His system of moral theology is noted for its prudence, avoiding both laxism and excessive rigor. He is credited with the position of Aequiprobabilism, which avoided Jansenist rigorism as well as laxism and simple probabilism. Since its publication it has remained in Latin, often in 10 volumes or in the combined 4-volume version of Gaudé. It saw only recently its first publication in translation, in an English translation made by Ryan Grant and published in 2017 by Mediatrix Press.
|
|
Its spiritual guide was Antoni Wacyk, who promoted a return to Slavic native faith. Stachniuk promoted an ideology of culturalism, aiming at the unification of Western Slavic peoples based on the reconstruction of their original national culture. Stachniuk believed that Christianity, especially the Catholic clergy, presented an anti-cultural influence and promoted a culture of laxism,Laxism in Catholic Theology escapism, and consumption.Jan Stachniuk: Wykład teoretyczny "Zadrugi" i jego zadanie, in: "Zadruga", nr 7 (maj 1938); Jan Stachniuk: Druga antynomia dziejów Polski, in: "Zadruga", nr 5 (marzec 1938); Jan Stachniuk: "Katolicyzm dynamiczny".
|
|
Probabilism is seen by some Catholic authorities as an easy road to Laxism, because people are often inclined to regard opinions as really probable which are based on flimsy arguments, and because it is not difficult to find five or six serious authors who approve of opinions which right-minded men consider lax. They stress that the only sure way to safeguard Catholic morals is to reject the opinion which opens the way to Laxism. Probabilists reply that their system must be prudently employed, and that no serious danger of Laxism arises if it is recognized that an opinion is not solidly probable unless there are arguments in its favour which are sufficient to gain the assent of many prudent men. As for the authority of approved authors, it must be remembered that five or six grave authors do not give solid probability to an opinion unless they are notable for learning and prudence, and independently adhere to an opinion which has not been set aside by authoritative decisions or by unanswered arguments.
|
|
He was an ardent probabiliorist, and from his point of view many of the opinions of the probabilists were lax and pernicious. In refuting them he at times undoubtedly censured their authors too severely and spoke with an excessive asperity. However, he placed a salutary, if disagreeable, restraint upon the new thought of the time. Today it is readily seen that some of the authors whom he attacked favoured a dangerous laxism.
|
|
In cases where two moral principles appear to be inconsistent, an actor confronts a dilemma in terms of which principle to follow. This kind of moral case study is attributed to Cicero, in book III of his De Officiis. In the Christian tradition of casuistry, an approach to abstract ranking of principles introduced by Bartolomé de Medina in the 16th century became tainted with the accusation of laxism, as did casuistry itself. Another approach, with legal roots, is to lay emphasis on particular features present in a given case: in other words, the exact framing of the dilemma.
|
|
Probabiliorism, which held that it is not lawful to act on the less safe opinion unless it is more probable than the safe opinion and which was in vogue before the time of Medina, was renewed in the middle of the seventeenth century as an antidote against Laxism. Its revival was principally due to the efforts of popes Alexander VII and Innocent XI. In 1656, a general chapter of the Dominicans urged all members of the order to adopt Probabiliorism. Though previously Dominican theologians like Medina, Ledesma, Domingo Banez, Alvarez and Ildephonsus were probabilists, subsequently the Dominicans in the main were Probabiliorists. In 1700, the Gallican clergy, under Bossuet, accepted Probabiliorism.
|
|
Rigorism,Rigorism generally is a system that insists on a strict, or the strictest possible, interpretation of belief or doctrine. In Roman Catholic theology, the term may also apply to those who argue for the strictest interpretation of Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus. or, as it is frequently called, tutiorism, held that the less safe opinion should be most probable, if not absolutely certain, before it could be lawfully put into practice; while laxism maintained that if the less safe opinion were slightly probable it could be followed with a safe conscience. These two views never received serious support from Catholic theologians, and were formally condemned by the Holy See.
|
|
He composed several small ascetical treatises: "Seven Meditations on Jesus Crucified" (originally published at Seville, 1678) and "Geminum sidus Mariani diadematis" (Lyons, 1673). From his pen we also have two pious biographies: "Historia de la Vida y Virtudes de la Venerable Virgen Damiana de las Llangas" (Seville, 1675) and "Breve relación de la Muerte, Vida, y Virtudes del Venerabile Cavallero D. Miguel Manara Vincentelo de Leca" (Seville, 1679). He is chiefly remembered for his contributions to moral theology, which won praise from Alphonsus Ligouri. He examined some of the moral opinions prevalent in his day, especially those tinged with Laxism, in his well-known "Crisis theologica bipartita, sive Desputationes selectæ" (Lyons, 1670).
|
|
His comparative moderation in the matter of the four Gallican propositions was due to Bossuet, who remarked that "the glory of the régale would only be obscured by those odious propositions." As president of the Assembly (1700) which undertook to deal with Jansenism and Laxism already judged by the pope, Le Tellier was lenient with the Jansenists and severe with theologians of repute. The same holds true of the various controversies in which he took part: the Nouveau Testament de Mons, the theory of philosophical sin and Molinism. Le Tellier is remembered as a successful administrator, an orator of some merit, a promoter of letters, a protector of Saint John Baptist de la Salle, Mabillon, Ruinart, etc.
|
|
In the face of growing accusations of laxism in the Society's approach to moral questions, Centurione wrote a letter (1756) to all Jesuit Superiors insisting on the strengthening of Moral Theology training in Jesuit houses of formation. Earlier, as decreed by the General Congregation that elected him, Centurione had written a letter on the 'True spirit of the Society'. Clearly, there were troubled times ahead and Centurione felt that the spiritual life of his men had to be fortified in order to better face the coming storm. The troubles caused by father Antoine de La Valette's risky commercial activities and the inept handling of his bankruptcy by the French Jesuits further complicated matters for Centurione and increased the group of those who felt that the Society was beyond reform.
|
|
The definitive list of candidates was presented on September 30, 2006. Among the new additions to the list were Hans Smolders, Pim Fortuyn's former chauffeur (the man who chased Fortuyn's assassin and was responsible for his apprehension), Fortuyn's young brother Simon Fortuijn and Jan Dirk Blaauw, a former member of the VVD parliamentary party. The party program was presented on October 9, 2006, and in November 2006 Marco Pastors published a political pamphlet as well.Marco Pastors Tot uw Dienst (in English: At your service) Uitgeverij van Praag Amsterdam 2006 On November 15, the party released a radio advert, in which party leader Marco Pastors likened the apathy of "the establishment" towards the "Islamization of Holland" to the laxism of Dutch politics towards the Nazi threat from Germany in the 1930s.
|
|
Casuistry dates from Aristotle (384–322 BC), yet the zenith of casuistry was from 1550 to 1650, when the Society of Jesus used case-based reasoning, particularly in administering the Sacrament of Penance (or "confession"). The term casuistry or Jesuitism quickly became pejorative with Blaise Pascal's attack on the misuse of casuistry. Some Jesuit theologians, in view of promoting personal responsibility and the respect of freedom of conscience, stressed the importance of the 'case by case' approach to personal moral decisions and ultimately developed and accepted a casuistry (the study of cases of consciences) where at the time of decision, individual inclinations were more important than the moral law itself. In Provincial Letters (1656–7) the French mathematician, religious philosopher and Jansenist sympathiser, Blaise Pascal vigorously attacked the moral laxism of such Jesuits scolded the Jesuits for using casuistic reasoning in confession to placate wealthy Church donors, while punishing poor penitents.
|
|