369 Sentences With "insolation" | Random Sentence Generator

India's dense population and high solar insolation provide ideal conditions for the exponential growth of solar power as a future energy source.

National Economic Council Director Larry Kudlow told reporters that Trump's fierce criticism should not be seen as an attempt to influence the Fed, and that the president respects the central bank's intended insolation from politics.

Scientists at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany have found that the Earth's last eight ice ages can be explained by a relation between insolation -- solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface -- and CO2 concentration in the atmosphere.

Insolation is smaller in narrow valleys, river valleys and mountain ranges as a result of the increase of overcast and elevation. Kosovo has on average 2,066 hours with sun per year or approximately 5.7 hours per day. The highest insolation value is in Pristina with 2.140 hours for 1 year, while Peć with the smallest insolation value of 1.958 hours, with 2.067 hours and Prizren with 2.099 hours. The maximum insolation in Kosovo occurs during July, while the lowest insolation occurs in December.

Insolation, which is simply a measure of the amount of solar radiation received on a given surface area in a given time period, is the fundamental factor behind the Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis. Due to variations in heat capacity, continents heat up faster than surrounding oceans during summer months when insolation is at its strongest and cool off faster than the surrounding oceans during winter months when insolation is at its weakest. The wind pattern that results from the continent/ocean insolation temperature gradient is known as a monsoon. Values of summer insolation are more important for a region's climate than winter values.

Graphical chart on Kosovo's insolationRiza Çavolli 1993, p. 23 Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area and recorded during a given time.Insolation Insolation is a climatic element that has an importance in different economical activities such as: agriculture, tourism etc. The period of insolation depends on astronomical, meteorological and relief factors.

The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the arctic and antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth.

In addition, the area is characterized by a high solar insolation.

A wide range of geologic evidence has shown that the North African Monsoon is particularly susceptible to insolation cycles, and long term trends in monsoonal strength can be linked to slow variations in insolation. However, the abrupt shifts back and forth from the "green Sahara" to the "desert Sahara" are not entirely explained by long term changes in the insolation cycle.

However, the areas of highest insolation are distant to Australia's population centres.

Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time. It is commonly expressed as average irradiance in watts per square meter (W/m2). Direct insolation is the solar irradiance measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the solar constant minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering.

Planets with both an eccentric orbit and a tilted axis of rotation would have more complicated insolation patterns.

This 'projection effect' is the main reason why Earth's polar regions are much colder than equatorial regions. On an annual average the poles receive less insolation than does the equator, because the poles are always angled more away from the sun than the tropics, and moreover receive no insolation at all for the six months of their respective winters.

Sunlight carries radiant energy in the wavelengths of visible light. Radiant energy may be developed for solar power generation. Solar irradiation figures are used to plan the deployment of solar power systems. In many countries the figures can be obtained from an insolation map or from insolation tables that reflect data over the prior 30–50 years.

Global Horizontal Irradiation in India. India's solar energy insolation is about 5,000 T kWh per year (i.e. ~ 600 TW), far more than its current total primary energy consumption. India's long-term solar potential could be unparalleled in the world because it has the ideal combination of both high solar insolation and a big potential consumer base density.

Radiative forcing varies with solar insolation, surface albedo, and the atmospheric concentrations of radiatively active gases - commonly known as greenhouse gases - and aerosols.

Increased cloud cover probably increased the effective precipitation by reducing evaporation rates. In contrast, insolation rates do not appear to be linked to lake-level highstands in the Altiplano; the lake expansion occurred when summer insolation was low although recently an insolation maximum between 26,000 and 15,000 years ago has been correlated to the Tauca stage. The humidity above the lake has been estimated at 60%, taking into account the oxygen-18 content of carbonates deposited by the lake. Coinciding with Lake Tauca, between 17,000 and 11,000 BP glaciers expanded in the Andes between 18° and 24° south latitude.

While the value of eccentricity does impact the distance of the Earth from the Sun, its primary impact on insolation comes from its modulating effect on the procession cycle. For example, when the orbit of the Earth is highly elliptical one hemisphere will have hot summers and cold winters, corresponding to a larger than average yearly insolation gradient. At the same time the other hemisphere will have warm summers and cool winters due to a smaller than average yearly insolation gradient. Like obliquity, eccentricity is not considered to be a primary driver of the strength of the North African Monsoon.

Variations in the strength of the North African Monsoon have been found to be strongly related to the stronger 23,000 year processional cycle. The relationship between the precession cycle and the strength of the North African Monsoon exists because procession affects the amount of insolation received in a given hemisphere. The amount of insolation is maximized for the northern hemisphere when the precession cycle is aligned such that the northern hemisphere points toward the sun at perihelion. According to the Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis this maximum in insolation increases the strength of monsoon circulations in the northern hemisphere.

At a lower angle the light must also travel through more atmosphere. This attenuates it (by absorption and scattering) further reducing insolation at the surface. Attenuation is governed by the Beer-Lambert Law, namely that the transmittance or fraction of insolation reaching the surface decreases exponentially in the optical depth or absorbance (the two notions differing only by a constant factor of ln(10) = 2.303) of the path of insolation through the atmosphere. For any given short length of the path the optical depth is proportional to the quantity of absorbers and scatterers along that length, typically increasing with decreasing altitude.

The UK's annual insolation is in the range of 750–1,100 kilowatt-hours per square metre (kWh/m²). London receives 0.52 and 4.74 kWh/m² per day in December and July, respectively. While the sunniest parts of the UK receive much less solar radiation than the sunniest parts of Europe, the country's insolation in the south is comparable with that of central European countries, including Germany, which generates about 7% of its electricity from solar power. Additionally, the UK's higher wind speeds cool PV modules, leading to higher efficiencies than could be expected at these levels of insolation.

Photovoltaic panels are rated under standard conditions to determine the Wp (watt peak) rating, which can then be used with insolation to determine the expected output, adjusted by factors such as tilt, tracking and shading (which can be included to create the installed Wp rating). Insolation values range from 800 to 950 kWh/(kWp·y) in Norway to up to 2,900 kWh/(kWp·y) in Australia.

In construction, insolation is an important consideration when designing a building for a particular site. Insolation variation by month; 1984–1993 averages for January (top) and April (bottom) The projection effect can be used to design buildings that are cool in summer and warm in winter, by providing vertical windows on the equator-facing side of the building (the south face in the northern hemisphere, or the north face in the southern hemisphere): this maximizes insolation in the winter months when the Sun is low in the sky and minimizes it in the summer when the Sun is high. (The Sun's north/south path through the sky spans 47 degrees through the year).

Unlike most wasps which are most active during the early morning, V. orientalis is unique in showing a peak of activity during the middle of the day. Oriental hornets dig their nests underground by picking up soil in their mandibles, flying a short distance, dropping the soil, and returning to the nest to continue digging. The hornet's digging is correlated with insolation (solar energy). The more insolation, the more active the hornet.

Insolation is a function of distance from the Sun, the solar cycle, and cross-cycle changes. Irradiance on Earth is most intense at points directly facing (normal to) the Sun.

The region is dry, windy and has high insolation. Because of the aridity, even high mountains are not covered with glaciers; Llullaillaco volcano is the highest non-glaciated summit on Earth.

We hypothesise that Early Holocene maximum summer insolation, as climate forcing, and mesophyte forest expansion, as a fuel-creating factor, were responsible for accelerating fire occurrence in the Central Pyrenees treeline.

The solar irradiance is measured in watt per square metre (W/m2) in SI units. Solar irradiance is often integrated over a given time period in order to report the radiant energy emitted into the surrounding environment (joule per square metre, J/m2) during that time period. This integrated solar irradiance is called solar irradiation, solar exposure, solar insolation, or insolation. Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth's surface after atmospheric absorption and scattering.

On the opposite end of the spectrum, when the Northern Hemisphere is pointed toward the sun during aphelion, there is a minimum in insolation and the North African Monsoon is at its weakest.

Increased spring insolation causes them to germinate, producing amoeboid cells that generate two flagella and encase themselves in a vase-like cellulosic lorica. These motile cells rise into photic waters where they proliferate.

Seasonal lag is the phenomenon whereby the date of maximum average air temperature at a geographical location on a planet is delayed until some time after the date of maximum insolation (i.e. the Summer Solstice). This also applies to the minimum temperature being delayed until some time after the date of minimum insolation. In most Northern Hemisphere regions, the month of February is usually colder than the month of November despite February having significantly later sunsets and more daylight overall.

The 37th parallel south is a circle of latitude that is 37 degrees south of the Earth's equatorial plane. It crosses the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, Australasia, the Pacific Ocean and South America. This parallel approximates that latitude at which solar irradiance equals the planetary average,See Nadeau, Alice and McGhee, Richard; ‘A simple formula for a planet’s mean annual insolation by latitude’; Icarus, volume 291, 15 July 2017, pp. 46-50 with higher insolation equatorward and lower poleward.

The depth of the surface mixed layer is affected by solar insolation and thus is related to the diurnal cycle. After nighttime convection over the ocean, the turbulent surface layer is found to completely decay and restratify. The decay is caused by the decrease in solar insolation, divergence of turbulent flux and relaxation of lateral gradients. During the nighttime, the surface ocean cools because the atmospheric circulation is reduced due to the change in heat with the setting of the sun each day.

The shield effect of Earth's atmosphere on solar irradiation. The top image is the annual mean solar irradiation (or insolation) at the top of Earth's atmosphere (TOA); the bottom image shows the annual insolation reaching the Earth's surface after passing through the atmosphere. Note that the two images use the same color scale. Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation as reported in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument.

Tropical forests (rainforests) receive more insolation and rainfall over longer growing seasons than any other environment on earth. With these elevated temperatures, insolation and rainfall, biomass is extremely productive leading to the production of as much as 800 grams of carbon per square meter per year. Higher temperatures and larger amounts of water contribute to higher rates of chemical weathering. Increased rates of decomposition cause smaller amounts of fulvic acid to percolate and leach metals from the zone of active weathering.

Science 259, 1294-1297.Laskar, J., A. Correia, M. Gastineau, F. Joutel, B. Levrard, and P. Robutel. 2004. Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars. Icarus 170, 343-364.

The average annual insolation is 1800 hours, which makes five hours per day. The average annual humidity is around 85%. Precipitations are very important climatic element. The average value of annual precipitations is 990 mm.

The Chaotic Obliquity of Mars. Science 259, 1294–1297.Laskar, J., A. Correia, M. Gastineau, F. Joutel, B. Levrard, and P. Robutel. 2004. Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars.

This is because the winter phase of a monsoon is always dry. Thus the flora and fauna of a monsoonal climate are determined by the amount of rain that falls during the summer phase of the monsoon. Over periods of tens to hundreds of thousands of years the amount of insolation changes in a highly complex cycle that is based on orbital parameters. The result of this cycle of insolation is a waxing and waning in the strength of the monsoonal climates across the globe.

An often-cited 1980 orbital model by Imbrie predicted "the long-term cooling trend that began some 6,000 years ago will continue for the next 23,000 years." More recent work suggests that orbital variations should gradually increase 65° N summer insolation over the next 25,000 years. Earth's orbit will become less eccentric for about the next 100,000 years, so changes in this insolation will be dominated by changes in obliquity, and should not decline enough to permit a new glacial period in the next 50,000 years.

The low water level stages correlate to the timing of maximum summer insolation and warm periods in Greenland; however, problems with dating these fluctuations make any inference about correlations to events elsewhere in North America problematic.

In civil engineering and hydrology, numerical models of snowmelt runoff use observations of insolation. This permits estimation of the rate at which water is released from a melting snowpack. Field measurement is accomplished using a pyranometer.

There are, on average, 300 days per year of sunshine. Average daily peak insolation varies from 1150 W/m2 in June to 280 W/m2 in December.Andorra – Escaldes,Weather UndergroundAtles climàtic de Catalunya. Periode 1961–1990.

Sapropels are dark organic rich marine sediments that contain greater than 2% organic carbon by weight. In the Eastern Mediterranean layers of sapropels can be found in marine sediment cores that align with periods of maximum insolation in the precession cycle over Northern Africa. Such an alignment can be explained by a link to the North African Monsoon. During periods of high insolation the increased strength and northward progression of the North African Monsoonal Front causes very heavy rain along the upper and middle reaches of the Nile River basin.

Evidence for the existence of large lakes in the Sahara can be found and interpreted from the geologic record. These lakes fill as the precession cycle approaches the insolation maximum and are then depleted as the precession cycle nears the insolation minimum. The largest of these paleolakes was Lake Megachad, which at its peak was 173 m deep and covered an area of roughly 400,000 km2. Today the remnants of this once massive lake are known as Lake Chad, which has a maximum depth of 11 m and an area of only 1,350 km2.

Around the time of the insolation maximum in the precession cycle the North African Monsoon is at its strongest and the Sahara region becomes dominated by large monsoonal lakes. Then as time progress toward the insolation minima, these lakes begin to dry out due to weakening North African Monsoon. As the lakes dry up thin sediment deposits containing freshwater diatoms are exposed. Finally, when the prevailing northeasterly winds arrive during winter, the freshwater diatom deposits in the dried lake beds are picked up as dust and carried thousands of kilometers out into the tropical Atlantic.

Geologic evidence from the beginning and end of the African Humid Period suggests that both the onset and termination of the African Humid Period were abrupt. In fact both events likely occurred on a timescale of decades to centuries. The onset and termination of the African Humid Period both occurred when the insolation cycle reached a value of roughly 4.2% higher than today. However, shifts in the insolation cycle are too gradual to cause abrupt climate transitions like those seen at the onset and termination of the African Humid Period all on their own.

The combination of Australia's dry climate and latitude give it high benefits and potential for solar energy production. Most of the Australian continent receives in excess of per square metre per day of insolation during winter months, with a region in the north exceeding per square metre per day. Australia's insolation greatly exceeds the average values in Europe, Russia, and most of North America. Comparable levels are found in desert areas of northern and southern Africa, south western United States and adjacent area of Mexico, and regions on the Pacific coast of South America.

The annual cycle of insolation (Sun energy, shown in blue) with key points for seasons (middle), quarter days (top) and cross-quarter days (bottom) along with months (lower) and Zodiac houses (upper). The cycle of temperature (shown in pink) is delayed by seasonal lag. Solar timing is based on insolation in which the solstices and equinoxes are seen as the midpoints of the seasons. It was the method for reckoning seasons in medieval Europe, especially by the Celts, and is still ceremonially observed in Ireland and some East Asian countries.

K2-155d is a super-Earth exoplanet with a radius 1.64 times that of Earth, near the transition zone between small rock-based and larger gaseous planets. Climate models predict that it is located near its star's habitable zone and has an insolation 1.67 ± 0.38 (between 1.29 and 2.05) times that of Earth. Its physical temperature is estimated to be 289 K (16 degrees Celsius or 61 degrees Fahrenheit). Studies have shown that the planet would maintain a moderate surface temperature if its insolation is smaller than ∼1.5 times that of Earth.

For a site with insolation of 1700 kWh/m2/year, typical of southern Europe, NREL researchers estimated GHG emissions of 45 ge/kWh. Using the same assumptions, at Phoenix, USA, with insolation of 2400 kWh/m2/year, the GHG emissions factor would be reduced to 32 g of CO2e/kWh.David D. Hsu and others, Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Electricity Generation: Systematic Review and Harmonization , 2011. The New Zealand Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment found that the solar PV would have little impact on the country's greenhouse gas emissions.

Vardenis is known for high insolation with 2,500 to 2,700 hours annually. Precipitation comprises . The number of blizzard days is 30, of which 13 are in January. The summer is short, mild, sunny and humid, with minimal precipitation.

Nevertheless, this species can withstand drought better than any other spruce. It can withstand extremely low temperatures (-40 degrees C) as well. Furthermore, this species is more resistant to high insolation and frost damage compared to other associated species.

In 2009, further evidence was provided that changes in solar insolation provide the initial trigger for the earth to warm after an Ice Age, with secondary factors like increases in greenhouse gases accounting for the magnitude of the change.

Venus receives about twice the sunlight that Earth does, which is thought to have contributed to its runaway greenhouse effect. One means of terraforming Venus could involve reducing the insolation at Venus' surface to prevent the planet from heating up again.

Mission simulations were performed during thermal vacuum cycling and at the bench using a solar array simulator that was autonomously power toggled with realistic orbital insolation and eclipse periods. This ensured that the spacecraft would be power-positive on orbit.

Climate in Odzaci municipality can be described as moderate-continental. The average annual temperature is 10.9 °C. The coldest month is January with -0.3 °C, while July is the warmest with 21.4 °C. The total insolation per year is 2014 hours.

Long-term variations of daily insolation and Quaternary Climatic Changes. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 35(12), 2362-2367. He calculated the periods characterizing the variations of the astronomical parameters,Berger, A., 1977. Support for the astronomical theory of climatic change.

29, 1968-1982 and caloricBerger, A., 1978. Long-term variations of caloric insolation resulting from the Earth's orbital elements. Quaternary Research, 9, 139-167. irradiations. With his team, he developed one of the first Earth Model of Intermediate Complexity (EMICs).

So to account for these rapid shifts in the climate of the Sahara, several nonlinear feedback mechanisms have been proposed. One of the most common sets of nonlinear feedback mechanisms considered, are vegetation-atmosphere interactions. Computer models looking at vegetation- atmosphere interactions and insolation across North Africa have shown the ability to simulate the rapid transitions between "green Sahara" and "desert Sahara" regimes. Thus the results from these models suggest the possible existence of a vegetation-insolation threshold, which if reached, allows the Sahara region to rapidly transition from "green Sahara" to "desert Sahara" and vice versa.

Modulation of the precession driven insolation cycle is the primary impact of obliquity on the North African Monsoon. Evidence for the impact of obliquity on the intensity of the North African Monsoon has been found in records of dust deposits from ocean cores in the Eastern Mediterranean that occur as a result of Aeolian processes. This evidence requires complex feedback mechanisms to explain since the strongest impact of obliquity on insolation is found in the high latitudes. Two possible mechanisms for the existence of an obliquity tracer found in the Eastern Mediterranean Aeolian dust deposits have been proposed.

However, these effects are not uniform everywhere on the Earth's surface. Increased tilt increases the total annual solar radiation at higher latitudes, and decreases the total closer to the equator. The current trend of decreasing tilt, by itself, will promote milder seasons (warmer winters and colder summers), as well as an overall cooling trend. Because most of the planet's snow and ice lies at high latitude, decreasing tilt may encourage the onset of an ice age for two reasons: There is less overall summer insolation, and also less insolation at higher latitudes, which melts less of the previous winter's snow and ice.

In addition, the zones do not incorporate any information about summer temperature or insolation; thus sites which may have the same mean winter minima, but markedly different summer temperatures, will be accorded the same hardiness zone. For example, zone 8 covers coastal, high latitude, cool summer locations like Seattle and London, as well as lower latitude, hot summer climates like Charleston and Madrid. Farmers, gardeners, and landscapers in the former two must plan for entirely different growing seasons from those in the latter. Coastal Ireland and Miami are both Zone 10, but have radically different insolation and summer heat and humidity.

The insolation that eventually, after reflection, reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle. This renders solar radiation minimally relevant for internal processes.Lowrie, W. (2007). Fundamentals of geophysics.

Denmark has few natural resources although some small oil and gas fields have been found offshore since the 1970s. Gravel, sand, and chalk are all mined for building material and in North Jylland plastic clay and diatomite are extracted as insolation material.

Most known transiting planets are hot Jupiters. Speculation on the appearances of unseen extrasolar planets currently relies upon computational models of the likely atmosphere of such a planet, for instance how the atmospheric temperature–pressure profile and composition would respond to varying degrees of insolation.

View from the Field – Solar in Alaska Hybrid generator cuts Lime Village energy costs Annual insolation and thus power production per capacity installed in Alaska is similar to central Europe, where Germany became a leader in worldwide solar power use in the years around 2010.

Exterior wall color, when the surface allows choice, for reflection or absorption insolation qualities depends on the predominant year-round ambient outdoor temperature. The use of deciduous trees and wall trellised or self attaching vines can assist in climates not at the temperature extremes.

Insolation is the primary variable affecting equilibrium temperature in spacecraft design and planetology. Solar activity and irradiance measurement is a concern for space travel. For example, the American space agency, NASA, launched its Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) satellite with Solar Irradiance Monitors.

The local climate is arid, cold and subject to strong insolation, including strong ultraviolet radiation. This has caused the lake to be compared to the environment of Mars. Despite these conditions, the lake features a biota including bacteria, archaea, crustaceans and even a midge.

The climate is mild and sunny, with less than 900 mm of precipitation per year and with insolation being remarkably high, in fact, the highest in Western France including southernmost sea resorts such as Biarritz. Average extreme temperatures vary from in summer to in winter.

Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars. Icarus 170, 343–364. When the tilt begins to return to lower values, the ice sublimates (turns directly to a gas) and leaves behind a lag of dust.Mellon, M., B. Jakosky. 1995.

The measurement urgently requires confirmation by both longer term measurements and by an alternate method. It is useful to note that the ocean heat content anomaly of the Argo float measurement is approximately 3x1022 joules, or approximately three days of excess solar insolation over the nine-year period, or less than a ~0.1% variation of solar insolation over nine years. During the same period, CERES measured top of the atmosphere in and out-going radiation and found no trend. Since CERES precision is as good or better than the Argo floats, the discrepancy requires resolution concerning the trend, if any, in ocean heat content of the subtropical southern ocean.

Instead eccentricity modulates the amplitude of the insolation maxima and minima that occur due to the precession cycle. Strong support for the modulation of the precession cycle by eccentricity can be found in Aeolian dust deposits in the Eastern Mediterranean. Upon close examination it can be shown that periods of low and high hematite fluxes correspond to both the 100,000 year and 400,000 year eccentricity cycles. It is believed that this evidence for the eccentricity cycles in the dust record of the Eastern Mediterranean indicates a stronger northward progression of the North African Monsoonal Front during times when the eccentricity and precession insolation maxima coincide.

Currently the peak in solar radiation occurs on June 21, but the peak of the summer monsoon in North Africa occurs a month later in July. A one-month lag such as this should be represented by roughly a 1500 to 2000 year lag in the monsoonal circulation maximum, because a July insolation maximum in a 19,000 to 23,000 year precession cycle occurs roughly 1500 to 2000 years after the June insolation maximum. Two other possible explanations for the observed lag in the data have been put forward. The first suggest that the development of the monsoons in the subtropics is tempered by the slow melting of polar ice sheets.

Observed variations in the strength of the eastern equatorial Atlantic upwelling zone can also be used to support a cycle of the North African Monsoon that is regulated by the precession cycle. When insolation in North Africa is at its peak during the precession cycle the easterly trade winds over the equatorial Atlantic are strongly diverted toward the Sahara. This diversion weakens the equatorial upwelling zone in the eastern equatorial Atlantic, resulting in warmer waters in the pelagic. On the other end of the spectrum when insolation in North Africa is at a minimum due to the precession cycle, the diversion of the easterly trade winds is relatively weak.

The idea that changes in insolation caused by shifts in the Earth's orbital parameters are a controlling factor for the long-term variations in the strength of monsoon patterns across the globe was first suggested by Rudolf Spitaler in the late nineteenth century, The hypothesis was later formally proposed and tested by the meteorologist John Kutzbach in 1981. Kutzbach's ideas about the impacts of insolation on global monsoonal patterns have become widely accepted today as the underlying driver of long term monsoonal cycles. Kutzbach never formally named his hypothesis and as such it is referred to here as the "Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis" as suggested by Ruddiman in 2001.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) contributes 0.51% of Canada's total renewable energy output and this number is growing as the total installed solar capacity reached 2662 megawatts in 2016. Solar PV potential varies across Canada, with the highest insolation in the southernmost portion of the prairies and the lowest in the north and coastal regions. The benefits of using solar energy include the absence of harmful emissions and the long equipment lifespan (about 25 years). The drawbacks to using solar energy are the high environmental footprint required in areas of lower insolation leading to habitat degradation and the inability to store energy for extended periods of time.

From an astronomical view, the equinoxes and solstices would be the middle of the respective seasons, but sometimes astronomical summer is defined as starting at the solstice, the time of maximal insolation, often identified with the 21st day of June or December. A variable seasonal lag means that the meteorological centre of the season, which is based on average temperature patterns, occurs several weeks after the time of maximal insolation. The meteorological convention is to define summer as comprising the months of June, July, and August in the northern hemisphere and the months of December, January, and February in the southern hemisphere."Professor Paul Hardaker answers questions on meteorological forecasting" .

Yin Q.Z. and A. Berger, 2010. Insolation and CO2 contribution to the interglacials before and after the Mid-Brunhes Event. Nature Geoscience, 3(4), pp. 243-246. the possible exceptional length of our interglacialBerger A. and M.F. Loutre, 1996. Modeling the climate response to the astronomical and CO2 forcings.

The amount reaching the Earth's surface (as insolation) is further reduced by atmospheric attenuation, which varies. At any given moment, the amount of solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's surface depends on the state of the atmosphere, the location's latitude, and the time of day.

Midsummer shade temperatures peak at on the continent beyond the Arctic Circle, and in winter the temperature drops below . In the Arctic Archipelago average midsummer temperatures are lower than . Differences between soil surface and air temperatures can be considerable and are largely influenced by direct insolation and wind velocity.

Milankovitch, Milutin. Canon of Insolation and the Ice Age Problem. Zavod za Udz̆benike i Nastavna Sredstva: Belgrade, 1941. . The uneven solar heating (the formation of zones of temperature and moisture gradients, or frontogenesis) can also be due to the weather itself in the form of cloudiness and precipitation.

Examples of older Younger Dryas-like events have been reported from the ends (called terminations)The relatively rapid changes from cold conditions to warm interglacials are called terminations. They are numbered from the most recent termination as I and with increasing value (II, III, and so forth) into the past. Termination I is the end Marine Isotope Stage 2 (MIS2); Termination II is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 6 (MIS6); Termination III is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 8 (MIS8); Termination III is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 10 (MIS10), and so forth. For an example, see Pleistocene glacial terminations triggered by synchronous changes in Southern and Northern Hemisphere insolation: The insolation canon hypothesis.

The average high is while the average low is . With a mean precipitation of , it is the rainiest season. This is due to hot temperatures and high insolation that lead to the development of a low pressure system called the Chaco Low situated over northern Argentina that interacts with the South Atlantic High to generate a pressure gradient that brings moist easterly winds to the region, favouring precipitation, which mostly occurs in the form of convective thunderstorms. The Chaco Low also interacts with the South Atlantic high to bring warm and tropical air from the north which is the strongest in summer when the Chaco Low is at its strongest due to higher insolation.

Planetary scientists have not reached a consensus on whether Earth-like exoplanets have plate tectonics, but it is widely thought that the likelihood of plate tectonics on an Earth-like exoplanet is a function of planetary radius, initial temperature upon coalescence, insolation, and presence or absence of liquid-phase surface water.

LELIEVRE, F., SALA, S., RUGET, F. and VOLAIRE, F., 2011. Evolution du climat du Sud de la France 1950-2009. Projet Climfourel PSDR3, Régions LR, MP, RA, Série Les Focus PSDR3. Slight variations in elevation make fog common in valleys, and slopes oriented south and south-west have good insolation.

The langley (symbol Ly) is used to measure solar radiation or insolation. It is equal to one thermochemical calorie per square centimetre (4.184 J/m2 or ≈3.684 BTU/sq ft) and was named after Samuel Pierpont Langley. Its symbol should not be confused with that for the light-year, ly.

An additional suggested cause for the Middle Miocene disruption has been attributed to a shift from a solar insolation cycle that is obliquity dominated to one that is dominated by eccentricity (see Milankovitch cycles). This change would have been significant enough for conditions near the Antarctic continent to allow for glaciation.

The dust has a water snow line, a certain distance where the stellar irradiance from the star is low enough that water can freeze to snow. The water snow line was directly imaged by ALMA, when a stellar outburst increased the amount of insolation and pushed the line out farther.

Special Publications: 356. 111-131 General circulation models of the Martian atmosphere predict accumulations of ice-rich dust in the same areas where ice-rich features are found.Laskar, J., A. Correia, M. Gastineau, F. Joutel, B. Levrard, and P. Robutel. 2004. Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars.

It further gets roughly the same insolation from its star as Mercury gets from the Sun.Tuomi, Fig. 17 Planets like this in that system have been presumed "super-Earth". However planets b, c, and d are presumed to have migrated in from outer orbits; and planet b is predicted a sub-Neptune.

Licancabur Lake is exposed to extreme climatic conditions, including low air pressure, strong insolation and strong temperature fluctuations. The climate at Licancabur Lake is arid and strong evaporation is prevalent. Air temperatures at Licancabur Lake range during daytime and at night. The air pressure is less than half that at sea level.

Special Publications: 356. 111-131 General circulation models of the Martian atmosphere predict accumulations of ice-rich dust in the same areas where ice-rich features are found.Laskar, J., A. Correia, M. Gastineau, F. Joutel, B. Levrard, and P. Robutel. 2004. Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars.

From north to south, Hungary differs by only about 3 degrees of latitude. The seasonal variance in the angle of incidence of the Sun's rays is, therefore, about 3°. The annual total insolation of the surface of the country varies between . The seasonal distribution of sunshine varies between in summer and in winter.

Over long time scales, ice sheet mass balance is governed by the amount of sunlight reaching the earth. This variation in sunlight reaching the earth, or insolation, over geologic time is in turn determined by the angle of the earth to the sun and shape of the Earth's orbit, as it is pulled on by neighboring planets; these variations occur in predictable patterns called Milankovitch cycles. Milankovitch cycles dominate climate on the glacial–interglacial timescale, but there exist variations in ice sheet extent that are not linked directly with insolation. For instance, during at least the last 100,000 years, portions of the ice sheet covering much of North America, the Laurentide Ice Sheet broke apart sending large flotillas of icebergs into the North Atlantic.

On the millennial time scales of Pleistocene glacial and interglacial cycles, the pacemaker of glaciation onset and melting are changes in orbital parameters termed the Milankovitch cycles. Specifically, low summer insolation in the northern hemisphere permits growth of ice sheets, while high summer insolation causes more ablation than winter snow accumulation. Human activities promoting climate change, notably the extensive use of fossil fuels over the last 150 years and the resulting increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, are the principal cause of the more rapid retreat of alpine glaciers and continental ice sheets all across the world. For example, the West Antarctic Ice Sheet has receded significantly, and is now contributing to a positive feedback loop that threatens further deglaciation or collapse.

Different solar power technologies are able to use different component of the total irradiation. While solar photovoltaics panels are able to convert to electricity both direct irradiation and diffuse irradiation, concentrated solar power is only able to operate efficiently with direct irradiation, thus making these systems suitable only in locations with relatively low cloud cover. Because solar collectors panels are almost always mounted at an angle towards the sun, insolation must be adjusted to prevent estimates that are inaccurately low for winter and inaccurately high for summer. This also means that the amount of sun falling on a solar panel at high latitude is not as low compared to one at the equator as would appear from just considering insolation on a horizontal surface.

As of 2011, three extrasolar planets have been found to orbit the star. Announced on the first of November 1999, the first planet (HD 37124 b) was discovered orbiting its parent star around the inner edge of the habitable zone, causing the planet to have a somewhat similar insolation to that of Venus. A second planet became apparent by 2003, thought to orbit in a 1940 days on an eccentric orbit, but this was subsequently found to be unstable. Solving this, a three-planet solution was announced in 2005: this contained a second planet (HD 37124 c) orbiting at the outer edge of the habitable zone with an insolation similar to that of Mars, and a third planet, (HD 37124 d).

If hydraulic cements dry out during the curing phase, the resulting product can be insufficiently hydrated and significantly weakened. A minimum temperature of 5 °C is recommended, and no more than 30 °C. The concrete at young age must be protected against water evaporation due to direct insolation, elevated temperature, low relative humidity and wind.

It still has its original constructed frame. Its facades have been built by cut stones, while the other parts by the rustic stones. The main brick dome was covered with by a hexagonal wooden roof, which today has been replaced with red tiles. It has circle-shaped small holes that were used for insolation.

The output of, for example, a photovoltaic panel, partly depends on the angle of the sun relative to the panel. One Sun is a unit of power flux, not a standard value for actual insolation. Sometimes this unit is referred to as a Sol, not to be confused with a sol, meaning one solar day.

H. Desert Research Institute. Retrieved on 2006-10-22. This type of weather event is known as a haboob, and is most common in the late spring within Sudan. Upper-level outflow can consist of thick cirrus clouds which would then obscure the sun and reduce solar insolation around the outermost edge of tropical cyclones.

13,139-13,161 Based on such climate models, he showed the importance of the long-term variations of insolation to simulate the glacial-interglacial cycles,Berger A., Loutre M.F., and H. Gallee, 1998. Sensitivity of the LLN climate model to the astronomical and CO2 forcings over the last 200 kyr. Climate Dynamics, 14, pp. 615-629.

HD 73526 b is an extrasolar planet orbiting about 61 million miles (0.66 AU) away from its parent star. This planet is more massive than Jupiter in the Solar System, so is most likely a gas giant. Based on its orbit and the stellar luminosity, the planet probably receives insolation 61% that of Mercury.

The cause of this event is interpreted to be a period of high temperatures resulting from high insolation levels. This explains both the transgressive event recognised at the margins of the Old Red continent, caused by thermal expansion of the oceans, and the formation of the Achanarras lake within the continent due to the increased intensity of monsoon conditions.

Average annual insolation in Poland Solar energy in Poland includes the production of solar thermal energy and solar photovoltaics. Solar thermal, used for heating water, used of installed solar thermal collectors at the end of 2014. This corresponds to about 1,200 MWth capacity. Solar collectors are the second largest source of renewable heat in Poland, after biomass heating plants.

420,000 years of ice core data from Vostok, Antarctica, research station. Current period is at left. From bottom to top: insolation at 65°N due to Milankovitch cycles (connected to 18O); 18O isotope of oxygen; levels of methane (CH4); relative temperature; levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). In the 1970s the Soviet Union drilled a set of cores deep.

Lovelock, James and Allaby, Michael, "The Greening of Mars" 1984 Assuming that life doesn't exist on Mars, the soil is going to be very poor for growing plants, so manure and other fertilizers will be valued highly in any Martian civilization until the planet changes enough chemically to support growing vegetation on its own. Solar power is a candidate for power for a Martian colony. Solar insolation (the amount of solar radiation that reaches Mars) is about 42% of that on Earth, since Mars is about 52% farther from the Sun and insolation falls off as the square of distance. But the thin atmosphere would allow almost all of that energy to reach the surface as compared to Earth, where the atmosphere absorbs roughly a quarter of the solar radiation.

The formation of Lake Minchin was at first explained with glacial meltwater formed during an interglacial. This idea was disputed because the growth of lakes happens at the same time as the growth of glaciers rather than afterwards. An alternative explanation postulates an increase of precipitation over the Altiplano. Higher insolation may have played a role in the expansion of Lake Minchin.

Occasionally during winter (but also in summer), frontal disturbances result in snowfall. Strong winds and high insolation are other aspects of the Altiplano climate. Much of the water balance in the present-day Altiplano-Atacama area is maintained by groundwater flow. The terrain of the Altiplano consists primarily of sediments deposited by lakes and rivers during the Miocene and Pleistocene.

The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth's energy system, located at the top of the thermosphere. The temperature of the thermopause could range from nearly absolute zero to . Below this, the atmosphere is defined to be active on the insolation received, due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monatomic oxygen. The solar constant is thus expressed at the thermopause.

The climate of the Saint-Lawrence lowlands is moderate, subhumid and continental. It is a region in Quebec where the climate is the most clement. The average annual temperature in the park is ; the season where it stays above lasts 149 days on average and the annual insolation is 2000 hours. The mountain gets of precipitation, of which is snowfall.

Variations in the solar output have effects on climate, less through the usually quite small effects on insolation and more through the relatively large changes of UV radiation and potentially also indirectly through modulation of cosmic ray radiation. The 11-year solar cycle measurably alters the behaviour of weather and atmosphere, but decadal and centennial climate cycles are also attributed to solar variation.

Covering half of the roof with 10% efficient photovoltaics is sufficient to generate all of the electricity used by an average family in Texas. Solar farms are more cost effective in West Texas, where insolation levels are greater. The US uses about of energy each year. This number is expected to be reduced by 50% by 2050, due to efficiency increases.

In 2018, 7% of Mongolia's electricity came from renewable power sources, mainly wind power. Mongolia has very sunny weather with average insolation above 1,500 kW/m2 in most of the country, making solar power highly available. 247 MW of solar power plants have been approved for construction. Guaranteed power purchase agreements and favorable tariff structures promote further growth of the industry.

During her doctoral studies Braconnot worked on tropic ocean models using statistical methods. She is interested in the amplification of Asian and African monsoons during the holocene. Braconnot was one of the first to use a three-dimensional coupled ocean model to show the importance of ocean feedback in glacial inception. She has worked on El Niño and the Holocene insolation.

Queen ants are the largest ants in the colony. Banded sugar ants come in a variety of colours, possibly due to ecological rather than genetic influences. For example, humidity, insolation and temperature may all affect the colour of an individual. Female banded sugar ants are easily recognised by their black head, orange thorax and the orange-brown band that wraps around their gaster.

Modified by inserting data values on the map from Annu.Rev.Earth Planet.Sci.2010.38:161–187 The typical δD values for the ice sheets in the polar regions range from around −400‰ to −300‰ (‰SMOW). The δD values for ice caps are affected by the distance from the open ocean, latitude, atmospheric circulation as well as the amount of insolation and temperature.

Summer is defined as the quarter of the year with the greatest insolation and winter as the quarter with the least. The solar seasons change at the cross-quarter days, which are about 3–4 weeks earlier than the meteorological seasons and 6–7 weeks earlier than seasons starting at equinoxes and solstices. Thus, the day of greatest insolation is designated "midsummer" as noted in William Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream, which is set on the summer solstice. On the Celtic calendar, the start of the seasons corresponds to four Pagan agricultural festivals - the traditional first day of winter is 1 November (Samhain, the Celtic origin of Halloween); spring starts 1 February (Imbolc, the Celtic origin of Groundhog Day); summer begins 1 May (Beltane, the Celtic origin of May Day); the first day of autumn is 1 August (Celtic Lughnasadh).

Solar shades could be used to reduce the total insolation received by Venus, cooling the planet somewhat. A shade placed in the Sun–Venus Lagrangian point also would serve to block the solar wind, removing the radiation exposure problem on Venus. A suitably large solar shade would be four times the diameter of Venus itself if at the point. This would necessitate construction in space.

In meteorological terms, the solstices (the maximum and minimum insolation) do not fall in the middles of summer and winter. The heights of these seasons occur up to 7 weeks later because of seasonal lag. Seasons, though, are not always defined in meteorological terms. In astronomical reckoning by hours of daylight alone, the solstices and equinoxes are in the middle of the respective seasons.

Parrish, J. T., 1993: Climate of the Supercontinent Pangea. Journal of Geology, 10, 215-233. During the Northern Hemisphere winter when the earth’s tilt was directed away from the sun, this circulation reversed as the area of maximum solar insolation shifted toward the Southern Hemisphere. Air then traveled from Laurasia (region of high pressure), across the Tethys Ocean to Gondwana (region of low pressure).

Water vapour, CO2 and insolation over the last glacial- interglacial cycles. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, B, 341, pp. 253-261. More recently he initiated research on the origin of the east Asian summer monsoon in ChinaYin Q.Z., Berger A., and M. Crucifix, 2009. Individual and combined effects of ice sheets and precession on MIS-13 climate. Climate of the Past, 5, pp. 229-243.

WASP-6b is an extrasolar planet approximately 600 light years away in the constellation Aquarius. It was discovered in 2008, by the WASP survey, by astronomical transit across its parent star WASP-6. This planet orbits only 4% that of Earth-Sun distance. The planet has mass half that of Jupiter, but its insolation has forced a thermal expansion of its radius over that of Jupiter.

HD 108874 c is a gas giant discovered in 2005 which orbits beyond the star's habitable zone, and receives insolation 15.9% that of Earth. It has minimum mass similar to Jupiter, although since the inclination of the orbit is not known the true mass of this planet could be much greater. The planet is possibly in a 4 : 1 orbital resonance with HD 108874 b.

The PV industry has adopted levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) as the unit of cost. The electrical energy generated is sold in units of kilowatt-hours (kWh). As a rule of thumb, and depending on the local insolation, 1 watt-peak of installed solar PV capacity generates about 1 to 2 kWh of electricity per year. This corresponds to a capacity factor of around 10–20%.

The maximum latitude range of the arctic extends to near-equatorial latitudes of 13°N and 13°S when the obliquity goes down to its minimum of 103°. At that time, the arctic circles cover around 78% of the total surface area. The high obliquity induced in latitude variations in arctic zones extending down to near-equatorial regions indicates that the maximum amount of insolation is received at the poles.

Inyokern has the highest insolation of any locale on the North American continent, having over 355 days of sunshine each year. The town is home to the past and current world champion musical saw players. The Inyokern Airport is a popular location for car commercials, the grand Sierra Nevada Mountains for the backdrop. Indigenous animals that can be found in the valley floor are kit foxes, coyotes, bobcats, and roadrunners.

Solar potential Turkey is located in an advantageous position in the Middle East and Southeast Europe for solar energy. Solar potential is very high in Turkey, especially in the South Eastern Anatolia and Mediterranean provinces. Compared to the rest of the region, insolation values are higher and conditions for solar power generation are comparable to Spain. 7.5 TWh was generated in 2018 which was 2.5% of Turkey's electricity.

In the Northern Hemisphere summer, when the earth’s axial tilt was directed toward the sun, Laurasia would have received the most direct solar insolation. This would have yielded a broad area of warm, rising air and low surface pressure over the continent. Models have suggested that this seasonal low was positioned at 35° latitude, relatively near the Tethys Ocean.Kutzbach, J.E. and R.G. Gallimore, 1989: Pangaean climates: Megamonsoons of the megacontinent.

Moreover, the RMI publishes a monthly climatological report, containing for every day of the previous month data on wind speed, average/minimum/maximum temperature, precipitation, insolation. It is entirely free and accessible through the RMI website.meteo.be The current face of RMI reflects the importance given to scientific meteorological research, in the fields of forecasting, issues concerning atmosphere and climate, the hydrological cycle, observations' systems, magnetism and the ionosphere.

Svenska Högarna has an oceanic climate with low diurnal temperature variation, windy and mild conditions. Summer highs are cool, whilst winter lows remain very mild, with some years barely having a meteorological winter. The climate has a significant seasonal lag, with temperature extremes often being two months after maximum and minimum insolation. The climate is relatively dry in terms of rain and snowfall, but retains a high humidity.

However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.

The mean temperature in summer months is on average lower by than in Zagreb. On average, 15 days have temperatures below , eight days a year have average daily maxima higher than , and only one day reaches above . The coldest month is January with a mean monthly air temperature of , while the warmest month is July with an average temperature of . Insolation exceeds Zagreb's by about 100 hours annually.

The city's total duration of sunshine is 2,528 hours per annum, with the maximum insolation occurring in March.GAIA article Often during early summer, spells of thunderstorm and heavy rains lashes the city, bringing some relief from the heat and intolerable humidity. These thunderstorms are locally known as Kalbaishakhi (Nor-wester). According to a United Nations Development Programme report, its wind and cyclone zone is "very high damage risk".

There are few data on climate at Socompa. The area is windy and dry given that the volcano lies in the Desert Puna, with frequent snow cover and penitentes but no glaciers. The relatively low cloud cover means that insolation is high. Weather data collected in 1991 found an average temperature of , a large diurnal air temperature cycle (and a larger soil temperature cycle of ) and low evaporation.

The Chilean Dirección General del Agua operates a weather station at El Tatio; according to data from this station air temperatures average and precipitation . El Tatio further features high ultraviolet (UV) insolation. The whole Central Andes were wetter in the past, resulting in the formation of lakes such as Lake Tauca in the Altiplano. This, and a colder climate, resulted in the development of glaciers at El Tatio, which have left moraines.

Nutrients from rivers along with mixing and upwelling from storms contribute mixed layer nutrients which are essential for Arctic phytoplankton development. During summer, nearly continuous solar insolation encourages phytoplankta blooms. The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by continents and has a few narrow, relatively shallow connections to the large ocean basins to the south. Large amounts of riverine fresh water as well as abundant nutrients (gelbstoff) flow into the Arctic basin from Siberian rivers.

Mirrors made of thin aluminized PET film could be placed in orbit around Mars to increase the total insolation it receives. This would direct the sunlight onto the surface and could increase Mars's surface temperature directly. The mirror could be positioned as a statite, using its effectiveness as a solar sail to orbit in a stationary position relative to Mars, near the poles, to sublimate the ice sheet and contribute to the warming greenhouse effect.

Popular choices for plant biofuels include: oil palm, soybean, castor oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, corn ethanol, and sugar cane ethanol. An analysis of a proposed Hawaiian oil palm plantation claimed to yield 600 gallons of biodiesel per acre per year. That comes to 2835 watts per acre or 0.7 W/m2.Biodiesel Fuel. Ag.ndsu.edu.. Retrieved on 2011-11-03. Typical insolation in Hawaii is around 5.5 kWh/(m2day) or 230 W/m2.

String inverters are substantially lower in capacity, of the order of 10 kW, and condition the output of a single array string. This is normally a whole, or part of, a row of solar arrays within the overall plant. String inverters can enhance the efficiency of solar parks, where different parts of the array are experiencing different levels of insolation, for example where arranged at different orientations, or closely packed to minimise site area.

Conversely, the month of August is usually hotter than the month of May despite August having later sunrises, increasingly earlier sunsets, and less daylight overall. In all cases, the change in average air temperature lags behind the more consistent change in daylight patterns - delaying the perceived start of the next season for a month or so. An analogous temperature lag phenomenon occurs in diurnal temperature variation, where maximum daily temperature occurs after noon (maximum insolation).

The main advantage of the evergreen habit is that the plant does not have to expend energy on new photosynthetic organs each year. It also allows the plants to conduct photosynthesis all year round when conditions are favourable.(Hadley & Bliss 1964) Plants in alpine environments are subjected to water stress from a combination of inadequate precipitation, thin soils, periodic high winds and insolation. Numerous morphological adaptations are therefore situated around reducing transpirational water loss.

For a composition similar to that of Neptune, HD 219134 d would be about 4.0 . While a transit of the planet has not been detected yet, there is an estimated 8.5% that one would occur, and a mission like the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite may be able to detect one. The planet's equilibrium temperature is calculated to be , similar to that of Mercury. It receives about 4.7 times the stellar insolation of Earth.

The behavior of basking is characterized as the action of a caterpillar orienting its body so as to maximize sun exposure and avoid wind. Larvae tend to follow the direct angle of the sun’s rays in order to maintain maximal absorption of sunlight. They do this by orienting perpendicularly to the sun’s angle of insolation. Through the act of basking, G. groenlandica larvae may raise their body temperature by up to 20 °C.

The insolation values given here are those of the station of Caen, due to the lack of local data. Contrary to a common misconception, of total precipitation shows that Normandy is not a wetter region than others. The record of rainfall per 24-hour period was established during a storm on 11 July 1977 with of water. In the 1987 storm, wind culminated at in gusts, which is the current absolute record for the city.

This work lead to the commercialization of flat panel solar water heaters, and solar pool heaters, marketed as Northrup Energy products directly and via dealers, with particular success in Hawaii, where solar thermosiphon systems could be used with antifreeze. With low temperature products in production and distribution, Northrup turned his attention to achieving higher temperatures – which would entail various methods of concentrating incoming insolation and tracking the sun - with varying degrees of success.

The battery charge/discharge units (BCDUs) regulate the amount of charge put into the battery. Each BCDU can regulate discharge current from two battery ORUs (each with 38 series- connected Ni-H2 cells), and can provide up to 6.6 kW to the Space Station. During insolation, the BCDU provides charge current to the batteries and controls the amount of battery overcharge. Each day, the BCDU and batteries undergo sixteen charge/discharge cycles.

Mean temperatures in the region are below but daily temperature fluctuations can reach and insolation is intense. Vegetation in the region is classified as a high desert vegetation. It is bushy and relatively sparse, with thicker plant growth found at hot springs and in the craters where humid soils occur, perhaps wetted by ascending vapour. Annual precipitation is less than and moisture in the region comes from the Amazon in the east.

The earth receives a nearly constant global average of about 340 Watts per square meter of incoming solar radiation. Radiative forcing is the difference between insolation (sunlight) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space. Changes to Earth's radiative equilibrium, that cause temperatures to rise or fall over decadal periods, are called climate forcings. Positive radiative forcing means Earth receives more incoming energy from sunlight than it radiates to space.

Kutzbach's ideas about the impacts of insolation on global monsoonal patterns have become widely accepted today as the underlying driver of long term monsoonal cycles. Kutzbach never formally named his hypothesis and as such it is referred to here as the "Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis" as suggested by Ruddiman in 2001. Sahel region of Mali During the last glacial period, the Sahara was much larger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries.Christopher Ehret.

This movement of air from the north owing to the interaction between the Chaco Low and the South Atlantic high is the strongest in summer when the Chaco Low is at its strongest. These winds bring hot, humid tropical air from the north. Sustained and intense winds from the north are responsible for severe weather events such as heat waves and severe convection. During winter, the Chaco Low weakens as a result of lower insolation.

HD 73526 c is an extrasolar planet orbiting about 97 million miles (1.05 AU) away from its parent star. Based on its mass, this planet is likely to be a gas giant. At the distance this planet orbits from its star, which is more luminous than our Sun, HD 73526 c would receive insolation 84% that of Venus. HD 73526 c is in a 2:1 orbital resonance with HD 73526 b.

Sunsets in Azerbaijan are often very colorful. The Azerbaijani plains and foothills have high insolation rates. The sun shines for 2,200 to 2,400 hours annually on the Kur- Araz lowland, Apsheron peninsula and other plains and foothills, and 2,600 to 2,800 hours on the plains around the Araz river in the Nakhchivan region. Due to increased cloudiness in the mountainous regions, those areas receive only 1,900 to 2,200 hours of direct sunlight.

Volcanic lakes in the Andes of Bolivia and Chile can be found at high altitude, some of them close to or exceeding . Such lakes often are poor in nutrients and exposed to strong ultraviolet radiation, partly due to high insolation and partly because their waters tend to be transparent to ultraviolet radiation. Further, the atmosphere at such altitudes is oxygen- poor. These and other environmental properties are similar to the conditions that existed on Mars.

This topographic asymmetry is probably due to differences in insolation. Scalloped depressions are believed to form from the removal of subsurface material, possibly interstitial ice, by sublimation (direct transition of a material from the solid to the gas phase with no intermediate liquid stage). This process may still be happening at present. This topography may be of great importance for future colonization of Mars because it may point to deposits of pure ice.

The Alhorines is one of the best cereal-growing areas in the province of Alicante. The level of insolation in the area is among the highest in the Valencia region, at 1,900 kWh/m2 annually. It is a relatively dry agricultural valley, but is of interest due to its unique layout. This includes small plots alternating between grain crops, vineyards and orchards, separated by fences and natural banks, with some sandy area colonized by pines.

This re-expansion was part of the global neoglacial; this pattern of a larger ice cap during the late Holocene than the early is similar to that of Northern Hemisphere glaciers and may reflect Northern Hemisphere insolation. The ice cap reached its Holocene maximum extent during the Little Ice Age. About 4,000years ago, a new retreat occurred under the influence of warmer and drier climates, and another shrinkage also occurred between 3,000-1,500years ago.

March 21 equals September 21. The accompanying sun chart for Berlin accounts for deviations in symmetry between the two halves of the year through the use of the analemma, represented by each figure eight on the chart. The graph may show the entire horizon or only that half of the horizon closest to the equator. Sky view obstructions can be superimposed upon a Sun chart to obtain the insolation of a location.

All the Kepler circumbinary planets are either close to or actually in the habitable zone. None of them are terrestrial planets, but large moons of such planets could be habitable. Because of the stellar binarity, the insolation received by the planet will likely be time-varying in a way quite unlike the regular sunlight Earth receives. Transit Probability Circumbinary planets are generally more likely to transit than planets around a single star.

In hot conditions, the greatest source of heat energy is solar radiation.At latitudes less than 45 degrees, winter insolation rarely falls below 1kWh/m2/day and may rise above 7kWh/m2/day during summer. (Source:www.gaisma.com) In comparison the power output of an average domestic bar radiator is about 1kW. Therefore the amount of thermal radiation falling upon a 200m2 house could vary between 200-1400 home heaters operating continuously for one hour.

Ligol Apple color depends on many factors, which include weather conditions at the time of fruit ripening, temperature fluctuations between the day and night cycles, good insolation, and the soil composition. Bicolored apples that grow in certain regions of Europe, such as Grójec, are also characterized by a slight note of sourness, which results from the specific weather conditions, namely the ground frost occurring in that area during the autumn crop collection.

Most models simulate lithospheric plates with a viscoelastic-plastic rheology. In this simulation, plates deform viscoelastically up to a threshold level of stress, at which point they deform in a plastic manner. The lithospheric yield stress is a function of pressure, stress, composition, but temperature has a disproportionate effect on it. Therefore, changes to the lithospheric temperature, whether from external sources (insolation) or internal (mantle heating) will increase or decrease the likelihood of plate tectonics in viscoelastic-plastic models.

The highest part of the Schirmacher Oasis is Mount Rebristaya with a height of 228 m. With its 34.5 m Lake Glubokoye is the deepest inland lake of the oasis. Spatially the largest lake within the oasis is Lake Sub with 0.5 km². A number of theories exist about the formation of the oasis that include geothermal heating, intense insolation, or the hypothesis that the ice flow is blocked by a geological feature such as a mountain.

Weather station at Mildura Airport, Victoria, Australia. A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate. The measurements taken include temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation amounts. Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, or insolation.

In 2001 an extrasolar planet similar in size to Jupiter designated HD 28185 b was discovered in orbit around the star with a period of 1.04 years. Unlike many long-period extrasolar planets, it has a low orbital eccentricity. The planet experiences similar insolation to Earth, which has led to speculations about the possibilities for habitable moons. In addition, numerical simulations suggest that low-mass planets located in the gas giant's Trojan points would be stable for long periods.

Volcanism affects the atmosphere in two distinct ways: short-term cooling caused by reflected insolation and long-term warming from increased CO2 levels. Most of the water vapor and CO2 is collected in clouds within a few weeks to months because both are already present in large quantities, so the effects are limited (Bodenmann et al. 2011). It has been suggested that a volcanic eruption in 1809 may also have contributed to a reduction in global temperatures.

US annual average solar energy received by a latitude tilt photovoltaic cell (modeled). Sketch of a Parabolic Trough Collector system The southwestern United States is one of the world's best areas for insolation, and the Mojave Desert receives up to twice the sunlight received in other regions of the country. This abundance of solar energy makes solar power plants a cleaner alternative to traditional power plants, which burn fossil fuels such as oil and coal.National Renewable Energy Laboratory (2001).

A typical 150 watt PV module is about a square meter in size. Such a module may be expected to produce 0.75 kilowatt-hour (kWh) every day, on average, after taking into account the weather and the latitude, for an insolation of 5 sun hours/day. Module output and life degraded by increased temperature. Allowing ambient air to flow over, and if possible behind, PV modules reduces this problem. Effective module lives are typically 25 years or more.

A third-party data acquisition system can monitor multiple inverters, using the inverter manufacturer's protocols, and also acquire weather-related information. Independent smart meters may measure the total energy production of a PV array system. Separate measures such as satellite image analysis or a solar radiation meter (a pyranometer) can be used to estimate total insolation for comparison.Solar Irradiance Measurements Data collected from a monitoring system can be displayed remotely over the World Wide Web, such as OSOTF.

Zapudje is a clustered village in a small valley with many sinkholes at the foot of Travnik Hill (657 m) and Ušec Hill (also known as Vušec Hill, 616 m). It lies on a side road 3 km from the main road between Črnomelj and Vinica. The location has good insolation and is sheltered from the wind. The soil is rich in humus in the Loke area east of the village, and is loamy and gravelly elsewhere.

Solar power in Azerbaijan includes individual and commercial scale systems. Due to its climatic conditions and locations Azerbaijan has greater potential for solar power than the rest of the region. Insolation values are higher and other conditions for solar power generation are comparable to neighboring countries in the South Caucasus. The country features 250 sunny days per annum: changing from 2210 to 2700 hours and from 865 to 1000 hours in summer and winter periods, respectively.

The sequential shunt unit (SSU) is designed to coarsely regulate the solar power collected during periods of insolation—when the arrays collect power during sun-pointing periods. A sequence of 82 separate strings, or power lines, leads from the solar array to the SSU. Shunting, or controlling, the output of each string regulates the amount of power transferred. The regulated voltage setpoint is controlled by a computer located on the IEA and is normally set to around 140 volts.

Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) (also known as concentration photovoltaics) is a photovoltaic technology that generates electricity from sunlight. Unlike conventional photovoltaic systems, it uses lenses or curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, highly efficient, multi-junction (MJ) solar cells. In addition, CPV systems often use solar trackers and sometimes a cooling system to further increase their efficiency. Ongoing research and development is rapidly improving their competitiveness in the utility-scale segment and in areas of high insolation.

On June 13 2002, a 2.1 MJ planet HD 73526 b was announced orbiting HD 73526 in an orbit just a little smaller than that of Venus' orbit around the Sun. This planet receives insolation 3.65 times that of Earth or 1.89 times that of Venus. This was a single planet system until 2006 when a 2.3 MJ second planet HD 73526 c was discovered. This planet forms a 2:1 orbital resonance with planet b.

Climate forcing is the difference between radiant energy (sunlight) received by the Earth and the outgoing longwave radiation back to space. Radiative forcing is quantified based on the CO2 amount in the tropopause, in units of watts per square meter to the Earth's surface. Dependent on the radiative balance of incoming and outgoing energy, the Earth either warms up or cools down. Earth radiative balance originates from changes in solar insolation and the concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols.

This site is the most xeric habitat on the mountain because of high insolation, 70 percent slopes, and medium- to coarse-textured soils derived from Clinch sandstone. Mid-elevation slopes from 800 to 975 m (2,625 to 3,200 ft) are dominated by chestnut oak (Q. prinus), northern red oak, and pignut hickory and coincide with three shale formations (12). The range of pignut hickory encompasses 7 orders, 12 suborders, and 22 great groups of soils (24,25).

California, Greece, France and Italy have 30–50% more insolation than Germany making them financially more attractive. The Greek domestic "solar roof" programme (adopted in June 2009 for installations up to 10 kW) has internal rates of return of 10–15% at current commercial installation costs, which, furthermore, is tax-free. In 2006 California approved the 'California Solar Initiative', offering a choice of investment subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT for large systems.

Another rare geographic treasure is Oso Flaco Lake, a freshwater lake located amid the Dunes. Even though the Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes consist of moving sand with extremely low moisture that is seemingly deprived of nutrients, it is home to a variety of flora and fauna. There are at least 18 endangered species of plants living in the Dunes. Dune plants must also be able to endure burial by sand, salt spray, high winds, and high insolation.

One defining characteristic is the strong winds from the west which blow year round (stronger in summer than in winter). These favor evaporation, and are a factor in making the region mostly arid. Mean annual wind speeds range between , although gusts of over are common. There are three major factors that influence the climate of this region: the Andes, the South Pacific and the South Atlantic Highs, and higher insolation in eastern than in western areas.

The luminosity of Tau Ceti is equal to only 55% of the Sun's luminosity. A terrestrial planet would need to orbit this star at a distance of about to match the solar insolation level of Earth. This is approximately the same as the average distance between Venus and the Sun. The chromosphere of Tau Ceti—the portion of a star's atmosphere just above the light-emitting photosphere—currently displays little or no magnetic activity, indicating a stable star.

The buildings sector accounts for 23% of global energy-related CO2 emissions About half of the energy is used for space and water heating. A combination of electric heat pumps and building insolation can reduce the primary energy demand significantly. Generally, electrification of heating would only reduce GHG emissions if the electric power comes from low-carbon sources. A fossil-fuel power station may only deliver 3 units of electrical energy for every 10 units of fuel energy released.

Cardoso commented: During the shooting sessions, which lasted from 3:30 am to 6pm, the band and the Granada Filmes production team faced cars jammed in the sand, sandstorms, insolation, rain, thorn bruises from the only available tree, guitar pedals buried and lost in the sand, among other problems. Many videos of other bands performing in deserts were used as a reference, including the scene in which Slash is soloing at Guns N' Roses' "November Rain" video.

Solar potential of Pakistan Pakistan has some of the highest values of insolation in the world, with eight to nine hours of sunshine per day, ideal climatic conditions for solar power generation. However, the country has been slow to adopt the technology. The country has solar plants in Pakistani Kashmir, Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan. Initiatives are under development by the International Renewable Energy Agency, the Japan International Cooperation Agency, Chinese companies, and Pakistani private sector energy companies.

A Sankey diagram illustrating the Earth's energy budget described in this section – line thickness is linearly proportional to relative amount of energy. In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the Earth, it maintains a relatively constant temperature because, as a whole, there is little net gain or loss: Earth emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation (shifted to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space about the same amount of energy as it receives via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation). To quantify Earth's heat budget or heat balance, let the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere be 100 units (100 units = about 1,360 watts per square meter facing the sun), as shown in the accompanying illustration. Called the albedo of Earth, around 35 units are reflected back to space: 27 from the top of clouds, 2 from snow and ice- covered areas, and 6 by other parts of the atmosphere. The 65 remaining units are absorbed: 14 within the atmosphere and 51 by the Earth's surface.

The average insolation in Connecticut is about 4 sun hours per day, and ranges from less than 2 in the winter to over 5 in the summer.Solar Insolation Levels In North America ImageSize = width:450 height:240 PlotArea = width:350 height:150 left:50 bottom:40 AlignBars = late DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:6 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical ScaleMajor = unit:month increment:1 start:0 TextData = pos:(10,220) textcolor:black fontsize:S text:hrs pos:(180,25) textcolor:black fontsize:S text:Month pos:(90,225) textcolor:black fontsize:M text:Hartford, Connecticut Sun Hours/day Colors = id:yellow value:yellow PlotData= width:20 bar:Jan color:yellow from:0 till:1.70 bar:Feb color:yellow from:0 till:2.43 bar:Mar color:yellow from:0 till:3.48 bar:Apr color:yellow from:0 till:4.07 bar:May color:yellow from:0 till:5.14 bar:Jun color:yellow from:0 till:5.58 bar:Jul color:yellow from:0 till:5.38 bar:Aug color:yellow from:0 till:5.04 bar:Sep color:yellow from:0 till:4.13 bar:Oct color:yellow from:0 till:2.91 bar:Nov color:yellow from:0 till:1.81 bar:Dec color:yellow from:0 till:1.42 Connecticut electricity consumption in 2005 was 33,095 million kWh.

The absence of any interval of arctic winter darkness also precludes the possibilities of volatile cold trapping in the high-albedo diurnal zone. Conversely, the lower- albedo region in the diurnal zone has a higher reflectivity to solar insolation. These higher-albedo areas radiate away absorbed energy at night for every rotation of the planet and become a cold trap for volatile. The temperature cycle near the equator (in the diurnal zone) maintains sharp albedo variations between the bright and dark regions.

As of 2011, the capital cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. All that remains to calculate the LCOE is the expected production. Modules are generally warranted for 25 years and suffer only minor degradation during that time, so all that is needed to predict the generation is the local insolation. According to PVWatts a one-kilowatt system in Matsumoto, Nagano will produce 1187 kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity a year.

The mountain-mass effect (also known as the Massenerhebung effect or mass-elevation effect) was proposed in 1904 by A. de Quarvain. This phenomenon recognizes the correlation between mountain mass and the occurrence of physiognomically similar vegetation types; similarity in vegetation type is observed at higher elevations on large mountain masses.Flenley, J. R. (1994) Tropical mon-tane cloud forests. Cloud forest, the Massenerhebung effect, and ultraviolet insolation (eds L. S. Hamil-ton, J. O. Juvik & E N. Scatena), pp. 150-155.

Retrieved on 2011-11-03. which would produce an average of roughly 22 W/m2 (roughly 10% of the average insolation), throughout the year. Furthermore, the photovoltaic panels would produce electricity, which is a high-quality form of energy, whereas converting the biodiesel into mechanical energy entails the loss of a large portion of the energy. On the other hand, a liquid fuel is much more convenient for a vehicle than electricity, which has to be stored in heavy, expensive batteries.

Due to this the region of upwelling in the eastern equatorial Atlantic remains strong and the waters in the pelagic zone are cooler. The proof that this pattern of periodic weakening of the eastern equatorial Atlantic upwelling exists is found in deposits of surface dwelling planktic organisms in ocean sediment cores. Such cores show that the relative abundance of warm and cold water planktic species vary with a consistent beat of 23,000 years, matching the 23,000 year precession insolation cycle.

The Northern part of Nigeria has the highest potential for solar. The North has an average solar insolation of 2200 kWh/m^2, while the southern part has 1800 kWh/m^2. In addition to adequate power outputs, solar energy would aid the country in reducing carbon emissions from fossil-fueled energy generation. Furthermore, solar power would provide a reliable and stable source of energy in both urban and other locations and could alleviate the resources-conflict associated with oil.

Solar powered road sign Average solar insolation Solar power in Wisconsin on rooftops is estimated to be able to provide 40.1% of the electricity used in Wisconsin, using 23,600 MW of solar panels. Net metering is available for systems up to at least 20 kW, and excess generation is credited at retail rate to customers next bill. Some utilities allow net metering up to 100 kW. For Xcel customers, kilowatt credits are rolled over monthly and are reconciled annually at avoided cost.

Throughout the Pleistocene Epoch, the Laurentide Ice Sheet spread over large areas of northern North America, with over 5,000,000 square miles of coverage. The Laurentide ice sheet was 10,000 feet deep in some areas, and reached as far south as 37°N. Mapped extent of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during deglaciation has been prepared by Dyke et al. Cycles of deglaciation are driven by various factors, with the main driver being changes in incoming summer solar radiation, or insolation, in the Northern Hemisphere.

It could be due to the existence of separate patches of relatively clean methane ice, or due to an increased methane content in the uppermost layer of usual mixed ice. Seasonal and orbital changes of insolation result in migration of surface ices: they sublimate in some places and condensate in others. According to some estimates, this causes meter-sized changes of their thickness. This (but also changes in viewing geometry) results in appreciable changes of the brightness and color of Pluto.

The Termosolar Borges plant implements a different approach: the hybridization of a CSP plant with biomass fueled boilers. There is also a natural gas burner, to be used as an emergency backup. This solution reaches a higher electric production, an improvement in the operation stability of the thermal system and a higher renewable output of the plant. Beside, the most solar projects and plants are developed in the southern Spain territory, in consideration of more daily energy and a better winter insolation.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to ecology: Ecology - scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes both physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as solar insolation, climate and geology, as well as the other organisms that share its habitat. Also called ecological science.

The mission plans to scan specific locations on the Martian surface below 2 km elevation (to enable entry, descent and landing). The target areas for radar scans are between 25° and 40° northern latitude and 25° and 40° southern latitude. The upper limit of 40° was chosen to have favorable conditions for solar arrays. The lower bound of 25° is intended to maximize the proximity of locating ground ice (since availability of ground ice generally decreases toward the equator due to increased insolation).

The Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) assumes an average capacity factor of 9.7% for solar photovoltaics in the UK. Derry Newman, chief executive of Solarcentury, argues that the UK's "famously overcast weather does not make it an unsuitable place for solar power, as solar panels work on daylight, not necessarily direct sunlight." Some solar cells work better in direct sunlight, others can use more diffuse light. While insolation rates are lower in England than France and Spain, they are still usable.

Yareta is well-adapted to high insolation rates typical of the Andes highlands and cannot grow in shade. The plant's leaves grow into an extremely compact, dense mat that reduces heat and water loss. This mat grows near the ground where air temperature is one or two degrees Celsius higher than the mean air temperature. This temperature difference is a result of the longwave radiation re-radiated by the soil surface, which is usually dark gray to black in the Puna.

A planetary or a Type I civilization is capable of consuming all of the incoming energy from its neighboring star, or about 1017 watts for Earth. A planetary civilization or global civilization is a civilization of Type I on Kardashev scale, with energy consumption levels near that of a contemporary terrestrial civilization with an energy capability equivalent to the solar insolation on Earth (between 1016 and 1017 watts). In social aspect the worldwide, global, increasingly interconnected, international, highly technological society.

In contrast, winters are dry due to these systems weakening, and the lower insolation that weakens the Chaco Low, and the northward displacement of westerly winds. During the entire year, the South Pacific High influences the climate by bringing cold, moist air masses originating in Patagonia leading to cold temperatures and frost, particularly during winter. Summers feature more stable weather than winter since the South Atlantic and South Pacific highs are at their southernmost positions, making the entrance of cold fronts more difficult.

The Iwonicz forests create a microclimate around the resort, regulating humidity and temperature of the air, protecting it from winds and are a source of ozone. The resort is situated in the area of the greatest insolation and lowest cloudiness in Poland, which, all-in-all makes it a perfect spot for soothing, refreshing and regenerating the body. The greatest wealth of Iwonicz land are mineral waters and moor mud, which are natural curative agents. These are chloride-bicarbonate-sodium, fluoride, iodide, boric and bromide waters.

There are again uncertainties in the dates, also because different areas in the whole East Asia domain appear to have wet periods at separate times; it is possible that different meteorological mechanisms controlled precipitation in different regions. Changes in summer insolation over the course of the Holocene mediated a weakening of the monsoon and drying of the Tengger Desert after about 5,000 years before present. The present-day Baijian Hu lake is a salt swamp, and other playas and salt lakes are found in the region.

The presence of later (smaller) warming events of a global scale, such as the Elmo horizon (aka ETM2), has led to the hypothesis that the events repeat on a regular basis, driven by maxima in the 400,000 and 100,000 year eccentricity cycles in the Earth's orbit. The current warming period is expected to last another 50,000 years due to a minimum in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. Orbital increase in insolation (and thus temperature) would force the system over a threshold and unleash positive feedbacks.

The insolation angle and wind redeposition on the northwest and north sides allow for constant accumulation of snow providing a source for the outlet glaciers. On the north side of Orizaba, the Gran Glaciar Norte fills the elongated highland basin and is the source for seven outlet glaciers. The main glacier extends north of the crater rim, has a surface area of about descending from to about . It has a slightly irregular and stepped profile that is caused in part by the configuration of the bedrock.

Thermal stress weathering, sometimes called insolation weathering, results from the expansion and contraction of rock, caused by temperature changes. For example, heating of rocks by sunlight or fires can cause expansion of their constituent minerals. As some minerals expand more than others, temperature changes set up differential stresses that eventually cause the rock to crack apart. Because the outer surface of a rock is often warmer or colder than the more protected inner portions, some rocks may weather by exfoliation – the peeling away of outer layers.

The climate is humid continental (Köppen: Dfb), but still with some oceanic characteristics (Cfb), especially in recent normals. Częstochowa is in one of the hottest summer regions in Poland; although its winters are not the most rigorous, they are colder than the more moderate climates of the west and the Baltic Sea. On average, there are four hours a day with direct solar radiation. In the course of the year, the best insolation is observed in June, due to the greatest length of the day.

A space sunshade or sunshield is a parasol that diverts or otherwise reduces some of a star's radiation, preventing them from hitting a spacecraft or planet and thereby reducing its insolation, which results in reduced heating. Light can be diverted by different methods. First proposed in 1989, the original space sunshade concept involves putting a large occulting disc, or technology of equivalent purpose, between the Earth and Sun. A sunshade is of particular interest as a climate engineering method for mitigating global warming through solar radiation management.

During this warming period, called a termination,Broecker, W.S., and J. van Donk (1970) Insolation changes, ice volumes and the O18 record in deep- sea cores. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics. 8:169–197. huge Northern hemisphere ice sheets melted away; sea level rose about ; and interglacial climate emerged across the planet in a few thousand years. In case of the termination of the last glacial cycle, the retreat of continental ice sheets in the Northern hemisphere began about 20,000 calendar years ago.

Tabernas Desert, Spain: Cycles can be observed in the colouration and resistance of different strata of sediments. Materials taken from the Earth have been studied to infer the cycles of past climate. Antarctic ice cores contain trapped air bubbles whose ratios of different oxygen isotopes are a reliable proxy for global temperatures around the time the ice was formed. Study of this data concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis.

At Cosapa on the foot of Sajama, annual mean temperatures are about while the town of Sajama sees annual temperatures of ; precipitation there is about . The daily temperature range approaches there. Sajama is located between two climate regimes, a westerly one characterized by a dry climate and the Southeast Pacific High and an easterly one with a moister atmosphere. During the southern hemisphere summer, easterly winds carry moist air towards Sajama where solar insolation then triggers showers and thunderstorms; the moisture ultimately originates in the Atlantic Ocean.

Wirt and Phil Kaffel acted as engineers, with Justin Armstrong as a secondary engineer with assistance from Geoff Ott. Unlike with Leaving Through the Window, which was recorded alongside friends, the members decided to immerse themselves in the recording process for North. Robert Lang Studios gave the band the opportunity to track insolation, without any distractions from their hometown and the weather of California. Two days of the process consisted of Partington in the live room, tracking one-take run-throughs of each song on guitar.

At some point, perturbation effects will probably cause chaotic variations in the obliquity of the Earth, and the axial tilt may change by angles as high as 90° from the plane of the orbit. This is expected to occur between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now. A high obliquity would probably result in dramatic changes in the climate and may destroy the planet's habitability. When the axial tilt of the Earth exceeds 54°, the yearly insolation at the equator is less than that at the poles.

Insolation on developable areas of the SW United States. Solar power in Arizona has the potential to, according to then-Governor Janet Napolitano, make Arizona "the Persian Gulf of solar energy". In 2012, Arizona had 1,106 MW of photovoltaic (PV) solar power systems, and 6 MW of concentrated solar power (CSP), bringing the total to over 1,112 megawatts (MW) of solar power. The Solana Generating Station is a 280 MW parabolic trough solar plant which is the largest plant of its type in the world.

She was very interested in the people from Barrantes, the farmers, the poverty, the insolation and so on. Her friends had a political ideology which helped her to define her own ideology; that is, a mixture of pro-Galician feeling, pro-land reform movement and conservative ideas. Due to all these ideas she met Ramón Cabanillas, Cambó and José Sánchez Guerra. On 25 September 1930, several important galician intellectuals and Julia met in Pazo de Barrantes to write a document which demanded the rights of Galicia.

Quantum tunneling is essential for nuclear fusion in stars. The temperature in stars' cores is generally insufficient to allow atomic nuclei to overcome the Coulomb barrier and achieve Thermonuclear fusion. Quantum tunneling increases the probability of penetrating this barrier. Though this probability is still low, the extremely large number of nuclei in the core of a star is sufficient to sustain a steady fusion reaction for millions, billions, or even trillions of years – a precondition for the evolution of life in insolation habitable zones.

Unlike the gas giants in our Solar System, Kepler-1625b orbits much closer, slightly closer than the orbital radius as the Earth around the Sun. The planet takes 287 days, or about 0.786 years, to orbit Kepler-1625, as a result of the star's slightly greater mass than the Sun. Kepler-1625b receives 2.6 times more insolation than the Earth, meaning it lies at the inner edge of the habitable zone. However, as the planet has likely no solid surface, bodies of liquid water are impossible.

Precipitation in the Puna region averages less than a year while potential evapotranspiration ranges from a year, owing to the high insolation, strong winds, and low humidity that exacerbates the dry conditions. This results in the Puna region having a water deficit in all months. The southeast parts of the Puna region are very arid receiving an average of , while in the northeastern area, average annual precipitation ranges from . Although easterly winds are rare in the Puna region, they bring 88%–96% of the area's precipitation.

The following is a list of cities by sunshine duration. Sunshine duration is a climatological indicator, measuring duration of sunshine in given period (usually, a day or a year) for a given location on Earth, typically expressed as an averaged value over several years. It is a general indicator of cloudiness of a location, and thus differs from insolation, which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period. Sunshine duration is usually expressed in hours per year, or in (average) hours per day.

The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each cycle has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other. Past and future of daily average insolation at top of the atmosphere on the day of the summer solstice, at 65 N latitude. There is strong evidence that the Milankovitch cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age.

The species is presumed extirpated from two locales, occurring only at El Yunque National Forest and the Maricao State Forest. The elfin forest at El Yunque National Forest is characterized by high rainfall and humidity, low temperatures and insolation, and constant winds. It is found at mountain summits and is primarily composed of dense shrub and small trees with moss and epiphyte growth in its plants and floor. The species richness is low when compared to other types of forests (tabonuco, palo Colorado and palma sierra forests) found in the Luquillo Mountains.

These 51 units are radiated to space in the form of terrestrial radiation: 17 directly radiated to space and 34 absorbed by the atmosphere (19 through latent heat of condensation, 9 via convection and turbulence, and 6 directly absorbed). The 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (34 units from terrestrial radiation and 14 from insolation) are finally radiated back to space. These 65 units (17 from the ground and 48 from the atmosphere) balance the 65 units absorbed from the sun in order to maintain zero net gain of energy by the Earth.

A regional glacial maximum has been associated with the existence of Lake Minchin. The Choqueyapu II glacier advance was probably underway during the Lake Minchin phase and eventually led to the local Last Glacial Maximum, and the Canabaya glacier advance in the Cordillera Real may also be linked to the Minchin phase, as are the formation of glaciers on mountains of the Puna and in northern Chile. Summer insolation was increased during the Lake Minchin period. During the Lake Minchin period, precipitation on the Altiplano was higher than today.

This layer, which reaches 3,404 metres above sea level, is the one that presents greatest difficulties for the development of life. The harsh weather conditions that the plants have to endure at the top of the peaks, ridges and crests, require the development of an extraordinary resilience. There are a number of factors to endure such as strong insolation, low temperatures and short growing seasons in the presence of snow most of the year. Totally devoid of woody vegetation, it is colonized by more than 100 plant species, including lichens, mosses, succulents and microscopic algae.

Wave-power generation is not a widely employed commercial technology compared to other established renewable energy sources such as wind power, hydropower and solar power. However, there have been attempts to use this source of energy since at least 1890 mainly due to its high power density. As a comparison, the power density of the photovoltaic panels is 1 kW/m2 at peak solar insolation, and the power density of the wind is 1 kW/m2 at 12 m/s. Whereas, the average annual power density of the waves at e.g.

E. pulchella is a lowland species where it occurs on the upper slopes of well-drained sites with a Jurassic dolerite substrate in grassy or heathy open forests. Such sites typically have a north-west facing aspect with exposure to high solar insolation loads resulting in periodic drought stress. Eucalyptus pulchella occurs as a small to medium-sized spreading tree as the dominant species in grassy to heathy dry sclerophyll open forest and woodlands. Such dry sclerophyll communities have an open structure and rarely grow taller than 25m.

One key issue with the Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis is that a detailed inspection of climate record indicates that there is a 1000 to 2000 year lag in the observed North African Monsoon maximum compared to the predicted maximum. This issue occurs because the Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis assumes that there is an instantaneous response by the climate system to changes in insolation from orbital forcing. However, there are a number of fixes for this problem. The most reasonable fix can be shown through a simple analog to today's climate.

Another key piece of evidence for a processional control on the North African Monsoon can be found in the deposits of freshwater diatoms in the tropical Atlantic. Ocean cores from the tropical Atlantic have been found to have distinct layers of the freshwater diatom Aulacoseira Granulata also known as Melosira Granulata. These layers occur on a 23,000 year cycle that lags the maximum in precession insolation by roughly 5000 to 6000 years. To explain these cyclic freshwater diatom deposits we have to look inland at the Sahara region of Africa.

Variations in the climate of the Sahara region can, at the simplest level, be attributed to the changes in insolation because of slow shifts in Earth's orbital parameters. The parameters include the precession of the equinoxes, obliquity, and eccentricity as put forth by the Milankovitch theory. The precession of the equinoxes is regarded as the most important orbital parameter in the formation of the "green Sahara" and "desert Sahara" cycle. A January 2019 MIT paper in Science Advances shows a cycle from wet to dry approximately every 20,000 years.

Thus, females try to enhance offspring survival by laying egg masses on cool moist slopes where host plant senescence is most delayed. Once the larvae reach the diapause stage and become post- diapause larvae, they must grow by basking in the sunlight to regulate their body temperature. Larval body temperature is about 10-12 °C (18-22 °F) above ambient temperature, and the fastest growth rate occurs at 30-35 °C (86-95 °F). They must receive enough insolation to terminate the diapause stage and become a fully-grown butterfly.

Kepler-11b close proximity to the star implies a strong insolation, which caused the planet to lose all of light-element envelope acquired during formation. The observed low density does require the presence of a gaseous envelope though, which was most likely produced via outgassing of hydrogen or evaporation of H2O from the condensed core. The mass of atmosphere of Kepler-11b is not strongly constrained by observations, and may represent 0.04% of planetary mass - close to such value of Venus. For comparison, atmosphere mass ratio of Earth is 0.00008%.

In contrast, the winter months are dry due to these systems weakening, and the lower insolation that weakens the Chaco low over northern Argentina. Eastern and southeastern areas of the region receive more precipitation than the western areas since they receive more summer rainfall. As such, most of Mendoza province and San Juan province receive the lowest annual precipitation with mean summer precipitation averaging less than and in rare cases, no summer rainfall. Further eastwards in San Luis province, mean summer rainfall averages around and can exceed in some areas.

On 2 March, the Latvian Ministry of Health confirmed the first case of COVID-19 in Latvia. The infected person was a woman who had flown from Milan to Riga through Munich. The day after her condition had improved considerably and a repeated test came out negative she was discharged from the Latvian Center of Infectious Diseases with instructions to remain in self-insolation for 14 days. The same day the Latvian government allocated an additional 2.6 million euros to the Ministry of Health for various anti-coronavirus measures.

It is radiating 56 times the luminosity of the Sun from its swollen photosphere at an effective temperature of 4,846 K. The planetary companion was discovered by Doppler measurements at the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory, and announced in 2012. The planet's discoverers consider the planet, designated 75 Ceti b, to be "typical" of gas giants. Note that (like many recorded planets) b takes in much more insolation than does Jupiter and, indeed, Earth.Square root of luminosity means that an Earth like planet would have to be >7 AU from the star.

RHUs are especially useful on the Moon because of its lengthy and cold two-week night. Virtually every deep space mission beyond Mars uses both RHUs and RTGs. Solar insolation decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun, so additional heat is needed to keep spacecraft components at nominal operating temperature. Some of this heat is produced electrically because it is easier to control, but electrical heaters are far less efficient than a RHU because RTGs convert only a few percent of their heat to electricity and reject the rest to space.

White Cliffs Solar Power Station was Australia's first solar power station. It is located at White Cliffs, New South Wales, which was chosen as it has the highest insolation in New South Wales, and in 1981 when the station was constructed had no grid connection. Constructed by a team from Australian National University, the station consisted of fourteen five-metre parabolic dishes, each covered by more than 2000 mirrors and mounted on a heliostatic mounting. The dishes each focussed the sun's rays on a collector, where water was boiled.

The resulting steam drove a three-cylinder Uniflow steam engine, made by modifying a Lister diesel engine, delivering up to 25kWe. Batteries were used to provide 24-hour power to selected buildings in the township, and an existing diesel generator retained to provide battery charging when either low insolation or strong winds prevented use of the solar station for extended periods. In 1996, following grid connection of the township, the station was converted to photovoltaic. The dishes were resurfaced, and the original collectors each replaced by a cluster of 16 water-cooled photovoltaic cells.

They are typically a few hundred meters across and 8 metres deep, with a flat base and steep sides. They tend to have similar bean-like shapes with a cusp pointing towards the south pole, indicating that insolation is involved in their formation. The angle of the Sun probably contributes to their roundness. Near the Martian summer solstice, the Sun can remain continuously just above the horizon; as a result the walls of a round depression will receive more intense sunlight, and sublimate much more rapidly than the floor.

There may have been liquid water generated in the surface soils in the north polar regions within the past <10 million years due to orbital changes in insolation. # Understand the mechanical properties of the martian polar ice- cemented soil. Polar ice may be a resource for human exploration, and the mechanical properties will reflect the stratigraphy of ice and soil, which may inform models of climate history. # Assess the recent habitability of the environment with respect to required elements to support life, energy sources, and possible toxic elements.

Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries.Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century (REN21), Renewables 2010 Global Status Report , Paris, 2010, pp. 1–80. The Energy Payback Time (EPBT), also known as energy amortization, depends on the location's annual solar insolation and temperature profile, as well as on the used type of PV-technology. For conventional crystalline silicon photovoltaics, the EPBT is higher than for thin-film technologies such as CdTe-PV or CPV-systems.

HD 40307 f's minimum mass is 5.2 that of Earth, and dynamical models suggest it cannot be much more (and so is measured close to edge-on). Planets like this in that system have been presumed "super-Earth". Even though HD 40307 f is closer to the star than Mercury is to the Sun, it gets (slightly) less insolation than Mercury gets because the parent star is dimmer than our home star.Tuomi, Fig 17 It still gets more heat than Venus gets (like Gliese 581 c), and it has more gravitational potential than Venus has.

More crucially, estimates of the recession rate of the Niagara Falls indicated that the last ice age ended 6,000 to 35,000 years ago – a large range, but enough to rule out Croll's theory, to those who accepted the measurements. Croll's work was widely discussed, but by the end of the 19th century, his theory was generally discredited. However, the basic idea of orbitally-forced insolation variations influencing terrestrial temperatures – now known generally as Milankovitch cycles – was further developed by Milutin Milankovitch and eventually, in modified form, triumphed in 1976.

The angle of the Earth's axial tilt with respect to the orbital plane (the obliquity of the ecliptic) varies between 22.1° and 24.5°, over a cycle of about 41,000 years. The current tilt is 23.44°, roughly halfway between its extreme values. The tilt last reached its maximum in 8,700 BCE. It is now in the decreasing phase of its cycle, and will reach its minimum around the year 11,800 CE. Increased tilt increases the amplitude of the seasonal cycle in insolation, providing more solar radiation in each hemisphere's summer and less in winter.

When this obliquity is high, its poles get much more direct sunlight and heat; this causes the ice caps to warm and become smaller as ice sublimes. Adding to the variability of the climate, the eccentricity of the orbit of Mars changes twice as much as Earth's eccentricity. As the poles sublime, the ice is redeposited closer to the equator, which receive somewhat less solar insolation at these high obliquities. Computer simulations have shown that a 45° tilt of the Martian axis would result in ice accumulation in areas that display glacial landforms.

The leaves are palmate and divide into segments about halfway down their length with the leaf emerging from the petiole in what is described as a pointed hastula shape. The entire canopy consists of between 10 and 20 large leaves and on average gains only 6 inches of height per year. The shape of the canopy varies depending on its amount of insolation, with full sun specimens appearing more globular or compact, and shaded specimens having a longer, more spread-out canopy. This species can flower when the tree is only 6 feet tall.

As these shadows receive no insolation, most of the heat they receive is scattered and emitted radiation from the surrounding topography. Usually, horizontal heat conduction from adjacent warmer areas can be neglected due to the high porosity and therefore low thermal conductivity of the uppermost layers of airless bodies. Consequently, the temperatures of these permanent shadows can be modeled using ray casting or ray tracing algorithms coupled with 1D vertical heat conduction models. In some cases, such as bowl-shaped craters, it is possible to obtain an expression for the equilibrium temperature of these shadows.

Day length and insolation intensity also controls the extent of the photic zone. Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate, in the form of ammonia. The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to the photic zone, enhancing productivity. In total, Black Sea's biodiversity contains around one-third of Mediterranean's and is experiencing natural and artificial invasions or Mediterranizations.

The cause of the climate change 10,000 years ago was due to changes in summer solar insolation and vegetation and dust feedbacks.Charney, RMetS, 1975, Kuztbach et al, Nature, 1996, Pausata et al., EPSL, 2016 Almásy devoted a chapter to the cave in his 1934 book, The Unknown Sahara. In it he postulates that the swimming scenes are real depictions of life at the time of painting and that the artists had realistically drawn their surroundings and that there had been a climatic change from temperate to xeric desert since that time making it drier.

The product of the local cost of electricity and the insolation determines the break-even point for solar power. The International Conference on Solar Photovoltaic Investments, organized by EPIA, has estimated that PV systems will pay back their investors in 8 to 12 years. As a result, since 2006 it has been economical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in return for a long term power purchase agreement. Fifty percent of commercial systems in the United States were installed in this manner in 2007 and over 90% by 2009.

These climatic regions are based on time of rainy season and other climatic elements such as insolation, sunshine, temperature, precipitation, and humidity. During winter, polar air originating from the Siberian High penetrate deeply into the low latitudes, facilitated by the eastern Tibetan Plateau that funnels the air southwards in a northeast direction (the cool air is a wind coming from the northeast). Many cold fronts can penetrate into Vietnam during winter of which there are three to four occurrences every month in northern Vietnam. This leads to cold temperatures where temperatures drop by .

The dry and cloudless climate together with the low latitude and high altitude gives the region some of the highest insolations on Earth; at Sairecabur it amounts to 98% of the solar constant. The coincidence between the southern hemisphere summer solstice on 21 December and the perihelion, the point of lowest Earth- Sun distance, on 3 January contribute to the high insolation. Ultraviolet radiation is also high in the area, with values reported for ultraviolet radiation B and ultraviolet radiation A respectively. Temperatures at ranged in 1991–1994.

By definition of the law no. 321/2004 Zákon č. 321/2004 Sb. o vinohradnictví a vinařství (Czech) of the Czech Republic, a vineyard track is an agricultural estate, part of an estate, set of estates, ensemble of an estate and a part of an estate or combination of estates, or parts of estate(s), representing a coherent complex/set within one vine-growing region (or sub-region), that is suitable for growing of vine due to its geographical location, incline, length of insolation and soil-climatical properties.

Therefore, more measurements documenting shorter time frames may provide essential data for almost continuous data set. Therefore, Phase II is mainly modelling with addition of more data as deemed lacking in Phase I. Many of the critiques above may be compensated for with better data requiring better models including insolation and changes in reflection. The problem with variation in ocean currents, particular with respect to thermocline depths requires more oceanography as part of the project, as with losses of ice and changes of climate on the ice edges.

Thymus vulgaris which plant grow in sunny situation Sunstroke plants or heliophytes are adapted to a habitat with a very intensive insolation, because of the construction of its own structure and maintenance (metabolism). Solar plants, for example, are mullein, ling, thyme and soft velcro, white clover, and most roses. They are common in open terrain, rocks, meadows, as well as at the mountain pastures and grasslands and other long sunny exposures. Special features of the plant include coarse tiny leaves with hairy and waxy protection against excessive light radiation and water loss.

Orbital motion of HD 80606 b. HD 80606 b has the most eccentric orbit of any known planet after HD 20782 b. Its eccentricity is 0.9336, comparable to Halley's Comet. The eccentricity may be a result of the Kozai mechanism, which would occur if the planet's orbit is significantly inclined to that of the binary stars. This interpretation is supported by measurements of the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect, which indicate that the planet's orbit may be significantly inclined (by 42°.) to the rotational axis of the star, a configuration which would be expected if the Kozai mechanism were responsible for the orbit. As a result of this high eccentricity, the planet's distance from its star varies from 0.03 to 0.88 AU. At apastron it would receive an insolation similar to that of Earth, while at periastron the insolation would be around 800 times greater, far more than that experienced by Mercury in the Solar System. In 2009, the eclipse of HD 80606 b by its parent star was detected, allowing measurements of the planet's temperature to be made as the planet passed through periastron. These measurements indicated that the temperature rose from around 800 K (500 °C / 1000 °F) to 1500 K (1200 °C / 2200 °F) in just 6 hours.

All the rocky planets in the solar system except Earth are generally believed to be in the stagnant lid geodynamic regime. Mars and particularly Venus have evidence of prior resurfacing events, but appear to be tectonically quiescent today. Geodynamic inferences about solar system planets have been extrapolated to exoplanets in order to constrain what kind of geodynamic regimes can be expected given a set of physical criterion such as planetary radius, presence of surface water, and insolation. In particular, the planet Venus has been intensely studied due to its general physical similarities to Earth yet completely different geodynamic regime.

Since real data on exoplanets is currently limited, a large amount of the dialogue regarding rocky exoplanet tectonics has been driven by the results of numerical modeling studies. In such models, different planetary physical parameters are manipulated (i.e. mantle viscosity, core- mantle boundary temperature, insolation, “wetness” or hydration of subducting lithosphere) and the resultant impact on the geodynamic regime is reported. Due to computational limitations the large amount of variables that control planet geodynamics in real life cannot be accounted for; models therefore ignore certain parameters believed to be less important and emphasize others to try to isolate disproportionately important driving factors.

A maximum in local insolation about 21,000 years ago coincides with the existence of the Sajsi lake but was probably not responsible for the lake's existence. Farther south, precipitation in the drainage area of the Rio Salado had increased by during the Sajsi time, lakes formed within the Western Cordillera and the Bolivian Chaco likewise shows evidence of increased precipitation. The Sajsi lake was apparently followed by Lake Tauca, but evidence is lacking. Another theory postulates that Sajsi was simply a sub-phase of Lake Tauca, an interpretation applied in particular to data taken from drill cores.

Its formation may have been caused by an increase of precipitation, and may be further associated with changes in the position of the ITCZ and La Nina-like conditions. The increase of precipitation may have amounted to 50–100%. The Ouki lake cycle occurred during a major glaciation that may also be recorded from moraine deposits in the southern Puna, as well as at a time of low summer insolation in the southern hemisphere but with a southward expansion of the South American monsoon. Lake levels in Lake Huinaymarca, the southern basin of Lake Tauca, were low during the Ouki period.

The north and south of Tenerife similarly have different climatic characteristics because of the rain shadow effect. The windward northwestern side of the island receives 73 percent of all precipitation on the island, and the relative humidity of the air is superior and the insolation inferior. The pluviometric maximums are registered on the windward side at an average altitude of between , almost exclusively in the La Orotava mountain range. Although climatic differences in rainfall and sunshine on the island exist, overall annual precipitation is low and the summer months from May to September are normally completely dry.

Because of its altitude, the climate is temperate and dry-fridge. In the months from November to April is the season of summer, the rainy season, and in the remaining months (May to September) the dry season (drought) or winter, which is best time to visit the village. During the summer, torrential rains are frequent and occasionally occur hailstorm and in the months of winter insolation is strong and the high temperature range with high temperatures during the day, which descend well below the average for night, as well as between the lit and shadow areas, due to low humidity.

Insolation map Solar power in France including overseas territories reached an installed capacity figure of 9,466 MW by the end of 2018 generating 10,196 GWh of power. The solar power capacity is set to continue expanding with a target of around 18–20 GW installed by 2023. However, wavering political support for new installations slowed PV deployment since the record year of 2011, when 1,700 MW had been installed. In January 2016, the President of France, François Hollande, and the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi, laid the foundation stone for the headquarters of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) in Gwalpahari, Gurgaon, India.

Tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot—the Réunion hotspot—now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a massive flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60–68 Ma, at the end of the Cretaceous period. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation. Elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus; these precipitated as acid rain.

It has been suggested that without the help of basking in 24-hour sunlight during High Arctic summers, larvae would rarely exceed their developmental threshold of ~5 °C. This may account for the unique tendency of the Arctic woolly bear moth to have short feeding periods during times of peak insolation, followed by lengthier periods of basking and digestion. In early to mid-June, larval metabolism tends to be greatly impacted by food intake and rising temperature. Later in the active season, they become much more metabolically insensitive to temperature, and energy obtained via food consumption is conserved.

Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is a concentrated solar power plant in California, United States. With the combined capacity from three separate locations at 354 megawatt (MW), it is the world's second largest solar thermal energy generating facility, after the commissioning of the even larger Ivanpah facility in 2014. It consists of nine solar power plants in California's Mojave Desert, where insolation is among the best available in the United States. SEGS I–II (44 MW) are located at Daggett (), SEGS III–VII (150 MW) are installed at Kramer Junction (), and SEGS VIII–IX (160 MW) are placed at Harper Lake ().

Photovoltaic (foreground) and Solar water heating (rear) panels located on rooftops in Berkeley, California. Note the low tilt of the photovoltaic panels, optimized for summer, and the high tilt of the water heating panels, optimized for winter. Solar arrays in California, taken from the International Space Station Solar power in California includes utility-scale solar power plants as well as local distributed generation, mostly from rooftop photovoltaics. It has been growing rapidly because of high insolation, community support, declining solar costs, and a Renewable Portfolio Standard which requires that 33% of California's electricity come from renewable resources by 2020, and 60% by 2030.

In addition, later work has shown that spectral effects can play a role in optimal photovoltaic material selection. For example, the spectral albedo can play a significant role in output depending on the surface around the photovoltaic system and the type of solar cell material. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 4 kWh/m²/day in northern climes to 6.5 kWh/m²/day in the sunniest regions. A photovoltaic installation in the northern latitudes of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m²/day.

A typical 1 kW photovoltaic installation in Australia or the southern latitudes of Europe or United States, may produce 3.5–5 kWh per day, dependent on location, orientation, tilt, insolation and other factors. In the Sahara desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one could ideally obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m²/day provided the nearly ever present wind would not blow sand onto the units. The area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km². 90,600 km², or about 1%, could generate as much electricity as all of the world's power plants combined.

The methane insolation cycles of the ice core remained stable and predictable until 5000 years ago, most likely due to some anthropogenic effect. Ruddiman suggests that the transition of humans from hunter gatherers into agricultural farming was the first instance of humans affecting methane concentration in the atmosphere. Ruddiman's hypothesis is supported by the fact that early rice irrigation occurred approximately 5000 years ago—the same time the ice core cycles lost their predictability. Due to the inefficiency of humans first learning how to grow rice, extensive rice paddies would have been needed to feed even a small population.

The lake is part of the cold, dry Puna where temperatures vary strongly between day and night and precipitation only occurs in summer. In summer temperatures range from and in winter from . The region has the highest solar flux in the world, including the largest amount of ultraviolet radiation. The small lakes in the Puna desert are influenced by extreme environmental conditions such as large amounts of toxic elements such as arsenic, high salinity and strong ultraviolet radiation as the ozone column is less dense at high elevations; these lakes in general receive more insolation than any other place on Earth.

AgWeatherNet is an automated agricultural weather station network operated by Washington State University in the Pacific Northwest. It is the first and the largest agricultural weather network in the United States. Every 5 seconds, over 175 sensors (as of 2018) record air temperature, relative humidity and dew point, soil temperature at 8 inches, rainfall, wind speed, wind direction, insolation and leaf wetness.AgWeatherNet user homepage, Washington State University, retrieved 2018-05-05 The data is reported back from each sensor to WSU's Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center in Prosser, Washington and made available to the public on the Internet.

The actual figure varies with the Sun's angle and atmospheric circumstances. Ignoring clouds, the daily average insolation for the Earth is approximately 6 kWh/m2 = 21.6 MJ/m2. The average annual solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere (1361 W/m2) represents the power per unit area of solar irradiance across the spherical surface surrounding the sun with radius equal to the distance to the Earth (1 AU). This means that the approximately circular disc of the Earth, as viewed from the sun, receives a roughly stable 1361 W/m2 at all times.

There are two Siemens V94 3/A gas turbine groups with 257 MWe net alternator each. The gas turbine discharge, outgoing , produce steam, through a so-called HRSG (Heat recovery steam generator) which then feeds a steam turbine group (with high, medium and low pressure turbines) driving a 122 MWe net alternator. The solar component integrates the steam production of the gas turbines through a SSG (Solar Steam Generator), up to a maximum of 15 MWth (thermal net power), in conditions of maximum insolation. The HSRG-1 and HSRG-2 operate in parallel with the SSG, shortly before entering steam turbine group.

Solar insolation is one of the highest levels in the world, but until recently there were no reports of significant use of solar energy. As of September 2012, the first solar power generation plant in the country has been opened. As of 2012, the nation's average wind speeds were deemed too low to make wind-powered energy commercially attractive with then- available wind turbine technologies. However, both with and solar energy technologies have been dramatically improved since that time, in other parts of the world, and best practice implementation may lag behind. The Botswana Renewable Energy Conference was held 11–12 August 2014.

Of all the orbital cycles, Milankovitch believed that obliquity had the greatest effect on climate, and that it did so by varying the summer insolation in northern high latitudes. Therefore, he deduced a 41,000-year period for ice ages.; see also However, subsequent research has shown that ice age cycles of the Quaternary glaciation over the last million years have been at a period of 100,000 years, which matches the eccentricity cycle. Various explanations for this discrepancy have been proposed, including frequency modulation or various feedbacks (from carbon dioxide, cosmic rays, or from ice sheet dynamics).

This animation shows the projected increase in potential evaporation in North America through the year 2100, relative to 1980, based on the combined results of multiple climate models. Potential evaporation (PE) or potential evapotranspiration (PET) is defined as the amount of evaporation that would occur if a sufficient water source were available. If the actual evapotranspiration is considered the net result of atmospheric demand for moisture from a surface and the ability of the surface to supply moisture, then PET is a measure of the demand side. Surface and air temperatures, insolation, and wind all affect this.

In other regions, El Niño events lead to more frequent and intense warm spells in Northwest Argentina (during autumn), northeast Argentina (during spring) and central Argentina (during summer). Cold air anomalies arising from El Niño events are observed during spring and are the result of an increase in rainfall that lead to reductions in insolation. For the southern parts of the country, El Niño events are associated with more intense and frequent cold spells during the coldest months. In summer, El Niño events are associated with warmer summer temperatures in the southern parts of the country.

Because of this, Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter, it must be cooling, and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this. Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes, and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle. One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle, only its seasonal distribution. Another was that the timing was wrong; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time.

A wind farm in Panjshir Province It was reported that Afghanistan has the potential to produce over 222,000 MW of electricity by using solar panels. The use of solar power is steadily increasing throughout country. ECOsys Implements the Hybrid Solar and Wind Power Plant in Herat Province-AfghanistanSolar powered hatchery in Balkh to increase poultry production Annual average solar insolation varies from 4 to 6.5 kWh/m2/day, with over 300 days of sunshine per year. The report also stated that Afghanistan has the potential to produce over 66,000 MW of electricity by installing and using wind turbines.

Assuming an average insolation of 225 > W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%. > The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b&c; are transformed into 70 litres > of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GJ. The practical sucrose-ethanol > conversion efficiency is, therefore, 76% (compare with the theoretical 97%). > One hectare of sugar cane yields 4,000 litres of ethanol per year (without > any additional energy input, because the bagasse produced exceeds the amount > needed to distill the final product). This, however, does not include the > energy used in tilling, transportation, and so on.

The atmospheric circulation system with associated pressure belts and latitudes. The prevailing winds of the atmospheric circulation arise because of the difference in pressure at various latitudes and act as means for distribution of thermal energy on the planet. This pressure difference is because of the differences in solar insolation received at different latitudes and the resulting uneven heating of the planet. Alternating belts of high pressure and low pressure develop along the equator, the two tropics, the Arctic and Antarctic circles, and the two polar regions, giving rise to the trade winds, the westerlies, and the polar easterlies.

Distribution of volatile ices is thought to be season- dependent and influenced more by solar insolation and topography than by subsurface processes. Maps produced from images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), together with Pluto's light curve and the periodic variations in its infrared spectra, indicate that Pluto's surface is very varied, with large differences in both brightness and color, with albedos between 0.49 and 0.66. Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus. The color varies between charcoal black, dark orange and white.

But the anthropogenic greenhouse effects and changing insolation patterns may have unpredictable long-term effects. Reductions of glacial ice on land masses can cause isotatic rebounds and may affect earthquakes and volcanism over a wide range. Rising sea levels can also affect patterns, and was seen in Indonesia, simply drilling a gas well in the wrong place may have touched off a mud volcano and there are some signs that this may precede a new caldera formation for a volcano. Over the very long term, the change in temperature of the Earth's crust on geothermal and volcanic processes is unknown.

Sea ice concentration helps determine a number of other important climate variables. Since the albedo of ice is much higher than that of water, ice concentration will regulate insolation in the polar oceans. When combined with ice thickness, it determines several other important fluxes between the air and sea, such as salt and fresh-water fluxes between the polar oceans (see for instance bottom water) as well as heat transfer between the atmosphere. Maps of sea ice concentration can be used to determine ice area and ice extent, both of which are important markers of climate change.

Three identified exoplanets around the roughly sun-sized star HR8799, imaged through a vector vortex coronagraph on a 1.5m section of the Hale telescope. Indirect and direct observation methods such as radial velocity and coronagraphs can give envelope estimates of exoplanet parameters such as mass, planetary radius, and orbital radius/eccentricity. Since distance from the host star and planetary size are generally believed to influence exoplanet geodynamic regime, inferences can be drawn from such information. For example, an exoplanet close enough to its host star to be tidally locked may have drastically different “dark” and “light” side temperatures and correspondingly bipolar geodynamic regimes (see insolation section below).

An area that today is located between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer. However, as the obliquity changes, the overall wandering path of the thermal equator shifts between 22.2° and 24.5° north and south. This wandering may affect the positioning of the North African Summer Monsoon Front and thus impact the perceived strength of the North African Monsoon. Further confirmation of the impacts of obliquity on the North African Monsoonal have been provided through a global fully coupled atmosphere–ocean–sea ice climate model, which confirmed that precession and obliquity can combine to increase precipitation in North Africa through insolation feedbacks.

Lada plant growth experiment Space farming refers to the cultivation of crops for food and other materials in space or on off-Earth celestial objects – equivalent to agriculture on Earth. Farming on celestial bodies, such as the Moon or Mars, shares many similarities with farming on a space station or space colony. But, depending on the size of the celestial body, may lack the complexity of microgravity found in the latter. Each environment would have differences in the availability of inputs to the space agriculture process: inorganic material needed for plant growth, soil media, insolation, relative availability of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen, and so forth.

Under Köppen’s climate classification, La Rochelle features an oceanic climate. Although at the same latitude as Montreal in Canada or the Kuril islands in Russia, the area is exceptionally mild throughout the year due to the influence of the Gulf Stream waters, the summers are relatively warm, and insolation is remarkably high, in fact, the highest in Western France including sea resorts much further in the south such as Biarritz. La Rochelle seldom experiences very cold or very warm weather. These specific conditions – summer dry and sunny, winter mild and wet – have led to the establishment of a Mediterranean-type vegetation cohabiting with more continental and oceanic types of vegetation.

Nevada Solar One (at right), and Copper Mountain Solar 1 (at left) There are several solar power plants in the Mojave Desert which supply power to the electricity grid. Insolation (solar radiation) in the Mojave Desert is among the best available in the United States, and some significant population centers are located in the area. These plants can generally be built in a few years because solar plants are built almost entirely with modular, readily available materials. Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name given to nine solar power plants in the Mojave Desert which were built in the 1980s, the first commercial solar plant.

Solar powered well in Rhamna, near Marrakech Solar resources in Morocco Desertec plan Solar power in Morocco is enabled by the country having one of the highest rates of solar insolation among other countries— about 3,000 hours per year of sunshine but up to 3,600 hours in the desert. Morocco has launched one of the world’s largest solar energy projects costing an estimated $9 billion. The aim of the project is to create 2,000 megawatts of solar generation capacity by the year 2020.AfDB helps fund $1.44bn Moroccan solar project Five solar power stations are to be constructed, including both photovoltaic and concentrated solar power technology.

Klíma Tatier. 1974. Low air temperature higher up can be masked by high insolation under clear skies, but will take its effect with increased cloud cover.František Smolen and Mieczysław Kołodziejek, "Žiarenie." In: Mikuláš Konček, et al. Klíma Tatier. 1974. Combined with windy conditions, the impact may be considerably detrimental even without rain or snow. The summit disappears in the clouds for periods of time on most days,Jadwiga Orliczowa and Vladimír Peterka, "Oblačnosť a slnečný svit." In: Mikuláš Konček, et al. Klíma Tatier. 1974. which translates to fog at that elevation and possible disorientationStanislav Samuhel, "Je výstup na Gerlach nebezpečný?" Krásy Slovenska, 1966. as well as anxiety.

During the winter, every street on the Spanish grid receives direct light and heat sometime between 9AM and 3PM, the six hours of greatest insolation. It is true that at midday, all streets have shadows; but because of their diagonal orientation, more sunlight enters than if they ran due east-west. In summer, the advantage of the Spanish grid is that shadows are cast into every street all day long, creating a more comfortable environment in hot climates, with the exception of a short period during mid- morning and mid-afternoon when the sun passes quickly over first one diagonal street and then the other.

At a few degrees north latitude, however, the perihelion/aphelion factor and the slightly higher sun and longer days experienced at the time of the summer solstice for the Northern Hemisphere cancel each other out, making the level of insolation experienced there virtually identical throughout the year. Every month of the year has at least 549 millimeters (21.61 inches) of average precipitation, with the wettest month (May) averaging 726.6 millimeters (28.60 inches). Average annual precipitation is 7,089 millimeters (291.56 inches), and more rain falls at night than during the day, the reverse of what is true in most places that have tropical rainforest climate.

Since the star's luminosity is barely 55% that of the Sun, those planets would need to circle it at the orbital radius of Venus in order to match the insolation received by the Earth. (See Time for the Stars by Robert Heinlein below.) Tau (Ταῦ, /Taf/) is the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet. The name Cetus is also Greek (Κῆτος, Kētos) as well as Arabic (القيتوس, al Ḳaitoos) and translates variously as a large fish, a whale, a shark, or a sea monster. In Greek mythology, the cetacean constellation, although not the star itself, represents the monster slain by Perseus in his rescue of the beautiful princess Andromeda.

Past and future of daily average insolation at top of the atmosphere on the day of the summer solstice, at 65° N latitude. The green curve is with eccentricity e hypothetically set to 0. The red curve uses the actual (predicted) value of e. Blue dot is current conditions, at 2000 CE Since orbital variations are predictable, any model that relates orbital variations to climate can be run forward to predict future climate, with two caveats: the mechanism by which orbital forcing influences climate is not definitive; and non-orbital effects can be important (for example, the human impact on the environment principally increases greenhouse gases resulting in a warmer climate).

This means that solar radiation due to (1) axial tilt inclining the southern hemisphere toward the Sun and (2) the Earth's proximity to the Sun, both reach maximum during the southern summer and both reach minimum during the southern winter. Their effects on heating are thus additive, which means that seasonal variation in irradiation of the southern hemisphere is more extreme. In the northern hemisphere, these two factors reach maximum at opposite times of the year: The north is tilted toward the Sun when the Earth is furthest from the Sun. The two effects work in opposite directions, resulting in less extreme variations in insolation.

Effects in the Rocky Mountain region were varied. In the northern Rockies, a significant increase in pines and firs suggests warmer conditions than before and a shift to subalpine parkland in places. That is hypothesized to be the result of a northward shift in the jet stream, combined with an increase in summer insolation as well as a winter snow pack that was higher than today, with prolonged and wetter spring seasons. There were minor re-advancements of glaciers in place, particularly in the northern ranges, but several sites in the Rocky Mountain ranges show little to no changes in vegetation during the Younger Dryas.

Erlykin et al. (2009) found that the evidence showed that connections between solar variation and climate were more likely to be mediated by direct variation of insolation rather than cosmic rays, and concluded: "Hence within our assumptions, the effect of varying solar activity, either by direct solar irradiance or by varying cosmic ray rates, must be less than 0.07 °C since 1956, i.e. less than 14% of the observed global warming." Carslaw (2009) and Pittock (2009) review the recent and historical literature in this field and continue to find that the link between cosmic rays and climate is tenuous, though they encourage continued research.

Insolation map of the United States with installed PV capacity A 2012 report from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) described technically available renewable energy resources for each state and estimated that urban utility scale photovoltaics could supply 2,232 TWh/year, rural utility scale PV 280,613 TWh/year, rooftop PV 818 TWh/year, and CSP 116,146 TWh/year, for a total of almost 400,000 TWh/year, 100 times current consumption of 3,856 TWh in 2011. For comparison, onshore wind potential is estimated at 32,784 TWh/year, and offshore wind at 16,976 TWh/year, while the total available from all renewable resources is estimated at 481,963 TWh/year.

Sunshine duration or sunshine hours is a climatological indicator, measuring duration of sunshine in given period (usually, a day or a year) for a given location on Earth, typically expressed as an averaged value over several years. It is a general indicator of cloudiness of a location, and thus differs from insolation, which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period. Sunshine duration is usually expressed in hours per year, or in (average) hours per day. The first measure indicates the general sunniness of a location compared with other places, while the latter allows for comparison of sunshine in various seasons in the same location.

2017-12-06 the Planning and Regulatory Services Committee of Moray Council agreed to raise no objection to the 50 MW Milltown Airfield Solar PV proposal. The project was approved in May 2018 by the Scottish Government as the first solar project to be approved by the Energy Consents Unit (ECU). The Solar Power plant will have a peak power of 50 MWp and include 200 000 solar panels. Assuming an insolation of 1160 kWh/m2,yr this corresponds to a capacity factor of approximately 13% and an annual production of 58 GWh/yr, or 15 000 homes each with a consumption of 3 900 kWh/yr.

Radioactive decay is the process of emission of particles and energy from the unstable nucleus of an atom to form a stable product. This is done via the tunnelling of a particle out of the nucleus (an electron tunnelling into the nucleus is electron capture). This was the first application of quantum tunnelling and led to the first approximations. Radioactive decay is also a relevant issue for astrobiology as this consequence of quantum tunnelling is creating a constant source of energy over a large period of time for environments outside the circumstellar habitable zone where insolation would not be possible (subsurface oceans) or effective.

On January 3, 2016 (Sol 4246), Opportunity went through the winter solstice on Mars with already improved solar insolation, with the rover producing 449 watt-hours from its solar panels. On January 25, 2016, Opportunity had marked twelve years since landing on Mars and continued its scientific investigation of Marathon Valley. On March 21, 2016, while trying to reach target on the slope of Marathon Valley in Cape Tribulation, the Mars rover attained a slope of 32 degrees, the highest angle yet for the rover since its mission began. This was so steep that dust that had accumulated on its top panels began to flow downward.

These include adapting the electrical grid, constructing new grid-storage capacity, dismantling and altering fossil and nuclear power plants brown coal and nuclear power are the country's cheapest suppliers of electricity, according to today's calculations and to construct a new generation of combined heat and power plants. Concentrated solar power (CSP), a solar power technology that does not use photovoltaics, has virtually no significance for Germany, as this technology demands much higher solar insolation. There is, however, a 1.5MW experimental CSP-plant used for on-site engineering purposes rather than for commercial electricity generation, the Jülich Solar Tower owned by the German Aerospace Center.

Solar potential of Bangladesh The long term average sunshine data indicates that the period of bright sunshine hours in the coastal regions of Bangladesh varies from 3 to 11 hours daily. The insolation in Bangladesh varies from 3.8 kWh/m2/day to 6.4 kWh/m2/day at an average of 5 kWh/m2/day. These indicate that there are good prospects for solar thermal and photovoltaic application in the country. With an estimated 40% of the population in Bangladesh having no access to electricity, the government introduced a scheme known as solar home systems (SHS) to provide electricity to households with no grid access.

The typical cost factors for solar power include the costs of the modules, the frame to hold them, wiring, inverters, labour cost, any land that might be required, the grid connection, maintenance and the solar insolation that location will receive. Adjusting for inflation, it cost $96 per watt for a solar module in the mid-1970s. Process improvements and a very large boost in production have brought that figure down to 68 cents per watt in February 2016, according to data from Bloomberg New Energy Finance. Palo Alto California signed a wholesale purchase agreement in 2016 that secured solar power for 3.7 cents per kilowatt-hour.

In cases of self- consumption of solar energy, the payback time is calculated based on how much electricity is not purchased from the grid. For example, in Germany, with electricity prices of 0.25 €/kWh and insolation of 900 kWh/kW, one kWp will save €225 per year, and with an installation cost of 1700 €/KWp the system cost will be returned in less than seven years. However, in many cases, the patterns of generation and consumption do not coincide, and some or all of the energy is fed back into the grid. The electricity is sold, and at other times when energy is taken from the grid, electricity is bought.

Set in the near future when a scientific principle has been discovered allowing exceptionally accurate predictions of solar flares and the occurrence of the Sun increasing its solar output. Applying this principle, worldwide consensus has determined which day, hour, and minute the Sun will brighten so much as to boil away the Earth's seas. Realizing that the heightened insolation will destroy life as we know it, the world's nations debate what to do when the Sun "goes off." Since the Earth's rotation continues at 360 degrees in 24 hours, it will take only one day to cause all of the Earth's oceans to boil away.

In the past, such as 28,000, 8,000 and 3,700 - 1,500 years ago the climate was more humid and this led frequently to glacier advances when it was also cold enough. In return, glaciers on Sillajhuay may have enhanced the moisture supply to other mountains in the area such as Chuquiananta, allowing them to develop glaciers as well. The strong insolation leads to a strongly diurnal temperature cycle on the mountain with a day-night temperature gradient of about that in some environments can increase to over ; there are thus active freeze-thaw cycles. The warming also leads to the development of mountain breeze and valley breeze, convective clouds as well as occasional landspouts.

The persistence of a dense atmosphere on Titan has been enigmatic as the atmospheres of the structurally similar satellites of Jupiter, Ganymede and Callisto, are negligible. Although the disparity is still poorly understood, data from recent missions have provided basic constraints on the evolution of Titan's atmosphere. Layers of atmosphere, image from the Cassini spacecraft Roughly speaking, at the distance of Saturn, solar insolation and solar wind flux are sufficiently low that elements and compounds that are volatile on the terrestrial planets tend to accumulate in all three phases. Titan's surface temperature is also quite low, about 94 K. Consequently, the mass fractions of substances that can become atmospheric constituents are much larger on Titan than on Earth.

Dry conditions due to the effect of soil are enhanced by aspect affect in which north-west facing slopes receive high solar insolation loads and are susceptible to periods of drought stress. The ability of E. pulchella to resist occasional severe drought explains its distribution on dry dolerite ridgetops. Although locally widespread E. pulchella is restricted to south-east Tasmania which may be explained by a glacial tree line preventing its spread into suitable habitats further north. Although E. pulchella extends outside its range reaching as far north as Bothwell, its true distribution is difficult to discern due to error involved with field identification due to a 'half barked' intergrading form of Eucalyptus amygdalina.

Rhode Island population density Solar power in Rhode Island has become economical due to new technological improvements and a variety of regulatory actions and financial incentives, particularly a 30% federal tax credit, available through 2016, for any size project. A typical residential installation could pay for itself in utility bill savings in 14 years, and generate a profit for the remainder of its 25 year life. Larger systems, from 10 kW to 5 MW, receive a feed-in tariff of up to 33.45¢/kWh.Rhode Island State Solar Power Rebates, Tax Credits, and Incentives Distributed Generation Standard Contracts Due to the state's small size and comparatively low insolation, solar installations are limited to predominantly rooftop and megawatt scale installations.

Without densely spaced weather observations, these mesoscale events might go undetected. In addition to surface weather observations, Oklahoma Mesonet stations also include environmental data such as on insolation and soil conditions, and some sites are co-located with wind profilers. The network consists of 121 automated stations covering Oklahoma and each of Oklahoma's counties has at least one station.McPherson, R. A., C. Fiebrich, K. C. Crawford, R. L. Elliott, J. R. Kilby, D. L. Grimsley, J. E. Martinez, J. B. Basara, B. G. Illston, D. A. Morris, K. A. Kloesel, S. J. Stadler, A. D. Melvin, A.J. Sutherland, and H. Shrivastava, 2007: Statewide monitoring of the mesoscale environment: A technical update on the Oklahoma Mesonet.

The amount of Sun energy reaching a location on Earth ("insolation", shown in blue) varies through the seasons. As it takes time for the seas and lands to heat or cool, the surface temperatures will lag the primary cycle by roughly a month, although this will vary from location to location, and the lag is not necessarily symmetric between summer and winter. The diagram uses neopagan labelling; Litha is the summer solstice, Yule is the winter solstice, Ostara is the vernal equinox, and Mabon is the autumnal equinox. Earth's seasonal lag is largely caused by the presence of large amounts of water, which has a high latent heat of freezing and of condensation.

The Neopluvial is in part correlative to the Neoglacial, and might have been caused by a change in winter conditions over the North Pacific. This cooling is primarily explained by steadily declining summer insolation, though synchronous patterns in hydrological responses at sub-millennial scales may be linked to atmospheric circulation shifts driven by factors such as internal variability in ocean-atmosphere teleconnections. Strengthening ENSO variability, a cooling of the North Pacific and a southward shift of the Pacific jet stream also coincided with the Neopluvial. The neopluvial resembles the Pluvial period that occurred in western North America during the late Last Glacial Maximum, but was much weaker than the LGM wet period.

Mediterranean buckthorn The archipelago is characterized by a Mediterranean climate with high insolation all year round. The archipelago's flora differs from island to island; the smaller have a vegetation similar each other of macchia mediterranea and garrigue formed by evergreen plants. Elba has a complex orography including the mountain Mount Capanne which favoured the preservation of the chestnut, the holm oak and the black alder mostly on the northern side. The main plant formations are those of shrubs of Erica, strawberry tree, Genisteae, mastic, Mediterranean buckthorn, myrtus and Phoenician juniper; On Elba and Capraia the cork oak is present, while the Aleppo pine and the maritime pine are widely spread on Elba and Gorgona.

Surface friction forces the surface wind to slow and turn near the surface of the Earth, blowing directly towards the low pressure, when compared to the winds in the nearly frictionless flow well above the Earth's surface. This layer, where surface friction slows the wind and changes the wind direction, is known as the planetary boundary layer. Daytime solar heating due to insolation thickens the boundary layer as winds warmed by contact with the earth's hot surface rise up and become increasingly mixed with winds aloft. Radiative cooling overnight gradually decouples the winds at the surface from the winds above the boundary layer, increasing vertical wind shear near the surface, also known as wind gradient.

Met Office; Monthly Ranked Hadley Centre Mean CET January 1895 had heavy snowfall produce above-average water- equivalent precipitation – England and Wales averaged , which is more than in any colder month since the EWP series began – except in the west of Scotland, which was in a rain shadow from the prevailing northeasterly winds and received only a quarter of normal rainfall. Despite the heavy snowfall, sunshine duration was above normal throughout except for the east coast and adjacent slopes,Manley, Gordon; ‘The Durham Meteorological Record, 1847–1940’; Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 67 (October 1941); pp. 363–380 with the west and southwest having up to twice their long-term average insolation.

Only in exceptional moments have they exceeded 40º of maximum temperature. The presence of the Atlantic Ocean and the confluence of maritime and continental air masses, propitiate an increase in the annual volume of precipitations, which oscillate between 500 and 600 mm annually. It is also remarkable the high insolation, being able to overcome the 3000 annual hours of sun. Due to its location near the Strait of Gibraltar, the impact of winds and storms are frequent, between the months of autumn to spring dominate the winds with SE component and during the summer the winds with component S or SW. The zahareño coastline, of about 1600 meters, extends from Zahara to Cabo de Plata10 (Tarifa).

Lundström, H. & Hagström, E. A field study in Kenya of insolation parameters to make water drinkable in the household water treatment unit SOLVATTEN. Uppsala University, Sweden Under optimal conditions, the device can eliminate all pathogenic material in 10-litres of water within 2 hours,Jönsson, J., Wikman, A. & Wätthammar, T. (2011) Social Return on Investment, SROI, the value added for families before and after using Solvatten in the Bungoma district in Western Kenya. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppsala allowing for multiple batches of water to be treated in a given day. The device is typically used in situations where water resources are scarce and prone to contamination, but it has also been applied in disaster relief scenarios.

These calculations require theoretical or empirical distributions of direct and diffuse radiation in the open, without canopy or other sky obstruction. Usually calculations are performed for either photosynthetically active radiation (400-700 nanometers) or insolation integrated over all wavelengths, measured in kilowatt-hours per square meter (kW h/m2). The fundamental assumption is that most solar radiation originates from visible (unobscured) sky directions, a strong first order effect, and that reflected radiation from the canopy or other near-ground features (non-visible or obscured sky directions) is negligible, a small second order effect. Another assumption is that the geometry of visible (non-obscured) sky does not change over the period for which calculations are performed.

Map of vegetation Even if the intense and ancient exploitation of the valley's resources has weakened the forest, Europe's largest Quercus pyrenaica woods, with an area of or 47.94% of the forest, are found in the park. The forest is built over the silicon substrate based and well-drained sandy substrates in the plains of the valley originated by the Berron and the Izki Rivers. The half-Mediterranean half- Atlantic climate in conjunction with the hard insolation and the atmospheric dryness give these species an ecological edge over beech trees. Vegetation's Real Cuality Map There are wide areas of beech forest in the higher zones that take an area representing 27,45% of the park's forests.

It is stronger in the summer than in winter due to a combination of high insolation, dry surface conditions, and southward displacement of the South Atlantic and South Pacific High (this makes it difficult for cold fronts to enter at lower latitudes). The Chaco Low interacts with the South Atlantic High, generating a pressure gradient that draws moist air from the northeast to coastal and central regions of Argentina. It also forces easterly winds from the Amazon basin to move southward, which is reinforced by the funneling effect from both the Andes and the Brazilian Plateau. The Chaco Low brings large amounts of moisture that favour the development of convective thunderstorms during summer, reaching as far south as 35oS.

Its distance to the Sun varies annually between 147.1·106 km at perihelion and 152.1·106 km at aphelion. In addition, several long term (tens to hundreds of millennia) cycles of subtle variation the Earth's orbit (Milankovich cycles) affect the solar irradiance and insolation (but not the solar constant). The Earth receives a total amount of radiation determined by its cross section (π·RE²), but as it rotates this energy is distributed across the entire surface area (4·π·RE²). Hence the average incoming solar radiation, taking into account the angle at which the rays strike and that at any one moment half the planet does not receive any solar radiation, is one-fourth the solar constant (approximately 340 W/m²).

The amount of energy entering the troposphere and stratosphere from space weather phenomena is trivial compared to the solar insolation in the visible and infra-red portions of the solar electromagnetic spectrum. Although some linkage between the 11-year sunspot cycle and the Earth's climate has been claimed.,Variability of the solar cycle length during the past five centuries and the apparent association with terrestrial climate, K. Lassen and E. Friis-Christensen, 57, 8, pp. 835–845, 1995 this has never been verified. For example, the Maunder minimum, a 70-year period almost devoid of sunspots, has often been suggested to be correlated to a cooler climate, but these correlations have disappeared after deeper studies.

Most crop plants store ~0.25% to 0.5% of the sunlight in the product (corn kernels, potato starch, etc.), sugar cane is exceptional in several ways to yield peak storage efficiencies of ~8%. Ethanol fuel in Brazil has a calculation that results in: "Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W/m2. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W/m2, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%." Sucrose accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing.

While a majority of people will view red as "floating" in front of blue, others experience a reversal of the effect in which they see blue floating in front of the red, or no depth effect at all. While this reversal may appear to discredit chromostereopsis, it does not and instead, as originally proposed by Einthoven, can be explained by an increase in the effect and subsequent reversal via blocking of the eccentric position of the pupil with respect to the optical axis. The diverse nature of the chromostereoptic effect is because the color depth effect is closely intertwined with both perceptual and optical factors. In other words, neither the optical nor the perceptual factors can be taken in insolation to explain chromostereopsis.

But, as not all of the rises in insolation throughout time caused deglaciation, to the current ice volumes that we witness today. This leads to a different conclusion, one that suggests that there is a possible climatic threshold, in terms of ice sheets retreating, and eventually disappearing. As Laurentide was the largest mass ice sheet in the Northern Hemisphere, much study has been conducted regarding its disappearance, unloading energy balance models, atmosphere-ocean general circulation models, and surface energy balance models. These studies concluded that the Laurentide ice sheet presented a positive surface mass balance during almost the entirety of its deglaciation, which indicates that the loss of mass throughout its deglaciation was more than likely due to dynamic discharge.

Much of this change was occurring at an astonishing rate, as the earth was dealing with the end of the last ice age. Changes in insolation was the principal reason for this drastic global change in climate, as this was linked with several other changes globally, from the alteration of ice sheets, to the concentration of greenhouse gases fluctuating, and many other feedbacks that resulted in distinct responses, both globally and regionally. Not only were ice sheets and greenhouse gases experiencing alteration, but also additionally to this, there was sudden climate change, and many occurrences of fast, and sizeable rising of sea level. The melting of the ice sheets, along with the rising sea levels did not happen until after 11ka.

Some systems are passive, others are active (requiring other external energy to function). Heating is the most obvious application, but solar cooling can be achieved for a building or for district cooling by using a heat-driven absorption or adsorption chiller (heat pump). There is a productive coincidence that the greater the driving heat from insolation, the greater the cooling output. In 1878, Auguste Mouchout pioneered solar cooling by making ice using a solar steam engine attached to a refrigeration device.Butti and Perlin (1981), p.72 In the United States, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for over 25% (4.75 EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings (50% in northern cities) and nearly half (10.1 EJ) of the energy used in residential buildings.

Aspect can have a strong influence on temperature. This is because of the angle of the sun in the northern and southern hemispheres which is less than 90 degrees or directly overhead. In the northern hemisphere, the north side of slopes is often shaded, while the southern side receives more solar radiation for a given surface area insolation because the slope is tilted toward the sun and isn't shaded directly by the earth itself. The further north or south you are and closer to winter solstice the more pronounced the effects of aspect of this are, and on steeper slopes the effect is greater, with no energy received on slopes with an angle greater than 22.5° at 40° north on December 22 (winter solstice).

Each space and house will have their own energy consumption profile and generation demand. Consequently, they must size their power equipment accordingly. To size battery systems to store captured energy or grid supplied energy to be used during times without power production from the rooftop solar, such as when there is inadequate insolation, you will need to know your generation capacity (as to not under or oversize your battery bank), the type of batteries used, their individual capacity (Ah), the discharge rate allowable per cycle (%), the size of loads (W or Wh), how long they will be run, and how many days or hours of storage you want to build. Battery sizing calculators are available online to simplify this process.

When the North African monsoon is at its strongest annual precipitation and subsequent vegetation in the Sahara region increase, resulting in conditions commonly referred to as the "green Sahara". For a relatively weak North African monsoon, the opposite is true, with decreased annual precipitation and less vegetation resulting in a phase of the Sahara climate cycle known as the "desert Sahara". The idea that changes in insolation (solar heating) caused by long-term changes in the Earth's orbit are a controlling factor for the long-term variations in the strength of monsoon patterns across the globe was first suggested by Rudolf Spitaler in the late nineteenth century, The hypothesis was later formally proposed and tested by the meteorologist John Kutzbach in 1981.

BP Solar owns two factories built by Solarex (one in Maryland, the other in Virginia) in which all of the energy used to manufacture solar panels is produced by solar panels. A 1-kilowatt system eliminates the burning of approximately 170 pounds of coal, 300 pounds of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere, and saves up to of water consumption monthly. The US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), in harmonizing the disparate estimates of life-cycle GHG emissions for solar PV, found that the most critical parameter was the solar insolation of the site: GHG emissions factors for PV solar are inversely proportional to insolation.NREL, Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Electricity Generation , NREL/FS-6A20-57187, Jan 2013.

Annual precipitation at Quelccaya and the neighbouring Cordillera Vilcanota is about , with most of it originating from the Amazon and falling during austral summer during the summer monsoon when high insolation leads to intense convection and showers; the location of the ice cap also generated orographic precipitation. Most snowfall occurs during the passage of cold fronts and cold air inclusions and the net amount is a function of the duration of the wet season. Overall, annually about of snow water equivalent accumulate on Quelccaya, in the form of about snow with rainfall sometimes occurring near its margins and also near its summit. This is much wetter than most of the tropical Andes, a consequence of Quelccaya's proximity to the Amazon.

The annual cycle of insolation for the northern hemisphere (Sun energy, shown in blue) with key points for seasons (middle), quarter days (top) and cross-quarter days (bottom) along with months (lower) and Zodiac houses (upper). The cycle of temperature (shown in pink) is delayed by seasonal lag. Derived from a reconstruction produced by linguist Jacob Grimm of an Old High German form of the Old English goddess name Ēostre, Ostara marks the vernal equinox in some modern Pagan traditions. Known as Alban Eilir, meaning Light of the Earth, to modern Druid traditions, this holiday is the second of three spring celebrations (the midpoint between Imbolc and Beltane), during which light and darkness are again in balance, with light on the rise.

Recent work suggests that the 100K year cycle dominates due to increased southern-pole sea-ice increasing total solar reflectivity. The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. Richard A. Muller, Gordon J. F. MacDonald, and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three- dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as the Earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same.

Oceanic islands with glaciers include Iceland, several of the islands off the coast of Norway including Svalbard and Jan Mayen to the far north, New Zealand and the subantarctic islands of Marion, Heard, Grande Terre (Kerguelen) and Bouvet. During glacial periods of the Quaternary, Taiwan, Hawaii on Mauna Kea and Tenerife also had large alpine glaciers, while the Faroe and Crozet Islands were completely glaciated. The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the winds. Glaciers can be found in all latitudes except from 20° to 27° north and south of the equator where the presence of the descending limb of the Hadley circulation lowers precipitation so much that with high insolation snow lines reach above .

A similar annual precipitation is found in the dry Calchaquí Valleys, with mean annual precipitation ranging from in Molinos to in Cafayate. Further west in the Puna region next to Bolivia, the average altitude is and the terrain is mostly desert due to the higher altitudes of the mountains on the east from both the Andes and the northwest extension of the Sierras Pampeanas, blocking most of the easterly winds from coming in. Precipitation in the Puna region averages less than a year while potential evapotranspiration ranges from a year, owing to the high insolation, strong winds, and low humidity that exacerbates the dry conditions. Owing to the low precipitation in conjunction with the extreme climatic conditions, the Puna region has a water deficit in all months of the year.

Trudeau at the 56th Munich Security Conference on 17 February 2020 Justin Trudeau was Prime Minister during the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. His government's response to the Pandemic included funds for provinces and territories to adapt to the new situation, funds for coronavirus research, travel restrictions, screening of international flights, self-insolation orders under the Quarantine Act, an industrial strategy, and a public health awareness campaign. To deal with the economic impact of the pandemic, Trudeau waved student loans payments, increased the Canada Child Benefit, doubled the annual Goods and Services Tax payment, and introduced the Canada Emergency Response Benefit as part of the first package in March. In April 2020, Trudeau introduced the Canada Emergency Wage Subsidy, the Canada Emergency Business Account, and the Canada Emergency Student Benefit.

Droughts are often frequent and prolonged. The Cuyo region is influenced by the subtropical, semi–permanent South Atlantic anticyclone to the east in the Atlantic, the semi-permanent South Pacific anticyclone to the west of the Andes, the development of a low pressure system ("Chaco low") over northern Argentina and westerlies in the southern parts of the region. Most of the precipitation falls during the summer, when hot temperatures and high insolation lead to the development of a low pressure system ("Chaco low") situated over northern Argentina that interacts with the South Atlantic anticyclone to generate a pressure gradient that brings moist easterly winds to the region, favouring precipitation, which mostly occurs in the form of convective thunderstorms. More than 85% of the annual rainfall occurs from October to March, which represents the warm season.

These latitudes receive less annual insolation than Pluto's polar regions due to its high obliquity (122.5°). The coldest regions on Pluto, on average, are at 30° N. and S. latitude; early in Pluto's history, ice would tend to accumulate at these latitudes in a runaway process due to the positive feedback association of increased albedo, cooling and further ice deposition (similar to the ice segregation that occurred on Iapetus). Simulations suggest that over a period of about a million years, the runaway process would collect much of the ice into a single cap even in the absence of a preexisting basin. The accumulation of dense nitrogen ice would have contributed to making Sputnik Planitia a positive gravity anomaly, but by itself would not have been sufficient to overcome the topographic depression associated with the basin.

The composition of Earth's atmosphere is different from the other planets because the various life processes that have transpired on the planet have introduced free molecular oxygen. Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying insolation or internal energy, leading to the formation of dynamic weather systems such as hurricanes, (on Earth), planet-wide dust storms (on Mars), a greater-than-Earth-sized anticyclone on Jupiter (called the Great Red Spot), and holes in the atmosphere (on Neptune). At least one extrasolar planet, HD 189733 b, has been claimed to have such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large. Hot Jupiters, due to their extreme proximities to their host stars, have been shown to be losing their atmospheres into space due to stellar radiation, much like the tails of comets.

This technology was originally used primarily in industrial applications such as manufacturing and assembly plants where there were high ventilation requirements, stratified ceiling heat, and often negative pressure in the building. With the increasing drive to install renewable energy systems on buildings, transpired solar collectors are now used across the entire building stock because of high energy production (up to 750 peak thermal Watts/square metre), high solar conversion (up to 90%) and lower capital costs when compared against solar photovoltaic and solar water heating. Solar air heating is a solar thermal technology in which the energy from the sun, solar insolation, is captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air. Solar air heating is a renewable energy heating technology used to heat or condition air for buildings or process heat applications.

National Institute of meteorology. 1961-1990. Archived from the original on 4 may 2014. Consulted in August 2014 8. The hottest month is October, which has an average temperature of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F), and, this month, the average of 33.7 °C (92.66 °F) maximum and minimum 24.7 °C (76.46 °F). The relative humidity is 83.5%, with an annual rainfall of 2302.2 millimeters (mm), with March the most precipitation (324.2 mm), annual insolation of 2 200 hours with a major record in the month of August. According to data from the National Institute of meteorology (INMET), for the period of 1967 to 1990 and from 1993, the lowest temperature recorded in Parintins was 12.9 °C (55.22 °F) on January 2, 1975 and the biggest hit 39 degrees Celsius on 7 January 1998.

30 to 18 kybp, the Laurentide Ice Sheet not only covered an enormous geographic area, but increased its altitude to 1750 meters (more than 1 mile). It generated its own long term weather patterns, which affected the jet stream passing over the North American continent. The jet stream effectively split in two, creating a new dominant weather pattern over the northern hemisphere that brought harsher conditions to several regions (including parts of Central Asia and the Middle East) -- changes that included an end to the Mousterian Pluvial and a return to a more arid climate in northern Africa. It is now understood that the major African Humid period events are caused by increased insolation in the northern hemisphere and the impact of continental surface warming on the tropical monsoons.

While the solar constant varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles, the losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the Solar elevation angle), cloud cover, moisture content, and other impurities. Over the course of a year the average solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is roughly 1,366 watts per square meterSatellite observations of total solar irradiance (see solar constant). The radiant power is distributed across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, although most of the power is in the visible light portion of the spectrum. The Sun's rays are attenuated as they pass through the atmosphere, thus reducing the insolation at the Earth's surface to approximately 1,000 watts per square meter for a surface perpendicular to the Sun's rays at sea level on a clear day.

The north facing slopes receive more snow often because of prevailing winds and are shaded from direct sunlight during the winter, consequently they have more water available to support trees and forests, while the south facing slopes which receive more insolation are much hotter and dryer and support only smaller more desert adapted woody plant species. North facing slopes here are dominated by a Pinus ponderosa, Pseudotsuga menziesii forest while the south facing slopes are mainly dominated by desert shrubs Artemisia tridentata and Purshia tridentata. The aspect of a slope can make very significant influences on its local climate (microclimate). For example, because the sun's rays are in the west at the hottest time of day in the afternoon, in most cases a west-facing slope will be warmer than a sheltered east-facing slope (unless large-scale rainfall influences dictate otherwise).

Throughout the early Holocene the earth's climate continued to experience fluctuations, however over time the magnitude lessened and the overall variation was reduced in comparison to the dramatic changes of the previous epoch. Following retreat of the northern hemisphere ice sheets that had expanded during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the temperature and moisture conditions of eastern Beringia (northwestern Alaska) continued to fluctuate until reaching a middle Holocene thermal maximum from 7-5 ka where temperatures were 0.5-2 °C warmer than the most recent millennium. Following this warm period, temperatures began to decrease around 4-3 ka leading to the onset of Neoglacial cooling as high insolation levels began to decrease. The timing of the middle Holocene thermal maximum was significantly later than originally inferred (it had previously been suggested that this warm period began during the early Holocene 11.0-9.

VSOP model • Graphic shows variations in five orbital elements: • Precession index and obliquity control insolation at each latitude: • Ocean sediment and Antarctic ice strata record ancient sea levels and temperatures: • Vertical gray line shows present (2000 CE) Milankovitch cycles describe the collective effects of changes in the Earth's movements on its climate over thousands of years. The term is named for Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković. In the 1920s, he hypothesized that variations in eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation reaching the Earth, and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced the Earth's climatic patterns. Similar astronomical hypotheses had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar, James Croll and others, but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence, and because it was unclear which periods were important.

He is one of the pioneers who participated in the renaissance of the astronomical theory of paleoclimate (also known as the Milankovitch theory) in the 1970s, and to its promotion and development in the following decades. He has renewed this theory and improved the accuracy of the long term variations of the astronomical parameters used for the calculation of the incoming solar radiation (insolation) over the last and next millions of years. He became known in 1977 for his paper in Nature and later in the Journal of Atmospheric Physics (1978) delivering all the spectral components of the long term variations of eccentricity, obliquity (axial tilt) and climatic precession. His contributions have played a key role in the time scale calibration and interpretation of the paleoclimate records and in the modelling of the glacial-interglacial cycles.

Seto Hill Windfarm in Japan, one of several windfarms that continued generating without interruption after the severe 2011 earthquake and tsunami followed by the Fukushima nuclear disaster. Komekurayama Solar Power Plant owned and operated by TEPCO in Kofu, Yamanashi Prefecture Price of PV modules (yen/Wp) in Japan Solar power in Japan has been expanding since the late 1990s. The country is a leading manufacturer of solar panels and is in the top 5 ranking for countries with the most solar photovoltaics (PV) installed. In 2009 Japan had the third largest solar capacity in the world (behind Germany and Spain), with most of it grid connected.National survey report of PV Power applications in Japan 2006 retrieved 16 October 2008Global Market Outlook for photovoltaics until 2013 retrieved 22 May 2009 The solar insolation is good at about 4.3 to 4.8 kWh/(m²·day).

On south and west exposures, direct insolation and heat reflected from tree trunks often result in temperatures lethal to young seedlings, as well as desiccation of the surface soil, which inhibits germination. The sun is less injurious on eastern exposures because of the lower temperature in the early morning, related to higher humidity and presence of dew. In 1993, Henry Baldwin, after noting that summer temperatures in North America are often higher than those in places where border-cuttings have been found useful, reported the results of a survey of regeneration in a stand of red spruce plus scattered white spruce that had been isolated by clearcutting on all sides, so furnishing an opportunity for observing regeneration on different exposures in this old-field stand at Dummer, New Hampshire. The regeneration included a surprisingly large number of balsam fir seedlings from the 5% stand component of that species.

The Pleistocene epoch was characterized by frequent large swings in climate which subsequently had dramatic impacts on ecosystem structure and function, a phenomenon that was especially so in the Arctic. While global temperatures were below the present average for much of this epoch, significantly warmer periods did occur. For example, it is thought that during the last interglacial stage (from 130-116 ka) temperatures rose to 4 °C above present as result of increased insolation values during boreal summer (11% higher than present), which resulted in below-current ice extent and tree line advancement to approximately 600 km north of the modern limit. Later on the climate was drastically colder (5-6 °C lower than the current global average between 25 and 21 ka) in the midst of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), which resulted in widespread northern hemispheric glaciation and a decrease in sea level of approximately 125 meters.

Seasonal variation and annual decrease of Arctic sea ice volume as estimated by measurement backed numerical modelling. Volume of arctic sea ice over time using a polar coordinate system draw method (time goes counter clockwise; one cycle per year) The annual freeze and melt cycle is set by the annual cycle of solar insolation and of ocean and atmospheric temperature, and of variability in this annual cycle. In the Arctic, the area of ocean covered by sea ice increases over winter from a minimum in September to a maximum in March or sometimes February, before melting over the summer. In the Antarctic, where the seasons are reversed, the annual minimum is typically in February and the annual maximum in September or October, and the presence of sea ice abutting the calving fronts of ice shelves has been shown to influence glacier flow and potentially the stability of the Antarctic ice sheet.

Karl Josef Futterer, who crossed the same desert twenty years after Przhevalsky, agrees generally in his description of it, but supplements the account of the latter explorer with several particulars. He observes that the ranges in this part of the Gobi are much worn down and wasted, like the Kuruk-tagh farther west and the tablelands of Southeast Mongolia farther east, through the effects of century-long insolation, wind erosion, great and sudden changes of temperature, chemical action and occasional water erosion. Vast areas towards the north consist of expanses of gently sloping clay, intermingled with gravel. He points out also that the greatest accumulations of sand and other products of wind scouring do not occur in the deepest parts of the depressions but at the outlets of the valleys and glens, and along the foot of the ranges which flank the depressions on the south.

Mid-Pliocene reconstructed terrain and ice sheet elevation West Antarctic Ice Sheet extent oscillated at the 40Kyr period of Earth's obliquity, ice sheet collapse occurred when global average temperature were 3 °C warmer than today and carbon dioxide concentration 400 ppmv and resulted in open waters in the Ross Sea. Global sea-level fluctuation associated with ice-sheet collapse were probably of up to 7 meters for west Antarctic and 3 meters for east Antarctic. Model simulations are consistent with reconstructed ice-sheet oscillations and suggest a progression from smaller to larger west Antarctic ice sheet in the last 5 Million years, intervals of ice sheet collapse are much more common in the early-mid Pliocene (5 Ma – 3 Ma), after three-million-year intervals with modern or glacial ice volume became longer and collapse occurs only at times when warmer global temperature coincide with strong austral summer insolation anomalies.

In the future, the world is expected to exit the "fossil fuel age", and perhaps the "nuclear energy age", and enter the "renewable-energy age" or even further into the "fusion power age", if and whenever these technologies become economically sustainable.Future energy development Being a region in the sunny tropical belt, the Indian subcontinent could greatly benefit from a renewable energy trend, as it has the ideal combination of both - high solar insolation and a big consumer base density. For example, considering the costs of energy consumed for temperature control (a major factor influencing a region's energy intensity) and the fact that - cooling load requirements, unlike heating, are roughly in phase with the sun's intensity, cooling from the excessive solar radiation could make great energetic (and hence economic) sense in the subcontinent, whenever the required technology becomes competitively cheaper.Solar Cooling German report India also has 25% of the world's thorium resources.

In 1964, Kardashev defined three levels of civilizations, based on the order of magnitude of power available to them: ; Type I : Technological level of a civilization that is "close to the level presently attained on Earth, with energy consumption at ≈4 erg/sec" (4 watts). Currently, the civilization of Type I is usually defined as one that can harness all the energy that falls on a planet from its parent star (for Earth–Sun system, this value is close to 1.74 watts), which is about four orders of magnitude higher than the amount presently attained on Earth, with energy consumption at ≈2 watts. The astronomer Guillermo A. Lemarchand stated this as a level near contemporary terrestrial civilization with an energy capability equivalent to the solar insolation on Earth, between 1016 and 1017 watts. ; Type II : A civilization capable of harnessing the energy radiated by its own star—for example, the stage of successful construction of a Dyson sphere—with energy consumption at ≈4 erg/sec.

The Ojos de Mar display a rich assembly of microorganisms including extremophiles in their waters which have been analyzed with bioinformatics methods. In general, the Argentine Puna in South America features a number of high altitude lakes between elevation which are characterized by extreme environmental conditions: Extremely high insolation by the sun, low temperatures, large temperature changes between day and night, extremely high salinity of their waters owing to high evaporation rates and accumulation of toxic elements such as arsenic. Because of this, plants and animals are rare in these areas and extremophile microorganisms which can tolerate the extreme conditions make up much of the biota. These in turn could be used to obtain enzymes that could be useful for industrial processes, such as ultraviolet radiation-resistant or -exploiting enzymes like photolyases and antioxidants that protect cells from oxidative damage; these compounds and proteins could be used in medicine and the cosmetic industry.

Modic's enigmatic photographic works show an extreme sensibility towards perception and use of colors. He captures details of everyday objects or places and uncommonly presents them in insolation, neither in a content nor in perspective-evoking ambiguous interpretation and curiosity... In 1988 Marko Modic won "Zlata ptica" ["Golden Bird"], a Slovenian award for extraordinary achievements in the fields of cultural creation. Marko Modic has exhibited his photographs widely at home, in Italy, Ecuador, Argentina, UK, Canada... In 2011 he had an exhibition "Written on skin of the Earth" in Tivoli Park in Ljubljana, Slovenia and in Whyte Museum of the Canadian Rockies, Banff, Canada. At the end of 70's and in the early 80's he was an active member of Ljubljana Cave Exploration Society (DZRJL), took part in high mountain deep cave exploration, was the editor of the society's journal Glas podzemlja [Voice of the Underground] and contributed to design and contents of other caving publications.

Andagoya has one of the most monotonous climates in the world. Its annual range of mean monthly temperatures – that is to say, the difference between the warmest and coldest months – at Andagoya is mere 0.8 °C (1.44 °F) as March, the warmest month, has an average temperature of 26.8 °C (80.24 °F) while November, the "coldest" month, averages 26.0 °C (78.8 °F); the average annual temperature is 26.5 °C (79.7 °F). This near complete uniformity of temperature is caused by the fact that Andagoya, at a latitude of 5°5' North, lies extremely close to the thermal equator, which is situated a few degrees north of the astronomical equator because the Earth reaches perihelion (its closest position to the Sun in its orbit) in early January and is at aphelion (furthest away) in early July, causing places located precisely at the equator to receive somewhat more insolation (i.e., light and heat energy from the sun) in January than in July even though the height of the sun and the length of days would be the same at both times.

Many local effects can influence ice δD in addition to temperature. These effects include moisture origin and transport pathways, evaporation conditions and precipitation seasonality, which can be accounted for in more complicated models. Nevertheless, the Vostok ice core record shows some very important results: (1) A consistent δD depletion of ~70‰ during the last four glacial periods compared to interglacial times, corresponding to a cooling of 8 °C in Antarctica; (2) A consistent drop of atmospheric CO2 concentration by 100 ppmv and CH4 drop by ~300 ppbv during glacial times relative to interglacials, suggesting a role of greenhouse gases in regulating global climate; (3) Antarctic air temperature and greenhouse gas concentration changes precede global ice volume and Greenland air temperature changes during glacial terminations, and greenhouse gases may be an amplifier of insolation forcing during glacial-interglacial cycles. Greenland ice core isotope records, in addition to showing glacial-interglacial cycles, also shows millennial-scale climate oscillations that may reflect reorganization in ocean circulation caused by ice melt charges.

The scientific basis for passive solar building design has been developed from a combination of climatology, thermodynamics (particularly heat transfer: conduction (heat), convection, and electromagnetic radiation), fluid mechanics/natural convection (passive movement of air and water without the use of electricity, fans or pumps), and human thermal comfort based on heat index, psychrometrics and enthalpy control for buildings to be inhabited by humans or animals, sunrooms, solariums, and greenhouses for raising plants. Specific attention is divided into: the site, location and solar orientation of the building, local sun path, the prevailing level of insolation (latitude/sunshine/clouds/precipitation), design and construction quality/materials, placement/size/type of windows and walls, and incorporation of solar-energy-storing thermal mass with heat capacity. While these considerations may be directed toward any building, achieving an ideal optimized cost/performance solution requires careful, holistic, system integration engineering of these scientific principles. Modern refinements through computer modeling (such as the comprehensive U.S. Department of Energy "Energy Plus" building energy simulation software), and application of decades of lessons learned (since the 1970s energy crisis) can achieve significant energy savings and reduction of environmental damage, without sacrificing functionality or aesthetics.

High potential regions for Solarpower plants Kazakhstan has areas with high insolation that could be suitable for solar power, particularly in the south of the country, receiving between 2200 and 3000h of sunlight per year, which equals 1200–1700 kW/m2 annually. Both concentrated solar thermal and solar photovoltaic (PV) have potential. There is a 2 MW solar PV plant near Almaty and six solar PV plants are currently under construction in the Zhambyl province of southern Kazakhstan with a combined capacity of 300 MW. In addition to solar PV, concentrated solar thermal is advantageous given it does not require water for operation so can be used in desert and semi-desert areas, the materials (steel, glass,and concrete) are domestically produced in Kazakhstan and readily available, and solar thermal plants store energy in the form of heat, which is far more efficient than the batteries used in PV systems and allows electricity to be produced on demand, even after the sun has set, enabling both base and peak loads to be met. There are no current plans to install a concentrated solar thermal plant although the government plans to create 1.04GW of renewable energy capacity by 2020.