has been seen as a negative for marketing them as human food.
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Troglomyces is a genus of fungi in the family Laboulbeniaceae which parasitize millipedes and insects. As of 2020, it contains 9 known species: bilabiatus, botryandrus, dioicus, manfredii, pusillus, rossii, tetralabiatus, triandrus, and twitteri.
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Parascaris is a genus of nematodes in the family Ascarididae. It contains two species, Parascaris equorum and Parascaris univalens, which are morphologically identical, but can be distinguished by chromosome number. Both species parasitize horses.
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Acanthocephalus echigoensis is a species of parasitic worm in the phylum Acanthocephala. Found both in California and in Thailand, it has been known to parasitize the sockeye salmon, chum salmon, rainbow trout, and barramundi.
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Fleas that parasitize it include Archaeopsylla and Thaumapsylla, and it has also been documented with the tick Alectorobius camicasi. Internal parasites (endoparasites) are the hemosporidian Plasmodium roussetti, which causes malaria, and the roundworm Nycteridocoptes rousetti.
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This nudibranch is transparent with guts visible through the laterally flattened body. It has a tail and two long smooth rhinophores. It feeds on jellyfish and plankton as an adult. The juveniles parasitize Zanclea medusae.
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Species are mainly parasitic on wood-rotting fungi in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, particularly on species that occur on dead attached branches. Hosts include members of the corticioid fungi, polypores, and Dacrymycetales in the Basidiomycota and species of Diaporthe, other Sordariomycetes, and lichens in the Ascomycota. Some Tremella species parasitize the fruit bodies of their hosts (sometimes incorporating host hyphae), others parasitize the mycelium within the wood. As a group, Tremella species occur worldwide, though individual species may have a more restricted distribution.
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Orobanche minor, the hellroot, common broomrape, lesser broomrape, small broomrape or clover broomrape, is a holoparasitic flowering plant belonging to the genus Orobanche; a genus of about 150 non-photosynthetic plants that parasitize other autotrophic plants.
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These wasps parasitize various mud-nesting hymenopterans belonging to the family Eumenidae (Eumenes unguiculatus, Eumenes unguiculatum, Katamenes arbustorum), the family Sphecidae (Pelopoeus distillatorius, Sceliphron caementarium, Sceliphron destillatorium and Sceliphron madraspatanum) and the family Megachilidae (Chalicodoma, Megachile).
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The Thinoseius genera is known to parasitize the specific species of insects, C. frigida and their overarching genera Coelopa. There is still research being done on the parasitic behavior demonstrated from other genera of the Eviphididae.
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25 Sept. 2014. Much of the fieldwork done on H. ustulata was performed in the Sonoran Desert near Phoenix, Arizona, by John Alcock. H. ustulata distribution overlaps with therasphoid spiders, which they parasitize to raise their young.
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Some genera of megachilids are brood parasites, so have no ventral scopa (e.g. Stelis and Coelioxys). They often parasitize related taxa. They typically enter the nest before it is sealed and lay their eggs in a cell.
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Strepsiptera of various species have been documented to attack hosts in many orders, including members of the orders Zygentoma, Orthoptera, Blattodea, Mantodea, Heteroptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. In the strepsipteran family Myrmecolacidae, the males parasitize ants, while the females parasitize Orthoptera. Traumatic insemination of an endoparasitic female in Stylops ovinae Strepsiptera eggs hatch inside the female, and the planidium larvae can move around freely within the female's haemocoel; this behavior is unique to these insects. The larvae escape through the female's brood canal, which communicates with the outside world.
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Candirus (Vandellia) inhabit the Amazon and Orinoco basins of lowland Amazonia, where they constitute part of the Neotropical fish fauna. Candirus are hematophagous and parasitize the gills of larger Amazonian fishes, especially catfish of the family Pimelodidae (Siluriformes).
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The pleasant-tasting sap is consumed by bees and hummingbirds. The silky-flycatcher or phainopepla pose a problem, for when they consume mistletoe berries and excrete them in the cracks of Olneya tesota, the mistletoe will parasitize its host.
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Although still relatively uncommon, the cowbirds regularly parasitize the nests of orioles in developed habitats.Baltz, M. E. 1997. Status of the Black-cowled Oriole (Icterus dominicensis northropi) in the Bahamas. Unpublished report to the Department of Agriculture, Nassau, Bahamas.
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Cotesia is a genus of braconid wasps first described by Peter Cameron in 1891. Some species parasitize caterpillars of species considered as pests. Thus they are used as biocontrol agents. Cotesia congregata parasitizes the tomato and the tobacco hornworms.
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Other locations are marshes, swamps, and any wet habitats. Cuscuta compacta can parasitize both herbaceous and but especially specialize on woody hosts. Cuscuta is highly diverse being found all over the world yet majority of this genus is in the Americas.
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Crop rotation with small grains is also another management tool for Paratylenchus hamatus since they typically parasitize on fruit and vegetable crops. For post-planting control some non-fumigant nematicides can be used, but the effectiveness is not always consistent.
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Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by absorption (osmotrophy), while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa and in particular on other ciliates. Some ciliates parasitize animals, although only one species, Balantidium coli, is known to cause disease in humans.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1979.Telford S.R. Jr. (1979) A malarial parasite of Australian skinks, Plasmodium mackerrasae sp. n. J. Parasitol. 65(3):409-413 Both schizonts and gametocytes parasitize all cells in the erythrocyte series.
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Calolydella is a genus of parasitoid flies in the family Tachinidae. This genus has been shown to primarily parasitize multiple species of caterpillars across a wide variety of families (Lepidoptera: Crambidae; Erebidae; Geometridae; Hesperiidae; Lycaenidae; Nymphalidae; Pieridae; Riodinidae; and Sphingidae).
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The Syngamidae are a family of nematodes which commonly parasitize mammals, birds, and rarely humans.Anderson RC, Chabaud AG, Willmott S. CIH keys to the nematode parasites of vertebrates, no 7. Keys to genera of superfamily Strongyloidea. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, England, 1980.
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To test this hypothesis, researchers examined how each species utilized the host ants. M. schencki and M. sabuleti are parasitized by P. rebeli while M. salina and M. vandeli are parasitized by P. alcon. M. scabrinodis is parasitized by both P. rebeli and P. alcon; however, P. alcon is far more likely than P. rebeli to parasitize M. scabrinodis. Researchers found that in general, P. alcon was far more likely to parasitize the host ant than P. rebeli; however, ant nests that supported P. alcon were much smaller and supported lower populations than ant nests that supported P. rebeli.
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Parasitoids lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as a food for developing larvae. The host is ultimately killed. Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies, and many have a very narrow host range. The most important groups are the ichneumonid wasps, which mainly use caterpillars as hosts; braconid wasps, which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including aphids; chalcid wasps, which parasitize eggs and larvae of many insect species; and tachinid flies, which parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, beetle adults and larvae, and true bugs.
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Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 11: 1-300.Gavin Broad (1966) Identification key to the subfamilies of Ichneumonidae Pimplinae are parasitoids of Endopterygota, often the pupae of Lepidoptera. Various species parasitize the egg sacs and adults of spiders. There are 95 genera.
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Stings are rare due to their usually peaceful nature, however nests are aggressively defended. A common species of cuckoo wasp, Chrysis angolensis, is frequently a cleptoparasite in Sceliphron nests, and is only one of many different insects that parasitize these mud daubers.
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Species within this genus are known to parasitize a wide variety of mammalian hosts including humans, monkeys, chimpanzees, apes, and pigs. Bird hosts, as seen in ostriches, rheas, chickens and geese, as well as invertebrate hosts such as insects have also been documented.
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Fungi able to parasitize ants were also included in the transfer, such as Cordyceps unilateralis which was later renamed Ophiocordyceps unilateralis. Following this study, multiple traits such as the production of darkly pigmented, hard to flexible stromata were defined as characteristics of the family Ophiocordycipitaceae.
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After oviposition, the parasite closes the brood cells to prevent the host female from returning and replacing the parasite eggs. Because the parasites in the genus Sphecodes parasitize a broad range of other bee species, few adaptations to the specific L. malachurum bee colonies exist.
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Blister beetles (Tricrania sanguinipennis) parasitize Colletes validus nests. Adult beetles lay eggs in sand that hatch into triungulin larvae. Larvae actively seek out adult bees in order to be transported down into the bee nest. A variety of arthropods prey on C. validus nests.
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Chaclid wasps parasitize pupae, attacking at the prepupal stage and eclosing from the pupae. The presence of attendant ants has been shown to protect against the brachonid wasp and the trichogrammatid wasp in certain sites, but it does not decrease the parasitism of chaclid wasps.
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Trypanorhynch cestodes are parasitic in fish. Their scolex shows four tentacles which are covered by spines. These tentacles help the adult cestode to attach to the intestine of the shark or ray that they parasitize. The same tentacles are also present in the larvae.
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Durikainema is a genus of two nematodes in the family Robertdollfusidae. Species have a head with a cuticular cephalic inflation, elongated papillae and amphids, and well-developed musculature. Characteristics of the males include a single spicule and a long attenuated tail. Durikainema species parasitize macropods.
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Redescription of all Parasitic Stages of H.(Euhyalomma) dromedarii and H. (E.) schulzei (Acari: Ixodidae) This species is closely associated with camels, that are the main hosts of the adults, which may also parasitize other domestic animals. Nymphs and larvae are associated with the same hosts, but can also parasitize rodents, hedgehogs and birds. This species is ascribed with spreading the virus that causes the life-threatening Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever.Logan TM, Linthicum KJ, Bailey CL, Watts DM, Dohm DJ, Moulton JR Replication of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in four species of ixodid ticks (Acari) infected experimentally The bites cause the surrounding tissue to die and become necrotic.
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Because of the irreparable damage to their host plants, these moths are treated largely as pests and species control practices are undertaken by those within the agricultural industry. While there are limited means of chemically controlling the species, one method of population reduction has been the use of wasp species that parasitize the eggs of the cabbage moth. Various wasp species are known to parasitize cabbage moths at different stages of its life cycle, from egg to pupa. Controlled introduction of wasp species to fields has been able to effectively increase the rate of parasitism from just 15% to 93%, significantly reducing the population of cabbage moths in the field.
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Diolcogaster is a genus of parasitoid wasps within the subfamily Microgastrinae of the family Braconidae. The genus is poorly studied, likely with multiple undescribed species. The type species is Diolcogaster melligaster (Provancher, 1886), formerly Microgaster melligaster. Species in this genus parasitize lepidopterans and are geographically widespread.
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The nematodes are unusual in that they parasitize adult bogong moths instead of the more commonly utilized larval host stage. The nematodes' life cycles demonstrate an adaptation to the migration of the bogong moths, as they are dependent on bogong moths returning to the same aestivation sites.
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A mimivirus with two satellite Sputnik virophages (arrows) Duponchel, S. and Fischer, M.G. (2019) "Viva lavidaviruses! Five features of virophages that parasitize giant DNA viruses". PLoS pathogens, 15(3). . 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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Meloidogyne hapla can be controlled using their natural enemies. Common biological controls of nematodes are fungi and bacteria. Some fungi use mycelial traps or sticky spores to catch nematodes while other fungi parasitize eggs and females. Bacteria consume juvenile nematodes by attaching and penetrating the cuticle.
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Three different fungi have been observed to parasitize the resting sporangia. S. endobioticum originates from the Andean region of South-America, with now almost worldwide distribution in areas where potatoes are cultivated (absent in most of tropical Africa, Middle East, most of Canada, Japan and Australia).
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Tachinid flies also parasitize the Asian Corn Borer, a moth pest of maize commonly found in East Asia. This has allowed them to be used as biological control agents by farmers. Due to the lack of specificity in choosing hosts Tachinidae are considered generalist biological control agents.
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Some birds and toads will eat odorous house ants on occasion. Wheeler (1916) mentions Bothriomyrmex dimmocki as a possible parasite of odorous house ant colonies, suggesting that B. dimmocki queens invade and replace T. sessile queens. Isobrachium myrmecophilum (a small wasp) appears to parasitize odorous house ants.
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The ischnoceran louse Austrophilopterus cancellosus is suspected to parasitize all species of Ramphastos toucans. Its presence has been confirmed on all species except the citron-throated toucan.Price, Roger D. & Weckstein, Jason D. (2005). The genus Austrophilopterus Ewing (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) from toucans, toucanets, and araçaris (Piciformes: Ramphastidae).
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It has been noted to parasitize species not native to the ecosystem, as well as an anadromous species.Gray, E. V., et al. (2002). Host identification for Strophitus undulatus (Bivalvia: Unionidae), the creeper, in the Upper Susquehanna River Basin, Pennsylvania. American Midland Naturalist 147:1 153-61.
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Euphorines are solitary or rarely gregarious koinobiont endoparasitoids. Unlike most other parasitoid wasps, Euphorinae have a broad host range and attack adult insects or nymphs of hemimetabolous insects. Wasps of the tribe Dinocampini parasitize adult beetles. Its four genera are Dinocampus Foerster, Ropalophorous Curtis, Centistina Enderlein, and Betelgeuse.
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Strongyloides stercoralis is a human pathogenic parasitic roundworm causing the disease strongyloidiasis. Its common name in the US is threadworm. In the UK and Australia, however, the term threadworm can also refer to nematodes of the genus Enterobius, otherwise known as pinworms. The Strongyloides stercoralis nematode can parasitize humans.
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The Anoplura (sucking lice) parasitize only mammals. The body of a louse is dorsoventrally flattened and the eyes are absent or nearly so. The legs are strong for holding onto fur or feathers of the host. Amblycera have chewing mouthparts, and Anoplura have true sucking mouthparts with stylets.
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Fessisentis is a genus of parasitic spiny-headed (or thorny-headed) worms. It is the only genus in the family Fessisentidae. This genus contains six species that are distributed across the Eastern continental United States as far west as Oklahoma and Wisconsin. These worms parasitize salamanders and fish.
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Though it can survive on its own, studies indicate a forty-fold growth increase when its roots parasitize those of another plant for nutrients. It is primarily pollinated by ruby-throated hummingbirds who can transfer the pollen long distances between typically small and scattered populations of this plant.
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C. glomerata and C. rubecula feed on the cabbage white and other white butterfly caterpillars. C. gonopterygis and C. risilis are host-specific and parasitize the common brimstone.Lozan, Aurel; Spitzer, Karel; Jaroš, Josef (2012-06-01). "Isolated peat bog habitats and their food connections: parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonoidea) and their lepidopteran hosts".
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Host cell nuclei may be displaced, but are not distorted, except slightly by pressure from the parasite. The asexual stages parasitize all cells in the erythrocyte series. In heavy infections the parasites occur predominantly in erythroblasts and their precursors. Schizonts are rounded with 6–14 nuclei arranged peripherally as a rosette.
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Bucephalidae is a family of trematodes that parasitize fish. They lack suckers, having instead a muscular organ called a "rhynchus" at the front end which they use to attach to their hosts. The characteristics of the rhynchus are used to help define the genera of the family.Hassanine, R. M. E. (2002).
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G. mellonella larvae parasitize the honeybee. Eggs are laid in the cracks and crevices inside the hive, which minimizes egg detection. Once eggs hatch, they feed on the midrib of the wax comb, the cast skins of bee larvae, pollen, and small quantities of propolis and honey. Live larvae are never eaten.
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Brachycoma sarcophagina is an ectoparasitoid that will consume B. bimaculatus bees from the outside. Female B. sarcophagina deposit young larvae on B. bimaculatus larvae. B. sarcophagina larvae will not begin consuming their host until the host has begun spinning its cocoon. Tracheal mites, will parasitize multiple Bombus species, but strongly prefer B. bimaculatus.
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Larvae of lycaenid butterflies that parasitize ant colonies provide exceptions to normal insect growth rules. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Vol 73: 259-278. This is strategically placed so the newborn caterpillars will have an immediate source of food and are proximal to the host ants that will later adopt them.
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Kudoa is a genus of Myxozoa and the only genus recognized within the monotypic family Kudoidae. There are approximately 100 species of Kudoa all of which parasitize on marine and estuarine fish. Kudoa are most commonly known and studied for the negative effects the genus has on commercial fishing and aquaculture industries.
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Migrant 22:44. At least some mammals also feed on adult eastern towhees. In Maryland, an eastern towhee was found in the stomach contents of a red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Brown- headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) parasitize eastern towhee nests. In a South Carolina old field, 5 of 19 eastern towhee nests were parasitized.
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Natural enemies of tessaratomids include several tiny parasitoid wasps as well as other hemipterans. Parasitoid wasps that parasitize tessaratomids usually come from the families Eupelmidae, Scelionidae, and Encyrtidae. Adult female parasitoid wasps will search out eggs laid by tessaratomoids. Upon finding some, they will thrust their ovipositors into them and lay eggs inside.
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All known fairyflies are parasitoids of eggs of other insects. These eggs are commonly laid in concealed locations, such as in plant tissues or underground. They do not seem to be species- specific when it comes to choosing hosts. Some species are known to parasitize insects from several families of a single order.
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Furthermore, M. schencki ants cannot distinguish the physical differences between the P. rebeli larvae and other non-kin brood because the P. rebeli larvae are far more similar to the M. schencki larvae than to any other ant species larvae. P. rebeli live in different habitats; therefore, they do not parasitize the same Myrmica ant species. Through observation and experimentation, researchers found that if P. rebeli try to parasitize a different Myrmica ant species than the one they normally do, the Myrmica ants will identify the P. rebeli larvae as intruders and will kill 100% of the P. rebeli larvae. The differences between the P. rebeli are that they synthesize different hydrocarbons, which allow them to mimic different species of Myrmica ants.
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Proteocephalidae is a diverse family tapeworms with nearly 300 recognized species in 66 genera and 13 subfamilies, whose species are found in every continent. They are mainly parasites of siluriforms and other freshwater fishes, but also parasitize reptiles and amphibians. A typical proteocephalid life cycles include planktonic crustaceans, and small fish as intermediate hosts.
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Balanophoraceae and Hydnoraceae are root parasitic rather primitive dicots but not closely related. Possibly, the Oxycorynini which feed on them shifted to these plants from the ones parasitized. It is likely that the initial host switch was to Balanophoraceae, but these parasitize a wide range of trees so little more can be said at present.
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Chrysura is a genus of cuckoo wasps which parasitize megachilid bees. There are 117 species in Chrysura, all but 11 of which are found in the Palaearctic. The genus was described by Dahlbom in 1845, and the type species for the genus is Chrysura austriaca. It is the third largest genus in the family Chrysididae.
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Centrorhynchidae is a family of parasitic worms. Three species of these thorny-headed worms in the genus Centrorhynchus were found to parasitize birds of prey and owls Slovakia. These hosts include Buteo buteo, Buteo rufinus, Falco tinnunculus, Asio otus, Strix aluco, Strix uralensis and Tyto alba.Komorová, P., Špakulová, M., Hurníková, Z., & Uhrín, M. (2015).
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Andrena vaga male bee, with Stylops sp. mating on its abdomen male Stylops melittae is a species of the order Strepsiptera of flying insects, that parasitize various species of sand bees (Andrena).Bleidorn, Christoph; Feitz, Fernand; Schneider, Nico; Venne, Christian. Zum Vorkommen von Stylops melittae Kirby, 1802 (Insecta, Strepsiptera) in Luxemburg Bull. Soc. Nat. luxemb.
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Corsia is a little-studied plant genus from the monocotyledon family Corsiaceae. It was first described in 1877 by Italian naturalist Odoardo Beccari and contains 25 species, all of which lack chlorophyll and parasitize fungi for nutrition. All 25 species are distributed through New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands and Queensland, Australia.
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The lesions were found to be granulomas caused by the serow's immune system. There is concern about the overlapping serow habitat with sheep. Many other parasitic nematodes belonging to the same genus also parasitize sheep-like animals i.e. P. stilesi and P. rushi in bighorn sheep, P. rufescens in mouflons, and P. rupicaprae in chamois.
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P. occidentalis wasps are parasitized by gregarines, a protozoan that can either be harmless or burdensome without being lethal. P. occidentalis is parasitized by these mostly during the wet season. When gregarines parasitize this species, it lowers foraging rates, along with changing other aspects of life. Nests infected by parasites are smaller, with fewer combs.
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Pp. 1193-1269 in McAlpine, J.F., Peterson, B.V., Shewell, G.E., Teskey, H.J., Vockeroth, J.R. and D.M. Wood (eds.), Manual of Nearctic Diptera. Volume 2. Agriculture Canada Monograph 28: i-vi, 675-1332.) and deposit a hatching larva onto the host. For example, this occurs in Tachinidae species which parasitize the butterfly Danaus chrysippus in Ghana.
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Some Doryctinae are known to form galls on plants similar to the Mesostoinae (a small subfamily endemic to Australia). Some species in the genus Allorhogas feed on seeds. The large majority of doryctines are idobiont ectoparasitoids of the larvae of wood- boring beetles - such as jewel beetles (Buprestidae). Some species parasitize lepidopteran or symphytan larvae.
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Rossomyrmex is one of two obligate slave-making genera in the subfamily Formicinae, the other being Polyergus. Both genera evolved slave- making behavior independently and are close phylogenetic relatives. However, they are more closely related to the genera they parasitize than to each other, and Rossomyrmex is more closely related to Cataglyphis than to Polyergus.
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G. mellonella larvae parasitize wild honeybees. Eggs are laid within the hive, and the larva that hatch tunnel through the honeycombs that contain honeybee larva and their honey stores. The tunnels they create are lined with silk, which entangles and starves emerging bees, a phenomenon known as galleriasis. Tunnels also result in massive destruction of the combs.
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Mites were recovered from the autosomal air sacs of bumble bees. These mites can affect behavior and reduce longevity, which may cause further stress to colonies already facing difficulties. Conopid flies also parasitize B. bimaculatus. Male bees were less likely to be parasitized than workers, and larger bees were more likely to be parasitized than smaller bees.
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These wasps fly from late May to early October. They mainly parasitize hymenoptera in the Apidae family (Ceratina), Colletidae family (Hylaeus), Megachilidae family (Anthidium) and in the Crabronidae family (Pemphredon lethifera, Pemphredon unicolor, Passaloecus gracilis, Passaloecus turionum, Passaloecus brevicornis, Rhopalum coarctatum, Psenulus and Trypoxylon). Larvae mainly can be found in blackberry and raspberry branches and dead wood.
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Conoidasida is a class of parasitic alveolates in the phylum Apicomplexa. The class was defined in 1988 by Levine and contains two subclasses – the coccidia and the gregarines. All members of this class have a complete, hollow, truncated conoid. Gregarines tend to parasitize invertebrates with the mature gamonts being extracellular, the coccidia mostly infect vertebrates and have intracellular gamonts.
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The primary predators of this species are diurnal birds of prey, such as falcons and hawks. During nesting, corvids, grackles, housecats, or rat snakes will prey on their eggs. Cowbirds rarely parasitize mourning dove nests. Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests, and the mourning dove's vegetarian diet is unsuitable for cowbirds.
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However, the composition between V. maculifrons and V. squamosa is very similar. This occurrence is advantageous to V. squamosa because the species is a social parasite of V. maculifrons, and their similar hydrocarbon compositions can act as a chemical camouflage to help V. squamosa parasitize nests. Also, minor differences occur between the cuticular hydrocarbon compositions of workers and queens.
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Ophiocordyceps macroacicularis is an entomopathogenic fungus belonging to the order Hypocreales (Ascomycota) in the family Ophiocordycipitaceae, which parasitize moth larvae. It produces superficial, oval perithecia at the apex of its stroma, and also multiseptate ascospores, while producing Hirsutella- type anamorphs on growth culture media. They are particularly distinguished by the size and shape of their stroma.
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The organisms which parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. Certain species of the genus Pythium, which are oomycetes, have potential as biocontrol agents against certain fungi. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as Hypomyces chrysospermus, which grows on bolete mushrooms. Fungi can also become the target of infection by mycoviruses.
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The adult parasitoid wasps of this species fly from mid-June to September. They parasitize various butterfly species. These butterflies include the small engrailed (Ectropis crepuscularia), the privet hawk moth (Sphinx ligustri), the pine hawk-moth (Sphinx pinastri), the pebble prominent (Notodonta ziczac) and a number of moths (Noctuidae). The female wasp lays its eggs in the caterpillars.
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Polybia occidentalis, commonly known as camoati, is a swarm-founding advanced eusocial wasp. Swarm-founding means that a swarm of these wasps find a nesting site and build the nest together. This species can be found in Central and South America. P. occidentalis preys on nectar, insects, and carbohydrate sources, while birds and ants prey on and parasitize them.
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Only two families of parasitoid Hymenoptera parasitize eggs and larvae, the Eulophidae and the Trichogrammatidae. Other biocontrol agents of adults and larvae include anthocorid bugs of genus Orius, and phytoseiid mites. Biological insecticides such as the fungi Beauveria bassiana and Verticillium lecanii can kill thrips at all life-cycle stages. Insecticidal soap spray is effective against thrips.
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Z. percontatoria, like many parasitoids, is host specific with a narrow range. Z. percontatoria parasitizes members of the arthropod family Theridiidae. The specific host species for Z. percontatoria in a given area varies depending the species of the family Theridiidae that are abundant within that area. Spiders as hosts are able hunters making them difficult prey to parasitize.
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Omphiscola glabra can serve as an intermediate host for several digenean trematodes. In France, Omphiscola glabra is naturally infected with Fasciola hepatica, Calicophoron daubneyi, and Haplometra cylindracea.; in all, seven digenean species parasitize O. glabra in the Brenne Regional Natural Park, central France. Moreover, a report suggests that the species is also susceptible to Fascioloides magna infection.
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A protective web is spun to cover the eggs. When the larvae hatch, they drop down into the water where they develop until pupation. They use their mouthparts to parasitize Spongillidae freshwater sponges (e.g. of the genus Spongilla, hence the name "spongillaflies") and Phylactolaemata freshwater bryozoans by stinging into the host animals' body and sucking out cell contents.
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This helps them spread out so that they do not all encounter and parasitize the same host, which would cause competition for resources between the larvae. The larvae then begin to dig in an attempt to find a host (preferably a larval Cyclocephala signaticollis, a type of scarab beetle, though the larvae are not strict specialists and will parasitize several species of white grub), which will be located by the chemical cues provided by its own abdominal excretions. The larvae take 7 days to molt in the soil and enter the second instar, at which point they can detect and orientate towards the chemical cues produced by the grubs, and they dig through the soil towards prospective hosts. Upon finding a host, the larvae attach to the cuticle and begin to feed.
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Bovicola bovis parasitize cattle of any age and size and have not been documented on alternative vertebrates. The common places on the cattle that the louse can be found are the head, neck, back, and the rear end. These lice are obligate parasites, meaning they require the host to survive. Without the host providing both food and shelter, the louse would die.
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Pesticides can also accumulate in animals that eat contaminated pests and soil organisms. In addition, pesticides can be more harmful to beneficial insects, such as pollinators, and to natural enemies of pests (i.e. insects that prey on or parasitize pests) than they are to the target pests themselves.Gullan, P.J. and Cranston, P.S. (2010) The Insects: An Outline of Entomology, 4th Edition.
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A hyperparasitic microsporidian, Nosema podocotyloidis, a parasite of a digenean which is itself a parasite of a fish Microsporidia can infect a variety of hosts, including hosts which are themselves parasites. In that case, the microsporidian species is a hyperparasite, i.e. a parasite of a parasite. As an example, more than eighteen species are known which parasitize digeneans (parasitic flatworms).
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Some plants, known as myco-heterotrophs, parasitize mycorrhizal fungi, and hence act as epiparasites on other plants. Many plants are epiphytes, meaning they grow on other plants, usually trees, without parasitizing them. Epiphytes may indirectly harm their host plant by intercepting mineral nutrients and light that the host would otherwise receive. The weight of large numbers of epiphytes may break tree limbs.
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Cladosporium is a genus of fungi including some of the most common indoor and outdoor molds. Species produce olive-green to brown or black colonies, and have dark-pigmented conidia that are formed in simple or branching chains. Many species of Cladosporium are commonly found on living and dead plant material. Some species are plant pathogens, others parasitize other fungi.
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A new species of mites, Histiostoma halicticola, was discovered to parasitize H. sexcinctus in a study by Fain et al. In this study, the new species of mite was observed only in the deutonymphal stage. The bees harboring these mites were found in the “Döberitzer Heide” natural reserve, which is close to Berlin, Germany. The mites were found on both males and females.
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Thelazia is a genus of nematode worms which parasitize the eyes and associated tissues of various bird and mammal hosts, including humans.Otranto, D. and D. Traversa (2005) "Thelazia eyeworm: An original endo- and ecto-parasitic nematode." Trends in Parasitology 21(1):1-4. They are often called "eyeworms", and infestation with Thelazia species is referred to as "thelaziasis" (occasionally spelled "thelaziosis").
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Hydroginella is a genus of marginellid minute sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Marginellidae, the margin snails. Hydroginella caledonica (Jousseaume, 1876) can parasitize sleeping fishes of the families Scaridae, Serranidae and Pomacentridae at coral reefs in New Caledonia by night. This snail is able to inserts its proboscis in the fish fleash and probably pumps some body fluids.Bouchet, P. (1989).
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Cuterebra fontinella, the mouse bot fly, is a species of New World skin bot fly in the family Oestridae. C. fontinella is typically around 1 mm long with a black and yellow color pattern. C. fontinella develops by parasitizing nutrients from its host, typically the white-footed mouse. C. fontinella has even been known to parasitize humans in rare cases.
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These wasps migrate to high altitudes to mate and then proceed to overwinter in the same mountainous areas. In the spring, females move down the elevation gradient parasitize P. dominula, a lowland species. Once the P. semenowi female discovers a host nest, it attempts to usurp it. The timing of this usurpation is intimately linked to the emergence of P. dominula workers.
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Large fish such as dogfish and snapper make up the majority of the predators that usually prey upon Ovalipes catharus. Along with these predatory fish, larger crabs can also cannibalize younger paddle crabs. When it comes to parasites, nematodes and bryozoans are the main groups that parasitize these crabs. These parasites reach the highest density on mature crabs that no longer moult.
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Parasitoids and parasites of Polistes metricus tend to affect the colony at different stages in their development. It has been shown that C. pegasalis is able to infect a colony at any stage except the egg stage. C. pegasalis prefers to infect colonies that have larvae and pupae. X. peckii is similar because it prefers to parasitize larvae and pupae.
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Fairyflies have been used for the biological pest control of various crop pests. They are especially valued for their ability to locate the eggs of their hosts. Of the fairyflies, the cosmopolitan genus Anagrus is the most promising, as it can parasitize a wide range of hosts. At least ten instances of successful introductions of fairyflies to control pests are known.
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Groundcones are holoparasitic, meaning they depend entirely on a host plant for nutrients and contain little or no chlorophyll. These plants often parasitize alders but they are found on many other plants. Groundcones often look at first glance like pine cones lying on the ground, especially when they are brown in color. They may also be shades of yellow, red, and purple.
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F. cunicularia is a host of the slave-making ant Polyergus rufescens. Slave makers P. rufescens will raid to kill adults in the F. cunicularia colony and steal their brood to be raised to do domestic tasks. P. rufescens will choose to parasitize F. cunicularia over other choices even when available. A gland not unique to F. cunicularia is the Dufour's gland.
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Philornis is a genus of around 50 species of fly (Diptera, Muscidae) from Central and South America. Their larvae are subcutaneous parasites of nestling birds. They parasitize a wide range of bird species including macaws at the Tambopata research site. Nest of Neothraupis fasciata with parasitized nestlings by P. torquans Two species are also found in the southern United States.
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Dioctophyme renale eggs exhibiting the characteristic pitted and sculptured shell. D. renale is the largest nematode to parasitize humans. Adult male worms are 20–40 cm long and 5–6 mm wide; females can grow to 103 cm in length with a width of 10–12 mm. Both sexes appear bright red in color and taper at both the anterior and posterior ends.
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Trogus lapidatorThe Trogus lapidator (parasitic wasp) and other varieties of Ichneumoninae species will often parasitize Lepidoptera pupae as parasitoids. The parasite eventually emerges from the host pupae as an adult by slicing out a cap at the terminal end of the chrysalis and breaking through. In small heath pupae, staining can sometimes be seen around the cut site of the cap.
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P. tricuspis is widely distributed around Argentina, Brazil, and other parts of South America, Europe, and Asia. About two dozen species of the genus parasitize native fire ants in South America. Since its introduction to the United States, the species can be found across the country, but is concentrated along the south east parts, including Florida, Alabama, Arkansas, and Louisiana.
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Mites that infest and parasitize domestic animals cause disease and loss of production. Mites are small invertebrates, most of which are free living but some are parasitic. Mites are similar to ticks and both comprise the order Acari in the phylum Arthropoda. Mites are highly varied and their classification is complex; a simple grouping is used in this introductory article.
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Blister beetle larvae have been found in nests of M. portalis, making burrows between cells and devouring bee larvae. Nests may also be attacked by Solenopsis molesta, a type of fire ant, which takes pupae as prey items. Velvet ants (Mutillidae) in the genus Pseudomethoca, such as Pseudomethoca perditrix and Pseudomethoca toumeyi, parasitize nests with post-defecating pupae; other brood cells are left alone.
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Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum is a mitosporic fungus that causes the lethal disease of butternut trees (Juglans cinerea), butternut canker. It is also known to parasitize other members of the genus Juglans on occasion, and very rarely other related trees including hickories. The fungus is found throughout North America, occurring on up to 91% of butternut trees, and may be threatening the viability of butternut as a species.
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Kudoa parasitize on marine and estuarine fish. Kudoa typically feed on the skeletal muscle tissue, although some may feed on other parts of the body such as the central nervous system, heart, intestines, ovaries, or gills. Most Kudoa are histozoic parasites, however, a few species are coelzoic. The genus Kudoa attack a wide range of hosts, however, individual species only feed on specific hosts.
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The mycorrhizal fungus sometimes fruits singly, but more often in scattered or groups on the ground under pines and other conifers. Fruiting usually occurs in the cooler weather of later summer and autumn. In coastal California, however, fruiting occurs in winter. It is often found near Suillus luteus and Suillus brevipes, and is known to parasitize the mycelium of both those and the truffle-like Rhizopogon species.
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There are definite patterns of relationship with host plant groups and the rust fungi that parasitize them. Some genera of rust fungi, especially Puccinia and Uromyces, comprise species that are capable of parasitizing plants of many families. Other rust genera appear to be restricted to certain plant groups. Host restriction may, in heteroecious species, apply to both phases of life cycle or to only one phase.
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The musculature around the proboscis (the proboscis receptacle and receptacle protrusor) is also structured differently in this order. This genus contains six species that are distributed globally, being collected sporadically in Hawaii, Europe, North America, South America, and Asia. These worms exclusively parasitize birds by attaching themselves around the cloaca using their hook-covered proboscis. The bird hosts are of different orders, including owls, waders, and passerines.
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Chicks fledge 10 to 12 days after hatching. Most pairs raise two broods per year, and the male may feed newly fledged young while the females incubate the next clutch of eggs. The brown-headed cowbird may parasitize this species. Indigo buntings abandon their nest if a cowbird egg appears before they lay any of their own eggs, but accept the egg after that point.
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Botflies are known to parasitize humans or other mammalians, causing myiasis, and to use mosquitoes as intermediate vector agents to deposit eggs on a host. The human botfly Dermatobia hominis attaches its eggs to the underside of a mosquito, and when the mosquito takes a blood meal from a human or an animal, the body heat of the mammalian host induces hatching of the larvae.
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They occur worldwide, including Holartic, Central and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Asia. A more detailed map of Nomada sightings can be found in this citation. Nomada parasitize ground-nesting bees, and therefore, their habitats correlate with their hosts. Ground nesting bees nest in soil, either in open habitats or in ones covered with vegetation, with a good floral source nearby.
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Heterosaccus is a genus of barnacles in superorder Rhizocephala. Like other taxa in this superorder, they parasitize crabs. Geoffroy Smith circumscribed the genus in 1906; he initially only included H. hians. Smith circumscribed a genus distinct from Sacculina due to a difference of the mesentery; in Heterosaccus, the mesentery does not stretch down to the mantle opening but rather only is present on the ring of attachment.
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Scoliid wasps are solitary parasitoids of scarab beetle larvae. Female scoliids burrow into the ground in search of these larvae and then use their sting to paralyze them. They will sometimes excavate a chamber and move the paralyzed beetle larva into it before depositing an egg. Scoliid wasps act as important biocontrol agents, as many of the beetles they parasitize are pests, including the Japanese beetle.
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These flowers attract a wide variety of insects. While most insects are attracted to the nectar of the flower, bees seek both their nectar and pollen. These include 21 species of bees, 73 species of flies, 91 species of wasps,4 species of plant bugs, 5 species of butterflies, and 19 species of beetles. Two types of physodermas have been found to parasitize S. suave.
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They parasitize certain species of the fig wasp genera Apocryptophagus and Ceratosolen. The long ovipositor is pierced through the fig wall to infect the fig wasp larvae during their development inside the flower galls. Penetration of the syconium wall may last from 6 to 55 minutes, depending on the wasp and fig species. Ceratosolen wasps are key pollinator species, and their production is consequently reduced.
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However, the kleptoparasite might be injured by the victim in cases in which the latter defends its prey. Kleptopredation is the practice of choosing prey that has recently fed. Kleptoparasitism may be intraspecific (the parasite is the same species as the victim) or interspecific (the parasite is a different species). In the latter case, the parasites are commonly close relatives of the organisms they parasitize ("Emery's Rule").
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Three species of lice were found to parasitize the Guadalupe storm petrel: the menoponids Longimenopon dominicanum and Austromenopon oceanodromae, and the ischnoceran Halipeurus raphanus. The second also occurs on some other storm petrels, and the third was also found on the ashy storm petrel. L. dominicanum, though, has to date not been found on other birds and seems to be a case of coextinction.
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When stimulated by light, these turn on and off, causing rhythmic flashing. No neural pathway runs between the zooids, but each responds to the light produced by other individuals, and even to light from other nearby colonies. Communication by light emission between the zooids enables coordination of colony effort, for example in swimming where each zooid provides part of the propulsive force. Some bioluminous bacteria infect nematodes that parasitize Lepidoptera larvae.
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Compsilura concinnata has a negative impact on many species of Lepidoptera native to North America. # The fly is multivoltine while the main target for its introduction, the gypsy moth is univoltine. # Since the host gypsy moth overwinters as eggs, the parasitoid fly found non-target species in which to overwinter. # Due to its flexible life cycle, this parasitoid can parasitize more than 150 species of butterfly and moth in North America.
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Spruce bud moths are parasitized by wasps of the genus Trichogramma', a family of parasitic wasp that use smell to identify eggs to parasitize. The wasp begins parasitizing 14 days following the start of the process of hatching of the larvae and continues for around a month afterward. Egg parasitism typically begins 5 weeks after oviposition occurs and does not have any connection with the egg density at oviposition.
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Pests can be controlled by light traps, pheromone traps, hand picking, pruning, or application of several pesticides such as carbaryl, quinalphos, monocrotophos, fenvalcrate or cypermethrin. Larvae of the parasitoid Megaselia chlumetiae is known to parasitize shoot borer caterpillars by laying eggs on the integument of the caterpillar. Emerged fly larvae then enter the caterpillar and feed on its internal tissues. Finally the pupation occurs within the dead caterpillar.
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However, endosymbiontic Zooxanthellae inhabit a great number of other invertebrates and protists, for example many sea anemones, jellyfish, nudibranchs, the giant clam Tridacna, and several species of radiolarians and foraminiferans. Many extant dinoflagellates are parasites (here defined as organisms that eat their prey from the inside, i.e. endoparasites, or that remain attached to their prey for longer periods of time, i.e. ectoparasites). They can parasitize animal or protist hosts.
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705,138 bp). It ranks among the smallest bacteria found on the human body or in nature. It reveals a limited metabolic repertoire (complete deficiency in amino acid synthetic capacity), which may explain its dependency on the host and the necessity to parasitize it. It has been postulated that the dependence of TM7x cells on the host has allowed further genome reduction, in comparison to the other TM7 phylotypes.
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In the limited series Avengers/Invaders, it is revealed that S.H.I.E.L.D. Life Model Decoys have been partly replaced with versions of Ultron. When the original Human Torch appears in the present, they covertly parasitize the Human Torch's unique android physiology and become more human. The combined super teams (but mainly the Human Torch himself), however, discover the plan and destroy the androids.Avengers/Invaders #7–8 (February–March 2009).
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The life-cycle is thus complete in 13–20 days (at 30 °C). Certain species of Pseudorhabdosynochus parasitize groupers which show spawning aggregations, i.e. the adult fish gather annually at a precise location and meet other fish of their own species only once per year. It has been suggested that transmission of Pseudorhabdosynochus species occurs preferentially during these spawning aggregations, from older infected fish to younger, uninfected, fish.
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The Winthemia rufopicta, Voria ruralis, Archytas apicifer, Lespesia archippivora, Apanteles marginiventris, Campoletis sonorensis, and Peleteria texensis are species that have been found to parasitize P. saucia. However, one study in Oklahoma showed that the P. saucia was parasitized early in the season until larvae of other species became available for parasitism. Although parasitism does occur, it does not have a large enough effect to act as a method of natural control.
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The female mite attaches 5–7 eggs to the tracheal walls, where the larvae hatch and develop in 11–15 days to adult mites. The mites parasitize young bees up to two weeks old through the tracheal tube openings. There, they pierce the tracheal tube walls with their mouthparts and feed on the haemolymph of the bees. More than a hundred mites can populate the tracheae and weaken the bees.
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Aspergillus parasiticus was first discovered in 1912 by pathopathologist, A.T Speare from dead mealy bugs collected on Hawaiian sugarcane plantations. The species epithet, "parasiticus" is derived from the Latin word meaning "parasite" and was selected due to the ability of the fungus to parasitize other organisms. The fungus was originally classified as a subspecies of A. flavus called Aspergillus flavus subsp. parasiticus (Speare) due to its strong resemblance to A. flavus.
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S. megalocarpus is a necrotrophic parasite of mushrooms in temperate regions, though there are reports of it from ascomycetes. It can parasitize at least 98 different species and is itself parasitized by Piptocephalis virginiana. Syzygites megalocarpus is likely a faculative parasite as it can be grown on a variety of media, including bread, in the laboratory. Development of asexual sporangia and zygospores are highly dependent upon environmental conditions.
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Armillaria gallica may itself be parasitized by other soil flora. Several species of the fungus Trichoderma, including Trichoderma polysporum, T. harzianum and T. viride, are able to attack and penetrate the outer tissue of A. gallica rhizomorphs and parasitize the internal hyphae. The infected rhizomorphs become devoid of living hyphae about one week after the initial infection. Entoloma abortivum is another fungus that can live parasitically upon A. gallica.
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Physalopterid nematodes of the genus Abbreviata are major gastrointestinal parasites in many species of reptiles. Those that parasitize dwarf monitors include A. hastaspicula and A. levicauda; the former may specialize in Australian monitors. Depending on the species, more than half of all individuals collected from the wild may be infected, but in most cases the parasites do minimal harm. Various other parasites are also known, but in comparatively much low numbers.
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Tetrastichus planipennisi parasitize EAB larvae by drilling through the bark and laying eggs on its host. The hatching parasitoid larvae feed and develop on the EAB larva, resulting in its death. Tetrastichus completes at least four generations each year and one EAB larva can produce up to 127 Tetrastichus adults. Tetrastichus planipennisi survive the winter as larvae inside their host or host gallery under the bark of ash trees.
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P. atrimandibularis is a rare European species found mainly around the Mediterranean and Caspian basin. They typically position themselves at higher elevations, although it is not unheard of to find colonies at lower elevations. Accordingly, one of the species that P. atrimandibularis parasitizes, P. biglumis, lives mainly in montane climates in Southern Europe. They do not possess the ability to build their own nests, so they must parasitize other wasps’ colonies.
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The species displays extreme sexual dimorphism, where dwarfed males parasitize the larger females. Their specialized jaw has an anterior pair of denticular teeth that are longer than their posterior pair. Males permanently attach themselves to the ventral side of females with this specialized jaw meant for grasping a female mate. Once attached, tissue fusion occurs, permanently binding the mouth and one side of the male to the surface of the female.
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Members of the tribe Orthognatheliini (sometimes, incorrectly, called Groteini) parasitize solitary bees; Labium wasps are known to parasitise ground-nesting, solitary bees, while Grotea are known parasitoids of cavity- nesting, solitary bees. Species of Poecilocryptus are thought to be phytophagous, due to adaptations of the larval head capsule. However, as with much of the Ichneumonidae, knowledge of many labenine species' ecology, biology, and evolution is extremely limited or completely lacking.
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They fly mainly in the hottest and driest months of summer, preferring subtropical and Mediterranean climates. They favor dry areas and sandy soils; each species is confined to a narrow type of microhabitat where adults may rest or find hosts to parasitize, for example on bare soil or on dead wood where other solitary wasps have their nest holes. Some species visit flowers such as of the Umbelliferae, Compositae and Euphorbiae.
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Metasomal carapace of a Chelonine Phanerotoma sp. They are solitary koinobionts which parasitize Lepidoptera, especially Pyraloidea and Tortricoidea, but also other taxa whose larvae bore in stems, buds or fruits. Chelonines are egg-larval parasitoids, meaning they oviposit into a host egg, but the wasp larvae do not complete development until the caterpillar has hatched and matured. Chelonines carry polydnaviruses which aid in overcoming their hosts' immune system.
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Larval stages of the moth G. mellonella parasitize both wild and cultivated honey bees, in particular Apis mellifera and Apis cerana. Eggs are laid within the hive, and the larvae that hatch tunnel through and destroy the honeycombs that contain bee larva and their honey stores. The tunnels they create are lined with silk, which entangles and starves emerging bees. Destruction of honeycombs also result in honey leaking and being wasted.
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Couch proposed in 1938 that the symbiotic relationship between Septobasidium and scale insects was mutualistic. He suggested that at a population level, scale insects benefit from certain species of Septobasidium that provide protection from predators, and prevent desiccation. Couch also remarked that some scale insects remain uninfected while others are infected and rendered sterile. Some Septobasidium species provide no discernable shelter and parasitize all scale insects associated with the fruiting body.
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The motion helps to squeeze out the glochidia and it may help to attract fish hosts. Sometimes one of the glochidia will attach to a host while remaining attached to the conglutinate; in this case, the other glochidia in the structure may be dragged along with it and have an easier opportunity to parasitize the host.Watters, G. T. (2002). The kinetic conglutinate of the creeper freshwater mussel, Strophitus undulatus (Say, 1817).
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Chytridiomycota, the dominant parasitic fungal organism in Arctic waters, take advantage of phytoplankton blooms in brine channels caused by warming temperatures and increased light penetration through the ice. These fungi parasitize diatoms, thereby controlling algal blooms and recycling carbon back into the microbial food web. Arctic blooms also provide conducive environments for other parasitic fungi. Light levels and seasonal factors, such as temperature and salinity, also control chytrid activity independently of phytoplankton populations.
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Though P. rebeli is a parasite, it acts itself as a host to the parasitoid ichneumon wasp, Ichneumon eumerus. I. eumerus attempts to parasitize P. rebeli caterpillars within a Myrmica nest. The adult wasp searches for Myrmica ant nests by sense of smell, and responds strongly only to nests containing P. rebeli which it most commonly and successfully parasitizes. After locating an M. schnecki nest, the wasp enters only if it contains P. rebeli caterpillars.
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Fecal studies of the western giant eland revealed the presence of a newly found species Eimeria derbani, of genus Eimeria, which consists of Apicomplexan parasites. The sporulation lasted for two days at a temperature of . The species has been differentiated from E. canna and E. triffittae, which parasitize the common eland (T. oryx). The giant eland is also parasitised by Carmyerius spatiosus (a trematode species), Taenia crocutae and T. hyaennae (two tapeworm species).
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Screaming cowbirds are monogamous and form stable pairs for the duration of the breeding season. As obligate brood parasites, they do not build their own nests, and instead, parasitize the nests of other species, predominantly baywings. Most baywing nests are parasitized by the screaming cowbird with parasitism rates of 74-100% recorded. Parasitism rates of 5-20% have been recorded for the brown and yellow marsh bird and 46% for the Chopi blackbird.
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Incidental predation of Karner blue butterfly eggs, larvae, and pupae by white-tailed deer grazing on wild lupine can be substantial. Wasps are the most commonly reported parasitoids of Karner blue butterflies. A tachinid fly, Aplomya theclarum, has also been listed as a Karner blue butterfly parasite. Two wasps, one from the family Trichogrammatidae and another tentatively identified as a member of the family Eulophidae, are suspected to parasitize Karner blue butterfly eggs.
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Gyrostigma is a genus of botfly which parasitize rhinoceroses. The best-known species is Gyrostigma rhinocerontis, the rhinoceros stomach botfly, which develops in the stomach lining of the Black Rhinoceros and White Rhinoceros of Africa, and the adult of which is the largest fly known in Africa. Two other species are known. G. conjungens was discovered in the stomach of a Kenyan Black Rhinoceros in 1901, but has not been observed since 1961.
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There are many insects (and other arthropods) that affect human health. These arthropods include Diptera, Hemiptera, Thysanoptera, Phthiraptera, and Siphonaptera. They can parasitize, bite, sting, cause allergic reactions, and/or vector disease to humans. insects are good for it can be impossible to know the full impact that insects and other arthropods have on human health, Medical Entomologists worldwide are working to combat the known effects in order to improve public health.
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Although this species is a vector for many diseases, because it is mainly found in forests, primates are its main source of blood meals. Early studies of its populations suggest that when sampled in forested areas, it made up 95% of the caught species and only 50% in surrounding villages. When populations are high enough, Toxorhynchites mosquitoes can be brought in as a biological control as they parasitize africanus larvae in the shared breeding habitat.
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Ophiocordyceps myrmecophila has been noted as one of the more dominant entomopathogenic fungi of formicine ants in the tropical rainforests of Thailand. This species and others like it can parasitize multiple arthropod hosts. Although entomopathogenic fungi have been identified as a widespread organism, tending obviously to be found in similar habitats to that of their arthropod host; ubiquity of the host, as well as evolutionary cospeciation are key factors of host specificity and therefore location.
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On the other hand, female flowers on female trees have long styles. Therefore, these wasps cannot parasitize these ovaries because their ovipositors are too short to reach the bottom of the syconium. Because of this lack of depositing eggs in these female flowers, all female flowers on female trees produce seeds and none produce larva. Also, it is near impossible for wasps to emerge from a fig if they cannot perform oviposition.
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Belonogaster juncea juncea will typically feed and provide food to their larvae in the forms of either liquid matter or prey. Liquid matter primarily consists of honeydew and nectar from various species of plants. In order to obtain this liquid manner, they exhibit a relationship with Aleyrodidae (whiteflies) and can parasitize the various trees or leaves in order to extract fluids. Their prey includes various species of insects such as caterpillars, winged ants, and grasshoppers.
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Bees of the genus Nomada most often parasitize bees of the genus Andrena. Species of Nomada have also been observed parasitizing ground-nesting bees in the families Andrenidae, Melittidae, Halictidae, and Apidae. As is the case for other nomadines, this behavior violates “Emery’s rule” which states that social parasites tend to be either closely related to or sister species of their host. Nomada are guided by visual cues to locate host nest entrances.
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Species of the genus Nomada are highly variable in behavior and habitat specialization. Occurring worldwide, their active periods vary based on their hosts. There is evidence that most species of Nomada are species-specific to their hosts, and that males mimic the specific scents of the species they parasitize. However, not much research has been done to understand the specialization of Nomada, and it is known that some species are more generalist than others.
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Other lycaenids may parasitize ant-plant relationships by feeding on plants that are tended by ants, apparently immune to ant attack because of their own appeasing secretions. Hemipterophagous lycaenids engage in a similar form of parasitism in ant-hemipteran associations. In light of the variability in outcomes of mutualistic interactions, and also the evolution of cheating in many systems, much remains to be learned about the mechanisms that maintain mutualism as an evolutionarily stable interaction.
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For example, Trigona corvina workers have been found with mites attached to the outer face of their hind tibiae. Some are thought to be parasites, while others are beneficial symbionts. Mites also parasitize some ant species, such as Eciton burchellii. Lime nail galls on Tilia × europaea, caused by the mite Eriophyes tiliae Plant pests include the so-called spider mites (family Tetranychidae), thread-footed mites (family Tarsonemidae), and the gall mites (family Eriophyidae).
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Prosena siberita is a univoltine species. Adults are harmless nectar feeders on flowers of various plants (Clematis gouriana, Gnaphalium sp., Tecoma castanifolia, Seseli libanotis, Patrinia scabiosifolia, etc.).A.S. Desai, Tukaram Vithalrao Sathe, Prakash Bhoje Floral host plants of Tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) from Kolhapur and Satara districts, India Department of Zoology, Shivaji University, Their larvae parasitize the larvae of various "Sericini", "Melolonthini" and "Anomalini" scarab beetles (Popillia japonica, Adoretus, Anomala, Leucopholis species).
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Juvenile male Ecuadorian mantled howler (Alouatta palliata aequatorialis) with botfly parasites Botflies, also known as warble flies, heel flies, and gadflies, are a family of flies technically known as the Oestridae. Their larvae are internal parasites of mammals, some species growing in the host's flesh and others within the gut. Dermatobia hominis is the only species of botfly known to parasitize humans routinely, though other species of flies cause myiasis in humans.
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Adult Metagonimus yokogawai. Metagonimus yokogawai has adult flukes that parasitize the small intestine and causes inflammation. This species was discovered by Fujiro Katsurada with egg samples from Japan and Taiwan With this discovery, he was able to make a new genus of trematodes that this new parasite would fall under <"test" /> The size of these eggs are about 29 μm. Evidence also suggest that this parasite was present during the Yi dynasty.
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The larva of the fish louse has two main stages. In its newly hatched stage it has been termed a "metanauplius", like the nauplius of many other crustaceans, but with a swimming apparatus that is more developed. It may even be too well developed for the larva to be called a nauplius at all. The newly hatched larva can parasitize a host, attaching to it with its hooked antennae because it lacks suction cups.
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When a male bee arrives and attempts to mate with the mass of larvae, they climb onto his abdomen. From there, they transfer to a female bee, and from there to the bee nest to parasitize the bee larvae. Egg mimicry: cuckoo eggs (larger) mimic many species of host birds' eggs, in this case of reed warbler. Host-parasite mimicry is a two species system where a parasite mimics its own host.
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Ismarus is a genus of wasps belonging to the family Ismaridae, and presently the sole extant genus in the family (a second genus was recently removedV. Kolyada & V. Chemyreva (2016) Revision Of Species Of The Genus Ismarus Haliday, 1835 (Hymenoptera: Diaprioidea: Ismaridae) Of The Russian Fauna. Far Eastern Entomologist 318: 1-19.). About 50 species are known in this small relictual group, all of which appear to be hyperparasitoids that parasitize Dryinidae (that attack leafhoppers).
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B. cereus competes with other microorganisms such as Salmonella and Campylobacter in the gut; its presence reduces the numbers of those microorganisms. In food animals such as chickens, rabbits and pigs, some harmless strains of B. cereus are used as a probiotic feed additive to reduce Salmonella in the animals' intestines and cecum. This improves the animals' growth, as well as food safety for humans who eat them. B. cereus can parasitize codling moth larvae.
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Predominantly they feed on nectar or plant or animal exudates, such as honeydew, for which their lapping mouthparts are adapted. Some flies have functional mandibles that may be used for biting. The flies that feed on vertebrate blood have sharp stylets that pierce the skin, with some species having anticoagulant saliva that is regurgitated before absorbing the blood that flows; in this process, certain diseases can be transmitted. The bot flies (Oestridae) have evolved to parasitize mammals.
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Then they lay the eggs in the body of these larvae, that will be eaten by the newly-born wasps. Females especially parasitize larvae belonging to the family Megachilidae, genera Anthidiellum, Anthidium, Hoplitis and Osmia.Pietro Zandigiacomo, Filippo Michele Buian and Angela Bravin Reperti di Leucospis dorsigera (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Leucospidae) nella Pianura veneta orientale Larvae of Leucospis dorsigera also feed on larvae of Chelostoma florisomne and other larvae of Apidae (Megachilinae), Ichneumonidae (Xorides corcyrensis, Xoridinae) and Bostrychidae (Coleoptera).
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Cocoons of Cotesia species with the remains of a dead parasitized caterpillar Larvae of Cotesia glomerata emerging from a caterpillar of a Pieris brassicae butterfly The adults of Cotesia glomerata can reach a length of . This small braconid wasp is black, with two pairs of wings. It can parasitize a wide range of Pieris butterfly species as host, but the large white (Pieris brassicae) and small white (Pieris rapae)) are the main hosts. The adults feed on nectar.
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Coccidinium are endophytic, therefore live inside other organisms for the majority of their life. They tend to parasitize other dinoflagellates, thus are often found in aquatic environments, ranging from freshwater to marine. Coccidinium are able to inhabit environments with variable salinity levels as a result, though the exact range is not known due to insufficient research. Coccidinium, while carrying little relevance to humans, contain species that have other marine dinoflagellates as hosts and therefore are relevant to these protists.
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Of economic importance is Physoderma maydis, a parasite of maize and the causal agent of brown spot disease. Also of importance are the species of Urophlyctis that parasitize alfalfa. However, ecologically, Physoderma are important parasites of many aquatic and marsh angiosperms. Also of human interest, for health reasons, are members of Coelomomyces, an unusual parasite of mosquitoes that requires an alternate crustacean host (the same one parasitized by members of Catenaria) to complete its life cycle.
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Calls (recorded in Singapore) Song of male, India Immature female (nominate race) begging for food. The Asian koel is a brood parasite, and lays its single egg in the nests of a variety of birds, including the jungle crow, and house crow. In Sri Lanka before 1880 it was only known to parasitize the jungle crow, later shifting to the house crow. A study in India found 5% of Corvus splendens and 0.5% of Corvus macrorhynchos nests parasitized.
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Bracon hebetor, a parasite of C. Figulilelia Several hymenopteran parasitoids such as Venturia canescens and Habrobracon hebetor harm raisin moth larvae. Specifically, Habrobracon hebetor stings and in effect parasitizes raisin moth larvae during warm winter days when they are located under tree bark. However, this parasitoid will not affect them during warmer seasons or on host plant fruit, so it is not effective as a natural pesticide. However, it can be used to effectively parasitize the larvae during storage.
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Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources. www.fw.ky.gov/kfwis/stwg/VolumeII/Fish While the most noticeable causes of the species, decline result from anthropogenic factors, some biological factors negatively impact the Blacktail Redhorse. While the fish commonly falls prey to avian and mammalian predators, it also deals with multiple parasites; Eocollis catostomi, Pellucidhaptor orthacis, and Pellucidhaptor pterigynus parasitize the Blacktail Redhorse throughout its native range. Overall, habit destruction is the leading cause for the decline of the species.
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Physocephala tibialis is a species of thick-headed fly (family Conopidae) found throughout the eastern United States, often near flowering plants. The adult fly is primarily black with a yellow face and thin white stripes on the abdomen. It is commonly found along the east coast of the United States and is often found near flowering plants. P. tibialis flies parasitize many different species of bees by laying their eggs inside the abdomen of their host.
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A female Hydrophylita emporos on a female Psolodesmus mandarinus mandarinus. The Trichogrammatidae are a family of tiny wasps in the Chalcidoidea that include some of the smallest of all insects, with most species having adults less than 1 mm in length, with species of Megaphragma having an adult body length less than 300 μm. The over 840 species are placed in about 80 genera; their distribution is worldwide. Trichogrammatids parasitize the eggs of many different orders of insects.
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In the 1950s, screw-worms caused annual losses to American meat and dairy supplies that were projected at above $200 million. Screw-worm maggots can also parasitize human flesh. Entomologist Edward F. Knipling Bushland and Knipling began searching for an alternative to chemical pesticides in the late 1930s when they were working at the United States Department of Agriculture Laboratory in Menard, Texas. At that time, the screw-worm was devastating livestock herds across the American South.
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Furthermore they also visit Veronica spicata (Scrophulariaceae), Eryngium planum (Apiaceae), Jasione montana (Campanulaceae).La scolie hirsute (Scolia hirta)Teppner VH, Scolia hirta (Hymenoptera-Scoliidae) neu für die Steiermark, in Mitteilungen des naturwissenschaftlichen Vereines für Steiermark Bd. 138 S. 5–8 Graz 2008 These massive solitary wasps dig in search of larvae of beetles (Cetoniidae species, especially Cetonia aurata, as well as Scarabaeidae species). Then they parasitize the larvae and lay eggs in them for feeding their offspring.
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Nosema is a genus of microsporidian parasites. The genus, circumscribed by Swiss botanist Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli in 1857, contains 81 species. Most parasitise insects and other arthropods, and the best-known Nosema species parasitise honeybees, where they are considered a significant disease by beekeepers, often causing a colony to fail to thrive in the spring as they come out of their overwintering period. Eight species parasitize digeneans, a group of parasitic flatworms, and thus are hyperparasites, i.e.
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Plant pesticides, fly ash and lime have also shown promise as a natural pesticide. Another method utilized to suppress the population of O. arenosella is the augmentative release of pupal parasitoids. T. embryophagum, Trichogramma, Goniozus nephantidis and Bracon brevicornis are all known parasitoids of the species, and work by parasitizing the larvae at various instars. G. nephantidis and B. brevicornis both parasitoid wasps, parasitize third to seventh instar larvae, leading to the eventual shrivelling and death of the organism.
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Until recently, V. destructor was thought to be a closely related mite species called Varroa jacobsoni. Both species parasitize the Asian honey bee, A. cerana. However, the species originally described as V. jacobsoni by Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans in 1904 is not the same species that also attacks A. mellifera. The jump to A. mellifera probably first took place in the Philippines in the early 1960s, where imported A. mellifera came into close contact with infected A. cerana.
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Clark Thomas Rogerson, (2 October 1918 – 7 September 2001), was an American mycologist. He was known for his work in the Hypocreales (Ascomycota), particularly Hypomyces, a genus of fungi that parasitize other fungi. After receiving his doctorate from Cornell University in 1950, he went on to join the faculty of Kansas State University. In 1958, he became a curator at The New York Botanical Garden, and served as editor for various academic journals published by the Garden.
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A variety of species within the order Hymenoptera are parasites of the almond moth. Several parasites of the genus Trichogramma, including T. evanescens, T. cacoeciae, and T. brassicae are common among organisms in the order Lepidoptera and, as such, are known to parasitize almond moths. Trichogramma are very small wasps, and they will puncture the eggs of almond moths and leave their own progeny inside. These parasites will kill the larva inside and later emerge from the egg themselves.
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Queenless colonies therefore face a reproductive dilemma. Once a colony becomes queenless, some workers activate their ovaries within just four days and lay eggs in a last effort to ensure gene survival before the colony disappears via absconding behavior. In queenless colonies, worker policing decreases as all workers lay male eggs. However, the dilemma occurs when other workers parasitize a queenless colony and thus worker policing may be re- installed to some extent in this case.
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Ooencyrtus kuvanae attacks the eggs, but the effectiveness is limited by the ovipositor which can only penetrate the surface layer of the egg cluster. Anastatus disparis has limited success as a predator because it can only attack unembroyonated eggs and the female wasps do not have wings.Even so, Anastatus disparis is the only species that is known to occasionally affect the population dynamics of the gypsy moth. Apanteles melanoscelus and Phobocampe disparis parasitize the early larva stages.
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Brachymeria intermedia and Monodontomerus aureus parasitize the gypsy moth pupae. A parasite native to North America, Itoplectes conquisitor, attacks and kills gypsy moth pupae, but development of the larva is rare within the host and the number of attacks themselves is also low. Glyptapanteles portheriae and G. liparidis are both wasps that lay eggs on the gypsy moth larva. Study of the G. liparidis showed almost 90% success when the host is parasitized during premolt to the third instar.
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P. tricuspis is a species of the Pseudateon genus and a member of the family Phoridae, which is commonly called scuttle flies, humped-back flies, and phorid flies. Eight native Pseudacteon species parasitize native fire ants in the United States (Plowes 2009). The adult P. tricuspis flies are 0.9-1.5mm in length. The mandibles of the larvae are unable to chew or digest food and are instead used to aid in movement and anchoring within the host.
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Like other insects, Chrysomela lapponica is attacked by a variety of natural enemies, mainly other types of insects which prey on or parasitize the larvae. Chrysomela lapponica has developed defenses against such natural enemies. The larvae possess defensive glands filled with volatile compounds which deter attacking natural enemies and have antimicrobial activity. There are also differences in the chemical composition of these defensive compounds among geographically separated populations, apparently linked to the host plant the beetles feed on.
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Some experts hypothesize that the short lifetime of neutrophils is an evolutionary adaptation. The short lifetime of neutrophils minimizes propagation of those pathogens that parasitize phagocytes because the more time such parasites spend outside a host cell, the more likely they will be destroyed by some component of the body's defenses. Also, because neutrophil antimicrobial products can also damage host tissues, their short life limits damage to the host during inflammation. Neutrophils will be removed after phagocytosis of pathogens by macrophages.
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C. exigua is quite widespread. It can be found from the Gulf of California southward to north of the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador, as well as in parts of the Atlantic. It has been sampled in waters from to almost deep. This isopod is known to parasitize eight species in two orders and four families of fishes—7 species of order Perciformes: 3 snappers (Lutjanidae), 1 species of grunt (Haemulidae), 3 drums (Sciaenidae), and 1 species of order Atheriniformes: 1 grunion (Atherinidae).
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Heavy predation in the form of egg punctures, which result in total nest failure and nest abandonment, may also create new opportunities for screaming cowbirds in the form of new nests to parasitize. Screaming cowbirds deceive their main host, the baywing, with superb visual chick mimicry. In fact, screaming cowbirds are the only avian brood parasite to exhibit this trait. There are slight differences in skin and bill colour of nestlings but this is only present for the first 4–5 days.
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Once the caterpillars hatch, they feed on the honeydew produced by the aphids until they are second- or third-instar larva. These aphids are tended to by the host ant, C. japonicus, thus allowing the caterpillars to be near the ants they will soon parasitize. As the caterpillars become third-instar larva, they will develop the exocrine glands that are essential in producing the chemicals that aid in parasitizing C. japonicus. These organs include tentacle organs and a dorsal nectary organ (DNO).
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Hectopsylla is a genus of fleas in the family Hectopsyllidae that parasitize non-volant mammals, birds, and bats. The genus comprises thirteen species, six of which were described in whole or part by Karl Jordan between 1906–1942. Two of the species in Hectopsylla, H. psittaci and H. pulex, go under common names, with H. psittaci identified as the sticktight flea and H. pulex identified as the chiggerflea. Hastritter and Méndez (2000) consider the genus Rhynchopsyllus a junior system of the genus.
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The larvae gather in colonies and emit chemicals that mimic the pheromones of the female solitary bee. Larvae attach to the attracted males when they visit the false source of pheromones, and then subsequently to any female that male mates with. The blister beetle larvae then infest and parasitize the female bee's nest. Some species of Bromeliad treefrog (Scinax littoreus and Scinax perpusillus) carry ostracods (Elpidium sp.), which in turn carry ciliates (Lagenophrys sp.) from one bromeliad plant to another.
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Encarsia is a very complex genus, with specimens showing both inter- and intra-specific variations, making morphological classification difficult. The adult wasps, tiny insects about 1 or 2 millimeters in size, are primarily parasitoids of sessile stages of Sternorrhyncha, in particular whiteflies (Aleyrodidae) and scale insects (Diaspididae). A few species are known to parasitize aphids, eggs of shield- back bugs (Plataspidae), and eggs of Lepidoptera. Females mostly develop as primary endoparasitoids, and males are commonly hyperparasitoids of the same or other species.
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2007: 312 The gregarines Actinocephalus megabuni and Doliospora repelini (Eugregarinorida), and the mite Leptus beroni were found to parasitize on this species.Pinto-da-Rocha et al. 2007: 342,344 During a study of woodland in Scotland, they were found to be most active during March, June to July and December; in montane regions of Wales they only occurred in August, while they were found all year round in English woodland, with a peak from May to August.Pinto-da-Rocha et al.
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Brood parasitism can lead to brood reduction in different ways. Some brood parasites kill the eggs of the host species so that there is no competition for their own offspring. Parasitic nestlings can also cause brood reduction by out-competing the host species nestlings, or by simply killing them. Two species of cowbirds, the shiny cowbird, and the screaming cowbird, frequently parasitize the nests of the brown-and-yellow marshbird, resulting in an increased amount of brood reduction in this species.
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Genes regulating egg coloration appear to be passed down exclusively along the maternal line, allowing females to lay mimetic eggs in the nest of the species they specialize in. Females generally parasitize nests of the species which raised them. Male common cuckoos fertilize females of all lines, which maintains sufficient gene flow among the different maternal lines to prevent speciation. The mechanisms of host selection by female cuckoos are somewhat unclear, though several hypotheses have been suggested in attempt to explain the choice.
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Mating takes about a minute, and only one mating is necessary for a female wasp to successfully parasitize several dozen roaches. While a number of venomous animals paralyze prey as live food for their young, A. compressa is different in that it initially leaves the roach mobile and modifies its behavior in a unique way. Several other species of the genus Ampulex show a similar behavior of preying on cockroaches. The wasp's predation appears only to affect the cockroach's escape responses.
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Male trees contain female flowers with short styles. Due to the fact that wasps do not have very long ovipositors, they can only parasitize ovaries of these female flowers with short styles which are only found on male trees. All female flowers on male trees with parasitized ovaries with wasp eggs produce larva and no seeds. All female flowers on male tree with ovaries that are not parasitized with wasp eggs will produce seeds and will help pollination and reproduction of that flower.
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239x239px Molecular virology is the study of viruses on a molecular level. Viruses are submicroscopic parasites that replicate inside host cells. They are able to successfully infect and parasitize all kinds of life forms- from microorganisms to plants and animals- and as a result viruses have more biological diversity than the rest of the bacterial, plant, and animal kingdoms combined. Studying this diversity is the key to a better understanding of how viruses interact with their hosts, replicate inside them, and cause diseases.
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The pollinating fig wasp associated with Ficus microcarpa is Eupristina verticillata. In addition, 19 non-pollinating fig wasp species parasitize Ficus microcarpa figs. These fig wasps are from different families, which include those of the Eurytomidae and Pteromalidae families. In some parts of its introduced range, it is very attractive to avian wildlife: in São Paulo, Brazil, ten species of birds were listed as feeding on its fruits, especially Turdus rufiventris, Pitangus sulphuratus, Turdus leucomelas, Thraupis sayaca and Celeus flavescens.
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Euzetia is the only genus in the subfamily Euzetiinae, a group of flatworms which parasitize Elasmobranchs. As of 2008, only two species have been described in the genus, however others may remain undescribed. The genus consists of Euzetia occultum, which is the type species for the genus, and Euzetia lamothei, which was described in 2008. E. occultum parasitizes the Australian cownose ray, Rhinoptera neglecta, while E. lamothei parasitizes a different species in the same genus, the cownose ray, Rhinoptera bonasus.
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Moniliformidae is a family of parasitic spiny-headed (or thorny-headed) worms. It is the only family in the Moniliformida order and contains three genera: Australiformis containing a single species, Moniliformis containing eighteen species and Promoniliformis containing a single species. Genetic analysis have determined that the clade is monophyletic despite being distributed globally. These worms primarily parasitize mammals, including humans in the case of Moniliformis moniliformis, and occasionally birds by attaching themselves into the intestinal wall using their hook-covered proboscis.
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This suggests that the symbiotic relationships within this genus are complex, and merit further investigation. Additionally, no clear benefit has been demonstrated for scale insects associated with the fungus compared to free- living scale insects. The scale insect itself is a parasite of the host tree or shrub, resulting in a tri-partite symbiosis between the fungus, insect, and tree. The fungus itself does not parasitize the tree tissue and the scale insects do not need the fungus to survive.
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Teleomorphic species of the Tremellaceae are parasitic on other fungi in the phyla Ascomycota (including lichens) and Basidiomycota. They typically parasitize species that grow on dead wood of living shrubs and trees and it may be that their gelatinous fruit bodies are an adaption to such a periodically arid environment. The family is cosmopolitan in distribution, though individual species may be restricted to temperate regions or the tropics. The anamorphic yeast states are typically widespread and not restricted to host or substrate.
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The okoubaka tree is a hemiparasite meaning it is parasitic under natural conditions but is photosynthetic to some degree. It is known to parasitize tiama (Entandrophragma angolense from the mahogany family), African teak (Pericopsis elata from the legume family), Pterygota macrocarpa (from the mallow family), and baku (Tieghemella heckelii from Sapotaceae) with P. macrocarpa and African teak being reported as most affected. Seed mass is large and so seed dispersal has been hypothesized to depend on large forest animals such as elephants.
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Many species of Euduboscquella parasitize various members of the Tintinnids, which are bell-shaped ciliates. It is not certain if different species of Euduboscquella have preference for or reliance on a particular species of tintinnids as this is poorly studied. They are also parasites of other organisms such as other dinoflagellates. Euduboscquella enter their host by being phagocytized by the host cell, but subsequently resist digestion. Euduboscquella spend most of their life cycle within their host’s cytoplasm, where they grow and mature.
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Parasitoids have been found to parasitize B. rufimanus eggs: Chremylus rubiginosus and Triaspis thoracicus (family: Braconidae), and Dinarmus acutus (family: Pteromalidae). Their larvae develop into B. rufimanus larvae and adults emerge from the seed, leaving a small emergence hole in the seed (smaller than for B. rufimanus). Generalist predators on faba bean leaves such as spiders might feed on B. rufimanus eggs and contribute to their biological control although no data was found on their potential impact on the population size or growth.
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However, in some species its contribution is very nearly zero. For example, some species, such as Viscum minimum, that parasitize succulents, commonly species of Cactaceae or Euphorbiaceae, grow largely within the host plant, with hardly more than the flower and fruit emerging. Once they have germinated and attached to the circulatory system of the host, their photosynthesis reduces so far that it becomes insignificant. Most of the Viscaceae bear evergreen leaves that photosynthesise effectively, and photosynthesis proceeds within their green, fleshy stems as well.
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The majority of cuckoo species, including malkohas, couas, coucals, and roadrunners and most other American cuckoos, build their own nests, although a large minority engage in brood parasitism (see below). Most of these species nest in trees or bushes, but the coucals lay their eggs in nests on the ground or in low shrubs. Though on some occasions non-parasitic cuckoos parasitize other species, the parent still helps feed the chick. The nests of cuckoos vary in the same way as the breeding systems.
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Screaming cowbird eggs are spotted like those of their main host, the baywing, but do vary in shape, background colour and markings. Although this may be obvious when they appear in the host nest during pre-laying, they can be difficult to detect in a nest full of eggs. Screaming cowbirds can lay 6-20 eggs in a baywing nest but usually one pair will lay only 2 eggs in the host nest. Up to 12 female screaming cowbirds can parasitize the same baywing nest.
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H. balani parasitically castrates adults of several species of barnacles, including Semibalanus balanoides, Chthamalus fissus, Chthamalus dalli, and Balanus glandula. Rarely does more than one H. balani parasitize the same host, but under conditions of heavy infestation, a single barnacle may contain as many as seven H. balani individuals. Both the isopod parasite and its barnacle host are hermaphroditic crustaceans with a free-swimming larva and a sessile adult. H. balani is a protandrous hermaphrodite that develops into a female only after attaching to its adult host.
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Cuscuta pacifica is a slender annual vine with yellowish thread-like stems that wrap tightly around other plants. The leaves are reduced to tiny scales, and it possesses no roots because it is a parasitic plant, like all Cuscuta, and taps nutrients from host plants with its haustoria. The salt marsh dodder produces flowers with bell-shaped, white glandular corollas with five pointed triangular lobes. It tends to parasitize Salicornia, but also may be found on other species such as Jaumea carnosa and Grindelia stricta.
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These volatiles act as chemical cues to attract predators and parasitoids of the herbivore feeding on the plant as a defensive measure. Female T. rapae are attracted to these signals and use them to identify the location of Delia larvae. Once attracted to the infested crops, T. rapae females may use antennal searching, ovipositor probing, or vibrotaxis to locate the Delia larvae buried within the plant and lay their eggs within them. Trybliographa rapae may parasitize any of the three larval instars of Delia.
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Beginning in 1966, Pediobius foveolatus was imported to the United States to be tested for potential control of Mexican bean beetle. Initial testing determined that Pediobius foveolatus would readily parasitize the larvae of Mexican bean beetle, while leaving native, predatory coccinellids unharmed. In 1972, Maryland, then other states, began releasing Pediobius foveolatus to control Mexican bean beetle. USDA branches in New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware and Virginia released wasps throughout these states, focusing on areas with large soybean acreage and high Mexican bean beetle populations.
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Group foraging efforts known as "raids" are maintained by the use of pheromones, can be long, and employ up to 200,000 ants. Workers are also adept at making living structures out of their own bodies to improve efficiency of moving as a group across the forest floor while foraging or emigrating. Workers can fill "potholes" in the foraging trail with their own bodies, and can also form living bridges. Numerous antbirds parasitize the Eciton burchellii by using their raids as a source of food.
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The fluke, which is found primarily in tropical areas, infects mammals (including humans) via contact with water that contains schistosome larvae (cercariae) which have previously been released from the snail. Infection occurs via penetration of cercariae through the skin. Eighteen species of Biomphalaria are intermediate hosts for Schistosoma mansoni; seven species of the genus have not been tested for this susceptibility and nine species are resistant. Altogether about 30 species of parasites from Africa and at least 20 species from the Neotropics are known to parasitize Biomphalaria.
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To locate host eggs, adult females use chemical and visual signals, such as egg shape and colour. After she finds a suitable egg, an experienced female attempts to determine if the egg has previously been parasitized, using her ovipositor and antennal drumming (tapping on the egg surface). Females also use antennal drumming to determine the size and quality of the target egg, which determines the number of eggs the female will insert. A single female can parasitize up to 10 host eggs a day.
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Monotropa uniflora, an obligate myco-heterotroph known to parasitize fungi belonging to the Russulaceae. Myco-heterotrophy (from Greek μύκης , "fungus", ἕτερος ', "another", "different" and τροφή ', "nutrition") is a symbiotic relationship between certain kinds of plants and fungi, in which the plant gets all or part of its food from parasitism upon fungi rather than from photosynthesis. A myco-heterotroph is the parasitic plant partner in this relationship. Myco-heterotrophy is considered a kind of cheating relationship and myco-heterotrophs are sometimes informally referred to as "mycorrhizal cheaters".
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With over 850 species, the genus Nomada is one of the largest genera in the family Apidae, and the largest genus of kleptoparasitic "cuckoo bees." Kleptoparasitic bees are so named because they enter the nests of a host and lay eggs there, stealing resources that the host has already collected. The name "Nomada" is derived from the Greek word nomas (νομάς), meaning "roaming" or "wandering." Nomada parasitize many different types of bees as hosts, primarily the genus Andrena, but also Agapostemon, Melitta, Eucera and Exomalopsis.
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Eastern screech owls, timber rattlesnakes, bobcats, broad-banded copperheads, American mink, weasels, and striped skunks are known predators. A number of mites and some fleas parasitize the mouse but are rarely seen in their adult stage. The mite Glycyphagus newyorkensis in its hypopus stage does not feed on the mouse but simply 'hops a ride', and presumably drops off to reach adulthood in the nest.Whitaker 274 The mouse probably has a lifespan of two years but some individuals may live three or four years.
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The second juvenile (J2) penetrates zone of elongation by mechanical (stylet thrusts) and probably chemical (cellulase and pectinase) means. It moves between, rather than through, cortical cells towards root apex, turns at the meristem, and migrates back to the vascular cylinder in the zone of cell differentiation. Once the J2 is in the root, they migrate intracellularly to the provascular cells and begin to parasitize cells within 24 hours. The nematode initiates formation of the giant cell (also called a nurse cell) from potential vascular tissue.
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Lice have been the subject of significant DNA research in the 2000s that led to discoveries on human evolution. The three species of sucking lice that parasitize human beings belong to two genera, Pediculus and Pthirus: head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis), body lice (Pediculus humanus humanus), and pubic lice (Pthirus pubis). Human head and body lice (genus Pediculus) share a common ancestor with chimpanzee lice, while pubic lice (genus Pthirus) share a common ancestor with gorilla lice. Using phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analysis, Reed et al.
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Spiders will defend themselves and without an immobilization agent are difficult to parasitize. Mortality rates are highest in the egg and larval stages of the parasitoid wasp as well so they may die before they get the chance to finish their lifecycle. Also unless they are able successfully camouflage or protect themselves, predators in the environment can take advantage and kill them as well. With its parasitoid lifecycle taking a great deal of time, there is much that could go wrong resulting in mortality.
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The specific mechanism in which the tachinid fly lays the larvae needs further investigation. It was also found that the tachinid fly's attack triggers H. lucina caterpillars to separate from the aggregation by dropping off the host plant or inducing solitary status. In both cases, the tachinid fly then had an advantage to prey on the separated larvae that fails to rejoin the aggregation. Similarly, ichneumonid wasps do not only parasitize on H. lucina as there are reported incidents of H. maia getting parasitized.
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Tryzub is a far-right Ukrainian paramilitary organization founded in 1993 by the Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists (former Bandera faction of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists). Its full name is the Stepan Bandera All-Ukrainian Organization ″Tryzub″. It states that its main goal is to create a Ukrainian united independent state. According to Tryzub, its enemies in achieving this goal are ″imperialism and chauvinism, fascism and communism, cosmopolitanism and pseudo-nationalism, totalitarianism and anarchy, any evil that seeks to parasitize on the sweat and blood of Ukrainians″.
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Female E. mella flies are selective when deciding on what host to parasitize. Once a host is selected a female may oviposit her eggs on the surface of the host. Larvae then burrow into the host for the remainder of their development usually killing the host once they emerge during either prepupae or pupae stage of development. Experiments in these flies have suggested that they can learn from experience that influence certain behaviors as suggest them as candidates for biocontrol agents to control certain pests.
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Pseudacteon tricuspis (commonly referred to as a phorid fly or fire ant decapitating fly) is a parasitic phorid fly that decapitates its host, the imported Solenopsis invicta fire ant. There are over 70 described species within the Pseudacteon genus, which parasitize a variety of ant species. However, P. tricuspis is very specific to its host ant and will not attack other native ant species, making it a good biological control against the fire ant. P. tricuspis was also introduced into the United States for this purpose.
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Haemaphysalis hispanica is a tick species found in Europe. It is a relict parasite of the European rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus. It may have no role in transmitting pathogens to humans, but it is of importance in the epidemiology of certain diseases by maintaining the etiologic agent in a tick–vertebrate–tick cycle that can be intruded into by immature or adult stages of species that sometimes parasitize humans. H. hispanica is related to species parasitizing carnivores in Asia and Madagascar, and hyraxes in the Ethiopian Faunal Region.
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These lay diploid eggs ("thelytoky"), escaping normal worker policing, leading to the colony's destruction; the parasites can then move to other hives. The cuckoo bees in the Bombus subgenus Psithyrus are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts in looks and size. This common pattern gave rise to the ecological principle "Emery's rule". Others parasitize bees in different families, like Townsendiella, a nomadine apid, two species of which are cleptoparasites of the dasypodaid genus Hesperapis, while the other species in the same genus attacks halictid bees.
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Females often parasitize their own species, either stealing prey from nests of other females to provision their own nests, or in brood parasitism, removing the other female's egg and laying one of her own instead. Brood parasitism "appears to be a cheap and easy route to producing offspring", as it takes only about 30 minutes to switch eggs in an existing nest, but about 10 hours to build and provision a new nest; however, more than 80% of brood-parasitized nests were themselves parasitized by another female.
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Sea lampreys parasitize other fishes for their diet, including elasmobranchs such as sharks and rays, which have naturally high levels of urea in their blood. Urea is toxic to most fishes in high concentrations, and is usually excreted immediately. Lampreys are able to tolerate much higher concentrations than most other fish and excrete it at extremely high rates, obtained from ingested blood. Trimethylamine oxides present in ingested elasmobranch blood aid in counteracting the detrimental effects of high urea concentration in the lamprey's bloodstream as it feeds.
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While there is still some controversy over when and how many origins of interspecific brood parasitism have occurred, recent phylogenetic analyses suggest two origins in Passeriformes (once in New World cowbirds: Icteridae, and once in African Finches: Viduidae); three origins in Old World and New World cuckoos (once in Cuculinae, Phaenicophaeinae, and in Neomorphinae- Crotophaginae); a single origin in Old World honeyguides (Indicatoridae); and in a single species of waterfowl, the black-headed duck (Heteronetta atricapilla). Most avian brood parasites are specialists which parasitize only a single host species or a small group of closely related host species, but four out of the five parasitic cowbirds (all except the screaming cowbird) are generalists which parasitize a wide variety of hosts; the brown-headed cowbird has 221 known hosts. They usually lay only one egg per nest, although in some cases, particularly the cowbirds, several females may use the same host nest. The common cuckoo presents an interesting case in which the species as a whole parasitizes a wide variety of hosts, including the reed warbler and dunnock, but individual females specialize in a single species.
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There are two phases in the integration of P. rebeli into a Myrmica schencki ant colony: initial integration and full integration. In both stages, a P. rebeli caterpillar is brought into the brood nest; however, in full integration, P. rebeli also achieves its high social status within the host society. That status is crucial for surviving periods of host colony stress such as food shortage. Studies have shown that P. rebeli caterpillars benefit more when they parasitize a Myrmica schencki ant colony than a colony of any other ant species.
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Some hosts do not exhibit egg rejection behavior and the cuckoo eggs look very dissimilar from the host eggs. It has also been shown in a study of the European common cuckoos that females will lay their egg in the nest of a host that has eggs that look similar to its own. Other species of cuckoo lay "cryptic" eggs, which are dark in color when their hosts' eggs are light. This is a trick to hide the egg from the host, and is exhibited in cuckoos that parasitize hosts with dark, domed nests.
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Some jellyfish and turtles eat large quantities of ctenophores, and jellyfish may temporarily wipe out ctenophore populations. Since ctenophores and jellyfish often have large seasonal variations in population, most fish that prey on them are generalists and may have a greater effect on populations than the specialist jelly-eaters. This is underlined by an observation of herbivorous fishes deliberately feeding on gelatinous zooplankton during blooms in the Red Sea. The larvae of some sea anemones are parasites on ctenophores, as are the larvae of some flatworms that parasitize fish when they reach adulthood.
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One study found 22.5% of baywing eggs were punctured by the screaming cowbird. Screaming cowbirds can distinguish between their eggs and those of other species and laboratory trials have shown that screaming cowbirds will puncture shining cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) eggs more frequently than their own. The purposes of egg puncture behavior are not clearly understood but may provide the parasite with information on the embryonic development of the host eggs and therefore whether or not to parasitize. Egg puncturing may also be practiced to reduce nestling competition and to enhance survival of parasitic offspring.
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Nasonia are a genus of small pteromalid parasitoid wasps that sting and lay eggs in the pupae of various flies. The fly species that Nasonia usually parasitize are primarily blow flies and flesh flies, making Nasonia a useful tool for biocontrol of these pest flies. The small match-head sized wasps are also referred to as jewel wasps based on the emerald sheen of their exoskeleton (visible in the adjacent image). The wasp genus has acquired genes from the Pox virus and from Wolbachia in less than 100,000 years.
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Pedicularis densiflora is a perennial herb with stout, green or sometimes reddish or magenta stems and fern-shaped leaves, and long spikes of deep red to bright pink flowers with toothed petals. Like others of its genus, it is a root parasitic plant, attaching to the roots of other plants to obtain nutrients and water. This species is a facultative parasite, or hemiparasite, in that it can live without attaching to another plant but will parasitize if presented with the opportunity. It often parasitizes plants of the heath family, such as manzanita.
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Sarcocystis neurona can parasitize all regions of the central nervous system, including the anterior cerebrum to the end of the spinal cord. Clinical signs of EPM rely on the parasitzing of the CNS. As discussed above, S. neurona schizonts and merozoites are found in the neurons, mononuclear cells, glial cells, and possibly other neural cells. Studies in immune deficient, interferon gamma gene knockout (KO) mice fed S. neurona sporocysts, indicate the Sarcocystis neurona multiplies to a maximum extent in visceral tissue before being transported to the CNS via vehicles discussed above.
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Varroa mites parasitize all types of honey bees (workers, nurse bees, larvae) depending on their life cycle stage. During the phoretic stage, Varroa prefer to attach to nurse bees as this results in higher fitness leading into the reproductive stage. The mites then feed on larvae during their reproductive stage and increased fitness leads to an increase in mite fecundity (number of female offspring). Due to Varroas ability to feed on all types of honey bees, they are one of the biggest threats to colonies, especially over winter.
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Boschniakia rossica, commonly known as the northern groundcone, is a holoparasitic plant that lives in the northern latitudes of the northern hemisphere. In the Pacific Northwest Temperate Rainforest, it does not grow south of Prince of Wales Island, beyond that boundary is the Vancouver groundcone habitat. It does not contain chlorophyll, so it must be parasitic to obtain nutrients. It specializes on Alnus species, but can parasitize off of other trees and shrubs such as on Betula (birch), Salix (willow), Vaccinium (blueberry), Picea (spruce), and Chamaedaphne (leatherleaf shrub).
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When choosing where to lay eggs, the adult female P. betulae probes twigs in the upper part of the crown of host trees with its ovipositor and tends to select vigorous young shoots. The larvae do best on fast growing trees and the tree may be infected every year, leaving permanent marks in the timber. Once the tree reaches around thirty years of age its growth rate slows and infections diminish. Two species of braconid and one species of ichneumid wasp parasitize the larvae, laying their eggs in the first instar.
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In the Indian Subcontinent they have sometimes been found to parasitize the black drongo, the European magpie and possibly the black-headed oriole. Males may distract the hosts so that the female gets a chance to lay an egg in the nest. More often however, the female visits the nest of the host alone. The koel is not known to lay eggs in an empty host nest and a study in Pakistan found that the first koel eggs were laid, on average, within one and half days of the laying of the host's first egg.
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Moreover, macrophages possess a number of nutrient deprivation mechanisms that are used to starve phagocytosed pathogens of essential micronutrients. Certain microorganisms have evolved countermeasures which enable them to evade being destroyed by phagocytes. Although lysosomal-mediated degradation is an efficient means by which to neutralize an infection and prevent colonization, several pathogens parasitize macrophages, exploiting them as a host cell for growth, maintenance and replication. Parasites like Toxoplasma gondii and mycobacteria are able to prevent fusion of phagosomes with lysosomes, thus escaping the harmful action of lysosomal hydrolases.
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Paecilomyces marquandii is a soil-borne filamentous fungus distributed throughout temperate to tropical latitudes worldwide including forest, grassland, sewage sludge and strongly metal polluted area characterized by high tolerance in heavy metals. Simultaneous toxic action of zinc and alachlor result an increase in uptake of metal in this fungus but disrupts the cell membrane. Paecilomyces marquandii is known to parasitize the mushroom, Cuphophyllus virgineus, in the family, Hygrophoraceae. Paecilomyces marquandii is categorised as a biosafety risk group 1 in Canada and is not thought to be a significant pathogen of humans or animals.
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L. malachurum colonies are parasitized by the kleptoparasitic species of the genus Sphecodes. The bees of this genus have developed a strategy for invading the nest of host species that involves avoiding interaction with any host individuals. The parasites generally parasitize L. malachurum nests during the early spring when the foundress queens need to leave their nests unattended to forage. Other species enter guarded nests during the second brood cycle and kill the guard, as well all other present host individuals, before laying eggs in the brood cells.
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A Stigmus americanus wasp provisions its nest with paralyzed aphids, and places its eggs on the thoracic ventor and abdomen of the aphids in its nest. When an egg hatches, the larva feeds on the paralyzed aphid and eventually emerges from the aphid shell as an adult wasp. The cuckoo wasps Omalus iridescens and O. purpuratus parasitize Stigmus americanus (along some other aphid wasps) by laying eggs in live aphids at a hunting site of Stigmus americanus, which then paralyzes the aphids and moves them to its nest along with the embedded eggs.
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Extensive tests of the specificity of these parasitoids on native beetles and other insects were carried out. No-choice laboratory assays of larval wood-boring insects from China and North America showed they were capable of attacking other species of Agrilus, although success of parasitism was significantly lower in species other than EAB. S. agrili was only attracted to select species of Fraxinus and to Salix babylonica. In natural settings, S. agrili will be unlikely to encounter and parasitize non-target larvae as it does not search other tree species.
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When the eggs hatch the young larvae enter the body of the caterpillars (one larva per caterpillar) and eat them from the inside. In fact larvae are parasitoids of the caterpillars and larvae of other young insects, but mainly of moths in the families Noctuidae and Lymantriidae. In Britain afflicted species include the broom moth (Ceramica pisi), the dun-bar (Cosmia trapezina), small Quaker (Orthosia cruda) and common Quaker (Orthosia cerasi). They also parasitize caterpillars of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), the black arches (Lymantria monacha), and the pine beauty (Panolis flammea).
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The results of this experiment support echolocation distortion as an effective countermeasure. The parasitic fly Compsilura concinnata native to Europe was deliberately introduced to the United States throughout much of the 20th century as a biological control for gypsy moths. Due to its flexible life cycle, it can parasitize more than 150 species of butterflies and moths in North America. Researchers reported that when Luna moth larvae were placed outside for about a week and then collected and returned to the laboratory, four parasitoid species emerged, the most common being C. concinnata.
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Black-billed cuckoos generally build their own nests, weaving loose structures of twigs, dried leaves and pine needles about above the ground. However, in years with an abundance of food sources (such as outbreaks of periodical cicadas), the species may engage in brood parasitism. They can lay eggs in the nests of other black-billed cuckoos, called conspecific parasitism, or in the nests of other birds, known as interspecific parasitism. The females will usually parasitize nests in the afternoon because the nests are often unguarded at this time.
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Schistosoma is a genus of trematodes, commonly known as blood flukes. They are parasitic flatworms responsible for a highly significant group of infections in humans termed schistosomiasis, which is considered by the World Health Organization as the second-most socioeconomically devastating parasitic disease (after malaria), with hundreds of millions infected worldwide. Adult flatworms parasitize blood capillaries of either the mesenteries or plexus of the bladder, depending on the infecting species. They are unique among trematodes and any other flatworms in that they are dioecious with distinct sexual dimorphism between male and female.
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As a polyphagous and generalist fly, E. mella feeds on a variety of hosts. It has been recorded to parasitize the following families of caterpillars: Arctiidae, Noctuidae, Notodontidae, Lymantriidae, and Lasiocampidae. E. mella has also been noted by one study to be one of the core three parasitoids to account for the mortality of a variety of caterpillars. Some of these hosts, such as the Grammia geneura moth, have been observed to be able to fight back against parasitism by E. mella through a particular diet of plants, as well as surviving through adulthood.
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Both Stelis and Sapyga larvae spin a cocoon and develop in the Osmia nest. Several parasitic wasps attack mason bees by piercing the larva in the nest and inserting eggs into the body; the wasp larvae consume the bee larva / pupa. This includes several Chalcid wasps—the tiny black (2mm - 4mm) Monodontomerus species and brown Melittobia chalybii wasps, and the largish yellow and black Leucospis affinis. Monodontomerus can be a serious pest of O. lignaria, but Leucospis is less common and Melittobia is more likely to parasitize other later emerging Osmia.
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As the parasitoid's survival depends on its ability to evade the host's immune response, some parasitoid wasps have developed the counterstrategy of laying more eggs in aphids that have the endosymbiont, so that at least one of them may hatch and parasitize the aphid. Certain caterpillars eat plants that are toxic to both themselves and the parasite to cure themselves. Drosophila melanogaster larvae also self-medicate with ethanol to treat parasitism. D. melanogaster females lay their eggs in food containing toxic amounts of alcohol if they detect parasitoid wasps nearby.
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Compared to ticks and insects of domestic animals, the parasitic mites are of limited importance as transmitters (vectors) of pathogenic organisms to domestic animals. Some mites are the intermediate host of parasitic worms, but not defined as vectors because they do not parasitize a host. For example, free-living mites of the family Oribatidae ingest the eggs of Moniezia expansa tapeworm of sheep; the sheep then ingest the mites whilst grazing. As another example, free-living hay mites are a suspected reservoir for scrapie, a prion disease of sheep.
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Upon hatching, both parents feed the nestlings and remove faecal pellets. The chicks fledge after thirteen days, and leave the parental territory after a further two weeks. The success rate can be as low as 16% of eggs developing into fledged young, with nest failure, hot weather, heavy rain, human activity (including fungicide spraying and nest damage), egg destruction by brood parasites, and predation by brown snakes, cats, and currawongs, all recorded as contributing to brood failure. Among the species that parasitize the nests of yellow-faced honeyeaters are fan-tailed cuckoos, brush cuckoos, pallid cuckoos, shining bronze-cuckoos, and Horsfield's bronze-cuckoos.
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Mallophora ruficauda is a species of parasitic robber fly in the family Asilidae, endemic to South and Central America. Like other robber flies, M. rauficauda is known for its aggressive behavior and predation upon other insects, especially bees. M. ruficauda (like other members of the genus Mallophora) mimics a bumblebee to fool predators into thinking it has a painful sting and is not worth eating. M. ruficauda larvae parasitize scarab beetles and likely serve as an important biocontrol for the beetles, a pest species that eats the roots and tubers of plants while in the larval stage.
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This parasite has very minimal citations in scientific literature. Further research would be useful to form a more complete picture of life cycle of H. hyalinus which would allow researchers to better understand the mode of transmission of this disease. Furthermore, due to the specificity of H. hyalinus to parasitize the poisonous species ofAmanita, further research could prove useful in manipulating Amanita fungi. Although H. hyalinus does not currently have a large impact economically or socially, further research could make this parasite more important to society due to its relation to species of Amanita, which comprises both toxic and edible mushrooms.
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While it remains unclear what preys most on the species, birds, bats, and fish are all thought to prey on D. triton. The distinct camouflage coloration suggests that these spiders are preyed on by visual predators. Furthermore, pompilid and sphenoid wasps, which use sight when hunting, are thought to parasitize Dolomedes species. In a study focusing on the anti- predator behavior of females of the species, it was found that female boldness is positively correlated with female aggression for certain behaviors, principally aggression towards prey (crickets were used for the study) and pre-copulatory sexual cannibalism of courting males.
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The sensitive period in which birds must be exposed to song tutoring varies across species, but typically occurs within the first year of life. Birds in which song learning is limited to the initial sensitive period are referred to as closed-ended learners, whereas some birds (e.g. canaries; Serinus canaria), continue to learn new songs later in life, and are called open-ended learners. Some species of birds, such as the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), parasitize other bird species, laying their eggs in the nests of other birds such that the heterospecific bird raises the chicks.
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Haemonchus contortus is one of the most abundant infectious agents in sheep around the world, causing great economic damage to sheep. In contrast, entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects and are mostly considered beneficial by humans, but some attack beneficial insects. One form of nematode is entirely dependent upon fig wasps, which are the sole source of fig fertilization. They prey upon the wasps, riding them from the ripe fig of the wasp's birth to the fig flower of its death, where they kill the wasp, and their offspring await the birth of the next generation of wasps as the fig ripens.
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This family has tremendous economic importance because of the damage to crops caused by some species in the genera Orobanche and Striga. They often parasitize cereal crops like sugarcane, maize, millet, sorghum, and other major agricultural crops like cowpea, sunflower, hemp, tomatoes, and legumes. Because of the ubiquitous nature of these particular parasites in developing countries, it is estimated to affect the livelihood of over 100 million people, killing 20 to 100 percent of crops depending on infestation. Some genera, especially Cistanche and Conopholis, are threatened by human activity, including habitat destruction and over-harvesting of both the plants and their hosts.
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The genus Arceuthobium, commonly called dwarf mistletoes, is a genus of 26 species of parasitic plants that parasitize members of Pinaceae and Cupressaceae in North America, Central America, Asia, Europe, and Africa. Of the 42 species that have been recognized, 39 and 21 of these are endemic to North America and the United States, respectively. They all have very reduced shoots and leaves (mostly reduced to scales) with the bulk of the plant living under the host's bark. Recently the number of species within the genus has been reduced to 26 as a result of more detailed genetic analysis.
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In tropical forests, the ant species Camponotus leonardi lives in the high canopy and has an extensive network of aerial trails. Sometimes the canopy gaps are too difficult to cross, so the ants' trails descend to the forest floor where they are exposed to O. unilateralis spores. The spores attach to their exoskeletons and eventually break through using mechanical pressure and enzymes. Like other fungi pathogenic to insects in the genus Ophiocordyceps, the fungus targets a specific host species, Camponotus leonardi; despite this, the fungus may parasitize other closely related species of ants with lesser degrees of host manipulation and reproductive success.
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However, IL-10 has counterproductive effects on the immune system, and has been shown to actually promote infection by foreign pathogens. The role of IL-10 in bacterial and parasitic infection has been discovered as a strategy to evade host immune systems. There are bacteria which parasitize AMs by invading through their membranes, and thrive by growing and replicating inside of them, exploiting AMs as host cells. Normally, this infection can be eliminated by T-cells, which activate enzymes in alveolar macrophages that destroy the bacteria; but these bacteria have been shown to alter the cytokine signaling network to their advantage.
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The nests of many species of this wasp genus are invaded by the parasitoid caterpillars of the moth Chalcoela iphitalis which feed on the wasp larvae and pupas at night, spinning their cocoons in empty cells. Within the Polistes family are three known social obligate parasites: P. sulcifer, P. atrimandibularis, and P. semenowi, which parasitize other Polistes wasps. Known host species of these parasites are P. dominulus, P. gallicus, P. nimphus, P. associus, and P. biglumis. Although these parasites differ in their host invasion strategies, their end goal is to successfully infiltrate the host nest and reproduce at the host's expense.
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Diet and parasitism Wood boring beetles are their main food source from their larvae stage till they are fully grown Not much research exists into the diet of X. novozealandicus after emerging from its host, but adult parasitic wasps in general tend to feed upon nectar, pollen, and honeydew. X. novozealandicus, like all Ichneumon wasps are extremely beneficial to agriculture since they parasitize mostly pest species. These are some of few species of parasites that benefit humans through their parasitism. The Lemon Tree Borer, Oemona hirta, is a common agricultural pest that damages grape vines in vineyards and citrus trees.
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The probability of attack after the first bout of herbivory is low in the environment inhabited by I. aggregata. Due to the predictability of attacks, these plants have evolved to overcompensate for the damage and produce the majority of their seeds after the initial bout of herbivory (Edwards 2009). Another example involves endophytic fungi, such as Neophtodium, which parasitize plants and produce spores that destroy host inflorescences (Edwards 2009). The fungi also produce alkaloids which protect the plant from herbivores and so the plant may have evolved tolerance to flower damage to acquire this benefit (Edwards 2009).
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Although P. semenowi is a specialized parasite of P. dominula, it is also able to parasitize colonies of P. nymphus. Since P. semenowi is unable to create nests and produce worker classes, it is completely dependent on a host colony to fulfill these functions. Because P. semenowi normally attacks the host's nests just prior to worker emergence, it is surmised that such selection pressure might have impacted the developmental times in P. dominula to be shorter. It would be advantageous for the hosts to make their brood developmental time to be shorter so that they can rapidly generate workers and defend their nests.
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Siltation also degrades the quality of the water and exposes mussels to many more pollutants than they would naturally be exposed to. A study done in 1936 found that even one inch of unnatural sedimentation in the habitat causes high mortality rates in most mussels, including the Appalachian ekltoe (Ellis). Juveniles and reproduction are also seriously affected by even small amounts of sedimentation. When the clean, well-oxygenated water of the mussels' habitat gets a certain amount of sedimentation, the juveniles are not able to develop properly, because the silt clogs the gills of the host fish that they parasitize themselves on.
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The larvae then grow within the caterpillar and continue to feed on the caterpillar until they are almost fully grown, and at that point the caterpillar is killed. It is important to note that only one larva develops per host and the rate of C. rubecula is largely independent of P. rapae population size. C. glomerata is similar to C. rubecula in that both parasitize the host in either the 1st or 2nd instar. The main difference is that C. glomerata always kill the host in the 5th instar and multiple larvae can be raised within one host.
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An additional factor adding to the level of difficulty in ovipositing is that the spider is usually the same size if not larger than the wasp. The wasp has to be big enough to be able to handle itself in a battle with the spider and precise enough to oviposit an egg in the abdomen of the spider. If the wasp is not careful, it will get injured and/or be unsuccessful in an attempt to parasitize the spider. Z. percontatoria prefers female spiders because they forage more than males leading to increased nutrients that the host can provide.
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They are commercially marketed and sometimes found in grocery stores; they have been made available at markets in Oregon. They have a seafood-like flavor and a firm, dense texture. While edible, field guides note the hypothetical possibility that H. lactifluorum could parasitize a toxic host and that individuals should avoid consuming lobster mushrooms with unknown hosts, although no instances of toxicity have been recorded. One author notes that he has personally never experienced any trouble from consuming them and another notes that there have been no reports of poisoning in hundreds of years of consumption.
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Hystrichopsylla schefferi, also known as the mountain beaver flea and giant mountain beaver flea, is a parasitic nearctic insect belonging to the order Siphonaptera, the "siphon-wingless" (fleas). With an adult body length of as much as , it is the largest living flea in the world, and is native to the American Northwest. Though most members of the genus Hystrichopsylla are not strongly associated with any particular host animal and will parasitize insectivores and rodents generally, H. schefferi is monoxenously associated with the mountain beaver with which its range is coterminous. The fleas of the family Hystrichopsyllidae, along with the family Pulicidae, are the oldest of fleas in evolutionary history.
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Control methods include cutting at flower stem extension before the flower buds open to prevent seed spread. Repeated cutting at the same growth stage over several years may "wear down" the plant. Growing forages such as alfalfa can help control the species as a weed by frequently cutting the alfalfa to add nutrients to the soil, the weeds also get cut, and have a harder time re-establishing themselves, which reduces the shoot density. Orellia ruficauda feeds on Canada thistle and has been reported to be the most effective biological control agent for that plant.Moore 1975, Maw 1976 Its larvae parasitize the seed heads, feeding solely upon fertile seed heads.
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T. bryosalmonae has a two-host life cycle, as other myxosporeans, cycling between freshwater bryozoa and salmonid fish species, rather than an oligochaete or polychaete worm as for Myxobolus cerebralis. To date, T. bryosalmonae has been found to parasitize at last five freshwater bryozoans Phylactolaemata species belonging to the genera Fredericella and Plumatella, all considered to be primitive genera. Infected bryozoans release mature T. bryosalmonae malacospores during overt infections when large spore sacs are freely floating within their coelomic cavity . Bryozoan dispersal strategies, including colony fragmentation, statoblast dispersal and the formation of migrating zooids allow their colonization of new habitats and the spreading of infective T. bryosalmonae stages .
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Knowledge of the leek moth's natural predators in North America is limited, but several larval and pupal parasitoids of the species have been documented in Europe. Parasitoids lay their eggs within or attached to the body of the host, the parasitoid larvae ultimately killing the host. Parasitoids are shown to parasitize the leek moth to a greater extent when leek moth populations are large and in early leek moth generations, suggesting that parasitism is less significant in smaller populations and in later generations. The leek moth is most vulnerable to parasitism in its pupal stage when it is no longer protected by the interior of its host plant.
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Some existing species were found on other banksia species, so evidence strengthened that the individual Banksiamyces fungi did not exclusively parasitize only one banksia species, a suggestion proposed by Beaton and Weste in 1982. Banksiamyces is classified in the Helotiaceae, a widespread but poorly known family of fungi, many species of which are saprobic on herbaceous or woody tissues. The placement in the Helotiaceae is tentative, and no molecular analysis has yet been performed that might clarify the phylogenetic relationships of Banksiamyces to other taxa in the Helotiales order. Based on physical similarity, Wen-Ying Zhuang included Banksiamyces under Encoelia in his 1998 study of the Encoelioideae subfamily of the Helotiaceae.
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As curator of cryptogamic botany, Rogerson "was directly responsible for all accessions and loans of ferns and mosses, as well as of fungi and lichens, until about 1965 when, first a bryologist and later a pteridologist were added to the cryptogamic staff." At the Garden, he also continued his study on the taxonomy of the Ascomycetes, especially of Hypomyces, a genus of fungi that parasitize other fungi, and the fungal diversity of New York and Utah. Additionally, he served as editor of the Garden's publications: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden (1963–88), North American Flora (1963–88), and Flora Neotropica (1969–83).
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Flea beetles can be deterred by a number of different companion plants, that can be grown intercropped in a garden to benefit neighboring plants. For example, thyme, catnip, and other kinds of mint cover up the scent of nearby plants Radishes, on the other hand, can be grown as a trap crop, luring the flea beetles away from more important crops. Since the root isn't harmed by the beetles, they remain useful, themselves.5 Secrets to Vegetable Garden, Companion Planting Revealed A number of natural predators can be employed to keep flea beetles in check, including two that parasitize it: Braconid wasps and tachinid flies.
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Although they far less frequently parasitize birds than they do mammals, examples exist of the ostrich and the yellow- necked francolin as hosts for this species, as well. It is a very common tick of cattle; in some parts of Ethiopia, 90% of all ticks collected from cattle and camels are R. pulchellus. This tick is present on 80% of cattle, and individuals are hosts to over 1000 of this tick each. In one study, adult ticks were found on their hosts' neck and belly (45%), head (36%), forelegs (7%), hump region (13%), and hing legs (3%), with immature ticks found on the head and forelegs.
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Once copulation is completed, female redheads begin forming nests. They are built with thick and strong plant material in emergent vegetation, such as hard stem bulrush, cattails and sedges, over or near standing water. Redheads to not defend their territory or home range and are actually very social while in their breeding ground. This is thought to occur because some younger, inexperienced redhead females parasitize other pochards. Some redheads lay their eggs in other pochards’ nests, including the canvasback, ring-necked duck and greater and lesser scaups and this social parasitism by redheads reduces the hatching success of other pochards’ eggs, especially those of the canvasback.
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Gram stain of Bacillus thuringiensis under 1000 × magnification Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt) is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, commonly used as a biological pesticide. B. thuringiensis also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well on leaf surfaces, aquatic environments, animal feces, insect-rich environments, and flour mills and grain-storage facilities. It has also been observed to parasitize other moths such as Cadra calidella—in laboratory experiments working with C. calidella, many of the moths were diseased due to this parasite. During sporulation, many Bt strains produce crystal proteins (proteinaceous inclusions), called δ-endotoxins, that have insecticidal action.
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Once the host worm begins to decompose and is no longer useful to the larvae, the larvae can either leave to find another host or move to a less decomposed section further down on its host worm. If a first instar larva decides to move to another host, it must penetrate its new host quickly in order to survive. Towards the end of the first instar stage and into the second and third instar stages, the larvae are able to survive longer separations from their hosts. Usually, the first and second instars act as internal parasites while the third instar can parasitize the host and feed on the surface of the host.
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While both larva types ultimately form similar-sized pupae, their polymorphic growth rates could indicate alternative fitness strategies and different ways to exploit the M. schencki food resources. Other researchers hypothesize that another alternative growth strategy will evolve in the P. rebeli, in which the P. rebeli will parasitize the M. schencki ants for an even longer period of time than the slow developing larvae. Most researchers, however, find this hypothesis highly unlikely because it is not an evolutionarily stable strategy. At the rate the P. rebeli parasitizes the M. schencki ants, the host colony is unlikely to last as a viable food source for more than two years (the average lifespan of the longer polymorph of P. rebeli).
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Although it is a root-hemiparasite (partially dependent on its host), the species is not host-specific and may parasitize a variety of trees, shrubs, and herbs. Fire appears to be a requirement for long-term viability strongly affecting the reproductive success by controlling conditions necessary for successful seed germination and possibly required for young plants to make their haustorial connection. The few brief months immediately following a fire are enough time for the minute seeds to germinate in the mineral soil under full sun without litter and competing vegetation. The coarse, thickened chaffseed capsule insulates the seeds from the higher temperature of the fire and the heat exposure may increase germination rates.
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According to the Doctor, the Weeping Angels "are as old as the universe (or very nearly), but no one quite knows where they come from." He also describes them as "the deadliest, most powerful, most malevolent life-form evolution has ever produced." Weeping Angels are unusual as predators in that they neither kill nor directly parasitize their prey. Their usual mode of feeding is to make use of time paradoxes – with a single touch, a Weeping Angel can send a person into the past to a point before his/her own birth, and can then feed off the "potential energy" of the years which that victim would have lived in the present.
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Predatory publishers present themselves as academic journals but use lax or no peer review processes coupled with aggressive advertising in order to generate revenue from article processing charges from authors. In this way, predatory journals exploit the OA model by deceptively removing the main value added by the journal (peer review) and parasitize the OA movement, occasionally hijacking or impersonating other journals. The rise of such journals since 2010 has damaged the reputation of the OA publishing model as a whole, especially via sting operations where fake papers have been successfully published in such journals. Although commonly associated with OA publishing models, subscription journals are also at risk of similar lax quality control standards and poor editorial policies.
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Solitary wasps parasitize almost every pest insect, making wasps valuable in horticulture for biological pest control of species such as whitefly in tomatoes and other crops. Wasps first appeared in the fossil record in the Jurassic, and diversified into many surviving superfamilies by the Cretaceous. They are a successful and diverse group of insects with tens of thousands of described species; wasps have spread to all parts of the world except for the polar regions. The largest social wasp is the Asian giant hornet, at up to in length; among the largest solitary wasps is a group of species known as tarantula hawks, along with the giant scoliid of Indonesia (Megascolia procer).
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Given the harm that avian brood parasites can do to their hosts' reproductive success, hosts have come up with various defenses against this unique threat. Given that the cost of egg removal concurrent with parasitism is unrecoverable, the best strategy for hosts is to avoid parasitism in the first place. This can take several forms, including selecting nest sites which are difficult to parasitize, starting incubation early so they are sitting on the nests when parasites visit them early in the morning, and aggressively defending their territory. Despite providing intensive parental care, in Prothonotary Warblers, where conspecific brood parasitism occurs, there was no cost for host females in terms of annual survival probability.
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Two species of mermithid nematodes parasitize the bogong moth during its aestivation: Amphimermis bogongae and Hexamermis cavicola. The parasites are transmitted to bogong moths through water; the early instar larval nematodes reside in the debris of the cave floors of common aestivation sites, and crawl up to reach the moths through trickles of water coming down the walls. Bogong moths are infected upon their arrival within the caves once they drink the water. After a few months, the larval nematodes emerge from the moths, which causes the moth to die, and burrow into the cave floor, where they mature and lay eggs over the winter and wait for the next spring migration of the moths.
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Berlin: Springer-Verlag. . (NOTE: this PDF is from the page proofs, and is not identical to the published version) The fungi that are parasitized by myco-heterotrophs are typically fungi with large energy reserves to draw on, usually mycorrhizal fungi, though there is some evidence that they may also parasitize parasitic fungi that form extensive mycelial networks, such as Armillaria. Examples of fungi parasitized by myco- heterotrophic plants can be found among the ectomycorrhizal, arbuscular mycorrhizal, and orchid mycorrhizal fungi. The great diversity in unrelated plant families with myco-heterotrophic members, as well as the diversity of fungi targeted by myco-heterotrophs, suggests multiple parallel evolution of myco-heterotrophs from mycorrhizal ancestors.
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The larvae of a very few species feed on plants, but the majority are primary parasitoids on a huge range of arthropods at all stages of development. They are exceptional in that they are one of two hymenopteran families with some species that are known to parasitize Thysanoptera. Eulophids are found throughout the world in virtually all habitats (one is even aquatic, parasitising water-penny beetles). Eulophids are separable from most other Chalcidoidea by the possession of only four tarsomeres on each leg, a small, straight protibial spur (as opposed to the larger, curved one in most other chalcidoids), and by antennae with two to four funicle segments and at most 10 antennomeres.
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Many parasitoid wasps use larval Lepidoptera as hosts, but some groups parasitize different host life stages (egg, larva or nymph, pupa, adult) of nearly all other orders of insects, especially Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera and other Hymenoptera. Some attack arthropods other than insects: for instance, the Pompilidae specialise in catching spiders: these are quick and dangerous prey, often as large as the wasp itself, but the spider wasp is quicker, swiftly stinging her prey to immobilise it. Adult female wasps of most species oviposit into their hosts' bodies or eggs. Some also inject a mix of secretory products that paralyse the host or protect the egg from the host's immune system; these include polydnaviruses, ovarian proteins, and venom.
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This phorid fly is native to North America, attacking bumble bees and paper wasps. The infection of European honey bees in North America by A. borealis is a recent development that was first discovered by Dr. John Hafernik, who collected some dead specimens near a light source at San Francisco State University's campus. These were placed in a vial and forgotten. About a week later larvae emerged from the dead bees. It is hypothesized that the bumble bee is A. borealis’s native host but may have a host shift to the honeybee. This is shown because A. borealis tend to parasitize bumble bees more often than honeybees because the bumble bee’s larger size allows for greater reproductive success.
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Distribution is limited by available moisture (Monotropoideae species have limited ability to survive long enough to set seed during seasonal dry periods), and by the distribution of conifer genera that are hosts of the specific host fungi these plants parasitize. The distribution of Monotropa is responsible for the majority of the range of this subfamily, with other genera not having the same global distribution. The center of biodiversity for this subfamily is found in temperate western North America, along the northern and central California and Pacific Northwest coast and montane areas as far east as the Sierra Nevada-Cascade cordillera. Seven of the 10 genera usually recognized as members of this subfamily (excluding Pyroleae) occur there, with 6 of these occurring only in that region.
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Queen and brood of the slave-maker Polyergus lucidus with Formica archboldi workers Slave-making ants are brood parasites that capture broods of other ant species to increase the worker force of their colony. After emerging in the slave-maker nest, slave workers work as if they were in their own colony, while parasite workers only concentrate on replenishing the labor force from neighboring host nests, a process called slave raiding. The slave-making ants are specialized to parasitize a single species or a group of related species, and they are often close relatives to their hosts, which is typical for social parasites. The slave-makers may either be permanent social parasites (thus depending on enslaved ants throughout their whole lives) or facultative slave- makers.
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These bacteria have been observed in the mitochondria of the host cells, a trait that has never been described in any other symbiont of animals. Midichloria bacteria seem to consume the mitochondria they parasitize, possibly using them as a source of energy and/or molecules to multiply. The interaction of these symbionts with their host is currently unknown, though the 100% prevalence in the females of the host tick suggests a mutualistic association. Although there is no evidence that even up to 20 bacteria residing within the host cell mitochondria produce deleterious effects in Rhipicephalus bursi, the prevalence in R. bursi was estimated at 33% in females and 14% in males, suggesting that the relationship may be more complicated than previously thought.
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Gigantorhynchus is a genus of thorny-headed worms, also known as spiny-headed worms, that parasitize marsupials, anteaters, and possibly baboons by attaching themselves to the intestines using their hook-covered proboscis. The life cycle includes an egg stage found in host feces, a cystacanth (larval) stage in an intermediate host such as termites, and an adult stage where cystacanths mature in the intestines of the host. This genus is characterized by a cylindrical proboscis with a crown of robust hooks at the apex followed by numerous small hooks on the rest of the proboscis, a long body with pseudosegmentation, filiform lemnisci, and ellipsoid testes. The largest specimen is a female G. ortizi with a length of around and a width of .
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The gabar goshawk is usually considered to be sedentary, but immature birds are somewhat nomadic and some small migratory movements have been recorded in parts of its range. It is most frequently observed alone, but pairs are also common, particularly during the breeding season, when the male is often observed pursuing the female through trees, or calling from his perch. The small platform nest is typically constructed using thin twigs and positioned in a vertical fork in the crown of a thorny tree, such as an acacia. One notable aspect of their nest construction is that the birds collect spider webs including the live spiders, the spiders spin new webs which may help camouflage the nest, and the spiders may consume arthropods that would parasitize the chicks.
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From the point of view of the farmer or horticulturalist, the most important groups are the ichneumonid wasps, which prey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and moths; braconid wasps, which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including greenfly; chalcid wasps, which parasitise eggs and larvae of greenfly, whitefly, cabbage caterpillars, and scale insects; and tachinid flies, which parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, adult and larval beetles, and true bugs. Commercially, there are two types of rearing systems: short-term seasonal daily output with high production of parasitoids per day, and long-term year-round low daily output with a range in production of 4–1000 million female parasitoids per week, to meet demand for suitable biological control agents for different crops.
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Cuckoo bees mimic the eggs of other bee species and shift parental care onto hosts Parasitic use of chemical mimicry involves the invasion of the nest of a duped species, which may consist of an individual or a colony. By emitting mimics of the chemicals that create the host’s familiar odours the invader is able to conceal themselves efficiently within the nest without alerting the host. One example of a group of insects that uses this method of chemical mimicry would be cuckoo bees (genus: Nomada). Cuckoo bees will parasitize bees of the families Melittidae and Andrenidae. Cuckoo bee males will produce chemicals that are similar in structure to the volatile lipids secreted by host females and these chemicals are transferred to cuckoo females so that they may camouflage their eggs within the host’s nest.
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Myco-heterotrophic roots of Monotropa uniflora with Russula brevipes mycelium Full (or obligate) myco-heterotrophy exists when a non-photosynthetic plant (a plant largely lacking in chlorophyll or otherwise lacking a functional photosystem) gets all of its food from the fungi that it parasitizes. Partial (or facultative) myco-heterotrophy exists when a plant is capable of photosynthesis, but parasitizes fungi as a supplementary food supply. There are also plants, such as some orchid species, that are non-photosynthetic and obligately myco-heterotrophic for part of their life cycle, and photosynthetic and facultatively myco-heterotrophic or non-myco-heterotrophic for the rest of their life cycle. Not all non-photosynthetic or "achlorophyllous" plants are myco-heterotrophic – some non-photosynthetic plants like dodder directly parasitize the vascular tissue of other plants.
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Most understanding of the biology of sea lice, other than the early morphological studies, is based on laboratory studies designed to understand issues associated with sea lice infecting fish on salmon farms. Information on sea lice biology and interactions with wild fish is sparse in most areas with a long-term history of open net-cage development, since understanding background levels of sea lice and transfer mechanisms has rarely been a condition of tenure license for farm operators. Many sea louse species are specific with regard to host genera, for example L. salmonis, which has high specificity for anadromous fish including sticklebacks and salmonids including the widely farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Lepeophtheirus salmonis can parasitize other salmonids to varying degrees, including brown trout (sea trout: Salmo trutta), Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), and all species of Pacific salmon.
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Sensing that something was wrong, the viceroy ordered him to leave, unwilling "to open to strangers the secrets of the country". Thiéry de Menonville, with the image of Jason and the Golden Fleece constantly in his mind's eye, slipped over the ramparts of Veracruz one evening and set out, in the guise of a Catalan in order to account for his Frenchified Spanish and his dress, for Oaxaca where the best cochineal was produced. In Oaxaca, he purchased from Indians and blacks the insects and the cacti they parasitize, and some pods of vanilla, which he jumbled among commonplace herbal specimens in his collecting case. Once safely ashore in Saint Domingue he established a plantation of the nopal cactus in the botanical garden, the jardin du roi that he established at Port-au-PrinceTraité,, "Préface" p. xx.
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Extensive research into sex pheromones or sex attractants has been done to explore the possibility of using them in concordance with insect traps to prevent moths that are attempting to mate from reaching the spruce tree either to mate or to oviposit. Attempts to use Trichogramma wasps to parasitize and kill eggs before they hatch have been largely unsuccessful, so at present, suggestions for spruce bud moth control include spraying with pesticides at strategic intervals, including during late July when ovipositioning occurs and the following year in early May when the eggs hatch into larvae. Finally, there are nutritionally depleted white spruces that are resistant to harm by the spruce bud moth. A suggestion by researchers for controlling spruce damage by the moth is to plant resistant trees alongside non-resistant trees in order to potentially lower the overall effect of the moth on the spruce plantation.
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This temperature is much lower than what is found in many greenhouses where E. decipiens is becoming more predominantly located, therefore the ability of A. atomus to develop at lower temperature thresholds is thought to aid in its effectiveness in controlling the green leafhopper. In the same study, significantly higher numbers of parasitized eggs were found in the stems of plants than in any other parts. This spatial distribution of parasitized eggs corresponds with the preference of egg oviposition in the stems of plants by E. decipiens. The ability of A. atomus to discriminate between infested and non-infested plants, recognize preferences in location for oviposition by E. decipiens, short life cycle, and its ability to parasitize eggs throughout the development of E. decipiens, are all reasons that make A. atomus a parasitoid that may be effective in the biological control for the leafhopper.
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However, neurocysticercosis resulting from penetration of T. solium larvae into the central nervous system is the major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide. In 2000, about 39 million people were infected with trematodes (flukes) that naturally parasitize fish and crustaceans, but can pass to humans who eat raw or lightly cooked seafood. Infection of humans by the broad fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum occasionally causes vitamin B12 deficiency and, in severe cases, megaloblastic anemia. The threat to humans in developed countries is rising as a result of social trends: the increase in organic farming, which uses manure and sewage sludge rather than artificial fertilizers, spreads parasites both directly and via the droppings of seagulls which feed on manure and sludge; the increasing popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods; imports of meat, seafood and salad vegetables from high-risk areas; and, as an underlying cause, reduced awareness of parasites compared with other public health issues such as pollution.
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Such modern selective breeding of plants for phytopathological resistance to particular fungal races involves a great deal of genetic research; this PI 313970 versus race S case involved multi-stage hybridization to propagate a recessive gene, pm-S in successive generations, and how this may affect other recessive and codominant genes for resistance to other races of P. xanthii "remains to be determined". A 2004 literature review regarding powdery mildew races that parasitize various cucurbit plants concluded that "race identification is important for basic research and is especially important for the commercial seed industry, which requires accuracy in declaring the type and level of resistance ... in its products". However, identifying specific races was seen as having little utility in horticulture for choosing specific cultivars, because of the rapidity with which the local pathogen population can change geographically, seasonally, and by host plant. At least three other Erysiphaceae fungi can cause powdery mildew in cucurbits: The most frequent, after P. xanthii, is Erysiphe cichoracearum, the former primary causal organism throughout most of the world.
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Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies of Pterygodermatites peromysci have not been conducted yet, but might provide scientists with an understanding about how the it causes pathology in the gastrointestinal tract of the host, as worms have been found in vitro as large as 38 mm in a host mouse with a body length size of 90 mm. In a case where 8 of these adult worms were discovered in a mouse it was noted that the mouse had a very inflamed and damaged gut from the internal damage of pressure on host tissues (1). However, scanning electron microscopy studies have been conducted on Pterygodermatites bovieri in which the definitive host is bats (2) and on Pterygodermatites mesopectines which has been noted to parasitize a commensal rodent, Mastomys natalensis (3) so a comparison SEM study of the morphology of the head of P. peromysci with previously SEM studied species may present interesting results since SEM studies of the Pterygodermatites species which infects a rodent (Mastomys natalensis) has already been worked out.
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