Globally, iconoclasm has been practiced at least since ancient times.
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Wiley's iconoclasm often takes the form of simultaneous homage and critique.
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Frank Gohlke's "Landscape, Albuquerque" (1974) takes this iconoclasm to its natural conclusion.
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Iconoclasm is the purposeful destruction of images for religious or political reasons.
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But it's an iconoclasm that cuts across all kinds of political sensibilities.
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And even a reader sympathetic to Cusk's iconoclasm is perplexed by her illogic.
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He favors sandals, cargo shorts and heavy facial hair, all signs of warrior iconoclasm.
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The faith and work movement has become a forum for this kind of iconoclasm.
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It's the antithesis of Great Mind bio-docs parroting the same arc of iconoclasm.
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There has always been a certain iconoclasm about the Spurs that is difficult to ignore.
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It might yet save Axe from stigma, but at the cost of the brand's iconoclasm.
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For most of the campaign, he seemed to revel in a kind of freedom and iconoclasm.
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Christianity has had its episodes of violent iconoclasm as well, albeit mostly in the distant past.
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And the personal iconoclasm and moral purity of the Sanders campaign didn't lend themselves to governance.
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Compared with the iconoclasm of Rei Kawakubo , or of Alexander McQueen, Lagerfeld's work was old-fashioned.
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"The movie confuses iconoclasm with wit, and bile with guts; it's mostly thin and mean-spirited."
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Kanye West's implosive iconoclasm went in tandem with visits to Trump Tower and the White House.
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The strategy: In 2010, Mr. Manchin's pro-West Virginia iconoclasm meant standing up to his party's leadership.
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We can contain this iconoclasm, they suggest, and hold the line at the monuments of the Confederacy.
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Management theorists need to examine their church with the same clear-eyed iconoclasm with which Luther examined his.
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His cheerfully dismissive iconoclasm empowers many Americans with a distaste for the oppressive moralizing of the progressive elite.
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But though we may fetishize iconoclasm in our entertainment, our support is less full-throated in real life.
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They weld together straight-ahead jazz fluidity, gospel transcendence and avant-garde iconoclasm into an unmistakable group sound.
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The show does more than demonstrate the iconoclasm of his practice; it shows the breadth of it as well.
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Befitting the popular drink's own sense of iconoclasm, "Racing" bathes in Ramm's frenzied, free-associative, and occasionally overwhelming energy.
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And together, we are building a global panhumanist collective influencing art, aesthetics, optimism, pacifism, iconoclasm, thought, imagination, and vanguardism. 4.
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FOR artists, acts of war and iconoclasm often serve as a call to arms, triggering creative expressions of rebellion and dissent.
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Striking Power: Iconoclasm in Ancient Egypt runs through August 11 at the Pulitzer Arts Foundation (3716 Washington Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri).
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Enid is individualistic to the point of iconoclasm, and longs for times before she was forced to act against her nature.
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But the burn-it-down iconoclasm of his base does not seem so consistent or easily mollified as that would imply.
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In part, ISIS's iconoclasm there has flowed from the polytheistic history of Palmyra, which stands in rebuke to their Salafist convictions.
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In recent decades the party has downplayed the iconoclasm of the May 4th Movement, preferring to portray it as something far blander.
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Similarly, the "hate-language" mentality that removes despised words and songs is a version of this iconoclasm of statues, paintings, and buildings.
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"Bannon was then, as he is now, simply another bitter Hollywood wannabe who went rogue by way of toxic narcissistic iconoclasm," Penn said.
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If you preach iconoclasm while dedicating a rainbow-colored stained-glass window, you shouldn't be too surprised if somebody picks up a rock.
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The element of aggression might have been put down to youthful iconoclasm, but, as the years passed, it did not diminish; it grew.
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It is another reflection of how fully his foreign policy iconoclasm has succumbed to the conventional wisdom that traps us in endless war.
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Missing as well is the defining sensibility — the heedless enchantment, the uncanny attunement, the magisterial iconoclasm — that finally marks our most worthwhile fiction.
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We have seen in recent years a neo-iconoclasm in which the very statues and buildings of some past event or person were destroyed.
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Gaitskill fans will be pleased to learn that the wise iconoclasm of her fiction is also on display in this, her first nonfiction book.
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In a chapter on vandalism and iconoclasm he describes how the Taliban obliterated two huge 2503th-century Buddhas in the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan, in 2001.
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First, there was the Pulitzer Arts Foundation's Striking Power: Iconoclasm in Ancient Egypt, followed by the Freud Museum London's exhibition on Freud's fascination with Egypt.
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During dinner he had angled the conversation toward sex, as he often did on these occasions, as though in testament to his iconoclasm, his virility.
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Agassi's fashion iconoclasm became part of his identity, and helped break down any remaining barriers when it came to what was worn on the court.
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He was promptly expelled, but now that same iconoclasm is creating a stir with his mind-bending carpets: traditional Azerbaijani designs that have been psychedelically reassembled.
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One of them managed to make it past a tree line and onto a nearby street, where it dazzled residents with its iconoclasm and free spirit.
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Others argue that the destruction itself has become a historical monument, and that the ruins should be preserved as is, a visible reminder of Taliban iconoclasm.
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Untouched by the waves of iconoclasm which swept through the Byzantine empire at certain periods, it hosts one of the world's greatest collections of eastern Christian art.
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The biggest paradox, for me, is how you can have, on one hand, the sentimentality that is kind of juxtaposed with this iconoclasm and this irreverence towards icons.
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His popularity is pitched as proof of his mandate, and his iconoclasm is cast as an effective antidote to a dilapidated democracy that has always thrived on inequality.
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Paul's foreign policy iconoclasm served him well in the debates, where his one-on-ones with Chris Christie and other hawks created most of his campaign's best moments.
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Part of that is due to my personality, it probably plays enough into my own tendency towards cultural defiance and iconoclasm that it's been easier to own it.
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A photograph of the original supermodels — Linda Evangelista, Claudia Schiffer, Christy Turlington — as a motorcycle gang in pastel colored Chanel bouclé minisuits and biker caps captured his iconoclasm.
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This categorization of iconoclasm makes much sense, and it is very helpful for thinking through the different reasons and the different ways that statues were damaged in the past.
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At an exhibition centered on destruction of statues, at this moment in history, the visitor can't help but wonder if it is meant to evoke contemporary cases of iconoclasm.
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Yet even as he builds a more sophisticated and modern organization, Mr. Sanders's iconoclasm and possessiveness over his brand of democratic socialism has created turmoil in his own ranks.
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It's about using energy of the anarchy and iconoclasm in your life, and transforming it into something positive; using a punk mindset as a force for inner change and growth.
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The Atlanta History Centre, however, thinks there is a middle way between iconoclasm and inaction—an approach that might help to salve historiographical rows raging across the South and beyond.
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Especially nowadays, when money and politics seem to get their way no matter what, disagreement, iconoclasm and efforts to stay on the outside are routinely subjugated by an irresistible system.
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He lacks that director's Wilde-at-the-grindhouse verbal wit, and in place of Waters's queer iconoclasm, Kaufman imbues his films with a species of heteronormative New-York-wisenheimer leering.
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But in the past five years or so, he has increasingly been invited into some of music's most rarefied spaces, largely because of his iconoclasm, not in spite of it.
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We're only at the beginning of a long-needed, long-awaited iconoclasm, and I expect this time it will go much further than anyone could have expected, just weeks ago.
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Take, for example, their extraordinary capacity for connection, bypassing traditional methods; their defiance of convention, even their iconoclasm; or their delight in challenging existing elites on behalf of the people.
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She described the exhibition as an act of defiance from a Muslim woman who deplores the way IS presents acts of barbaric cruelty and iconoclasm as being in keeping with Islam.
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In contrast to the iconoclasm and radicalism that define much Chinese art since 1989, her thematic focus on the personal and quotidian gives voice to a realism that courts intimacy and nuance.
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Visitors are provided with a museum guide booklet that includes typical museum label information for each object, as well as additional information on iconoclasm, and on Egypt in the periods in question.
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But he came from a later generation, one that had grown up on punk iconoclasm as well as metal virtuosity and that was far too self-conscious for the old rock machismo.
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In less murderous forms, you can see nihilism at work in the banal iconoclasm that exults in anything outrageous, provocative, or "transgressive," that sees no qualitative difference between the offensive and the genuine.
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Such bursts of iconoclasm have recurred for millenniums, from the methodical smashing of ancient sculptures and monuments by Byzantine Christians to the destruction of Roman Catholic imagery during the Protestant Reformation in Northern Europe.
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Some of the thinkers who Mrs Thatcher deployed so successfully in her think-tanks were barely house-trained, but they certainly had plenty of attitude and iconoclasm, precisely what is needed to think the unthinkable.
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But as Bernie Sanders sells class rage, Joe Biden promises normalcy and Elizabeth Warren pushes a social progressivism so perfectly doctrinaire it seems tailored for five kids at Oberlin, Andrew Yang's cheerful iconoclasm is refreshing.
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In the 1990s he took an impish tack, whether he was photographing a flasher in Tiananmen Square or dropping a millennia-old Chinese urn, in biting parody of both western performance art and Cultural Revolution iconoclasm.
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As for the costs of Trump's iconoclasm, they could eventually be paid by countries other than the US, which is unlikely to find itself facing off against a powerful neighbor seeking to annex its territory anytime soon.
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Op-Ed Contributor WASHINGTON — DONALD J. TRUMP has never felt compelled to play by conventional rules — neither in business nor in politics — and that iconoclasm has made him a billionaire and president-elect of the United States.
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But "The Last Jedi" doesn't have the hurtling pace or the vertigo-inducing action that distinguished "The Force Awakens", so it is possible to admire Mr Johnson's cheeky iconoclasm and philosophical musings while glancing repeatedly at your watch.
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Al-Nuri mosque: The irony of ISIS' iconoclasm Several US officials have told CNN in recent days that US and coalition officials had been observing the mosque in recent days and saw fighters and explosives at the site.
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As Kit designs a homemade stable for the animal, "Unicorn Store" establishes a crude binary between her rainbow iconoclasm and the assortment of middle-aged stiffs who nudge her toward a life of coffee-swilling and temp work.
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Unfortunately, for all the early aughts talk of blogs taking over the world, the era of independent blogs turned out to be a brief one, and attempts to professionalize the blogging genre required stamping the iconoclasm out of it.
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Lockwood's religious iconoclasm was born and bred in the Midwest, but her literary rebellion took shape later in life, as she and her husband—a newspaper editor she met online in a poetry chatroom—moved around the country for his work.
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Even Murray, whom I believe does his scholarship in good faith, would have to admit that iconoclasm drives his reputation and book sales more than the superior quality of his work as a social scientist (however we rate that quality).
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But overall, while Trump may believe that selecting Flynn would give the ticket some badly needed gravitas on national security, what it would actually do is bring Trump's own iconoclasm on foreign policy to the fore — for better or for worse.
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He claims to be motivated only by his passion for the free market, but his constant reference to fathers—his own was a smaller-scale Australian mogul—betrays a deeper anxiety of influence, implying that his iconoclasm is a sort of sublimated patricide.
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They depict, in large format, detailed scenes of Judgment Day and candid reminders of death; featuring crucifixes, angels and devils, tortured souls in hell, and a large figure of St. Michael the archangel, the murals were among the many targeted by the iconoclasm laws passed in 1547.
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The iconoclasm that, as a senator, Mr Cruz did as much as anyone to cultivate, found a more obvious outlet in Mr Trump, who, whatever else his drawbacks, had not spent his adult lifetime in politics, and moreover had no attachment to Republican shibboleths on trade and protectionism.
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If this is life after art — in which the work of "iconoclastic figures who rejected the status quo and the dominant values of society" has given way to "a triumph of the […] desire for apolitical content" — then isn't the iconoclasm of the relentless text panels the only legitimate response?
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"Nixey makes the fundamental point that while we lionize Christian culture for preserving works of learning, sponsoring exquisite art and adhering to an ethos of 'love thy neighbor,' the early church was in fact a master of anti-intellectualism, iconoclasm and mortal prejudice," Bettany Hughes writes in her review.
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This is iconoclasm in the twenty-first century, sponsored by a publication that would prefer to be seen not as one of the house organs of the American elite, but as an underground pamphlet, circulated by samizdat, illicitly keeping the flame of serious inquiry and good writing alive.
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With her scabby knees and clear eyes, her native iconoclasm and funny nickname, she recalls the great child characters of American literature, all of them wayward and wounded: Scout from "To Kill a Mockingbird," Bone from "Bastard Out of Carolina," Frankie from "The Member of the Wedding," Huck Finn.
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While the widespread Western focus on the destruction of structures from sites known from classical and biblical texts (like Palmyra, or Nineveh in Iraq) might suggest that they are the main focus of ISIS's iconoclasm, most of the monuments that ISIS has destroyed are Islamic shrines and graves.
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The threat to the rules-based international order appeared so dire that when President Xi Jinping of China devoted his address before a packed assembly to fashioning himself a champion of global trade, he was celebrated as a rare source of adult supervision in an era of reckless iconoclasm.
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But Ms. White, who released her first solo album in 2008 (then billed as Santogold), has taken on a 21st-century agenda: autonomy, eccentricity, fun, sensuality, iconoclasm and critiques of power, money and online culture, all to be wrapped in tunes so concise that kids on a playground could sing along.
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"It seems reasonable to imagine that the President has erected a monument, in the very tradition of Land Art, that could serve as compensation for the virulent iconoclasm of the present, when other monuments have to be taken down out of political correctness and their history erased," said Mr. Diers.
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If you can embrace the power that pride in personal achievement brings, and can be tolerant of differing points of view, yet pursue your own self-determined course—despite pressure to conform exerted by collectivists and authoritarians across the political and religious spectrum—then Satan always serves as a formidable and inspirational archetype of strength, liberty and iconoclasm.
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"They think there were 300 or so racists who showed up to a rally, and who got exactly what they wanted: Violence, and violence in a way that inspires the nation's elite to double down on iconoclasm in a way they hope grows their movement," said Ben Domenech, the publisher of The Federalist, an online magazine.
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Sometimes this circumspection is justified — the line between iconoclasm and narcissism is easily smudged — but often our reaction is more complicated: We can find ourselves unexpectedly invested in the maintenance of institutions of power, and while seeing someone willing to set those institutions aflame can inspire admiration, it can also engender envy (why can't I do that?), self-recrimination (why didn't I do that
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But in rare, extensive interviews that explored that criticism as well as a controversy over pay equity, Lisa Nishimura, Netflix's vice president of original documentary and comedy programming, and Robbie Praw, its director of original stand-up comedy, the most powerful gatekeepers in stand-up, tell a different story, one in which iconoclasm, new metrics and abiding faith in the algorithm disrupt the stale conventions of an industry.
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Israel had long argued to American diplomats that Saudi Arabia's influence in the region made it essential to any peace deal, and the Israelis were developing high hopes for Prince Mohammed because of his hawkish views toward Iran and his general iconoclasm (he would later make several statements, like affirming the Israeli "right" to land, that were notably more sympathetic to the Israeli position than those of other Saudi leaders.) Within weeks of Mr. Trump's move into the White House, Mr. Kushner had embraced the delegation's proposal for the president to visit Riyadh, convinced by then that the alliance with Saudi Arabia would be crucial in his plans for the region, according to a person who discussed it with Mr. Kushner and a second person familiar with his plans.
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The people were looted, their property plundered and act of iconoclasm followed.
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The artworks within the painting such as the Allegory of Iconoclasm and the painting above the mantel representing Painting saved from Ignorance are references to the iconoclasm of the Beeldenstorm that had raged in the Low Countries in the 16th century. The reference offered by the Allegory of Iconoclasm to the iconoclasm of the preceding century provides the meaning for the larger picture: the arts will be protected (as shown by the presence of soldiers in the open door) and flourish under the rule of the archdukes.James Simpson, Under the Hammer: Iconoclasm in the Anglo-American Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2010 The sunflower turning toward Albert and Isabella symbolizes the way that the arts will grow and blossom in the light and warmth of princely patronage.
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Euthymius, a Metropolitan Bishop of Sardis, was martyred in 824 in relation to iconoclasm.
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The views that led Bruen to iconoclasm in his local church were described by William Hinde, curate at Bunbury, Cheshire. Hinde wrote a biography of Bruen that was published in 1641.Julie Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm during the English Civil War (2003), p. 41; Google Books.
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"Triumph of Orthodoxy" over iconoclasm under the Byzantine Empress Theodora and her son Michael III. Late 14th – early 15th-century icon. In this Elizabethan work of propaganda, the top right of the picture depicts men busy pulling down and smashing icons, while power is being handed from the dying King Henry VIII to his far more staunchly Protestant son Edward VI.; ; National Portrait Gallery, London Iconoclasm (from Greek: + )From . Iconoclasm may also be considered as a back-formation from iconoclast (Greek: εἰκοκλάστης).
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"Perennialism and iconoclasm. Chaos magick and the legitimacy of innovation". Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm (eds). Contemporary esotericism.
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In recent decades, war and deliberate iconoclasm have caused a great amount of destruction of Afghanistan's artistic heritage.
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René Denizot mentions in Farbe Verbrechen the iconoclasm. Per Kirkeby writes from a Danish point of view about visible and invisible Iconoclasm. R. H. Fuchs speaks in Begegnung im Prado about artworks, that mirror each other. Luciano Fabro finds in Die Kunst vor Gericht that the Autodafés started again in 1968.
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Iconolatry is the opposite of iconoclasm, and also should not be confused with iconophilia, designating the moderate veneration of icons. Both extreme positions, iconolatry and iconoclasm, were rejected in 787 by the Second Council of Nicaea, being the seventh Ecumenical Council. The Council decided that holy icons should not be destroyed, as was advocated and practiced by the Byzantine iconoclasm, nor veritable (full) worshiped or adored (; ), as was practiced by iconolatry, but to be only venerated as symbolic representations of God, angels, or saints.
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The first instances of Protestant iconoclasm, the destruction of images and statues in Catholic churches, occurred in Rouen and La Rochelle in 1560. The following year, mobs carried out iconoclasm in more than 20 cities and towns; Catholic urban groups attacked Protestants in bloody reprisals in Sens, Cahors, Carcassonne, Tours and other cities.Salmon, pp. 136–137.
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The plunder was accompanied by acts of iconoclasm, with statues smashed and pictures defaced. The deserted town of Cashel was also torched.
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Mango, Cyril. 1977. "Historical Introduction." Pp. 2–3 in Iconoclasm, edited by Bryer & Herrin. Birmingham: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham. .
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This campaign of Reformed iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region.
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Iconophobia (literally fear of icons) refers to an aversion to images, especially religious icons. Iconophobia is differentiated from iconoclasm in that iconophobia refers to the aversion to or hatred of the images whereas iconoclasm refers to the actual destruction of images that may arise from iconophobia. Chari Larsson wrote: > “If iconophobia is defined as the suspicion and anxiety towards the power > exerted by images, its history is an ancient one in all of its Platonic, > Christian, and Judaic forms. At its most radical, iconophobia results in an > act of iconoclasm, or the total destruction of the image.
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University Press of America. pp. 146–47. . Some of the most dramatic cases of iconoclasm by Muslims are found in parts of India where Hindu and Buddhist temples were razed and mosques erected in their place. Aurangzeb, the 6th Mughal Emperor, destroyed the famous Hindu temples at Varanasi and Mathura. In modern India, the most high-profile case of iconoclasm was from 1992.
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A little over a year after Theophilos's death, on 11 March 843, a synod restored the veneration of icons, and iconoclasm was declared heretical.; .
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Iconoclasm was then revived by Leo V, and it persisted until 842 in the reign of Michael III (842–867) and regency of Theodora.
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Oxford University Press. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople and the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces strongly opposed iconoclasm.
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As Iconoclasm relied heavily on military success for its legitimization, the fall of Amorium contributed decisively to its abandonment shortly after Theophilos's death in 842.
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The Byzantine iconoclasm paused production of figural art in illuminated manuscripts for many decades, and resulted in the destruction or mutilation of many existing examples.
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Although antagonism about the expense of Byzantine domination had long persisted within Italy, the political rupture was set in motion in earnest in 726 by the iconoclasm of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian.Duffy, 1997, pp. 62-63. The exarch was lynched while trying to enforce the iconoclastic edict and Pope Gregory II saw iconoclasm as the latest in a series of imperial heresies.Duffy, 1997, p. 63.
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The Byzantine Empire was ruled by the Amorian or Phrygian dynasty from 820 to 867. The Amorian dynasty continued the policy of restored iconoclasm (the "Second Iconoclasm") started by the previous non-dynastic emperor Leo V in 813, until its abolition by Empress Theodora with the help of Patriarch Methodios in 842.Parry, Kenneth (1996). Depicting the Word: Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries.
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Though the hand was subjected to intense iconoclastic hacking, the iconoclasts left some vestiges of the thumb and the receding fingers intact.Steven Fine, "Iconoclasm: Who Defeated this Jewish Art", Bible Review (2000): 32-43; Robert Shick, "Iconoclasm", in The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study (Darwin Press Inc.: Princeton, N.J.), 213. A thumbnail has been carved into the thumb.
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Immediately upon his accession, Gregory appealed to Emperor Leo III to moderate his position on the iconoclasm. When Gregory's representative was arrested on the orders of the emperor, Gregory called a synod in November 731, which condemned iconoclasm outright.Treadgold, p. 354; Mann, p. 205 Leo responded by trying to bring the pope under control, but the fleet he sent to enforce the imperial will was shipwrecked in the Adriatic Sea.
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The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 The Second Council of Nicaea restored the veneration of icons and ended the first iconoclasm.
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His remains were transferred to Ghent around the turn of the millennium, but went missing and are believed to have been destroyed in 1578 during the Second Iconoclasm.
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Paschal gave shelter to exiled monks from the Byzantine Empire who had fled persecution for their opposition to iconoclasm. He both offered the exiled Byzantine mosaic artists work decorating churches in Rome and wrote to Louis the PiousGoodson, 2010, p. 12. and the Byzantine emperor Leo the Armenian in support of those who opposed iconoclasm. Paschal rebuilt three basilicas of Rome: Santa Prassede, Santa Maria in Domnica, and Santa Cecilia in Trastevere.
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1620 The monastery was a centre of iconodule opposition to Byzantine Iconoclasm, and in 763/4, it was attacked and burned down by the fanatically iconoclast governor Michael Lachanodrakon. Lachanodrakon tortured the monastery's hegoumenos, Theosteriktos, and other monks, 38 of whom were buried alive at Ephesus.Talbot (1991), p. 1620 The monastery was restored towards the end of the century after the end of the first period of Iconoclasm, and a certain Makarios became its hegoumenos.
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With the resumption of Iconoclasm after 813, he was exiled and imprisoned, but the monks of Pelekete continued to oppose Iconoclasm. The monastery disappears thereafter from the sources, but is identified by modern scholars with the ruins of a monastery 5 km west from the town of Tirilye and dedicated to Saint John the Theologian. Locals today call it Aya Yani or Ayani, a corrupted form of its Greek name, meaning "Saint John".
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Some, like the Hand of God, are depiction borrowed from Jewish art. The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppression and destruction of religious icons as the period of Byzantine iconoclasm (literally image-breaking) started. The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 effectively ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the honouring of icons and holy images in general.Edward Gibbon, 1995 The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire p.
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Michael was immediately proclaimed Emperor, while still wearing prison chains on his legs. Later the same day, he was crowned by Patriarch Theodotos I of Constantinople. In his internal policy, Michael II supported iconoclasm, but he tacitly encouraged reconciliation with the iconodules, whom he generally stopped persecuting and allowed to return from exile. These included the former Patriarch Nikephoros and Theodore of Stoudios, who failed, however, to persuade the emperor to abandon iconoclasm.
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Image of artist Johannes Zick painted in the ceiling fresco The interior was remodeled and decorated in baroque style in 1746. The richly carved, gothic, early 16th century choir stalls were preserved when most of the interior decorations were removed during the iconoclasm of the Reformation.In Defense of Images: Two Local Rejoinders to the Zwinglian Iconoclasm, Christopher S. Wood, The Sixteenth Century Journal,Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring, 1988), pp. 25-44.
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"Angelic Conversation" was re-recorded as the b-side to the group's single "M・A・D" in 1991. "Just One More Kiss", "Iconoclasm" and "Taboo" were later re-recorded for the compilation album Koroshi no Shirabe: This Is Not Greatest Hits (1992). "Iconoclasm" was covered by J for the Buck-Tick tribute album, Parade -Respective Tracks of Buck-Tick- (2005). Taboo peaked at number one on the Oricon charts, selling 320,000 copies.
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Hewahewa remained supportive of free eating; he ate alongside women and later resigned his office as kahuna.Sissons, J. (2011). History as Sacrifice: The Polynesian Iconoclasm. Oceania, 81(3), 302-315.
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A hundred years later, in 1619, the altarpiece fell victim to Calvinist iconoclasm. The figures of the female saints were cut out of it and its central part was destroyed.
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Laffin, The War of Desperation: Lebanon 1982-85 (1985), pp. 184-185.Hinson, Crimes on Sacred Ground: Massacres, Desecration, and Iconoclasm in Lebanon’s Mountain War 1983-1984 (2017), p. 8.
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There has been much speculation, in respect of Castelseprio and other works, about Greek artists escaping from iconoclasm to the West, but there is little or no direct evidence of this.
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The controversy over the use of graven images, the interpretation of the Second Commandment, and the crisis of Byzantine Iconoclasm led to a standardization of religious imagery within the Eastern Orthodoxy.
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Outside of the religious context, iconoclasm can refer to movements for widespread destruction in symbols of an ideology or cause, such as the destruction of monarchist symbols during the French Revolution.
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Later the genre concentrated more on galleries solely containing works of art. The compositions depicted in The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Visiting a Collector's Cabinet are predominantly allegories of iconoclasm and the victory of painting (art) over ignorance. They are references to the iconoclasm of the Beeldenstorm that had raged in the Low Countries in the 16th century and the victory over the iconoclasts during the reign of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella who jointly ruled the Spanish Netherlands in the beginning of the 17th century.Adriaen van Stalbent, Las Ciencias y las Artes at the PradoJames Simpson, Under the Hammer: Iconoclasm in the Anglo-American Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2010 Jan Brueghel was responsible for the large vase of flowers, which is crowned by a large sunflower.
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The Byzantine Iconoclasm began when images were banned by Emperor Leo III the Isaurian sometime between 726 and 730. Under his son Constantine V, a council forbidding image veneration was held at Hieria near Constantinople in 754. Image veneration was later reinstated by the Empress Regent Irene, under whom another council was held reversing the decisions of the previous iconoclast council and taking its title as Seventh Ecumenical Council. The council anathematized all who held to iconoclasm, i.e.
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1300), the West Window (c. 1440), the rood screen, the spire and the vault spanning the nave (c. 1450). The cathedral suffered much from iconoclasm during the Reformation and the civil wars.
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In Saint Gall, Joachim Vadian and Dominik Zili meanwhile implemented the reformation. On 23 February 1529, an iconoclasm took place in Saint Gall. Abbot Franz died on 23 March 1529 in Rorschach.
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Basil of Jerusalem was the Patriarch of Jerusalem of the Church of Jerusalem from 821 to 842. During his episcopate, Basil actively opposed iconoclasm that was supported by the Eastern Roman emperor Theophilus.
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Concerning aesthetics, the theologians of the 16th century Protestant Reformation (Martin Luther, Jean Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli) dealt primarily with "the theology of the image, in particular, idolatry and iconoclasm".Thiessen, p. 125.
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" Critical Interventions, Journal of African Art History and Visual Culture, 2009, No.3/4, 245-255. Peter Probst. "From Iconoclasm to Heritage. The Osogbo Art Movement and the Dynamics of Modernism in Nigeria.
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It was decreed that schools were to be established at cathedral churches and other places to give instruction in sacred and secular literature. His involvement in the Byzantine Iconoclasm controversy was largely inconsequential.
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Reformation was accompanied by iconoclasm and widespread destruction of art, including in the Low Countries. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and its iconoclasm as a threat to the Church. The Council of Trent, which concluded in 1563, determined that religious art should be more focused on religious subject-matter and less on material things and decorative qualities. At this time, the Low Countries were divided into Seventeen Provinces, some of which wanted separation from the Habsburg rule based in Spain.
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At the beginning of his reign, Naples was still a loyal dukedom of the Byzantines, her dukes appointed by the emperor. In 761, therefore, she denied entry to the papal envoy, the Bishop Paul, an opponent of the iconoclasm then gripping the Byzantine world. Stephen was no less a supporter of the iconoclasm than the emperor himself. At that time, Stephen addressed Antiochos, the patrician of Sicily and his technical overlord, as "our lord" and "most excellent patrikios and protostrategos" (763).
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Perhaps the most notorious episode of iconoclasm in India was Mahmud of Ghazni's attack on the Somnath temple from across the Thar Desert.Yagnik, Achyut, and Suchitra Sheth. 2005. Shaping of Modern Gujarat. Penguin UK. .
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At the turn of the 20th century, the contemporary Chinese intellectual tradition was defined by two central concepts: (i) iconoclasm and (ii) nationalism.Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and After, New York:Free Press, 1999. pp. 12–16.
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Pre-Iconoclastic mosaics such as the Worcester Hunt are valuable sources of early Byzantine art because the political and social upheaval of the Iconoclasm resulted in the destruction of many artistic creations including mosaics.Von Grunebaum, G.E. (1962) Pp. 1-10 “Byzantine Iconoclasm and the Influence of the Islamic Environment”. History of Religions. Vol. 2 No. 1, The University of Chicago The scale of the Worcester Hunt and the location in which it was constructed suggests that it was the private property of a wealthy Byzantine aristocrat.
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They were revealed in a study done by Karl Holl in 1897. However, he found that although the Parisinus Graecus 923, a ninth-century piece, was related to the other two recensions, it did not agree with them. Regardless of Holl’s findings, due to the manuscript’s creation in a time of iconoclasm and its rich use of gold, the piece is still considered very valuable and has been studied to some extent. The images can help researchers reconstruct lost cycles of miniatures prior to iconoclasm.
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In May there was an outbreak of Iconoclasm (statue smashing). On 10 May the Catholic members of the town council fled Rouen. The Catholics in turn captured the Fort of Saint Catherine which overlooked the town.
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Nevertheless, the Madonna did not escape the flames of iconoclasm. The statue was publicly burned in 1538.Callery, 445. According to one account, the badly charred statue survived and was held in a private, Catholic household.
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European Clutch The hold is an Inverted Jacknife Pin that is used with a double pumphandle arm wringer. It is a pinning variation that is usually used after a iconoclasm. Zack Sabre uses it as his Finisher.
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It is also discussed whether Protestantism and Islam aligned theologically on iconoclasm, and, culturally—in terms of the religiously-motivated cultural mores of that era – in opposition to the person or office of the Roman Catholic Pope.
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During Charlemagne's reign the Byzantine Iconoclasm controversy was dividing the Byzantine Empire. Charlemagne supported the Western church's consistent refusal to follow iconoclasm; the Libri Carolini sets out the position of his court circle, no doubt under his direction. With no inhibitions from a cultural memory of Mediterranean pagan idolatry, Charlemagne introduced the first Christian monumental religious sculpture, a momentous precedent for Western art. Reasonable numbers of Carolingian illuminated manuscripts and small-scale sculptures, mostly in ivory, have survived, but far fewer examples of metalwork, mosaics and frescoes and other types of work.
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Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, but, according to Theophanes the Confessor, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favourites.; . In the early 9th century, Leo V reintroduced the policy of iconoclasm, but in 843 Empress Theodora restored the veneration of icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios.. Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation of East from West, which worsened during the so-called Photian schism, when Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate..
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The same year, he drew up the baptismal rite for the Swiss Reformed Church in German, which still retained some Catholic elements to it. In September of that year, Jud preached a sermon in Saint Peter's against religious images, and the result was several acts of iconoclasm in Zürich. Jud (along with Zwingli) called for the complete removal of images, desiring the restoral of the apostolic church. This call for iconoclasm was something characteristic of some French-speaking Swiss reformers as well, such as Pierre Viret and Guillaume Farel.
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Arnade, Peter J., Beggars, Iconoclasts, and Civic Patriots: the Political Culture of the Dutch Revolt, pp. 97-142, Cornell University Press, 2008, , Lutherans generally opposed the iconoclasm, one saying: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return". As such, Calvinist iconoclasm, "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany. Lutheran theologian and priest Johann Arndt was forced to flee Anhalt when it became Calvinist in the 1580s, due to his defense of Christian sacred art.
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Protestant iconoclasm: the Beeldenstorm during the Dutch reformation. Iconoclasm: The organised destruction of Catholic images swept through Netherlands churches in 1566. Martin Luther also took note of the similarities between Islam and Protestantism in the rejection of idols, although he noted Islam was much more drastic in its complete rejection of images. In On War against the Turk, Luther is actually less critical of the Turks than he is of the Pope, whom he calls an anti-Christ, or the Jews, whom he describes as "the Devil incarnate".
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Rome is a source for enamel art as the colors used in the Fieschi Morgan Staurotheke were in production there and the city was a place of refuge for iconophiles. It is most popularly believed that this was created in the shadows from iconoclasm or just after iconoclasm in Constantinople. Reliquary and True Cross Dimensions The reliquary could have arrived in Italy by the Crusaders in 1204, as many precious art pieces entered western Europe. It was also common that monks traveling west would give gifts to the monasteries.
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Some adherents also professed iconoclasm. The adherents also promoted the idea of "self-authority", or the self- determination of each individual in matters of faith and salvation. Priests Denis and Aleksei were considered ideologists of this heretical movement.
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The council, known as the Second Council of Nicaea, condemned Iconoclasm and formally approved the veneration of icons. The patriarch assumed a moderate policy towards former Iconoclasts, which incurred the opposition of Theodore the Studite and his partisans.
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Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times cited the episode when noting that the political commentary on South Park, like The Simpsons and Freak Show, was genuinely "provocative" satire, unlike the "safer ... mainstream iconoclasm" of Saturday Night Live.
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Justinian was one of the last Emperors to have a full-size statue made, and secular statues of any size became virtually non-existent after iconoclasm; and the artistic skill for making statues was lost in the process.
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Government-led iconoclasm began with Byzantine Emperor Leo III, who issued a series of edicts between 726 and 730 against the veneration of images.Treadgold, Warren. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. pp.
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The statue of Napoleon on the column at Place Vendôme, Paris was also the target of iconoclasm several times: destroyed after the Bourbon Restoration, restored by Louis-Philippe, destroyed during the Paris Commune and restored by Adolphe Thiers.
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Alivardi Khan unable to check the raids ceded Odisha to Raghoji I Bhonsle in 1751. During this period, the idols of Jagannath and other deities were removed from the temple several times, and hidden to save them from iconoclasm.
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Gold coin of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (), depicted with his son and successor, Constantine V. Leo first promoted iconoclasm, which became official policy under Constantine. Nothing is known of Lachanodrakon's origins and early life. He receives a very negative treatment in the historical sources, which were written after the final defeat of Byzantine Iconoclasm; some refer to him solely as ho Drakon (, "the Dragon", alluding to his surname and the Biblical Beast). Their profoundly iconophile perspective means that reports of his actions, especially those relating to the suppression of icon worship, are potentially untrustworthy... At the Council of Hieria in 754, Constantine V had declared the adoration of icons to be a heresy, and had thereby elevated iconoclasm to official imperial policy. No persecution of iconophiles was launched at first, but iconophile resistance grew, until from 765 on, Constantine began persecuting iconophiles, and especially monks.
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He later reversed his stance, however, and retired as a monk at about the time of the definite end of Iconoclasm in 843. Ignatios was the confirmed or probable author of several saints' lives (hagiographies), funeral elegies, letters and poems.
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His book L'Image interdite, une histoire intellectuelle de l'iconoclasme (1994) was translated into English as The Forbidden Image: An Intellectual History of Iconoclasm in 2000 and published by the University of Chicago Press.Book review. Common Knowledge 8 (2002), p. 417.
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Despite the iconoclasm, however, the Línjì yǔlù reflects a thorough knowledge of the sutras. Linji's teaching-style, as recorded in the Línjì yǔlù, exemplifies Chán development in the Hongzhou school () of Mazu and his successors, such as Huangbo, Linji's master.
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John of Constantinople (died 839) was abbot of Cathares Monastery, in Constantinople. He clashed with Emperor Leo the Armenian, who was instituting a policy of iconoclasm. John survived torture. He is a CatholicSaint of the Day, April 27 at SaintPatrickDC.org.
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Notwithstanding the losses, the Katholikon "gives the best impression available anywhere today of the character of a church interior in the first centuries after the end of Iconoclasm".Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture (ed. by Dan Cruickshank). Architectural Press, 1996. .
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Following Theophilos' death, the regency council took over the conduct of affairs of state. Theodora's brothers Bardas and Petronas and her relative Sergios Niketiates also played an important role in the early days of the regency. The regency moved quickly to end Byzantine Iconoclasm, which had dominated Byzantine religious and political life for over a century with deleterious effects. In early 843, an assembly of selected officials and clerics convened in the house of Theoktistos. The synod repudiated iconoclasm, re-affirmed the decisions of the 787 Second Council of Nicaea, and deposed the pro-iconoclast patriarch John the Grammarian.
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In his review for Allmusic, Alex Henderson said " Occasionally, this double-CD comes across as iconoclasm for the sake of iconoclasm; things become forced and unnatural when Caine employs DJs and unsuccessfully tries to convince us that hip-hop, electronica, and rave music can be relevant to Bach. But most of the time, his experimentation pays off handsomely. Goldberg Variations isn't for everyone; classical purists, in fact, will want to avoid it. But those who have very eclectic tastes in music will find that this 1999/2000 project, although not perfect, is highly imaginative and even fascinating".
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In the foreground Protestant iconoclasts are smashing altarpieces, religious sculptures, other church-related items and hurling them into a fire.Marcus Gheeraerts I (Attributed), Composite rotting head of a monk representing an allegory of iconoclasm in the British MuseumDavid Freedberg, Art and iconoclasm, 1525-1580 The case of the Northern Netherlands, J.P. Filedt Kok et al. (eds.), Kunst voor de Beeldenstorm [Cat. Exhib., Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum], Publisher: Rijksmuseum; Staatsuitgeverij, January 1986, pp.69-84 The print is a condemnation of Catholic idolatry in all its forms and shows the Calvinists as cleansing the world of this perceived evil.
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Egmont even threatened to resign, but after Granvelle left, there was a reconciliation with the king. In 1565, running short of funds as he had continued the representation of the Low Countries entirely from his own pocket, Egmont went to Madrid to beseech Philip II, the king of Spain, for a change of policy in the Netherlands, but met with little more than courtesy. Soon thereafter, the 'Beeldenstorm' started, the massive iconoclasm of Catholic churches in the Netherlands, and resistance against the Spanish rule in the Netherlands increased. As a devout Catholic, Egmont deplored the iconoclasm, and remained faithful to the Spanish king.
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Together they helped defend the Church against the heresy of iconoclasm. Cosmas left the monastery in 743 when he was appointed Bishop of Maiuma, the port of ancient Gaza. He outlived St. John by many years and died in great old age.
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685-695; 705-711) let burn in the Ox the two Patricians Theodoros and Stephanos, both involved in a failed plot against him. The same Emperor enlarged and adorned the square. Mamboury (1953), p. 74 During the Byzantine Iconoclasm, Saint Theodosia (d.
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Tensions flared as he ordered reliquaries and other religious objects to be melted for bullion—though it remains unclear whether this was a display of Protestant iconoclasm or just utilitarian in nature.Crăciun, pp. 131–134, 140–141, 146, 201. See also Constantinov, p.
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Kurtz (2006), 132 The Belgian art restorer Jef Van der Veken produced a copy of 'The Just Judges', as part of an overall restoration effort. In addition to war damage, the panels were threatened during outbreaks of iconoclasm, and have suffered fire damage.
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Theoktiste or Theoctista (, 740–802), was a politically influential Byzantine ascetic. She played an influential public role in the Byzantine Iconoclasm, as well as the controversial second marriage of emperor Constantine VI. Her biography was written by her son, Theodore the Studite.
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46 Then he served as the New Statesmans Paris correspondent. For a time, he was a convinced Bevanite and an associate of Aneurin Bevan himself. Moving back to London in 1955, Johnson joined the Statesmans staff. Some of Johnson's writing already showed signs of iconoclasm.
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The first disputation of Zürich of 1523 was the breakthrough: the city council decided to implement his reformatory plans and to convert to Protestantism. Iconoclasm in Zurich, 1524. In the following two years, profound changes took place in Zürich. The Church was thoroughly secularised.
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In 846–847, after the end of iconoclasm, George's remains were brought to Lesbos and buried at a location known as the Tria Kyparissia, near the Chapel of St John the Baptist. George's right hand was later moved to Mytilene in the eighteenth century.
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Byzantine art, which had largely avoided the societal collapse in the Western Roman Empire, never resumed the use of monumental figurative sculpture, whether in religious or secular contexts, and was to ban even two-dimensional religious art for a period in the Byzantine iconoclasm.
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As noted above, the introduction of altar rails to churches was the most controversial such requirement. Puritans were also dismayed by the re- introduction of images (e.g. stained glass windows) to churches which had been without religious images since the iconoclasm of the Reformation.
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By the end of Constantine's reign, Iconoclasm had gone as far as to brand relics and prayers to the saints as heretical. Ultimately, iconophiles considered his death a divine punishment. In the 9th century, he was disinterred and his remains were thrown into the sea.
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The Army of Flanders formed the longest standing army in the early modern period, operating from 1567 until 1706.Parker, 1996 p.72. It was established following a wave of iconoclasm in the troubled provinces of the Netherlands in 1565 and 1566.Zagorin, p.95.
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Soldiers deface or demolish an iconodule church on the orders of Constantine V (left), Manasses Chronicle, 14th-century manuscript Gold solidus, Constantine V (left) and his son and co- emperor Leo IV (right) Like his father Leo III, Constantine supported iconoclasm, which was a theological movement that rejected the veneration of religious images and sought to destroy those in existence. Iconoclasm was later definitively classed as heretical. Constantine's avowed enemies in what was a bitter and long-lived religious dispute were the iconodules, who defended the veneration of images. Iconodule writers applied to Constantine the derogatory epithet Kopronymos ("dung-named", from kopros, meaning "faeces" or "animal dung", and onoma, "name").
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248 In concentrating on the security of the empire's core territories he tacitly abandoned some peripheral regions, notably in Italy, which were lost. However, the hostile reaction of the Roman Church and the Italian people to iconoclasm had probably doomed imperial influence in central Italy, regardless of any possible military intervention. Due to his espousal of iconoclasm Constantine was damned in the eyes of contemporary iconodule writers and subsequent generations of Orthodox historians. Typical of this demonisation are the descriptions of Constantine in the writings of Theophanes the Confessor: "a monster athirst for blood", "a ferocious beast", "unclean and bloodstained magician taking pleasure in envoking demons", "a precursor of Antichrist".
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In 2002, "The Oxford English Literary History: 1350-1547 : reform and cultural revolution" was awarded the British Academy Sir Israel Gollancz Prize. Simpson began to study the way that cultural pressures, particularly the immense pressure of the Reformation in England, shaped the definition and reception of pre-Reformation literature. His work Burning to Read centres on the fundamentalist Bible reading in the early 16th century. Under the Hammer: Iconoclasm in the Anglo-American TraditionUnder the Hammer: Iconoclasm in the Anglo-American Tradition (OUP, 2010) defines the long and unending history of image breaking in Anglo-American culture, leading up to, across, and beyond the Reformation.
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Pope Gregory II saw iconoclasm as the latest in a series of imperial heresies. In 731, his successor Pope Gregory III organized a synod in Rome which declared iconoclasm punishable by excommunication. Leo III responded in 732/33 by confiscating all papal patrimonies in south Italy and Sicily, and further removed the bishoprics of Thessalonica, Corinth, Syracuse, Reggio, Nicopolis, Athens, and Patras from papal jurisdiction, instead subjecting them to the Patriarch of Constantinople. This was in effect an act of triage: it strengthened the imperial grip in Southern Italy, but all but guaranteed the eventual destruction of the exarchate of Ravenna, which soon occurred at Lombard hands.
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These strategies constitute, for my purpose, what is meant by > Iconoclasm ... Iconoclasm in this sense may imply the substitution of other, > acceptable images, or the refashioning of some images for an altered > purpose.” Iconophobia, by comparison, is defined as “the total repudiation of all images”, which Collinson associates with a watershed moment around 1580, introducing a “sudden and drastic” change. This “secondary thrust” of reform “came close to dispensing with images and the mimetic altogether, while disparaging the tastes and capacities of the illiterate, the mass of the people”. Collinson describes the “age of extreme iconophobia” as “quite short, equivalent to little more than a single generation”.
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Since Muslims only believe in the worship of a strictly monotheistic God who never assumed human form, they do not accept the use of icons, which they consider shirk (idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation of iconoclasm and their conquests caused the iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire. For the same reason, they do not worship or pray to Muhammad, Jesus, or any other prophets; they only pray to God. Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin.
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St Theodore (Russian: ) (died 820) was a monk of the Orthodox Church who was known for his strong opposition to the Byzantine Iconoclasm. Theodore was born in Constantinople to a family with strong connections to the Orthodox Church. Ordained in 787, in 794 he became abbot of the Symboleon monastery in Bithynia, and later escaped from Saracen raids to Constantinople where he became an abbot again. He clashed with successive emperors (Constantine VI, Nicephorus I, Leo V the Armenian, and Michael II the Stammerer) on the issue of iconoclasm (then for the second time in ascendancy in the Empire but strongly opposed by St Theodore).
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Sporadic outbreaks of iconoclasm on the part of local bishops are attested in Asia Minor during the 720s. In 726, an underwater earthquake between the islands of Thera and Therasia was interpreted by Emperor Leo III as a sign of God's anger, and may have led Leo to remove a famous icon of Christ from the Chalke Gate outside the imperial palace.; The story of the Chalke Icon may be a later invention: . However, iconoclasm probably did not become imperial policy until the reign of Leo's son, Constantine V. The Council of Hieria, convened under Constantine in 754, proscribed the manufacture of icons of Christ.
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A simple cross replaced a mosaic figure during the Byzantine iconoclasm, Hagia Irene Church in Istanbul There were two periods of iconoclasm, or image destruction, in the Byzantine Empire, in the mid eighth and early ninth centuries. The arguments of the Iconoclasts remain rather obscure, as almost all their writings were destroyed after the "Triumph of Orthodoxy". The simple belief that images were idolatrous appears to have been their main motive; reference was made to the prohibitions on the worship of graven images in the Mosaic Law, and aniconic statements by the Church Fathers, some of which may now be lost. One theological issue revolved around the two natures of Jesus.
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When asked by Constantia (Emperor Constantine's half-sister) for an image of Jesus, Eusebius denied the request, replying: "To depict purely the human form of Christ before its transformation, on the other hand, is to break the commandment of God and to fall into pagan error."David M. Gwynn, From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy [Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 47 (2007) 225–251], p. 227. Hence Jaroslav Pelikan calls Eusebius "the father of iconoclasm". After the emperor Constantine I extended official toleration of Christianity within the Roman Empire in 313, huge numbers of pagans became converts.
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Euthymius of Sardis (, 751 or 754 – 26 December 831) was metropolitan bishop of Sardis between ca. 785 and ca. 804, and a leading iconophile during the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Martyred in 831, he is a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, celebrated on 26 December.
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Sheppard's novels have musical influences. Charles Auchester, a musical romance, was a memorial to the composer Felix Mendelssohn. Rumour: A Novel incorporates Beethoven as a character named "Rodomant." This character features traits, including a short- tempered nature, belief in iconoclasm, and eventual deafness, attributed to Beethoven.
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The period after iconoclasm was generally peaceful, but not entirely tranquil. Patriarch Methodius I accommodated former iconoclasts in the Church provided they renounce their heresy. He was opposed by certain "extremist" monks, particularly of the Stoudios monastery. Methodius excommunicated many of them before his death in 847.
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Along with iconoclasm, radical anti-imperialism dominated the Chinese intellectual tradition and slowly evolved into a fierce nationalist fervor which influenced Mao's philosophy immensely and was crucial in adapting Marxism to the Chinese model.Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and After. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 44.
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Each page is 10 in by 8 in. The illustration has its roots in late classical painting. Landscape is represented in the illusionistic style of late classical painting. Greek artists fleeing the Byzantine iconoclasm of the 8th century brought this style to Aachen and Reims (Berenson, 163).
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This power transcended human or animal form. Later, iconoclasm was enforced, and even sun disc depictions of Aten were prohibited in an edict issued by Akhenaten. In the edict, he stipulated that Aten's name was to be spelt phonetically.Simson Najovits, Egypt, the Trunk of the Tree.
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Besides the obvious differences between the two religious, there are also many similarities in their outlooks and attitudes to faith (especially with Sunni Islam), especially in respect to textual criticism, iconoclasm, tendencies to fundamentalism, rejection of marriage as a sacrament, or the rejection of monastic orders.
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The mosaicist, and Théodulf d'Orléans, seem to have held a middle course, balanced between extreme iconoclasm and the partisans of images such as John of Damascus. This moderate position is exactly that which the theologians appointed by Charlemagne in the Council of Frankfurt (794) decided upon.
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The temple at Istakhr was likewise converted and, according to the Kartir inscription, henceforth known as the "Fire of Anahid the Lady.". Sassanid iconoclasm, though administratively from the reign of Bahram I, may already have been supported by Bahram's father, Shapur I (r. 241-272 CE).
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Helios in his chariot, surrounded by symbols of the months and of the zodiac. From Vat. Gr. 1291, the "Handy Tables" of Ptolemy, produced during the reign of Constantine V Intense debate over the role of art in worship led eventually to the period of "Byzantine iconoclasm."; .
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Blazon Gules, two keys argent in saltire. Until the middle of the 16th century seals with the image of St. Peter were used. Today's St. Peter's keys are a reference to this tradition. The change was made to the secular symbol due to the Reformation (iconoclasm).
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350, 352–53. The religious conflict created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society; iconoclasm was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had to frequently deal with raids from the new Muslim Empire.Mango, Cyril. 2002. The Oxford History of Byzantium.
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Islam has a much stronger tradition of opposing the depictions of figures, especially religious figures,Crone, Patricia. 2005. "Islam, Judeo- Christianity and Byzantine Iconoclasm." Pp. 59–96 in From Kavād to al-Ghazālī: Religion, Law and Political Thought in the Near East, c. 600-1100, (Variorum).
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What the three compositions The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Visiting a Collector's Cabinet, The Sciences and Arts and A Collector's Cabinet have in common is that they give prominence among the artworks included in the gallery painting to compositions that are allegories of iconoclasm and the victory of painting (art) over ignorance. These are references to the iconoclasm of the Beeldenstorm that had raged in the Low Countries in the 16th century and the victory over the iconoclasts during the reign of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella who jointly ruled the Spanish Netherlands in the beginning of the 17th century.Adriaen van Stalbent, Las Ciencias y las Artes at the PradoJames Simpson, Under the Hammer: Iconoclasm in the Anglo-American Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2010 Hieronymus' gallery paintings represent the early phase of the genre of collector's cabinets. During this early 'encyclopaedic' phase, the genre reflected the culture of curiosity of that time, when art works, scientific instruments, naturalia and artificialia were equally the object of study and admiration.
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Russell, 38 In 1989 Lawrence Gowing wrote that the "shock of the picture, when it was seen with a whole series of heads ... was indescribable. It was everything unpardonable. The paradoxical appearance at once of pastiche and iconoclasm was indeed one of Bacon's most original strokes."Richard, Paul.
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The newspaper promoted iconoclasm and addressed government officials on the necessity to eradicate the indigenous religion. In 1896, the police began to arrest shamans, destroy shrines and burn ritual tools. These events were acclaimed by The Independent. At one point, the newspaper even came to criticize Buddhist monks.
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The war brought an end to the workshop that operated steadily over for almost a century, and the furnishings of cathedral, dozens of pictures and sculptures, suffered heavily from the ravages of Hussite iconoclasm. As if this was not enough, a great fire in 1541 heavily damaged the cathedral.
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The popes continued to have a permanent apocrisiary in Constantinople until the time of the Byzantine Iconoclasm edict of 726.Silas McBee, "Normal Relations," p. 651-53 (PDF). Thereafter, popes Gregory II, Gregory III, Zacharias, and Stephen II are known to have sent non-permanent apocrisiaries to Constantinople.
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Miniature from the Menologion of Basil II Saint Nicetas of Medikion () or Nicetas the Confessor (Νικήτας ο ομολογητής),In the Orthodox Church, a "Confessor" is one who has suffered for the faith, but not endured martyrdom. who is commemorated on 28 May, was a monk who opposed iconoclasm.
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Most of the Byzantine enamels known today are from the 9th to 12th centuries. The period of Iconoclasm from 726-787 AD meant that most examples predating the 8th century were destroyed because of their iconographic nature, though there are a few examples thought to have been made earlier.
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During the iconoclasm of August 1566 numerous religious artifacts and archives were destroyed. From 1572 the church was left in Protestant hands, and in times of need it also served as a grain store, such as during Leiden's siege in 1574. Of the original Catholic dressings, almost nothing remains.
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UK: Reaktion Books. . p. 64. Other instances of iconoclasm may have occurred throughout Eastern Polynesia during its conversion to Christianity in the 19th century. After the Second Vatican Council in the late 20th century, some Roman Catholic parish churches discarded much of their traditional imagery, art, and architecture.
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Euthymius was born in 751 or 754 in Ouzara, probably in Lycaonia in central Asia Minor. At an early age he entered a monastery, and sometime between 784 and 787, he was ordained as metropolitan bishop of Sardis by Patriarch Tarasios of Constantinople. In this capacity he took part in the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, where he played a leading role in the council's decision to condemn Byzantine Iconoclasm. Euthymius spoke in several of the council's sessions, advocating the reinstatement of the exiled bishops Theodore of Amorium and Basil of Ancyra, the reinstatement of traditional veneration of icons as proposed by Tarasios and Pope Hadrian I, and the anathematizing of Iconoclasm and its supporters.
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In 1511 Archbishop Warham presided over the abjuration of 41 Lollards from Kent and the burning of 5.. The extent of Lollardy in the general populace at this time is unknown, but the prevalence of Protestant iconoclasm in England suggests Lollard ideas may still have had some popular influence if Huldrych Zwingli was not the source, as Lutheranism did not advocate iconoclasm. Lollards were persecuted again between 1554 and 1559 during the Revival of the Heresy Acts under the Catholic Mary I, which specifically suppressed heresy and Lollardy. The similarity between Lollards and later English Protestant groups such as the Baptists, Puritans and Quakers also suggests some continuation of Lollard ideas through the Reformation.
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An editor of John's works, Father Le Quien, has shown that John was already a monk at Mar Saba before the dispute over iconoclasm, explained below. In the early 8th century AD, iconoclasm, a movement opposed to the veneration of icons, gained acceptance in the Byzantine court. In 726, despite the protests of Germanus, Patriarch of Constantinople, Emperor Leo III (who had forced his predecessor, Theodosius III, to abdicate and himself assumed the throne in 717 immediately before the great siege) issued his first edict against the veneration of images and their exhibition in public places. All agree that John of Damascus undertook a spirited defence of holy images in three separate publications.
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In 726 Emperor Leo III ordered all images removed from all churches; in 730 a council forbade veneration of images, citing the Second Commandment; in 787 the Seventh Ecumenical Council reversed the preceding rulings, condemning iconoclasm and sanctioning the veneration of images; in 815 Leo V called yet another council, which reinstated iconoclasm; in 843 Empress Theodora again reinstated veneration of icons. This mostly settled the matter until the Reformation, when John Calvin declared that the ruling of the Seventh Ecumenical Council "emanated from Satan". Protestant iconoclasts at this time destroyed statues, pictures, stained glass, and artistic masterpieces. The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Theodora's restoration of the icons every year on the First Sunday of Great Lent.
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Late 14th century icon illustrating the "Triumph of Orthodoxy" under the Byzantine Empress Theodora and her son Michael III over iconoclasm in 843. (National Icon Collection 18, British Museum) The Icon of the Triumph of Orthodoxy (also known as the Icon of the Sunday of Orthodoxy) is the festal icon for the first Sunday of Great Lent, a celebration that commemorated the end of Byzantine Iconoclasm and restoration of icons to the church in 843 (the eponymous "Triumph of Orthodoxy"), and which remains a church feast in Orthodoxy. It is the earliest known depiction of this subject, and thought to have been painted in Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. It was purchased by the British Museum in 1988.
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Andrei Rublev's Trinity Resolved under the Seventh Ecumenical Council, Iconoclasm was a movement within the Eastern Christian Byzantine church to establish that the Christian culture of portraits (see icon) of the family of Christ and subsequent Christians and biblical scenes were not of a Christian origin and therefore heretical.Epitome, Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754 There were two periods of Iconoclasm 730-787 and 813-843. This movement itself was later defined as heretical under the Seventh Ecumenical council. The group destroyed much of the Christian churches' art history, which is needed in addressing the traditional interruptions of the Christian faith and the artistic works that in the early church were devoted to Jesus Christ or God.
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Many important decisions regarding Christianity were made inside this building, including the heated debates on the identity of Virgin Mary (whether or not she was Theotokos (Mother of God) and whether it was right to condemn Nestorius who opposed this definition) as well as the debates and clashes on Iconoclasm.
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RCAHMS 1994 (op cit), 124. The cathedral was stripped of its rich furnishings after the mid-16th century Reformation and its iconoclasm. The nave and porch have been roofless since the early 17th century. They and the tower in the 21st century are in the care of Historic Environment Scotland.
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In 1542, troops of the Schmalkaldic League occupied Gandersheim and forced the Abbey to convert to Lutheranism. The Chapter, however, practiced passive resistance and remained Catholic. In 1543, the abbey suffered from iconoclasm. In 1547, Clara's father declared her resignation from the office of abbess, returning to the lay state.
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Ambrosius lived in a very turbulent time due to the conflict between Calvinists and Catholics in the Low Countries. In 1577 Antwerp had elected a Calvinist city council. The council ordered in 1581 the systematic removal of all images from local churches. This event is referred to as the 'silent iconoclasm'.
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Constantine II (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, Kōnstantinos), (? – 7 October 767) was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 754 to 766. He had been ecumenically proceeded by Patriarch Anastasius of Constantinople. He was a supporter of the first phase of Byzantine Iconoclasm and devoutly opposed to the creation of images,Claude Delaval Cobham.
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His uncle Tarasios was appointed Patriarch by the iconodule Empress Irene of Athens, serving from 784 to 806. Tarasios convened the Second Council of Nicaea, which condemned iconoclasm. Deciding not to become a monk and to pursue a lay career instead, he was a powerful associate of Bardas.Blackwell Dictionary 1999 pp.
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As Peter the Venerable recorded, crosses were singled out for special iconoclasm. Peter of Bruys felt that crosses should not deserve veneration. Crosses became for the Petrobrusians objects of desecration and were destroyed in bonfires. In or around the year 1126, Peter was publicly burning crosses in St Gilles, near Nîmes.
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Construction began in March 1752, and ended in November 1755. Barthélémy Guibal and Paul-Louis Cyfflé created a bronze statue of Louis XV that was erected in the center of the square. It was removed during the iconoclasm of the Revolution, when it was replaced with a simple winged figure.
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These include the very elaborate Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas and the tomb built for Alexander McLeod (d. 1528) at Rodel in Harris. Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm, with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass, religious sculpture and paintings.
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Although, in biblical times, Jews were actively iconoclasts, the actual reality was much different. The secular historical research of Israel shows that iconoclasm may have started during Hezekiah rule. He was strongly against astrology and idol worship originally meant astrology in Judaism. Today there is more tolerance for other cultures.
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The Basilika also presents itself as a connection back to earlier times before the period of Iconoclasm, lending the Macedonian dynasty a sense of religious legitimacy. This began with Basil I and his desire to distance himself from the Iconoclasts, and to connect himself and his sons with their Great Predecessor, Justinian I.
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In 1511 the parish built a chapel in Kandersteg, which survived the iconoclasm of the Protestant Reformation in 1530. It became a filial church of the parish in Kandergrund between 1840 and 1860 and in 1910 became the parish church of the Kandersteg parish. A Roman Catholic church was built in 1927.
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Mann, pg. 206 In response to the synod’s opposition to iconoclasm, in 733 Leo sent out a fleet under the command of the strategos of the Cibyrrhaeot Theme, but it was shipwrecked in the Adriatic Sea.Treadgold, pgs. 354–355 He then confiscated papal territory in Sicily and Calabria, and raised taxes there.
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In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons. In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny.
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Another inverted triple-team variation known as "Ragnarok" was used by the Bruderschaft des Kreuzes in Chikara where Claudio Castagnoli and Tursas lift the opponent up by their arms, while Ares runs through and pushes their legs back so that they flip over into a double team iconoclasm by Castagnoli and Tursas.
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Hubert Gerhards (c. 1540/1550–1620; born 's-Hertogenbosch) was a Dutch sculptor. Like many of his contemporaries, he may have left the Netherlands in order to escape the religious conflicts and iconoclasm of the 1566–1567 era. He trained in Florence in the circle of Giambologna, who heavily influenced his style.
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In addition to the influence exerted by his works, Southern had several prominent students who carried his influence into the next generation. Robert Bartlett and R. I. Moore, for example, share Southern's interest in the development of Europe in the High Middle Ages, and Valerie Flint had some of Southern's tendencies towards iconoclasm.
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There he studied Latin and other languages. In Geneva, where Calvin was preaching, he got into contact with Protestantism, the new religion that inspired the Dutch Revolt. He became a strong believer in Protestantism. When he returned to Winsum he was involved in the wave of iconoclasm in the Netherlands (the Beeldenstorm).
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They once again returned to Taiwan, this time for a performance at the Hohaiyan Rock Festival on July 15, 2012. D'erlanger covered "Iconoclasm" for Parade II -Respective Tracks of Buck-Tick-, a tribute album to Buck-Tick, and participated on the album's tour Buck-Tick Fest 2012 On Parade on September 23.
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84Many sources affirm that the church of Hagia Theodosia stood in the immediate vicinity of the monastery of Christ Euergetēs. Janin (1953), p. 151. He excludes the possibility that the Gül Mosque is the building where the body of Hagia Theodosia was brought after the end of the Iconoclasm period.Schäfer (1973), p. 83.
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The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, 1 August 1980. Published by Jehovah's Witnesses. Before six bishops, Ashford was warned not to teach these things, even to her own children. Witnesses against her included her son Thomas Tredway, who testified that she had forbidden him to worship the images of saints (see idolatry, iconoclasm).
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350–353Whittow (1996), pp. 139–142 Leo's espousal of iconoclasm caused reactions among both the populace and the Church. The soldiers that took down the image of Christ from the Chalke were lynched, and a thematic rebellion that broke out in Greece in 727, was at least in part motivated by iconophile fervour.
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The parish church of St. Michael was built in 1457-66, though only the tower and choir of the original church were retained. The church was expanded in 1638-39, and renovated in 1739. In 1951, the late gothic choir frescoes of 1480-90, which had survived the iconoclasm of 1529, were discovered.
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Michael III was only two years of age when his father died. His mother, the Empress Theodora took over as regent. After the regency had finally removed Iconoclasm, war with the Saracens resumed. Although an expedition to recover Crete failed in 853, the Byzantine scored three major success in 853 and 855.
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In addition, the Byzantine campaign had suffered from Theophilos's overconfidence, both in his willingness to divide his forces in the face of greater Arab numbers and in his over-reliance on the Khurramites.. Nevertheless, the defeat prompted Theophilos to undertake a major reorganization of his army, which included the establishment of new frontier commands and the dispersing of the Khurramite troops among the native troops of the themes.. The most long-term and long-lasting result of the fall of Amorium, however, was in the religious rather than in the military sphere. Iconoclasm was supposed to bring divine favour and assure military victory, but neither the army's weaknesses nor the reported treachery of Boiditzes could detract from the fact that this was "a humiliating disaster to match the worst defeats of any iconophile emperor" (Whittow), comparable in recent memory only to the crushing defeat suffered by Nikephoros I (r. 802–811) at Pliska. As Warren Treadgold writes, "the outcome did not exactly prove that Iconoclasm was wrong ... but it did rob the iconoclasts for all time of their most persuasive argument to the undecided, that Iconoclasm won battles".
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The basic part volume contains different craftsmen constitutions including different versions about painters, spinners, stonemasons, smiths, goldsmiths, bakers, sadlers, butchers, teamsters, furriers and cobblers constitutions from the 15-16th centuries. In addition to these, there were detected some Town Council regulations from which the most interesting ones are ff.79r–89r provisions from the Reformation time made reorganizations that concern Church life from the years 1524–1525. Important part of what is known about the Town Hall actions, are connected to the reformation, for example – the new church management, demands to return the church property that was robbed during iconoclasm and in this context also the announcement about the occurrence of iconoclasm of itself generally originates from this archival document.
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Figurative monumental sculpture was still avoided in the West until the time of Charlemagne around 800; the Franks had no association of sculpture with cult images and a life-size crucifix (with "corpus") known to have been in the Palatine Chapel, Aachen was probably a pivotal work, opening the way to the free general use of large sculpture. This was contemporary with the Byzantine iconoclasm (see below). Religious sculpture, especially if large and free-standing, has always been extremely rare in Eastern Christianity. The Western church was anxious to distinguish its use of images from idolatry, and set out its theological position in the Carolingian Libri Carolini, in similar but slightly different terms to those set out by the Eastern church after the episode of Iconoclasm.
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A sign that the process was slower in Rome is provided by the incident during the visit of Pope Agapetus to Constantinople in 536, when he was upbraided for opposing the veneration of the theotokos and refusing to allow her icons to be displayed in Roman churches.M. Mundell, "Monophysite church decoration" Iconoclasm (Birmingham) 1977:72.' , .
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Capcuceati was also a designation applied to that special class of English Lollards who profited by the preaching and denunciations of the former Augustinian monk, Peter Pateshull (c. 1387), to indulge in deeds of iconoclasm. They owed their name to their practice of keeping the hoods on their heads in presence of the Blessed Sacrament.
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All clerical appointments made by Constantine were declared null and void. It also set about establishing strict rules for papal elections, thereby restricting the involvement of the nobility in subsequent elections. Finally, the rulings of the Council of Hieria were rejected, and the practice of devotion to icons was confirmed (see iconoclasm).Mann, pgs.
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The Influence of Italian Mannerism Upon Maltese Architecture . Melitensiawath. Retrieved 8 July 2016. pp. 104–110.Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya, Gardner's Art Through the Ages (Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005), p. 516. Lutheran Baroque art developed as a confessional marker of identity, in response to the Great Iconoclasm of Calvinists.
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In general, Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region. At Saint Marien Church in Danzig, Lutheran clergy retained sacred artwork depicting the Coronation of the Virgin Mary and lit candles beside it during the period of Calvinist dominance in the region.
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Julie Spraggon Puritan Iconoclasm During the English Civil War (London, 2003) p. 54; Angliae Ruina or England's Ruine (London: 1647) pp. 223-224. Afterwards, in a poem composed about the sacking of the town, the unknown author made much of the destruction of the church:J.W. The Taking of Winchester, by Parliament Forces (London: 1642) p.
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During the Byzantine Iconoclasm, the building was secularized and allegedly converted into a store of arms and manure.Cameron & Herrin (1984), p. 22 According to tradition, the bones of the saint were ordered thrown into the sea by Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (ruled 717–741) or by his son, Constantine V (r. 741–775).
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A wooden statue of the saint was paid special reverence by locals; in an act of iconoclasm the Archbishop of Tuam ordered it buried. Every 16 July, local people make a pilgrimage to the island for a mass and blessing of boats (including the famous Galway hookers). Devotions were also formerly held on 28 September.
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The statue was in fact an 8th-century Byzantine icon, probably hidden in an arch of the bridge during the iconoclasm. The church was built in the 14th century. At the beginning of the 17th century the campanile was built by Tommaso Sotardo of Milan. In 1785, some work was done to enrich the interior.
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Andrei Rublev's Trinity. Following a series of heavy military reverses against the Muslims, Iconoclasm emerged in the early 8th century. In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes. In the West, Pope Gregory III held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions.
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Construction started around 1444 and was finished around 1470. The official documents of the construction were destroyed by the Protestants in 1579 during the reformation and the ensuing iconoclasm. The church and tower were taken over by the Protestants and no longer belonged to the Catholics. The church also has been used for other purposes than worshiping.
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Born at Mechelen, Hovius studied theology and philosophy at Leuven University, and was ordained priest in 1566, the year iconoclasm broke out in the Netherlands. While pastor at Saints Peter and Paul's Church in Mechelen, Hovius witnessed the Spanish Fury at Mechelen in 1572, and the English Fury at Mechelen in 1580, both during the Eighty Years' War.
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In 731, his successor, Pope Gregory III organized a synod in Rome (attended by the Archbishop of Ravenna), which declared iconoclasm punishable by excommunication. When the exarch donated six columns of onyx to the shrine of St. Peter in thanks for the pope's assistance in his release from the Lombards, Gregory III defiantly had the material crafted into icons.
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Many altars were financed by local families, creating a wealth of art and sculpture in the cathedral. However, in 1528 all 43 side altars were removed during the iconoclasm of the Protestant Reformation. Nearly all the interior paintings and decorations were removed and dumped in the neighboring Münsterplattform. The empty chapels were filled with extra pews, creating three naves.
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It was inaugurated by the 25th bishop of Utrecht, Andreas of Cuyk. The abbey suffered during the Iconoclasm in 1566, and was almost completely burnt down in 1589 during the siege of Heusden by the Spanish army. It was never rebuilt, and in the middle of the 19th century, little remained of the Abbey of Bern.
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Price, 204-5, and footnote 171, citing Basil, Homily 24: "on seeing an image of the king in the square, one does not allege that there are two kings" (therefore veneration of the image venerates the original: the analogy is implicit in Imperial cult but is not found in the Gospels. See also articles on Iconodules and Iconoclasm).
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Accidentally burned down in 1687. La Rochelle was the first French city, with Rouen, to experience iconoclastic riots in 1560, at the time of the suppression of the Amboise conspiracy, before the riots spread to many other cities. Further cases of Reformation iconoclasm were recorded in La Rochelle from 30 May 1562, following the Massacre of Vassy.
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The Theotokos of the Pharos, the main palace chapel, was also located nearby, to the south or south- east.Kazhdan (1991), pp. 455–456 Nothing is known of the hall's original, 6th- century decoration. Following the prohibition of human forms under Iconoclasm however, it was redecorated, sometime between 856 and 866, with mosaics in a monumental style.
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Window of the Vendôme Chapel, c.1415 On the whole, Chartres' windows have been remarkably fortunate. The medieval glass largely escaped harm during the Huguenot iconoclasm and the religious wars of the 16th century although the west rose sustained damage from artillery fire in 1591. The relative darkness of the interior seems to have been a problem for some.
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After Nikephoros's death, his pupil Niketas became the abbot. Niketas was persecuted with the beginning of the second Iconoclasm under Leo V (r. 813–820). He died in 824, and is celebrated by the Orthodox Church as an iconodule Confessor of the Faith. Both Nikephoros and Niketas were buried at the narthex of the monastery's church of Saint Michael.
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Basil, who was a follower of his predecessor Patriarch Thomas I of Jerusalem, was elected Patriarch of Jerusalem in 821. He actively opposed iconoclasm. In 836, he convened a council in Jerusalem that defended the veneration of icons. From the council, Basil sent this position of the council to emperor Theophilus in a letter carried by Syncellus Michael.
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Leo V the Armenian (, Leōn ho ex Armenias; born c. 755 - died 25 December 820) was Emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 813 to 820. A senior general, he forced his predecessor, Michael I Rangabe, to abdicate and assumed the throne. He ended the decade-long war with the Bulgars, and initiated the second period of Byzantine Iconoclasm.
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Reformers, swayed by the ideas of Zwingli, carried out acts of iconoclasm and banned imagery in churches. In April 1529, the free-thinking Erasmus felt obliged to leave his former haven for Freiburg im Breisgau.Wilson, 156–57. The iconoclasts probably destroyed some of Holbein's religious artwork, but details are unknown.Buck, 38–41; Bätschmann & Griener, 105–107; North, 25.
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It was also endorsed by a large number of the eastern Metropolitan bishops. In it, it described their support of the veneration of Icons, and their opposition to the iconoclasm being enforced by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V.Mann, pg. 365 Constantine had the letter read before the Roman people, after which he forwarded it to King Pepin.Mann, pgs.
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In 1529, Bullinger's father renounced Roman Catholicism in favour of Protestant doctrines. Consequently, his congregation at Bremgarten removed him as their priest. Several candidates were invited to preach sermons as potential replacements, including Bullinger. His sermon caused a rise in iconoclasm in the church, and the congregation stripped the images from their church and burned them.
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Bronwen Neil, "Anastasius II (A.D. 713-715)" In 715, Germanus organized a new council propagating Dyothelitism and anathematizing various leaders of the opposing faction. He attempted to improve relations with the Armenian Apostolic Church with a view towards reconciliation. The major issue of his term would, however, be the emerging Byzantine Iconoclasm, propagated by Leo III the Isaurian.
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In 1517 the city of Basel took over the church. When Basel converted to the new faith of the Protestant Reformation in 1528, St. Arbogast became a Protestant church. The relics of St. Arbogast were destroyed and the altars were sold off. The frescoes were painted over as part of the wave of iconoclasm from the Reformation.
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The most famous artifacts of this site are the Surkh Kotal inscriptions, the statue of King Kanishka and the fire altar. The statue of the king was destroyed during the Taliban wave of iconoclasm in February–March 2001, but has been restored by French conservationists. The three artifacts are currently on display in the Afghan National Museum.
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After the iconoclasm of the Calvinists, religious themes had gone out of fashion and mythology had become popular. However, few painters could afford a trip to Italy such as the one that van Mander had undertaken. His purpose was to educate young painters in the proper artistic techniques. He was a firm believer in the hierarchy of genres.
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Gheorghiu, who suffered from heart disease, died of shock brought on by the 1977 Vrancea earthquake, leaving behind unpublished manuscripts. Dual in nature, equally inclined toward avant-garde iconoclasm and formal rigor, Gheorghiu was an original creator of sylvan poems, refined and bucolic in inspiration.Aurel Sasu (ed.), Dicționarul biografic al literaturii române, vol. I, p. 646-47.
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Most prominent was an icon of Christ which became a major iconodule symbol during the Byzantine Iconoclasm, and a chapel dedicated to the Christ Chalkites was erected in the 10th century next to the gate. The gate itself seems to have been demolished in the 13th century, but the chapel survived until the early 19th century.
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"Triumph of Orthodoxy" under the Byzantine empress Theodora over Iconoclasm in 843. (National Icon Collection 18, British Museum). In contrary to the moderate or respectful adoration, various forms of latria of icons (iconolatry) were also starting to appear, mainly in popular worship. Since veritable (full) adoration was reserved for God only, such attitude towards icons as objects was seen as a form of idolatry. In reaction to that, the idolatric misuse of icons was criticized and by the beginning of the 8th century some radical forms of criticism (iconoclasm) were also starting to emerge, advocating not only against adoration of icons, but also against any form of adoration and use of icons in religious life. The iconoclastic controversy emerged in the Byzantine Empire and lasted during the 8th and the 9th centuries.
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Archaeological Survey of India states that the mosque was raised over the remains of a temple and, in addition, it was also constructed from materials taken from other demolished temples, a fact recorded on the main eastern entrance. According to a Persian inscription still on the inner eastern gateway, the mosque was built by the parts taken by destruction of twenty-seven Jain temples built previously during the reigns of the Tomaras and Prithviraj Chauhan, and leaving certain parts of the temple outside the mosque proper.Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai "Hindustan Islami Ahad Mein" (Hindustan under Islamic rule), Eng Trans by Maulana Abdul Hasan Nadwi Historical records compiled by Muslim historian Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai attest to the iconoclasm of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. This pattern of iconoclasm was common during his reign.
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Theophanes the Confessor (; c. 758/760 – March 12, 817/818) was a member of the Byzantine aristocracy who became a monk and chronicler. He served in the court of Emperor Leo IV the Khazar before taking up the religious life. Theophanes attended the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 and resisted the iconoclasm of Leo V the Armenian, for which he was imprisoned.
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The worn state of many pages is evidence of continuous use throughout centuries. Chludov Psalter (; Moscow, Hist. Mus. MS. D.129) is an illuminated marginal Psalter made in the middle of the 9th Century. It is a unique monument of Byzantine art at the time of the Iconoclasm, one of only three illuminated Byzantine Psalters to survive from the 9th century.
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Example of the miliaresion silver coins, first struck by Leo III to commemorate the coronation of his son, Constantine V, as co-emperor in 720. Leo's most striking legislative reforms dealt with religious matters, especially iconoclasm ("icon-breaking," therefore an iconoclast is an "icon-breaker").Ladner, Gerhart. "Origin and Significance of the Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy." Mediaeval Studies, 2, 1940, pp. 127–149.
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Felix Ehrenhaft (24 April 1879 – 4 March 1952) was an Austrian physicist who contributed to atomic physics, to the measurement of electrical charges and to the optical properties of metal colloids. He was known for his maverick and controversial style. His fearless iconoclasm was greatly admired by philosopher Paul Feyerabend. He won the Haitinger Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1917.
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Motivated by fierce propaganda against the Guises, and seeking revenge for the stamping out of the Amboise conspiracy, the boldest attacked castles, jails, and churches. During the spring of 1560, the kingdom experienced the first major events of iconoclasm in Provence. During the summer, the civil disobedience movement gained intensity; several cities in southern France were in revolt.See Histoire générale de Languedoc, vol.
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Leiden and New York: Brill. pp 11-15. . The continued iconoclasm further worsened relations between the East and the West, which were already bad following the papal coronations of a rival line of "Roman Emperors" beginning with Charlemagne in 800. Relations worsened even further during the so-called Photian Schism, when Pope Nicholas I challenged Photios' elevation to the patriarchate.
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The construction date of the original church is not known. However, it is considered to be earlier than Iconoclasm era of the Byzantine Empire because all human figures on the walls of the ground floor inside the church were erased. In 1212, the upper floor had been added to the original building. The upper floor has a rich collection of human figures.
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The tower is now high. Saint Nicholas was the only church in Tallinn which remained untouched by iconoclasm brought by the Protestant Reformation in 1523 (or 1524). The head of the congregation poured molten lead into the locks of the church, and the raging hordes could not get in. The church was converted to a Lutheran congregation in the 16th century.
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It said Jews and Muslims should wear a special dress to distinguish them from Christians. # The Fifth Council of the Lateran (1512–1517) attempted reform of the church. A number of non-ecumenical councils were held at the Lateran, including the Lateran Council of 649 against Monothelitism, the Lateran Council of 769 against iconoclasm, and the Lateran Council of 964.
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Hennes, p. 64. In the summer of 1583, Gebhard and Agnes took refuge, first at Vest in Vest Recklinghausen, a fief of the Electorate, and then in the Duchy of Westphalia, at Arensberg castle. In both territories, Gebhard set in motion as much of the Reformation as he could,Benians, p. 708. although his soldiers indulged in a bout of iconoclasm and plundering.
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94 ff. There is however no certainty as to what some of the panels depict, or as to their relationship with one another. One gallery just north of the eastern gopura, for example, shows two linked scenes which have been explained as the freeing of a goddess from inside a mountain, or as an act of iconoclasm by Cham invaders.Glaize, p.
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As summarized by the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, "Thomas's revolt has been variously attributed to a reaction against Iconoclasm, a social revolution and popular uprising, a revolt by the Empire's non-Greek ethnic groups, Thomas's personal ambitions, and his desire to avenge Leo V." Its effects on the military position of the Empire, particularly vis-à-vis the Arabs, are also disputed.
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The Lying Stones of Marrakech (2000) is the ninth volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist, Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were culled from his monthly column "The View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution and its teaching, science biography, probability, and iconoclasm.
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The downfall of the Cheapside Cross is an important episode of iconoclasm in English history. Two Purbeck marble fragments of the original cross, displaying shields bearing the royal arms of England and of Castile and León, were recovered in 1838 during reconstruction of the sewer in Cheapside. They are now held by the Museum of London.Alexander and Binski 1987, p. 364.
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During the weak rule of Wenceslas IV, it was above all the Archbishop of Prague and leading noble families who commissioned these demanding works of art. Because of their stylised beauty, sculptures of the International Gothic style increasingly became a focus of criticism by church reformers in the period before the outbreak of the Hussite Wars and many fell victim to iconoclasm.
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The relief is 4.9 m high and 6.5 m wide. It has been largely destroyed, partially by weathering and partially by Taliban iconoclasm. At the end of Taliban rule, local villagers reported the relief to local authorities, since they feared it would be damaged. Thus, individual Taliban were conscious of the relief and damaged it on the grounds that local residents "worshipped" it.
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These provisions offended many Protestants, and in practice, the Injunctions were often ignored by church leaders. The Queen was disappointed by the extreme iconoclasm of the Protestants during the visitations. In October 1559, she ordered that a crucifix and candlesticks be placed on the communion table in the Chapel Royal. Later, she decided that roods should be restored in parish churches.
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The New York Times. Published: July 23, 2000 His detractors, noted the New York Observer, argued that his conflicts of interest, from socializing with his subjects frequently, and his "iconoclasm and obscurantism, his unapologetic dilettantism" were along with his "very public break downs" a source of a "fall from grace."Clay Risen. As Muschamp Goes, Angry Adversaries Ready for Revenge.
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A mosaic from Daphni Monastery in Greece (ca. 1100), showing the midwives bathing the new-born Christ. Christian art is sacred art which uses themes and imagery from Christianity. Most Christian groups use or have used art to some extent, although some have had strong objections to some forms of religious image, and there have been major periods of iconoclasm within Christianity.
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They would traditionally walk round the tree three times while praying. Zichem was part of the barony of Diest, a possession of the House of Orange-Nassau. In the course of the Dutch Revolt the barony changed hands several times. While occupied by forces of the United Provinces between 1580 and 1583, the statue was removed in an act of iconoclasm.
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John, who was a monk, succeeded Patr. Anastasius II as patriarch of Jerusalem in 706. He was a friend of John of Damascus and ordained him to the priesthood shortly after John Damascene entered the monastery to become a monk. Patr. John also supported John in his efforts against emperor Leo and the iconoclasts, including writing a number of tracts against iconoclasm.
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It was stripped of Catholic decorations during the beeldenstorm (iconoclasm of 1566). A number of monks lived on for a few more years, but in 1574 the last few monks left. After being abandoned for 12 years, the church had deteriorated and some suggested to tear it down. In 1588 a cavalry company seeking shelter settled in the former church.
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Antony was of undistinguished background, but received a good education, becoming a lawyer in Constantinople in c. 800. He later became a monk and advanced to the position of abbot. By 814 he had become the bishop of Syllaion in Anatolia. Although Antony was an Iconodule, he became an Iconoclast in 815, when Emperor Leo V the Armenian reinstituted Iconoclasm.
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The iconoclasm resulted not only in the destruction of Catholic art, but also cost the lives of many priests. It next spread to Antwerp, and on August 22, to Ghent. One cathedral, eight churches, twenty-five cloisters, ten hospitals and seven chapels were attacked. From there, it further spread east and north, but in total lasted not even a month.
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As a Calvinist and artist he seemed to have had mixed feelings about the Iconoclasm of his religious group: he condemned idolatry of images but did not agree with the wholesale destruction of religious images by the Iconoclasts. In 1566 or shortly after, he created a print referred to as the Allegory of Iconoclasm that shows a composite rotting head of a monk. The head appears to rise up from a rocky outcropping. Myriad little figures swarm over the rocks. They enact 22 different scenes that used to be denoted by alphabetical keys which have not survived.Alastair Duke: Chapter Calvinists and 'papist idolatry': the mentality of the image-breakers in 1566 in Dissident Identities in the Early Modern Low Countries, Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2009, pp 196-197 Inside the gaping mouth a diabolical mass is celebrated.
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His military activity, and policy of settling Christian populations from the Arab frontier in Thrace, made Byzantium's hold on its Balkan territories more secure. Religious strife and controversy was a prominent feature of his reign. His fervent support of Iconoclasm and opposition to monasticism led to his vilification by later Byzantine historians and writers, who denigrated him as Kopronymos or Copronymus (Κοπρώνυμος), meaning the dung-named.
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Frans Francken the Elder worked mainly on altar pieces as there was a great demand for such works as a result of the iconoclasm of the Calvinists. His masterpiece is a triptych entitled Christ among the Scribes, which was made for the Antwerp Cathedral in 1587. The figures are rather wooden in the late Mannerist style. However, the heads show the artist’s skill for portraiture.
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6th? century icon of Christ Pantocrator, a very rare pre-Iconoclasm icon. The dedication of Constantinople as capital in 330 AD created a great new Christian artistic centre for the Eastern Roman Empire, which soon became a separate political unit. Major Constantinopolitan churches built under the Emperor Constantine and his son, Constantius II, included the original foundations of Hagia Sophia and the Church of the Holy Apostles.
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The injunctions set off a wave of iconoclasm in the autumn of 1547. While the injunctions only condemned images that were abused as objects of worship or devotion, the definition of abuse was broadened to justify the destruction of all images and relics. Stained glass, shrines, statues, and roods were defaced or destroyed. Church walls were whitewashed and covered with biblical texts condemning idolatry.
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The ordeal took two days. They were thrown into prison in the town of Apamea in Bithynia, where Theodore died in prison of his wounds in 841. Michael and Theophanes survived to see Orthodoxy triumph over Iconoclasm in 842 during the reign of the Empress Theodora. Michael was made abbot of the Monastery of Chora, where he died, just two months after Theophanes, in January 846.
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6th? century icon of Christ Pantocrator, a very rare pre-Iconoclasm icon. The dedication of Constantinople as capital in 330 AD created a great new Christian artistic centre for the Eastern Roman Empire, which soon became a separate political unit. Major Constantinopolitan churches built under Constantine and his son, Constantius II, included the original foundations of Hagia Sophia and the Church of the Holy Apostles.
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The lower stage of the tower, with large lancet windows, is Early English, as is the second stage. The two upper stages are 15th-century, as is the font. In the north aisle is an incised stone slab to John de Lyndewode (rector, 1374) and a mutilated effigy of a 14th-century knight, likely damaged during the iconoclasm of the Protestant Reformation.Cox, J. Charles (1916) Lincolnshire pp.
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This sculpture shows the wicked naked on the right, while the righteous stand clothed in white on the left. In the center is Justice, with Saints and the wise and foolish virgins around her. In the centre stands Michael the Archangel with a raised sword. The sculptures of the Last Judgement were the only statues in the Minster to survive the iconoclasm of the Protestant Reformation.
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Also in attendance were all of the Roman lower clergy present in the city at the time, as well as a good number of the Roman nobility.Hefele, pg. 303 The presence of the Archbishop of Ravenna in the synod was a clear indication of just how far Leo's iconoclasm had offended even his supporters in Italy.Duffy, Eamon, Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes (1997), pg.
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Saint Nicetas the Patrician (; 761/62 – 6 October 836) was a Byzantine monk and a fervent opponent of Byzantine Iconoclasm. He is usually identified with Nicetas Monomachos (Νικήτας Μονομάχος), a eunuch official and general from Paphlagonia active at the turn of the 9th century. He is honoured as a saint and a Confessor of the Faith by the Orthodox Church. His feast day is on 13 October.
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Persian motifs became increasingly popular in the 6th century, and were also used in the decoration of the Hagia Sophia.Canepa (2006), pp. 6–19 Another exceptional find are ten relief plaques bearing the images of Christ, the Virgin Mary and the Apostles; such images are very rare due to the destruction of human representations in the Iconoclasm of the 8th and 9th centuries.Harrison (1985), pp.
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Some submitted while others were obstinate and so were deprived of their benefices. Civil marriage was instituted in 1653 but was not popular; much iconoclasm took place in churches such as the destruction of the stained glass at St Agnes and the rood screen at St Ives. The church organs at Launceston and St Ives were also destroyed.Brown, H. Miles (1964) The Church in Cornwall.
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Morris argues that "Glück's writing most often evades ethnic identification, religious classification, or gendered affiliation. In fact, her poetry often negates critical assessments that affirm identity politics as criteria for literary evaluation. She resists canonization as a hyphenated poet (that is, as a "Jewish-American" poet, or a "feminist" poet, or a "nature" poet), preferring instead to retain an aura of iconoclasm, or in-betweenness".
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Such icons were seen as powerful arguments against iconoclasm. In a document apparently produced in the circle of the Patriarch of Constantinople, which purports to be the record of a (fictitious) Church council of 836, a list of acheiropoieta and icons miraculously protected is given as evidence for divine approval of icons. The acheiropoieta listed are: :1. the Image of Edessa, described as still at Edessa; :2.
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The Protestant Hugh Latimer was bishop from 1535, and preached for reform and iconoclasm. He resigned as bishop in 1539, as a result of a theological turn by Henry VIII towards Roman Catholicism, in the Six Articles. John Bell, a moderate reformer, was bishop from 1539 to 1543, during the period of the priory's dissolution. In the early 16th century, Worcester had around 40 monks.
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In fact, the monastery at Sinai is the only place in the world where a substantial number of these encaustic icons, particularly those dating from as early as the sixth century, have been preserved.Galey, Forsyth, Weitzmann, Sinai, 91. During the Period of Byzantine Iconoclasm, the production of Orthodox icons continued at Sinai, whereas they were being destroyed in Constantinople.Galey, Forsyth, Weitzmann, Sinai, 92-3.
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Accessed May 10, 2019. Cottages & Gardens describes the firm's work in this vein as "a marriage of modernist versatility and traditional materials" which "reasserts the iconoclasm of an architecture that, now often watered-down, was once highly progressive."Eva Hagberg Fisher, "The Second Book From Ike Kligerman Barkley Reveals the Radical Side of a Storied American Style," Cottages & Gardens, November 2015. Accessed May 10, 2019.
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In reaction to this persecution, the Calvinists rebelled. In the Beeldenstorm in 1566, they conducted iconoclasm, destroying statues, paintings, and other religious depictions and artifacts in churches. Also in 1566 William the Silent, Prince of Orange, a convert to Calvinism, started the Eighty Years' War to liberate the Calvinist Dutch from the Catholic Spaniards. The counties of Holland and Zeeland were conquered by Calvinists in 1572.
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The Protestant Hugh Latimer was bishop from 1535, and preached for reform and iconoclasm. He resigned as bishop in 1539, as a result of a theological turn by Henry VIII towards Roman Catholicism, in the Six Articles. John Bell, a moderate reformer, was bishop from 1539 to 1543, during the period of the Priory's dissolution. In the early 16th century, Worcester had around 40 monks.
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He settled permanently in Utrecht in 1530 and established a large workshop on the Italian model. The workshop mainly produced altarpieces, many of which were destroyed in the Reformation iconoclasm in the years just after his death. He also held clerical appointments. This did not stop him from having a long-time relationship with a mistress who may have modelled for some of his female figures.
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Nelson had also drawn a caricature of his father as the model depicted on boxes of Cream of Wheat. Nelson explained, "(t)his kind of irreverence and iconoclasm runs through all my artwork". In an April Fools' Day edition of a Weekly World News parody produced by Nelson, he illustrated SAIC president Anthony Jones as an infant in the arms of a bare-breasted Madonna.
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This latter option squares with the account of Symeon the Logothete, who makes Leo teach at the Magnaura from late 838 to early 840 and was paid handsomely.Treadgold, "Chronological Accuracy ", 172. Leo, an iconoclast sometimes accused of paganism, lost his metropolitancy with the end of the Iconoclasm in 843.Warren T. Treadgold (1997), A history of the Byzantine state and society (Stanford University Press), 447.
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Very few paintings have been attributed to Gheeraerts with much certainty. He did not sign any of his paintings. It is documented that he finished the triptych of the Passion of Christ that had been commenced by the prominent painter Bernard van Orley. The triptych was later damaged during the period of Iconoclasm and largely repainted in 1589 by Frans Pourbus the Younger during restoration work.
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By 764, however, Naples had thrown off iconoclasm and Paul was able to take up his see. After twelve years of peaceful government, during which he gained much popularity with the people, a plague hit the city of Naples and decimated the citizenry and the clergy, including the bishop himself. The people acclaimed Stephen as bishop. He immediately sought out the pope in Rome and was consecrated.
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They were however saved by two pious brothers and brought to the island of Lemnos, from where they were brought back in 796, after the end of the first Iconoclasm period, by Empress Eirene (r. 797–802).Kazhdan (1991), pp. 747–748 The church survived until the end of the Byzantine Empire, being redecorated in the late 13th century with frescoes in the Palaiologan style.
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The Norbertines who tended the garden wore white scapulars. Thus the name of the street; "White gentlemen street". They remained there until 1543, when the monastery lands came under the control of the St. Elisabeth Gasthuis. Their lands were officially confiscated and secularized in 1581 by the city council after the Protestant Reformation, just as all other Catholic buildings and lands in Haarlem after the iconoclasm.
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This campaign of Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region. Similar patterns to the German actions, but with the addition of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national government, were seen in Anglican England in the English Civil War and English Commonwealth in the next century, when more damage was done to art in medieval parish churches than during the English Reformation. A major theological difference between Protestantism and Catholicism is the question of transubstantiation, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and wine into the body and blood of Christ, though both Lutheran and Reformed Christians affirmed the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the former as a sacramental union and the latter as a pneumatic presence. Protestant churches that were not participating in the iconoclasm often selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Last Supper.
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The city was threatened by Saracen raids in the 8th–9th centuries—in 896, Athens was raided and possibly occupied for a short period, an event which left some archaeological remains and elements of Arabic ornamentation in contemporary buildings—but there is also evidence of a mosque existing in the city at the time. In the great dispute over Byzantine Iconoclasm, Athens is commonly held to have supported the iconophile position, chiefly due to the role played by Empress Irene of Athens in the ending of the first period of Iconoclasm at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. A few years later, another Athenian, Theophano, became empress as the wife of Staurakios (r. 811–812). Invasion of the empire by the Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and the ensuing civil wars, largely passed the region by and Athens continued its provincial existence unharmed.
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David Freedberg is best known for his work on psychological responses to art, and particularly for his studies on iconoclasm and censorship. He first investigated this topic in the early 1970sSee for example "Johannes Molanus on Provocative Paintings," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, XXXIV, 1971, pp. 229-245. in preparation for his dissertation Iconoclasm and Painting in the Revolt of the Netherlands (University of Oxford 1973) and in Iconoclasts and Their Motives, 1984, which was followed by the landmark book, The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response, published by the University of Chicago Press in 1989 and in several subsequent editions in many languages.E.g. Spanish translation (Cátedra), 1992; Italian translation (Einaudi), 1993; French translation (Monfort), 1998; Polish translation with new introduction (Jagiellonian University Press, Cracow), 2005; Italian translation, 2nd edition with new prefaces (Einaudi), 2009; Albanian translation (Dituria), 2013; Slovenian translation (Studia Humanitatis), 2014.
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Church of Our Lady in Antwerp, the "signature event" of the Beeldenstorm, August 20, 1566, by Frans Hogenberganalysed in Arnade, 146 (quoted); see also Art through time Beeldenstorm in Dutch (roughly "image storm" or "statue storm"), and Bildersturm in German ("image/statue storm") are terms used for outbreaks of destruction of religious images that occurred in Europe in the 16th century, known in English as the Great Iconoclasm or Iconoclastic Fury. During these spates of iconoclasm, Catholic art and many forms of church fittings and decoration were destroyed in unofficial or mob actions by Calvinist Protestant crowds as part of the Protestant Reformation. Most of the destruction was of art in churches and public places. Protestant polemical print celebrating the destruction, 1566 The Dutch term usually specifically refers to the wave of disorderly attacks in the summer of 1566 that spread rapidly through the Low Countries from south to north.
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Patriarch Theodotos I presides over the council, miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes The Council of Constantinople of 815 was held in the Byzantine capital, in the Hagia Sophia, and initiated the second period of the Byzantine Iconoclasm. Shortly before it convened, the iconophile Patriarch Nikephoros I was deposed by Emperor Leo V the Armenian in favour of the iconoclast Theodotos I. Theodotos presided over the council, which reinstated iconoclasm, repudiating the Second Council of Nicaea and reaffirming the decisions of the Council of Hieria of 754. Although the meeting had been convened at the behest of the iconoclast Emperor, much of the Iconoclast effort was driven by other clerics, including the later patriarchs Antony I and John VII. In the aftermath of this synod Theodotos is represented as torturing by starvation more than one iconodule abbot in an attempt to force them into agreement with his ecclesiastical policy.
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Aniconism is the absence of material representations of both the natural and supernatural worlds in various cultures, particularly in the monotheistic Abrahamic religions. This prohibition of material representations may extend from only God and deities to saint characters, all living beings, and everything that exists. The phenomenon is generally codified by religious traditions and as such it becomes a taboo. When enforced by the physical destruction of images, aniconism becomes iconoclasm.
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Her subsequent fate and that of her monastery is unknown. Her story was part of a pattern developing through the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. "Women of the political elite" were often at risk of falling out of favour along with their relatives, ending up relegated to a monastery. As a security measure, many of them founded monastic communities which were to serve as their "private retirement homes" in time of need.
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222 was the Catholic bishop of Turin from 817 until his death. He was a courtier of Louis the Pious and was a writer during the Carolingian Renaissance. He is most noted for teaching iconoclasm, a radical idea at that time in Latin Church, and for some teachings that prefigured those of the Protestant Reformation. He was attacked as a heretic in written works by Saint Dungal and Jonas of Orléans.
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The project will cost $2.8 million and includes an augmented reality mobile app that will assist visitors in experiencing the monument. There will be new signage detailing the history of the Civil War, the 54th Regiment, and the monument itself, with QR codes for the AR app. In July 2020, the monument became a focus of discussion during the iconoclasm that took place as part of the George Floyd protests.
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Chiang Kai-shek, as a nationalist, and Confucianist, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement. He viewed some western ideas as foreign, as a Chinese nationalist, and that the introduction of western ideas and literature that the May Fourth Movement wanted was not welcome. He and Sun Yat-sen criticized these May Fourth intellectuals for corrupting morals of youth. KMT also incorporated Confucianism in its jurisprudence.
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Philosophers have invented logic (several times), dialectics, idealism, materialism, utopia, anarchism, semiotics, phenomenology, behaviorism, positivism, pragmatism, and deconstruction. Religious thinkers are responsible for such inventions as monotheism, pantheism, Methodism, Mormonism, iconoclasm, puritanism, deism, secularism, ecumenism, and the Baháʼí Faith. Some of these disciplines, genres, and trends may seem to have existed eternally or to have emerged spontaneously of their own accord, but most of them have had inventors.
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Finally, the southern metopes were not damaged by Christian iconoclasm, but suffered from the explosion of 1687. The last remaining, located at each end of the Parthenon, represent the fight of the Centaurs and Lapiths, but the Central metopes, known only by drawings attributed to Jacques Carrey give rise to controversies of interpretation. Some archaeologists consider that it could be a purely Athenian fight between humans and centaurs.
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Janin (1953), p. 35. Saint Andrew of Crete, a martyr of the fight against Byzantine Iconoclasm, killed on 20 November 766 in the Forum Bovis because of his opposition to the iconoclastic policies of Emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775), was buried there.It should be noticed that according to modern sources, the figure of Andrew of Crete, like those of many iconophile Saints lived during the iconoclastic period, is legendary.
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Their places of worship they called "places of prayer", small rooms in modest houses. Although they had ascetic tendencies, they made no distinction in foods and practiced marriage. They called themselves "Good Christians" and called other Christians "Romanists". Due to iconoclasm they rejected the Christian cross, rites, sacraments, the worship, and the hierarchy of the established Church, because of which Edward Gibbon considered them as "worthy precursors of Reformation".
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There were widespread, but generally orderly outbreaks of iconoclasm. At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk found it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 121–33. Women shared in the religiosity of the day.
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Membership of the circle increased, but discussions became more serious, formal and secretive. Petrashevsky, who had always tended to flaunt his iconoclasm, had for some time been a person of interest to the secret police, but they now decided to place him under close surveillance. An agent, Antonelli, was deployed in Petrashevsky's department in January 1849, ingratiated himself, began attending the meetings of the circle, and reported back to his superiors.
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Fishermen and tradesmen inhabited the area around this chapel. The chapel was transformed into a brick gothic church between 1425 and 1495. Both the interior and exterior have been altered many times over the course of history due to the iconoclasm during the Reformation, war damage (Siege of Groningen) and natural phenomena (lightning strike). Today it is used as a venue for concerts, theatre, exhibitions, parties and meetings.
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Thomas was also active in the theological disputes of the day. He supported the theology of the Christian faith as expressed during the Fourth Ecumenical Council in a letter to the Armenians. He also opposed iconoclasm and the teaching that the Holy Spirit also proceeds from the Son, the filioque, that was spreading in the Western Church. Patriarch Thomas died in 821, and was succeeded by his follower Basil.
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In Eastern Orthodox Christianity heresy most commonly refers to those beliefs declared heretical by the first seven Ecumenical Councils. Since the Great Schism and the Protestant Reformation, various Christian churches have also used the concept in proceedings against individuals and groups those churches deemed heretical. The Orthodox Church also rejects the early Christian heresies such as Arianism, Gnosticism, Origenism, Montanism, Judaizers, Marcionism, Docetism, Adoptionism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Monothelitism and Iconoclasm.
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Leo appointed Anastasios patriarch of Constantinople in 730, based largely on his support for iconoclasm. The controversy over the policy would dominate his tenure and fuel the decisive breach between the Eastern and Western churches. Pope Gregory II died in 731, but his successor, Pope Gregory III, continued to resist the new policy, even to the extent of encouraging armed rebellion against Imperial authority in Italy. In 731Fine 1991, p.
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Vigorous preparations were made, not only to hold what had been gained, but to spread their beliefs to other areas. The many Lutherans who left were outnumbered by the arriving Anabaptists, there was an orgy of iconoclasm in cathedrals and monasteries, and rebaptism became compulsory. The property of the emigrants was shared out with the poor and soon a proclamation was issued that all property was to be held in common.
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John Skylitzes, A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057: Translation and Notes, transl. John Wortley, (Cambridge University Press, 2010), 51 note1. Theophilos continued in his predecessors' iconoclasm, though without his father's more conciliatory tone, issuing an edict in 832 forbidding the veneration of icons. He also saw himself as the champion of justice, which he served most ostentatiously by executing his father's co-conspirators against Leo V immediately after his accession.
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Klein (2006), p. 80 Following the end of iconoclasm, it was extensively rebuilt and redecorated by Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867). As restored, it was a relatively small building with a ribbed dome, three apses, a narthex and a "splendidly fashioned" atrium.Maguire (2004), p. 56 On the occasion of its rededication, probably in 864, the Patriarch Photios held one of his most famous homilies lauding the church's spectacular decoration.
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In Russia the book was taken to be a wholesale attack on bourgeois politics, "the inevitable result of the life which had preceded it", as Aldington wrote. "The next one will be much worse". It was praised by Gorky as revolutionary and the book received huge Russian distribution, along with his later fiction. Aldington was, however, fiercely non-partisan in his politics, despite the passion for iconoclasm and feminism.
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Christ's Real Presence in the Eucharist was no longer explained by the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation; instead, the 1552 Book of Common Prayer promoted the Reformed teaching of Christ's spiritual presence. The veneration of religious images (icons, roods, statues) and relics were suppressed, and iconoclasm was sanctioned by the government. Mary I, Elizabeth's half-sister, became queen in 1553. She reversed the religious innovations introduced by her father and brother.
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It is no longer merely the art that is at stake. The book is an interdisciplinary essay collection on the study of art crime, and its effect on all aspects of the art world. Essayists discuss art crime subcategories, including vandalism, iconoclasm, forgery, fraud, peacetime theft, war looting, archaeological looting, smuggling, submarine looting, and ransom. The contributors conclude their analyses with specific practical suggestions to implement in the future.
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He passed the agrégation in history in 1895 after studying the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Byzantine Empire, and iconoclasm. His doctoral thesis focused on pre-Christian religion in Asia Minor. Unlike most French academics, Hubert focused on research rather than teaching after graduation. He took a position at the École Pratique des Hautes Études and in 1898 he also took up a position at the Musée des Antiquités.
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Another of the very few major Eastern works showing the Virgin from before the Byzantine iconoclasm, an apse mosaic (lost in 1922) from Nicaea, also shows the hand above a standing Virgin. Few similar uses of the hand are seen in later Virgins, though the iconographically adventurous Byzantine Chludov Psalter (9th century) has a small miniature showing the hand and dove above a Virgin & Child.Schiller, I, p. 7 & fig.
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Theodora (, c. 815 – after 867) was a Byzantine empress as the spouse of the Byzantine emperor Theophilos, and regent of her son, Michael III, from Theophilos' death in 842 to 855. For her restoration of the veneration of icons, which ended the Byzantine Iconoclasm, she is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church; her Feast Day is 11 February. Several churches hold her as their patron saint.
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A letter by the patriarch Germanus written before 726 to two Iconoclast bishops says that "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter" but we have very little evidence as to the growth of the debate.Mango, C. "Historical Introduction," in Bryer & Herrin, eds., Iconoclasm, pp. 2-3, Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, 1977 Germanus either resigned or was deposed following the ban.
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The large 47 free- standing statues are replicas (the originals are in the Bern History Museum) and the 170 smaller statues are all original. The interior is large, open and fairly empty. Nearly all the art and altars in the cathedral were removed in 1528 during the iconoclasm of the Protestant Reformation. The paintings and statues were dumped in what became the Cathedral Terrace, making the terrace a rich archaeological site.
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In the choir one can find the carving of the Angelic Salutation by Veit Stoss, and the monumental tabernacle by Adam Kraft. The latter includes a prominent figure of the sculptor himself. The building and furnishing of the church was cared of by the city council and by wealthy citizens. This is probably the reason why the art treasures of St. Lawrence were spared during the iconoclasm during the Reformation period.
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Pope Gregory III (; died 28 November 741) was the bishop of Rome from 11 February 731 to his death. His pontificate, like that of his predecessor, was disturbed by Byzantine iconoclasm and the advance of the Lombards, in which he invoked the intervention of Charles Martel, although ultimately in vain. He was the last pope to seek the consent of the Byzantine exarch of Ravenna for his election.
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See note by J.M. Blatchly in Trevor Cooper (Ed.), The Journal of William Dowsing: Iconoclasm in East Anglia during the English Civil War (Ecclesiological Society/Boydell & Brewer 2001), notes to pp. 142–43, Note 31, pp. 458–59. In 1751 he issued proposalsIpswich Journal, 21 September 1751. for a quarto volume on Brook Taylor's Perspective, made easy, both in Theory and Practice, to have a frontispiece by William Hogarth.
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It has been observed that after the iconoclasm of the Beeldenstorm Flemish artists started including their portraits in religious compositions in order to show their personal commitment to the particular message that the compositions were trying to convey.Edward H. Wouk, p. 41-44 Floris painted some family portraits. An example is the Family portrait in the Museum Wuyts-Van Campen en Baron Caroly, Lier, which is dated 1561.
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Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. John of Damascus was a proponent for the use of icons during the rise of iconoclasm. Serving as a priest at Mar Saba near Jerusalem, John of Damascus lived under Muslim rule and was safe from persecution for his iconophile views. This could explain why the Parisian manuscript is so heavily illuminated, something not associated with texts that didn’t tell a story.
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Also in the fifteenth century, Hagenprekers of the Netherlands came to preach Protestantism in Hasselt, then follows a period of iconoclasm. Maaseik Hasselt temporarily declared the separation of the Church. During that time he destroyed the tabernacle, statues, the side altar and the main altar, under the command of Gerard van Groesbeek. The tower of the present church dates from 1725; It was restored in the nineteenth century.
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The combination of Constantinopolitan and Palestine customs must be also understood on the base of the political history. Theodore and the Stoudios Monastery in the Menologion of Basil II, illumination for the synaxarion about him (I-Rvat Cod. Vat. gr. 1613, p. 175) Especially the first generation around Theodore Studites and Joseph the Confessor, and the second around Joseph the Hymnographer suffered from the first and the second crisis of iconoclasm.
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Under his son Constantine V, a council forbidding image veneration was held at Hieria near Constantinople in 754. Image veneration was later reinstated by the Empress Regent Irene, under whom another council was held reversing the decisions of the previous iconoclast council and taking its title as Seventh Ecumenical Council. The council anathemized all who hold to iconoclasm, i.e. those who held that veneration of images constitutes idolatry.
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Anglicisation of the place names increased apace with the migration of English people to the island. Some Neolithic carvings are the earliest works of artistic character to be found in Jersey. Only fragmentary wall-paintings remain from the rich mediaeval artistic heritage, after the wholesale iconoclasm of the Calvinist Reformation of the 16th century. The island is particularly famous for the Battle of Flowers, a carnival held annually since 1902.
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Before the Byzantine Iconoclasm these often contained religious scenes such as Annunciations, often in a number of panels over a large piece of cloth. This naturally stopped during the periods of Iconoclasm and with the exception of church vestments for the most part figural scenes did not reappear afterwards, being replaced by patterns and animal designs. Some examples show very large designs being used for clothing by the great - two enormous embroidered lions killing camels occupy the whole of the Coronation cloak of Roger II in Vienna, produced in Palermo about 1134 in the workshops the Byzantines had established there. A sermon by Saint Asterius of Amasia, from the end of the 5th century, gives details of imagery on the clothes of the rich (which he strongly condemns):Asterius of Amasia Online English translation - near the start > When, therefore, they dress themselves and appear in public, they look like > pictured walls in the eyes of those that meet them.
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The leading historian of English Protestantism, Patrick Collinson, applied the term iconophobia to a specific period in post- Reformation England in his 1985 Stenton Lecture, From Iconoclasm to Iconophobia: the Cultural Impact of the Second English Reformation. The arguments also informed chapter 4 of his 1988 book, The Birthpangs of Protestant England. Collinson’s work has shaped a generation of scholarly enquiry into the impact of religion on culture, and of culture on religion, in post-reformation England. Scholars have accepted, rejected, and modified Collinson’s arguments, but one way or another they continue to exert a powerful influence over reformation studies. Collinson carefully re-defined iconoclasm (generally defined as “the destruction of religious icons and other images or monuments for religious or political motives”) in his essay as follows: > “The first generation of Protestant publicists and propagandists, the > Edwardian generation, made polemical and creative use of cultural vehicles > which their spiritual children and grandchildren later repudiated, as part > of their rather general programme of rejection.
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In a book called L'avenir de la liturgie published in 1961, he criticized the mentality that permeated after the Sacrosanctum Concilium. This involved what he called as attitude that favored iconoclasm and the burning of old idols. Nocent described it as too impatient and based on a view that confused idle routine with legitimate tradition. During the Second Vatican Council, he was a member of the committee for the revision of the Lectionary.
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These include highly decorated sacrament houses, carving and monumental effigies. The greatest group of surviving sculptures from this period are from the West Highlands, beginning in the fourteenth century on Iona under the patronage of the Lordship of the Isles. There are also examples of carved chests and chess pieces. Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm, with the almost total loss of medieval religious sculpture.
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Thanks to the intervention of Patriarch Tarasios, he was recalled from exile soon after, but was not reinstated in his old see. When Iconoclasm was once more adopted as the official doctrine under emperors Leo V the Armenian (r. 813–820) and Michael II the Amorian (r. 820–829), Euthymius again defended the veneration of icons, for which he was arrested, whipped and exiled, then released only to be again arrested and exiled.
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These were seen as corrupt since they distracted priests from other work; instead, all should be prayed for equally. Lollards also had a tendency toward iconoclasm. Expensive church artwork was seen as an excess; they believed effort should be placed on helping the needy and preaching rather than working on expensive decorations. Icons were also seen as dangerous since many seemed to be worshipping the icons more fervently than they worshipped God.
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Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt, gave instruction that schools and churches should be stormed to remove and destroy pictures and precious insignia. This is denoted in history as “Iconoclasm”. Because Christian Beyer was council member of University of Wittenberg and also the Town Council, he had to calm down turmoil caused and restore community order. It can be hard to imagine how the shrewd lawyer obtained a solution between the Elector and Andreas von Karlstad.
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He accepted the position on 6 November 1561. In 1569 he was advised to resign by the Duke of Alva, because of his reputation for drinking (Dronken Klaasje). He had a good reason to drown his sorrows, because he feared the Catholic Spanish invaders as much as the native Dutch reformers. The Grote Kerk was initially spared from iconoclasm, because the city's mayor ordered the closing of the church for several months in 1566.
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Altar piece in St. Martin's Cathedral, attacked in Reformation iconoclasm in the 16th century. The church as seen from the tower, in front the temporarily rebuilt section (2004). St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht, or Dom Church (), is a Gothic church dedicated to Saint Martin of Tours, which was the cathedral of the Diocese of Utrecht during the Middle Ages. It is the country's only pre-Reformation cathedral, but has been a Protestant church since 1580.
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The alt=The photo shows the altar of St. Alban's Cathedral, behind which rises a large stone screen with tiers of statues, and a crucifix, centrally placed. During the period of the Commonwealth, 1649–60, wholesale iconoclasm was wrought on all the pictorial elements of Christian buildings. Most of England’s medieval stained glass was smashed. The majority of England’s medieval statues were smashed or defaced leaving only a few isolated examples intact.
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He believed the opinions of the people would gradually change and the voluntary removal of images would follow. Hence, Schmid rejected the radicals and their iconoclasm, but supported Zwingli's position. In November the council passed ordinances in support of Schmid's motion. Zwingli wrote a booklet on the evangelical duties of a minister, Kurze, christliche Einleitung (Short Christian Introduction), and the council sent it out to the clergy and the members of the Confederation.
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Mann, pg. 205 Infuriated by George’s actions, Gregory summoned a synod sometime before October 731, with the intent of stripping George of his priesthood. However, the Synod, after confirming the importance of expressing the Roman Church’s opposition to iconoclasm, recommended that George merely be reprimanded. He was to perform a penance for his unwillingness to complete his assigned task, and for the Pope to dispatch him again to Emperor Leo III with the pope’s letters.
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Theodore the Studite (also known as Theodorus Studita, Saint Theodore of Stoudios, and Saint Theodore of Studium; 759–826) was a Byzantine Greek monk and abbot of the Stoudios Monastery in Constantinople.; . He played a major role in the revivals both of Byzantine monasticism and of classical literary genres in Byzantium. He is known as a zealous opponent of iconoclasm, one of several conflicts that set him at odds with both emperor and patriarch.
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The darker skin tone of Severus reflects his Libyan origins. Julia Domna has her distinctive hairstyle, crimped into parallel locks, possibly a style from her home in Syria, and perhaps a wig. One son's face has been obliterated in a deliberate act of iconoclasm, and the vacant space smeared with excrement. Most scholars believe it is Geta whose face has been removed, probably after his murder by his brother Caracalla and the ensuing damnatio memoriae.
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In 730, the emperor outlawed pictorial presentations of Christ and the saints and created thus the first iconoclasm. The Pope argued against it and convened in 731 a local council in Rome to no avail.Jedin 34 The council discussed and restored the veneration of icons using the Bible and tradition of the Church as arguments. Pictures of Christ, the Blessed Virgin Mary and the Saints were used to stimulate piety and imitation.
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Ranworth rood screen is considered one of the finest examples of medieval rood screen to have survived the iconoclasm of the English Reformation. It is located in the Church of St Helen, Ranworth, Norfolk, England. The exact dates for the creation of the screen are unknown, though most experts agree that the paintings were probably executed sometime in the 15th century, with the erection of the wooden screen itself possibly occurring some years earlier.
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The factions had engaged in violence even before Charles's accession: in 1560 a group of Huguenot nobles at Amboise had planned to try to abduct King Francis II and arrest the Catholic leaders Francis, Duke of Guise, and his brother Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. The plot was found out ahead of time, and the Guises were prepared, executing hundreds of Huguenots. This was followed by cases of Protestant iconoclasm and Catholic reprisals.Salmon, p. 124–137.
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Rather than robbery, Ashbee thought iconoclasm was the probable cause of the medieval damage to the chamber. He suggested that the burial of the stones indicated that Christian zealots had tried to deliberately destroy and defame the pre-Christian monument. Excavation also revealed evidence for modern activity around the site. Three post-medieval pits were identified in and around the barrow, as well as a post-medieval attempt to dig into the chamber.
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Along with Carlstadt, Zwilling guided the Wittenberg movement in a more radical direction. In January 1522 he participated in iconoclasm in Wittenberg. When Luther returned to Wittenberg and regained control in March 1522, Zwilling publicly admitted his errors, and gave his support to Luther's more conservative vision of reform. He became a prediger (“preacher”) in Altenburg in 1522, and moved to Torgau in 1523 where he became successively prediger, pastor (1525), and superintendent (1529).
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797–802) and Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811).Photios. Epistola II, CII, 609; . During the second Iconoclasm, which began in 814, his family suffered persecution since his father, Sergios, was a prominent iconophile. Sergios's family returned to favor only after the restoration of the icons in 842.. Certain scholars assert that Photios was, at least in part, of Armenian descent while other scholars merely refer to him as a "Greek Byzantine".
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In order to neutralize their reaction, Irene sent the tagmata to the army base of Malagina in Bithynia, allegedly in preparation for a campaign against the Arabs. There, some 1,500 of the soldiers were dismissed while Staurakios brought loyal thematic troops from Thrace to guard the capital. Irene then reconvened the council at Nicaea, after dismissing the most recalcitrant iconoclast bishops. Predictably, iconoclasm was overturned as a heresy, and the veneration of images was restored.
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Gradually discontent among the Dutch grew, and erupted in 1566 with the so-called Beeldenstorm, a surge of iconoclasm. This quickly spread among all Dutch regions and finally resulted in what would become the Dutch revolt from Catholicism and Spanish control. During the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, an independent Dutch religious tradition began to take shape in the northern parts of the independent Netherlands. The most prominent Dutch theologian was the humanist Desiderius Erasmus.
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Angilbert delivered the document on Iconoclasm from the Frankish Synod of Frankfurt to Pope Adrian I, and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794, and 796. At one time, he served an officer of the maritime provinces. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 811. There are various traditions concerning Angilbert's relationship with Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne.
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In the north of Europe, the Protestant Reformation from the early 16th century onwards led to a swift decline in the number of altarpieces produced. Outbursts of iconoclasm locally led to the destruction of many altarpieces. As an example, during the burning of the Antwerp Cathedral in the course of the Reformation in 1533, more than fifty altarpieces were destroyed. The Reformation in itself also promoted a new way of viewing religious art.
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Ephesus continued to play an active role in various ecclesiastical disputes during the medieval period. When the Byzantine Iconoclasm dispute broke out (8th century), metropolitan Theodosius was an ardent advocate against the icons. However, a number of local clergymen refused to implement the official policy which condemned the worship of icons. This resulted in drastic measures by the state, including intervention of the army, under the general Michael Lachanodrakon, and massive expulsions of monks.
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The church was founded in the 8th century, when Armenian monks fleeing due to the Byzantine Iconoclasm, came to Naples. They brought with them relics of Saints Gregory and Biagio. They initially built a chapel to shelter the skull of San Biagio next to the church of San Gennaro. In 1543, custody of the chapel was granted to the Congregation of the Booksellers (Librai), who clustered in this zone of the city.
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Michael of Synnada or Michael the Confessor (; died 23 May 826) was a metropolitan bishop of Synnada from 784/7 to 815. He represented Byzantium in diplomatic missions to Harun al-Rashid and Charlemagne. He was exiled by Emperor Leo V the Armenian because of his opposition to iconoclasm, and died on 23 May 826. He is honoured as a saint by the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, his feast day is May 23.
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In contrast to some other countries, the Reformation in Sweden during the 16th century was not accompanied by any widespread iconoclasm. Most church murals remained unspoiled, and were occasionally even restored, after the Reformation. The lack of any major wars on Swedish soil since the Middle Ages further contributed to preserving many of the murals. Some completely new church murals were also created during the 17th and 18th centuries, often conservative, almost medieval, in style.
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Leo the Mathematician or the Philosopher ( or ὁ Φιλόσοφος, Léōn ho Mathēmatikós or ho Philósophos; c. 790 - after 869) was a Byzantine philosopher and logician associated with the Macedonian Renaissance and the end of the Second Byzantine Iconoclasm. His only preserved writings are some notes contained in manuscripts of Plato's dialogues. He has been called a "true Renaissance man"Marcus Louis Rautman (2006), Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (Greenwood Publishing Group, ), 294-95.
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Marcus Gheeraerts became involved in the Calvinist community in Bruges and became a leader of the local church community. Whereas Calvinism was initially tolerated, the religious persecution of Calvinists commenced in 1567 with the arrival of new governor of the Low Countries, the Duke of Alva. In 1566 he participated in protests against the arrest of Calvinists in Bruges. He reflected in his art on the religious turmoil and iconoclasm of his time.
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Treadgold, pg. 352 Although Leo made no move to enforce this edict in the west beyond having it read in Rome and Ravenna, Gregory immediately rejected the edict.Treadgold, pg. 352; Mann, pg. 186 Upon hearing this, the Exarchate of Ravenna rose in revolt against the imperial imposition of iconoclasm. The armies of Ravenna and the Duchy of the Pentapolis mutinied, denouncing both Exarch Paul and Leo III, and overthrew those officers who remained loyal.
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This inaugurated the Iconoclastic period, which lasted, with interruptions, until 843. While iconoclasm severely restricted the role of religious art, and led to the removal of some earlier apse mosaics and (possibly) the sporadic destruction of portable icons, it never constituted a total ban on the production of figural art. Ample literary sources indicate that secular art (i.e. hunting scenes and depictions of the games in the hippodrome) continued to be produced,.
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1) #14 (August 2009) By the time of the invasion of Earth, Daxamite society had evolved into a semi-religious regime. Spacefaring for purposes other than conquest was denounced and several pieces of technology were outlawed. Xenophobia had become universal, save for rare exceptions such as Sodam Yat, Kel and Lar Gand, the first and the last of whom were driven to self-imposed exile to avoid harsher punishment for their iconoclasm.
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Pietism and rationalism led not only to the simplification or even elimination of certain ceremonial elements,Rudolf Rocholl: Gesch. d. ev. Kirche in Deutschland, s. 300 such as the use of vestments, The Proper Communion Vestments by P. Severinsen but also to less frequent celebration of the Eucharist, by the end of the era of Lutheran Orthodoxy. There has been very little iconoclasm in Lutheran churches and church buildings have often remained richly furnished.
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This temple of British iconoclasm centered on fetishistic accessories and ranges of clothing in which black rubber and steel studs were the external signs of an underlying sadism. Postmodernist and iconoclastic in essence the punk movement was a direct reaction to the economic situation during the economic depression of the period, the vehicle for a hatred that was more visceral than political. Punk had at its heart a manifesto of creation through disorder.
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The subject of the poem is boredom of an afternoon and being saved from it by focus on an experience of brilliant color. The poetry of the subject upsets traditional expectations, especially in the first and last lines. Stevens is experimenting with iconoclasm. The informality and familiarity of "I say now, Fernando" puts the reader off balance, and the last line provokes the belle-lettrist who finds that in this poem Stevens "goes over to the Chinese".
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815–843) or shortly after it. This would also explain his pejorative sobriquet (choiroboskos, i.e. "swineherd") as well as the only fragmentary survival of his works, as he may have been an adherent of Iconoclasm. His reputation was certainly blackened, so that the 12th-century bishop and scholar Eustathius of Thessalonica, who quotes frequently from his works, fulminates against those who gave the "wise teacher" this nickname out of envy, and thereby condemned him to oblivion.
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Agios Symeon of Lesvos Saint Symeon Stylites of Lesbos (765/66–844) was a monk who survived two attempts on his life during the second period of Byzantine Iconoclasm (814–842). He followed a similar model to Simeon Stylites, residing on a pillar-like structure similar to a tower. There he isolated himself from the world and fasted, prayed and studied. He is venerated with his two brothers, Saint George the Archbishop of Mytilene and Saint David the Monk.
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Davies (2008) p. 281 Haggar's work received a worldwide audience mainly through the Gaumont and Urban companies.Davies (2008) p. 282 Haggar's most notable film was Desperate Poaching Affray (1903) which is recognised for its violence, iconoclasm and progressive editing. The film, along with Frank Mottorshaw's A Daring Daylight Burglary and Edwin Stanton Porter's The Great Train Robbery, has in the early Twenty-first century, been credited with influencing the chase subgenre of American films.Davies (2008) p.
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Following the Triumph of Orthodoxy over iconoclasm she was recognized as a martyr and saint, and her body was kept and venerated in the church of Hagia Euphemia en to Petrio, in the quarter named Dexiokratianai, named after the houses owned here by one Dexiokrates.Janin, 151 It corresponds to the modern neighborhood of Ayakapı, along the Golden Horn. After the beginning of the fourteenth century, the church was named after her. It may correspond to the mosque of Gül.
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Frieda, 268; Sutherland, Ancien Régime, p. 20. His mother continued to play a principal role in politics, and she joined her son on a Grand Tour of the kingdom between 1564 and 1566, designed to reinstate crown authority. During this time, Jeanne d'Albret met and held talks with Catherine at Mâcon and Nérac. Reports of iconoclasm in Flanders led Charles IX to lend support to the Catholics there; French Huguenots feared a Catholic re- mobilisation against them.
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Among the rare examples are the 6th-century Christ in majesty (or Ezekiel's Vision) mosaic in the apse of the Church of Hosios David in Thessaloniki that was hidden behind mortar during those dangerous times. Nine mosaic panels in the Hagios Demetrios Church, which were made between 634 and 730, also escaped destruction. Unusually almost all represent Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki, often with suppliants before him. This iconoclasm was almost certainly because of nearby muslim's beliefs.
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The reviewer writes that Iconoclast "not only analyzes the nature of iconoclasm in fascinating detail, but also serves as a guide for people who feel trapped by conventional thinking and want to escape. The keys out of their prisons are in this book. It is up to these readers to use them to escape and open new doors." Iconoclast was reviewed by Alden M. Hayashi in an article entitled Why Picasso Outearned van Gogh in MIT Sloan Management Review.
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Michael III would play a vital role in the Byzantine resurgence of the 9th century. As Michael was merely two years old when his father died, the Empire was governed by a regency headed by his mother Theodora, her uncle Sergios, and the minister Theoktistos. The empress had iconodule sympathies and deposed Patriarch John VII of Constantinople, replacing him with the iconodule Patriarch Methodius I of Constantinople in 843. This put an end to the second spell of iconoclasm.
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He wrote of the Ghent Altarpiece being "taken to pieces and lifted, panel by panel, into the tower to preserve it from the rioters".Van Vaernewijck (1905–6), 132 Antwerp saw very thorough destruction in its churches in 1566,Arnade, 133–148 followed by more losses in the Spanish Sack of Antwerp in 1576, and a further period of official iconoclasm in 1581, which now included city and guild buildings, when Calvinists controlled the city council.
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The essays were praised in the Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature for their "iconoclasm and trenchant wit often bordering on sarcasm." Underhill's other notable works include Canadian Political Parties, 1957; The Image of Confederation, 1964; and Upper Canadian Politics in the 1850s, 1967. Underhill was a strong supporter of the United States during the Cold War. He also became a supporter of the Liberal Party of Canada, particularly once his long-time friend, Lester Pearson joined the government.
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John I delighted in tournaments and was always eager to take part in jousts. He was also famous for his many illegitimate children. On 3 May 1294 at some marriage festivities at Bar-le-Duc, John I was mortally wounded in the arm in an encounter by Pierre de Bausner. He was buried in the church of the Order of Friars Minor (Minderbroederskerk) in Brussels, but since the Protestant iconoclasm (Beeldenstorm) in 1566, nothing remains of his tomb.
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Wreckovation is a portmanteau term coined by some Catholics to describe the style of renovations which historic Catholic cathedrals, churches, and oratories have undergone since the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) and which they oppose. As seen by these opponents, some post Vatican II renovations of older churches are similar in nature to the iconoclastic modifications of churches that took place in Northern Europe during the Reformation in the 16th century or the Byzantine Iconoclasm in the 7th century.
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In the 1520s during the Protestant Reformation, the city, under the political guidance of Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck and the spiritual guidance of Martin Bucer embraced the religious teachings of Martin Luther. Their adherents established a Gymnasium, headed by Johannes Sturm, made into a University in the following century. The city first followed the Tetrapolitan Confession, and then the Augsburg Confession. Protestant iconoclasm caused much destruction to churches and cloisters, notwithstanding that Luther himself opposed such a practice.
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He also accused Emperor Alexios I Komnenos for sacrilege and iconoclasm, because he allowed the melting of religious gold and silver objects in order to sustain his war effort. Greek-Orthodox metropolises in Asia Minor, ca. 1880. Due to the long tradition of Saint Euphemia and its association with the area of Chalcedon, the local metropolitans claimed and occasionally succeeded to control a number of churches and shrines dedicated to her in the region of Constantinople.
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Sister Wendy spent many years translating Medieval Latin scripts before deciding, in 1980, to pursue art. Her first book, Contemporary Women Artists, was published in 1988. Sister Wendy Contemplates Saint Paul in Art was published in 2008 to celebrate the Year of Saint Paul. In May 2009, Encounters with God: In Quest of the Ancient Icons of Mary was published, which follows Beckett's pilgrimage to see the earliest icons of Mary which had survived the Byzantine Iconoclasm.
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The only major pieces of art that survived the iconoclasm inside the cathedral are the stained glass windows and the choir stalls. Stained glass windows of the cathedral The stained glass windows date from 1441–1450 and are considered the most valuable in Switzerland. The windows include a number of heraldic symbols and religious images as well as an entire "Dance of Death" window. This window shows death, as a skeleton, claiming people from all professions and social classes.
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Tradition teaches that Saint Phosterius the Hermit dwelt on a high mountain most likely in the wilderness of modern-day Turkey. He is said to have been fed by an angel which serves as a testament to his holiness. Phosterius gained renown amongst his contemporaries during the Iconoclastic Controversy in the seventh century. Due to the testimony to the truth of the Christian faith given by the witness of his holy life many people left the heresy of Iconoclasm.
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Camper Van Beethoven is an American rock band formed in Redlands, California in 1983 and later located in Santa Cruz and San Francisco. Their style mixes elements of pop, ska, punk rock, folk, alternative country, and world music. The band initially polarized audiences within the hardcore punk scene of California's Inland Empire before finding wider acceptance and, eventually, an international audience. Their strong iconoclasm and emphasis on do-it-yourself values proved influential to the burgeoning indie rock movement.
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208 Gregory, in the meantime, demonstrated his opposition to iconoclasm by emphasising his veneration of icons and relics. He repaired or beautified numerous churches, which involved their decoration with icons and images of Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints.Mann, pp. 208-209 He ordered to be erected in the heart of St. Peter’s Basilica an iconostasis, situated between six onyx and marble columns which had been sent to Gregory as a gift from the exarch Eutychius.
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Aurel Stein hypothesized that the Buddhist temples of Qigexing were burned during an iconoclasm after Islam became the state religion of the Kara-Khanid Khanate. Archeological finds in Qigexing include the ruins of larger temple compounds (with more than 100 buildings in total) as well as twelve cave temples. The remains of some wall paintings and in particular sculptures have been discovered at the site. Sculptures have been found as individual figures as well as in friezes.
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The reason for Antony's change of heart is said to have included his hope for attaining the patriarchate. The emperor appointed him a member of the committee headed by the future Patriarch John Grammatikos to find patristic support for Iconoclasm. In 821 the new Emperor Michael II appointed Antony patriarch, disappointing the Stoudites, who were hoping that icons would be restored. When the patriarch of Antioch crowned Thomas the Slav rival emperor, Antony had him excommunicated in 822.
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The violin dance is by many described as a fancy promenade ball where live violin music is played and students wear their best garments while dancing elegantly. The tradition was started in the 1960s and was meant to be an iconoclasm to the hippie culture at the time. Reverend Geir Waage is rumored to have been the originator of the dance. It was only held once, although in 1992 it was resurrected by Dagur B. Eggertsson, inspector scholae.
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Most scholars reject direct religious influence, though many feel the feeling of crisis produced by defeats at the hands of Islam contributed to the Iconoclast movement. Both the cross and secular two-dimensional images continued to be acceptable, indeed were used to replace religious imagery in the two best- known examples. The defeat of Byzantine Iconoclasm was so emphatic that the issue has never arisen again in Orthodoxy.Robin Cormack, Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons, pp.
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John of Gothia (John of Partenit) was a Metropolitan bishop of Doros. During the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm, John reputedly gathered Orthodox refugees from Constantinople in the Crimea.Ю. М. Могаричев, А. В. Сазанов, А. К. Шапошников, Житие Иоанна Готского в контексте истории Крыма "хазарского периода", 2007, samlib.ru (ГЛАВА V: Некоторые проблемы истории Крыма иконоборческого периода) A bishop of Gothia attended the iconoclastic Council of Hieria in 754, but his flock soon expelled him and elected John in his place.
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In Egypt, iconoclasm was > the most terrible religious crime; in Israel, the most terrible religious > crime was idolatry. In this respect Osarseph alias Akhenaten, the > iconoclast, and the Golden Calf, the paragon of idolatry, correspond to each > other inversely, and it is strange that Aaron could so easily avoid the role > of the religious criminal. It is more than probable that these traditions > evolved under mutual influence. In this respect, Moses and Akhenaten became, > after all, closely related.
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Certain Muslim denominations continue to pursue iconoclastic agendas. There has been much controversy within Islam over the recent and apparently on-going destruction of historic sites by Saudi Arabian authorities, prompted by the fear they could become the subject of "idolatry." A recent act of iconoclasm was the 2001 destruction of the giant Buddhas of Bamyan by the then-Taliban government of Afghanistan. The act generated worldwide protests and was not supported by other Muslim governments and organizations.
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Later that year, the bodies of many French kings were exhumed from the Basilica of Saint-Denis and dumped in a mass grave. Some episodes of iconoclasm were carried out spontaneously by crowds of citizens, including the destruction of statues of kings during the insurrection of 10 August 1792 in Paris. Some were directly sanctioned by the Republican government, including the Saint-Denis exhumations. Nonetheless, the Republican government also took steps to preserve historic artworks,Oliver, pp.
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Catholic and Orthodox historians affirm, on the basis of these archeological finds in the Catacombs, that the veneration of icons and relics had begun well before Constantine I. Christian use of relics also dates to the catacombs, when Christians found themselves praying in the presence of the bodies of martyrs, sometimes using their tombs as altars for sharing the Eucharist, which was, and in Catholicism, Lutheranism and Eastern Orthodoxy is, the central act of Christian worship. Many stories of the earliest martyrs end with an account of how Christians would gather up the martyr's remains, to the extent possible, in order to retain the martyr's relics. This is shown in the written record of the martyrdom of Saint Polycarp, a personal disciple of Saint John the Apostle. Significant periods of iconoclasm (deliberate destruction of icons) have occurred in the history of the Church, the first major outbreak being the Byzantine iconoclasm (730-787), motivated by a strictly literal interpretation of the second commandment and interaction with Muslims who have a very strict teachings against the creation of images.
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To mark the millennium in 2000, a cross was erected in each of the 12 parishes to replace the wayside crosses that fell subject to the iconoclasm of the 16th century. Here, the millennium cross of Saint Helier bears the Jèrriais inscription À la glouaithe dé Dgieu (To the glory of God). The island's patron saint is Saint Helier. The established church is the Church of England, but Methodism has been historically strong, especially in country areas, and remains influential.
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Little is known about his life. He held the positions of deacon and chartophylax (keeper of archives) at the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and is also referred in some of his works, known as oikoumenikos didaskalos (οἰκουμενικὸς διδάσκαλος), i.e. as one of the three teachers at the Patriarchal School of the Hagia Sophia. Earlier scholars used to date him in the 6th century, but he is now placed in the early 9th century, during the second period of Byzantine Iconoclasm (c.
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Category:Literary movements Category:Chinese literary schools and movements Category:1980s establishments in China The xúngēn movement () is a cultural and literary movement in mainland China emphasizing local and minority cultures. It began in the late 1980s. Its premise is that the Cultural Revolution damaged a pluralistic Chinese identity and traditions that had existed for centuries, and that the reconstruction of that identity requires a healthy appreciation of local cultures. Furthermore, the century of modernization and cultural and political iconoclasm had only severed Chinese traditions.
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On becoming aware of an iconodule influenced conspiracy directed at himself, Constantine reacted uncompromisingly; in 765, eighteen high dignitaries were paraded in the hippodrome charged with treason, they were variously executed, blinded or exiled. Patriarch Constantine II of Constantinople was implicated and deposed from office, and the following year he was tortured and beheaded.Bury, p. 14 By the end of Constantine's reign, iconoclasm had gone as far as to brand relics and prayers to the saints as heretical, or at least highly questionable.
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Thanks to centuries of sealing off, its walls showcase a cycle of beautiful colourful frescoes depicting the Virgin Mary and Infant Jesus, popes, saints, and martyrs, thus forming one of the largest and most important collections of pre-iconoclastic Roman and Byzantine art in the world. These frescoes date to a period of iconoclasm when in the East, figures in churches were destroyed. Pope John VII used this church in the early 8th century as the seat of the bishop of Rome.
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Ignatios the Deacon (, 780/790 – after 845) was a Byzantine cleric and writer. Left an orphan as a child, he was educated under the auspices of Patriarch Tarasios of Constantinople, and rose in the church hierarchy under Tarasios' successor, Nikephoros I, becoming a deacon and skeuophylax of the Hagia Sophia. After the start of the second period of the Byzantine Iconoclasm ca. 814, he sided with the iconoclasts, becoming metropolitan bishop of the prestigious see of Nicaea, probably in the 830s.
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Further destruction of cult images, anathema to Puritans, occurred during the English Civil War. Less extreme transitions occurred throughout northern Europe in which formerly Catholic churches became Protestant. In these, the corpus (body of Christ) was removed from the crucifix leaving a bare cross and walls were whitewashed of religious images. Catholic regions of Europe, especially artistic centres like Rome and Antwerp, responded to Reformation iconoclasm with a Counter-Reformation renewal of venerable imagery, though banning some of the more fanciful medieval iconographies.
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The only complete vernacular version was the Coverdale Bible finished in 1535 and based on Tyndale's earlier work. It lacked royal approval, however. Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch in his study of The Later Reformation in England, 1547–1603 argues that after 1537, "England's Reformation was characterized by its hatred of images, as Margaret Aston's work on iconoclasm and iconophobia has repeatedly and eloquently demonstrated." In February 1538, the famous Rood of Grace was condemned as a mechanical fraud and destroyed at St Paul's Cross.
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Initially, the couple fled to Vest Recklinghausen, a fiefdom of the Electorate. There, Agnes and Gebhard encouraged an outbreak of iconoclasm that destroyed many well-known and beloved religious sites; the Reformation had already been wrought in Vest and Recklinghausen, and many of the inhabitants had converted to the new faith. The burst of iconoclastic energy, indulged predominantly by Gebhard's troops and not by the inhabitants themselves, alienated the residents from Gebhard, his wife, and their cause. Ennen, pp. 78–120.
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The Holy Monastery of Trooditissa is estimated to have been founded after the period of iconoclasm. The earlier buildings, which were of the middle Byzantine period (12th century) are not saved. The main church and the other surrounding buildings were built in the 18th-20th centuries. The most important relic of the monastery is the thaumaturgist icon of Virgin Mary, originally from Asia Minor and is known for its wonders to childless married couples who wish to have a child.
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Richards began teaching at Pennsylvania State University in 1990. He is a senior lecturer at The Pennsylvania State University and teaches the largest race relations course in the United States. This course, Sociology 119 – Race and Ethnic Relations, enrolls 725 students each semester. As a professor, he is well known on campus and his iconoclasm landed him in "The Professors: The 101 Most Dangerous Academics in America," a book published by David Horowitz that critiques the dominance of liberal thinking in the academy.
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Europe around 814 The iconoclasm of the Byzantine Isaurian Dynasty was endorsed by the Franks. The Second Council of Nicaea reintroduced the veneration of icons under Empress Irene. The council was not recognised by Charlemagne since no Frankish emissaries had been invited, even though Charlemagne ruled more than three provinces of the classical Roman empire and was considered equal in rank to the Byzantine emperor. And while the Pope supported the reintroduction of the iconic veneration, he politically digressed from Byzantium.
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The Dutch Revolt (1566–1648)This article adopts 1568 as the starting date of the war, as this was the year of the first battles between armies. However, since there is a long period of Protestant vs. Catholic (establishment) unrest leading to the war, it is not easy to give an exact date when the revolt started. The first open violence that would lead to the war was the 1566 iconoclasm, and sometimes the first Spanish repressions of the riots (i.e.
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Although the Movement was highly influential, many of the intellectuals at the time opposed the anti- traditional message and many political figures ignored it. "this limited May Fourth individualist enlightenment did not lead the individual against the collective of the nation-state, as full-scale, modern Western individualism would potentially do.". Chiang Kai-shek, as a nationalist and Confucianist was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement. As an anti-imperialist, he was skeptical of western ideas and literature.
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Mao's China and After. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 14. Chinese iconoclasm was expressed most clearly and vociferously by Chen Duxiu during the New Culture Movement which occurred between 1915 and 1919. Proposing the "total destruction of the traditions and values of the past", the New Culture Movement was spearheaded by the New Youth, a periodical which was published by Chen Duxiu and was profoundly influential on the young Mao Zedong, whose first published work appeared on the magazine's pages.
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Ahura Mazda (depiction is on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Relief at Naqsh-e Rustam, 3rd century CE) During the early Parthian Empire, Ahura Mazda was visually represented for worship. This practice ended during the beginning of the Sassanid empire. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship.
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As one of the few monasteries in Switzerland, Weesen widely was spared from the repercussions of the 1520s Swiss Reformation, probably not least because the monastery still eked out a poor existence, so there was no reason for looting. Nevertheless, the iconoclasm lay lamed the monastic life briefly, and the sisters fled to a two-year exile. On their return, the nuns found their monastery desecrated and devastated. Only in the second half of the 17th century, the convent completely recovered.
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231 Though Michael III was allegedly prone to squander money, his reign stabilized the economy, and by the year 850 the empire's annual revenues had increased to 3,300,000 nomismata. The definitive end to iconoclasm early in his reign led, unsurprisingly, to a renaissance in visual arts. The Empire made considerable advances in internal organisation and religious cohesion, and it had more than held its own against the Abbasid Caliphate. Most importantly Bulgaria had been transformed into a religious and cultural satellite of Byzantium.
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Bothwell Parish is the only Collegiate church where worship is still held. It is thought that the first Collegium of canons with its own chapel was formed in St. Andrews in the 13th century, and it is thought that by the Reformation there were more than 50 secular religious houses. The proscription of the Catholic faith in 1567 meant that these houses had to close. Although Scotland endured the Iconoclasm of the Reformation, there are still some handsome structures extant.
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Although somewhat obscured by renovations and reuse over the past two thousand years, several other rooms from the bath complex are also incorporated into the museum, notably the gymnasium, which now forms part of gallery 9 (Gallery of French Kings and sculptures from Notre Dame that were taken down during the iconoclasm of the French Revolution). The caldarium (hot water room) and the tepidarium (warm water room) are both still present as ruins outside the Musée and on the museum's grounds.
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Perhaps a native of Eraclea, Orso was elected Doge in 726 following the death of Marcello Tegalliano. The Venetian people had elected him against the will of the Byzantine Empire, a consequence of the Byzantines' unwelcome attempts to institute iconoclasm in the West. Virtually nothing is known of his life before his accession, though it is reasonable to assume that he was born in the latter part of the seventh century. Described by one historian as being a 'warlike man',Knight, p.
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Later in life he became dramatic critic of The Times and wrote a version of Last Days of Pompeii in 1872. Bryan Magee, in his The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, described how Oxenford contributed to the promulgation of Schopenhauer's work. Oxenford's anonymous Westminster Review 1853 article, "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," was written in order to present Schopenhauer as a critic of Hegel. It was translated and published in the Vossische Zeitung, which resulted in German readers showing enthusiastic and enduring interest in Schopenhauer's writings.
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Similarly, author and intellectual Lorraine Hansberry joined Baldwin in rejecting the same message. She argued WN also excuses and idealizes society's denigrating and ostracizing Black people to further Mailer's agenda of repackaging White racism as Black iconoclasm. While Mailer seemed to have a sense of the historical importance of the late 1950s, explains Ginsberg, he was being an "apocalyptic goof" with his naive Hipster figuration that Kerouac saw as "well intentioned but poisonous, in the sense that it encouraged an image of violence".
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Among the 47,000 religious buildings in France, 94% are Roman Catholic. During the French Revolution, activists conducted a brutal campaign of de-Christianisation, ending the Catholic Church as the state religion. In some cases clergy and churches were attacked, with iconoclasm stripping the churches of statues and ornaments. After alternating between royal and secular republican governments during the 19th century, in 1905 France passed the 1905 law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, which established the principle of laïcité.
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In 843, with the end of Iconoclasm, the Feast of Orthodoxy was celebrated for the first time in the church of Blachernae with an Agrypnía ("holy Vigil"), which occurred on the first Sunday of Lent. The Blachernitissa was discovered again during restoration works executed during the reign of Romanos III Argyros,On that occasion Romanos also covered the capitals of the columns with gold and silver foil. Janin (1953), p. 169. and became again one of the most venerated icons of Constantinople.
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Together with his brother he spoke out against the illegal marriage of Emperor Constantine VI (the "Moechian Controversy"), for which, after the torment, he was imprisoned in a dungeon on a deserted island. Emperor Michael I Rangabe liberated Joseph from prison. Under Emperor Leo V the Armenian, when the second period of the Byzantine Iconoclasm began, the bishop and his brother were again punished for venerating the holy icons. In prison he was tortured, but the prelate was unshakable in his faith.
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Robert Rauschenberg, 1963, Retroactive II; combine painting with paint and photos. Neo-Dada was a movement with audio, visual and literary manifestations that had similarities in method or intent with earlier Dada artwork. It sought to close the gap between art and daily life, and was a combination of playfulness, iconoclasm, and appropriation. In the United States the term was popularized by Barbara Rose in the 1960s and refers primarily, although not exclusively, to work created in that and the preceding decade.
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The following year, Wolsey fell from Henry VIII's favour when he failed to expedite the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. In contrast, Latimer's reputation was in the ascendant as he took the lead among the reformers in Cambridge. During Advent in 1529, he preached his two "Sermons on the Card" at St Edward's Church. In 1535, he was appointed Bishop of Worcester, in succession to an Italian absentee, and promoted reformed teachings and iconoclasm in his diocese.
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The next morning, footprints and other marks in the ashes would indicate what kind of animal the dead person's soul had migrated into and the direction in which that animal might be found.Hastings, Selbie, and Gray, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 1908, p. 491. Among the Loma people of western Africa, spodomancy is still (as of the late 20th century) used to divine the sex of a child before birth.Højbjerg, Resisting State Iconoclasm Among the Loma of Guinea, 2007, p. 164-165.
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The wall paintings of the Chapelle ès Pêcheurs (Fishermen's Chapel) are a rare survival of the iconoclasm of the Reformation in Jersey. Despite its small size, the population of Jersey is made of people with a diverse range of religions and beliefs. Traditionally seen as a Christian island, Jersey's established church is the Church of England, and Anglicanism and Catholicism are practised on the island in roughly equal numbers. Together, these religions account for around half the population of Jersey.
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Saint Joseph the Hymnographer () was a Greek monk of the ninth century. He is one of the greatest liturgical poets and hymnographers of the Eastern Orthodox Church, but as a poet he is often confused with Joseph, the Archbishop of Thessalonica and brother of Theodore the Studite, who were one generation older than he was. He is also known for his confession of the Orthodox Faith in opposition to Iconoclasm. He is called in certain sources "the sweet-voiced nightingale of the Church".
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This script alone style then was used on nearly all Islamic coinage until the modern period. The type of Justinian II was revived after the end of Iconoclasm, and with variations remained the norm until the end of the Empire. Without images, therefore, it is not always easy to tell which side will be regarded as the obverse without some knowledge. Silver rupee using Mughal conventions, but minted by the British East India Company Madras Presidency between 1817 and 1835.
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The adoption of iconoclasm seemed indeed to be vindicated in the Emperor's eyes, for success returned to the Imperial arms, and the Muslims suffered a series of defeats between 727 and 732. The next years were more difficult, especially as the Arabs defeated the Khazars and forced their leader to convert to Islam. In 740 however the emperor and his son scored a decisive victory over an invading Arab army at Akroinon, which halted the momentum of the Arab attacks.Whittow (1996), p.
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In England, France and the Netherlands such pictures were systematically destroyed or whitewashed in bouts of Reformation iconoclasm. In Denmark and elsewhere many have since been restored. In Catalonia (Spain), there was a campaign to save such murals in the early 20th century (as of 1907) by removing them and transferring them to safekeeping in Barcelona, resulting in the spectacular collection at the National Art Museum of Catalonia. In other countries they have suffered from war, neglect and changing fashion.
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These movements existed independently of each other. Philip II, a devout Catholic and self-proclaimed protector of the Counter-Reformation, suppressed Calvinism in Flanders, Brabant and Holland (what is now approximately Belgian Limburg was part of the Bishopric of Liège and was Catholic de facto). In 1566, the iconoclasm (Beeldenstorm) began as protest against Philip II and promoted the disfigurement of statues and paintings depicting saints. This was associated with the ensuing religious war between Catholics and Protestants, especially the Anabaptists.
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Kilkieran was formerly a monastery dedicated to Ciarán of Saighir. The high crosses at Kilkieran were erected in the 9th century, and form part of the West Ossory group, including the Killamery High Cross, Ahenny and Kilree. Local legend claims that the tall North Cross was once destroyed in an act of iconoclasm, but was painstakingly reconstructed in the mid-19th century by blind local stonemason Paddy Laurence, who had lost his sight while working on the Palace of Westminster in London.
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XXXII (2018), pp. 127-36. Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm, with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass, religious sculpture and paintings. The parallel loss of patronage created a crisis for native craftsmen and artists, who turned to secular patrons. One result of this was the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls, with large numbers of private houses of burgesses, lairds and lords gaining often highly detailed and coloured patterns and scenes.
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Amun In the Bronze Age, the most significant episode of iconoclasm occurred in Egypt during the Amarna Period, when Akhenaten, based in his new capital of Akhetaten, instituted a significant shift in Egyptian artistic styles alongside a campaign of intolerance towards the traditional gods and a new emphasis on a state monolatristic tradition focused on the god Aten, the Sun disk—many temples and monuments were destroyed as a result:"Akhenaten." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 20 June 2020. via Encyclopedia.com.
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He was nominally the commander of the Papal Swiss Guard from 1517 until his death, but he was deputized by his son, Caspar Röist from 1518. During the Reformation in Zürich, Röist was in general agreement with Huldrych Zwingli, excepting Zwingli's iconoclasm, vehemently opposing the removal of religious imagery from the churches. He died before the conflict with Zwingli escalated, and the city council enacted the decree permitting the removal of saints' images still on the very day of his death, 15 June 1524.
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He knew well that a compromise had to be made between the various parties in the Sticht and in Utrecht itself, and so took up a middle-of-the-road position. He personally managed the possessions of the lordships of Aemstel and of Woerden, and as such granted town privileges to Amsterdam in 1306. After his death these lordships definitively devolved to the count of Holland. He was buried in Utrecht Cathedral and his tomb, damaged during the iconoclasm in the 16th century, still survives.
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Noted for his administrative and political competence, Theoktistos played a major role in ending the Byzantine Iconoclasm, and fostered the ongoing renaissance in education within the Empire. He also continued the persecution of the Paulicians, but had mixed success in the wars against the Arabs. When Michael III came of age in 855, his uncle Bardas persuaded him to throw off the tutelage of Theoktistos and his mother, the Empress Theodora, and on 20 November 855, Theoktistos was assassinated by Bardas and his followers.
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358–359 A mosaic cross in the apse of the Hagia Irene church in Istanbul. It is one of the few artistic remains of iconoclasm. Created during the reign of Constantine it occupies the semi-dome of the apse usually reserved for a devotional image, often a depiction of Christ Pantocrator or the Theotokos The fiscal administration of Constantine was highly competent. This drew from his enemies accusations of being a merciless and rapacious extractor of taxes and an oppressor of the rural population.
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Obviously, dating the Life is of paramount importance for dating the Paphlagonian expedition. Unfortunately the source or parts of it have been variously ascribed to the 9th or 10th centuries, and the question still seems to be far from being settled. Vasily Vasilievsky, who was the first to publish the text in 1893, attributed it to Ignatios the Deacon (ca. 775 – ca. 848). Accordingly, he thought that the attack had happened during the period of Iconoclasm (before 842), notably dating it to the years 825–830.
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During Lent the rood was veiled; on Palm Sunday it was revealed before the procession of palms, and the congregation knelt before it. The whole Passion story would then be read from the rood loft, at the foot of the crucifix, by three ministers. No original medieval rood has survived in a church in the United Kingdom.Duffy, 1992, page not cited Most were deliberately destroyed as acts of iconoclasm during the English Reformation and the English Civil War, when many rood screens were also removed.
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Icon of Christ Pantokrator (Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai). The Eastern Orthodox Church fully ascribes to the teachings of the Seventh Ecumenical Council and celebrates the restoration of the use of icons after the period of Iconoclasm on the First Sunday of Great Lent. So important are the icons in Orthodox theology that the ceremony celebrating their restoration is known as the Triumph of Orthodoxy. In the traditions of Eastern Christianity, only flat images or bas relief images are used (no more than 3/4 relief).
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That monk was Theodore the Studite who was made a saint after his death, and who had been persecuted for actively supporting the making and the using icons. Professor Cormack writes, "The prominent role of Patriarch Nikephoros, as triumphant iconophile is replaced with portraits of the monk St. Theodore the Studite. Natural though it was to celebrate a past member of the community in which the manuscript was made, it slants the opposition to iconoclasm away from patriarch to monk." Miniature from the Theodore Psalter.
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The hagiography describing his life is attributed to the contemporary monk and writer Ignatios the Deacon, but the authorship is disputed. Although he lived through the second period of the Byzantine Iconoclasm, and is recorded as an advocate of the iconophile view, Gregory was not persecuted. As a saint, he was chiefly remembered as a miracle-worker, whence his surname νέος θαυματουργός, "the New Miracle-Worker". The only extant writing of Gregory himself is a sermon regarding the—likely historical—conversion of a Muslim to Christianity.
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He left his home country with his family in 1584 after the Fall of Antwerp and his position as court painter was taken up by Otto van Veen. The fact that he left Flanders after the recapturing of Antwerp indicates that he was a Protestant.David Freedberg, Iconoclasm and painting in the revolt of the Netherlands, 1566–1609, Garland, 1988 A painted allegory described by van Mander depicting a chained personification of Belgica, i.e. the Netherlands, supports the view that his emigration was politically motivated.
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63 The synod issued a ruling, outlining the traditional Roman position as articulated by previous popes, in support of Icon veneration, and condemned iconoclasm as a heresy.Treadgold, pg. 354 They also decreed that: > ”if anyone, for the future, shall take away, destroy, or dishonour the > images of Our Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ, of His Mother, the > immaculate and glorious Virgin Mary, or of the Saints, he shall be excluded > from the body and blood of Our Lord and the unity of the Church.”Mann, pgs.
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Relief statues in the Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht, attacked in Reformation iconoclasm in the 16th century."The birth and growth of Utrecht" The atmosphere in the Netherlands was tense due to the rebellion, preaching of Calvinist leaders, hunger after the bad harvest of 1565, and economic difficulties due to the Northern Seven Years' War. In early August 1566, a monastery church at Steenvoorde in Flanders (now in Northern France) was sacked by a mob led by the preacher Sebastian Matte.G. Parker, The Dutch Revolt.
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Torrell, 161 ff. Similar collections of Greek patristic utterances were constructed for dogmatic purposes. They were used at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, at the Fifth General Council in 553, also apropos of Iconoclasm in the Seventh General Council in 787; and among the Greeks such compilations, like the exegetical catenae, did not cease until late in the Middle Ages. The oldest of these dogmatic compilations, attributed to the latter part of the seventh century, is the "Antiquorum Patrum doctrina de Verbi incarnatione".
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Tarasios was born and raised in the city of Constantinople. A son of a high-ranking judge, Tarasios was related to important families, including that of the later Patriarch Photios the Great. Tarasios had embarked on a career in the secular administration and had attained the rank of senator, eventually becoming imperial secretary (asekretis) to the Emperor Constantine VI and his mother, the Empress Irene. Originally he embraced Iconoclasm, but later repented, resigned his post, and retired to a monastery, taking the Great Schema (monastic habit).
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Most scholars now believe that the Acts of Thaddeus was written in the seventh century at the earliest. Nicolotti dates it between 609 and , when the Image of Edessa was brought to Constantinople. Palmer dates it to the seventh century, and had specifically suggested between 629–630, although this has been rejected by Angelo Gramaglia. Mirkovic notes that it is typically dated after the public appearance of the Image of Edessa in 544, and considers the iconoclasm controversy of the eighth century as the most probably context.
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Leo's first task was to deal with the Bulgarian situation, who now occupied most of Thrace and were blockading Constantinople. Eventually he was able to conclude a peace treaty in 815, to the long-running Byzantine–Bulgarian wars. In religious matters, despite early evidence of image veneration, he adopted iconoclasm, this precipitating the second phase of the divisive controversy (814–842). He appears to have been motivated by the observation that the return of image veneration coincided with a period of untimely ends of emperors.
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View of the Hagia Sophia in 2012 The Hagia Sophia () at Nicaea is a Byzantine- era church (now a mosque) in Nicaea (now known as İznik) in Turkey.Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, "Nicaea", London, (1854). The church of Hagia Sophia was built by Justinian I in the middle of the city in the 6th century.Hazlitt, Classical Gazetteer, "Nicæa" It was in this building that the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 to end the first period of Byzantine Iconoclasm.
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Several religious controversies contributed to social unrest in Moldavia. Despot's prohibition of divorce, his lapses into Protestant iconoclasm and his fiscal policies all served to alienate the public; this conflict was aggravated by his plan to marry a Calvinist, which opened the prospect of a Protestant dynasty. Weakened by Despot's disputes with Olbracht Łaski and the Zaporozhian Cossacks, the regime was brought down by the pretender Ștefan Tomșa. After a months-long siege in Suceava, Despot surrendered and was immediately killed, probably by Tomșa's own hand.
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These included a desire to plant a school in every parish and major reforms of the university system. The Kirk discouraged many forms of plays, as well as poetry that was not devotional in nature; however, significant playwrights and poets did nevertheless emerge, such as George Buchanan and the Castalian Band of James VI's reign. Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm. Native craftsmen and artists turned to secular patrons, resulting in the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls.
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Brubaker began as an expert in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts, writing a pathbreaking book on one manuscript, Paris Grec. 510, in her Vision and Meaning. Her interests have extended since to the cultural history of Iconoclasm and the development of the cult of icons, on which she wrote two now-basic books on the subject with John Haldon. She has written substantially on the relationship between material culture and its visual expressions, and other aspects of cultural history, including visual and textual representations of gender, and female patronage.
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The hagiography of the 42 was written soon after their execution, by the monk, Euodios, who used their fate and the sack of Amorium as an indictment of and proof of divine retribution against the re-adoption of Iconoclasm by Emperor Theophilos. Euodios' narrative mostly contains theological discussions between the steadfast prisoners and various people—Byzantine defectors, Muslim officials, etc.—sent to convince them to convert during their seven-year imprisonment. Their execution was then carried out by Ethiopian slaves on the banks of the Euphrates.
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New Wave () is a French art film movement which emerged in the late 1950s. The movement was characterized by its rejection of traditional filmmaking conventions in favor of experimentation and a spirit of iconoclasm. New Wave filmmakers explored new approaches to editing, visual style, and narrative, as well as engagement with the social and political upheavals of the era, often making use of irony or exploring existential themes. The New Wave is often considered one of the most influential movements in the history of cinema.
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The complex houses irreplaceable works of art: mosaics, the best collection of early icons in the world, many in encaustic, as well as liturgical objects, chalices and reliquaries, and church buildings. The large icon collection begins with a few dating to the 5th (possibly) and 6th centuries, which are unique survivals; the monastery having been untouched by Byzantine iconoclasm, and never sacked. The oldest icon on an Old Testament theme is also preserved there. A project to catalogue the collections has been ongoing since the 1960s.
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The verb προσκυνέω (proskyneo) is often used in the Septuagint and New Testament for the worship of pagan gods or the worship of the God of Israel. In addition, this word for in some cases used for the worship of angels. The question of the admissibility of proskynesis in relation to icons (bowing and kissing to icons) was raised in the 8th century, during the period of iconoclasm. Opponents of proskynesis in relation to the icons referred to the second commandment of the Law of Moses.
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Aldington's later biography of T. E. Lawrence in 1955 caused a scandal on its publication, and an immediate backlash.Independent Sunday 9 October 2005 In the spirit of iconoclasm, he was the first to bring public notice to Lawrence's illegitimacy and asserted that Lawrence was homosexual. He attacked the popular hero as a liar, a charlatan and an "impudent mythomaniac",The Oxford Companion to English Literature, 6th Edition. Edited by Margaret Drabble, Oxford University Press, 2000 Pp16 claims that have coloured Lawrence's reputation ever since.
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He first led them to divide their forces by forcing them to send relief forces to other cities, then sent all his own troops against them in a massed attack. Arrogance over victory, however, led to his downfall.Teng in Eminent Chinese, p. 887. Yang clashed with Hong over the rebellion's policies and views toward Confucianism and iconoclasm; Yang believed that Confucian morality was essentially positive and that its basic tenets were compatible with the rebellion's interpretation of Christianity and that images of dragons were not sacrilegious.
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Despite its ideological iconoclasm, many historical monuments were left undamaged by the Khmer Rouge; for Pol Pot's government, like its predecessors, the historic state of Angkor was a key point of reference. Several isolated revolts broke out against Pol Pot's government. The Khmer Rouge Western Zone regional chief Koh Kong and his followers began launching small-scale attacks on government targets along the Thai border. There were also several village rebellions among the Cham. In February 1976, explosions in Siem Reap destroyed a munitions depot.
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Twain's style, based on vigorous, realistic, colloquial American speech, gave American writers a new appreciation of their national voice. Twain was the first major author to come from the interior of the country, and he captured its distinctive, humorous slang and iconoclasm. For Twain and other American writers of the late 19th century, realism was not merely a literary technique: It was a way of speaking truth and exploding worn-out conventions. Twain is best known for his works Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
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In 451, the year that the local Ecumenical Council took place, the bishopric of Chalcedon was promoted to a metropolis. It was the third oldest metropolis in the region of Bithynia, in northwestern Asia Minor, after Nicaea and Nicomedia, while its prelate officially styled as Exarch of all Bithynia.Terezakis, 2005 A number of metropolitans and bishops of Chalcedon participated in the Byzantine Iconoclasm dispute, during the 8th–9th centuries. Some of them martyred and are venerated by the Orthodox Church, like the metropolitans Nicetas, Kosmas and John.
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She proclaimed a bride-show for him and seem to have handpicked her stepdaughter-in-law Theodora. Soon after she retired to a monastery again. Theophanes Continuatus, in the continuation of the chronicle started by Theophanes the Confessor, indicates that Theophilos obligated her to hold on to her monastic vows, ending the religious controversy concerning her presence in court. Theodora would go on to restore the veneration of icons in the Empire, forbidden since 815, when Leo V the Armenian restarted the Byzantine Iconoclasm.
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By the end of March, Salentin, Frederick, and the few thousand Spanish troops drove Gebhard from Bonn, then from Bad Godesberg; he and his wife took refuge into Vest Recklinghausen, a fiefdom of the electorate. There, he and Agnes encouraged a spurt of iconoclasm by their troops, alienating many heretofore supporters, including Hermann von Hatzfeld, seneschal of Balve. Hennes, p. 69. Ferdinand, the brother of the rival archbishop, drove Gebhard and Agnes into the Netherlands; they escaped with approximately 1000 cavalry and some infantry.
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Surviving letters Germanus wrote at the time say little of theology. According to Patricia Karlin-Hayter, what worried Germanus was that the ban of icons would prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and therefore play into the hands of Jews and Muslims.Karlin-Hayter, Patricia (2002) The Oxford History of Byzantium: Iconoclasm. Oxford: Oxford University Press Tradition depicts Germanus as much more determined in his position, even winning a debate on the matter with Constantine, Bishop of Nacoleia, a leading Iconoclast.
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The niches in the lowest zone of the gable contain nine angels, of which Cockerell identifies Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and Uriel. In the next zone are the taller figures of the twelve apostles, some, such as John, Andrew and Bartholomew, clearly identifiable by the attributes that they carry. The uppermost niches of the gable contained the figure of Christ the Judge at the centre, with the Virgin Mary on his right and John the Baptist on his left. The figures all suffered from iconoclasm.
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64–69 He became linked to the workshop of Willem Key at an early age and Willem Key is regarded as another master of Adriaen. The Habsburg Netherlands were at the time affected by the Beeldenstorm (Iconoclastic Fury) that commenced in the early 1560s and reached its peak in 1566. During the period of iconoclasm, Catholic art and many forms of church fittings and decoration were destroyed by nominally Calvinist Protestant crowds who supported the Protestant Reformation. Antwerp was also affected by the wave of destruction.
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Beginning his clerical career in c. 811, John was also a painter of icons and a correspondent of Theodore of Stoudios. By 814, John had become an Iconoclast and Emperor Leo V chose him to lead a committee to collect patristic texts supporting this theological position in preparation for the synod of 815, which reinstituted Iconoclasm. John was rewarded for his troubles by being appointed abbot of the prestigious Sergios and Bakchos Monastery (now the Little Hagia Sophia), where recalcitrant Iconodules were being reeducated.
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John was renowned for his learning (hence the nickname Grammatikos), and for his persuasive rhetoric in the endless debates that are a favorite subject of hagiographic sources reflecting the second period of Iconoclasm. John was also charged with tutoring the future Emperor Theophilos during the reign of his father Michael II, and is credited with instilling strong Iconoclast sympathies in his student. On the accession of Theophilos, John was appointed synkellos (patriarch's assistant), a position that made him a likely heir to the patriarchate. In c.
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Twain's style, based on vigorous, realistic, colloquial American speech, gave American writers a new appreciation of their national voice. Twain was the first major author to come from the interior of the country, and he captured its distinctive, humorous slang and iconoclasm. For Twain and other American writers of the late 19th century, realism was not merely a literary technique: It was a way of speaking truth and exploding worn-out conventions. Crane was primarily a journalist who also wrote fiction, essays, poetry, and plays.
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In the sixteenth century, Scottish kings – particularly James V – built palaces in Renaissance style, beginning at Linlithgow. The trend soon spread to members of the aristocracy. Painting was strongly influenced by Flemish painting, with works commissioned from the continent and Flemings serving as court artists. While church art suffered iconoclasm and a loss of patronage as a result of the Reformation, house decoration and portraiture became significant for the wealthy, with George Jamesone emerging as the first major named artist in the early seventeenth century.
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From the 16th through the 19th centuries, many of the polytheistic religious deities and texts of pre-colonial Americas, Oceania, and Africa were destroyed by Christian missionaries and their converts, such as during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire. Many of the moai of Easter Island were toppled during the 18th century in the iconoclasm of civil wars before any European encounter.Fischer, Steven Roger. 2005. Island at the end of the World – The Turbulent History of Easter Island.
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The first act of Muslim iconoclasm dates to the beginning of Islam, in 630, when the various statues of Arabian deities housed in the Kaaba in Mecca were destroyed. There is a tradition that Muhammad spared a fresco of Mary and Jesus. This act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the Muslim view, characterized Jahiliyyah. The destruction of the idols of Mecca did not, however, determine the treatment of other religious communities living under Muslim rule after the expansion of the caliphate.
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Christian sacred art is produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity, though other definitions are possible. It is to make imagery of the different beliefs in the world and what it looks like. Most Christian groups use or have used art to some extent, although some have had strong objections to some forms of religious image, and there have been major periods of iconoclasm within Christianity. Most Christian art is allusive, or built around themes familiar to the intended observer.
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The fallout of the iconoclasm arrived over the following days with first leading Catholic merchants and priests departing the city and then on 10 May the Parlement departing, declaring it no longer safe. Those 3 Catholic Conseillers-Échevins ceased attendance of the Council of 24 leaving the Huguenots in more total political control and with a reduced council until the July elections. Martel, the Duke of Bouillon's representative in the town departed on 14 May in response to the prior events, leaving it without a crown representative entirely.
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An all Catholic militia was formed, and members of the Parlement who suggested their Huguenot colleagues be allowed to return to their former office were threatened on the street. Despite the damages done to the community the Huguenots of Rouen rebounded quickly, reaching their pre-siege population levels by 1564. However they would obtain few new converts from this point forward and the community would increasingly find itself forming a well defined group with different naming and social practices. As late as the 1580s the Huguenots would find their 1562 iconoclasm blamed for plague.
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Iconoclasm in Zürich Stadelhofen, Bullinger chronicle of 1605 The Reformation in Zürich was promoted initially by Huldrych Zwingli, who gained the support of the magistrates of the city of Zürich and the princess abbess Katharina von Zimmern of the Fraumünster Abbey, and the population of the city of Zürich and agriculture-oriented population of the present Canton of Zürich in the early 1520s. It led to significant changes in civil life and state matters in Zürich and spread to several other cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy, and thus initiated the Reformation in Switzerland.
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There were two periods of iconoclasm, or icon-destruction, in the Byzantine Empire, in the mid eighth and early ninth centuries. The political aspects of the conflicts are complex, dealing with the relationship between the Byzantine Emperors, the Catholic Church and Orthodox Church councils, and the Pope. Theologically, the debate, as with most in Orthodox theology at the time, revolved around the two natures of Jesus. Iconoclasts believed that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of the Messiah at the same time, but separately.
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Iconodulism (also Iconoduly or Iconodulia) designates the religious service to icons (kissing and honourable veneration, incense, and candlelight). The term comes from Neoclassical Greek εἰκονόδουλος (eikonodoulos) ← ( – icon (image) + – servant), meaning "one who is serves images (icons)". It is also referred to as Iconophilism (also Iconophily or Iconophilia ← – icon (image) + – love) designating a positive attitude towards the religious use of icons. In the history of Christianity, Iconodulism (or Iconophilism) was manifested as a moderate position, between two extremes: Iconoclasm (radical opposition to the use of icons) and Iconolatry (idolatric veritable (full) adoration of icons).
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In 2004, at the invitation of Wolfgang and Katharina Wagner and to rave reviews,Jeremy Eichler (July 27, 2004), A Hullabaloo For an Opening At Bayreuth The New York Times. he staged Richard Wagner's Parsifal for the Bayreuth Festival. When he accepted the Wagner family's invitation, it caused surprise because of his iconoclasm and his well-known aversion to all things tainted by association with Hitler; however, he had been invited to the festival before in 1991.John Rochwell (June 22, 2003), The Weird Twilight of a Wagner The New York Times.
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The period of Iconoclasm, roughly corresponding to the 7th to 9th centuries, is poorly documented but can be considered a transitional period. The cathedral of Sofia has an unsettled date of construction, ranging from the last years of Justinian to the middle of the 7th century, as the Balkans were lost to the Slavs and Bulgars. It combines a barrel-vaulted cruciform basilica plan with a crossing dome hidden externally by the drum. It resembles some Romanesque churches of later centuries, although the type would not be popular in later Byzantine architecture.
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Traces of iconoclasm (destroyed statues) at Eglise Saint Sauveur, in La Rochelle. On 5 December 1560, Francis II died, and his mother Catherine de' Medici became regent for her second son, Charles IX.Knecht 1996, p. 27. Inexperienced and faced with the legacy of debt from the Habsburg–Valois conflict, Catherine felt that she had to steer the throne carefully between the powerful and conflicting interests that surrounded it, embodied by the powerful aristocrats who led essentially private armies. She was intent on preserving the independence of the throne.
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"Regal Zone", featuring saxophone by McKay, also covers the subject of war and is about the conflict in Iran. "Placebo Effect" addresses the use of placebos in medicine, while "Icon" displays echoes of iconoclasm, with the destruction of paintings featuring religious images, or statues and symbols of old authoritarian regimes. "Premature Burial", "ostensibly inspired" by Edgar Allan Poe's short story of the same name, is the track from which the album title had been taken. It is, in Siouxsie's words, "an expression of claustrophobia, of being hemmed in both by society's and people's limitations".
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Nearby at Adamkayalar there are a series of standing figures in classical niches, probably funerary memorials of the 2nd century AD; similar figures are found at Kanlidivane. All these sites are from former Hittite and Neo-Hittite territories. The cliff at Behistun, as well as Darius's famous relief, has a Seleucid reclining Hercules of 148 BC with a Greek inscription.Downey Also from the fringes of the Roman world, the famous rock-cut tombs of Petra, Jordan include figurative elements, mostly now battered by iconoclasm, for example the best-known tomb, known as The Treasury.
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When the Northern Expedition was complete, Kuomintang Generals led by Chiang Kaishek paid tribute to Dr. Sun's soul in heaven with a sacrificial ceremony at the Xiangshan Temple in Beijing in July 1928, among the Kuomintang Generals present were the Muslim Generals Bai Chongxi and Ma Fuxiang. The Kuomintang backed the New Life Movement, which promoted Confucianism, and it was also against westernization. The Kuomintang leaders also opposed the May Fourth Movement. Chiang Kai-shek, as a nationalist, and Confucianist, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement.
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According to Cyril Mango, the mosaic is "a curious reflection on how little we know about Byzantine art". The work is generally believed to date from after the end of Byzantine Iconoclasm and usually dated to the patriarchate of Photius I () and the time of the emperors Michael III () and Basil I (). Most specifically, the mosaic has been connected with a surviving homily known to have been written and delivered by Photius in the cathedral on 29 March 867. Other scholars have favoured earlier or later dates for the present mosaic or its composition.
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His commission, backed up by the ability to call on military force if necessary, meant that he usually got his way. He charged each church a noble (a third of a pound) for his services. When his patron, Manchester, fell out with Oliver Cromwell in late 1644, his commission ceased. Dowsing is unique among those who committed iconoclasm during this period because he left a journal recording much of what he did, with many detailed entries such as this one dated Haverhill, Suffolk, 6 January 1644: This has been published, and is available on-line.
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During the Second Iconoclasm, the Empire began to see systems resembling feudalism being put in place, with large and local landholders becoming increasingly prominent, receiving lands in return for military service to the central government.A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire: 324–1453, p. 564. Similar systems had been in place in the Roman Empire ever since the reign of Severus Alexander during the third century, when Roman soldiers and their heirs were granted lands on the condition of service to the Emperor.A.A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, p. 566.
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With the accession of Michael I Rhangabe () to the throne, Nicetas was at last able to receive tonsure (late 811). Indeed, the new emperor encouraged him in this endeavour, served as his sponsor, and gave him the convent of Chrysonike near the Golden Gate, where Nicetas retired. Nicetas remained in the monastery as its hegumenos (abbot) until late 815, when the second phase of the Byzantine Iconoclasm began under the auspices of Leo V the Armenian (). Refusing to acknowledge the Emperor's iconoclast policies, Nicetas left the capital for one of its suburbs.
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Iconoclast art in the Hagia Irene Church in Istanbul. The 8th and early 9th centuries were also dominated by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm, which was the main political issue in the Empire for over a century. Icons (here meaning all forms of religious imagery) were banned by Leo and Constantine from around 730, leading to revolts by iconodules (supporters of icons) throughout the empire. After the efforts of empress Irene, the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshipped.
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It relied on the same treatises in order to solve the crisis of iconoclasm. Nevertheless, the theological and liturgical concept of an eight-week cycle can be traced back to the cathedral rite of Jerusalem during the 5th century, and originally it was the Christian justification of Sunday as the eighth day after Sabbat.Frøyshov (2007, pp. 144-153). Peter Jeffery assumed a first phase during which the concept existed independently in various places, and a second phase during which Palestine became the leading centre of a monastic hymn reform.
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He also wrote to refute some of the iconoclastic teachings of Claudius of Turin at the request of the emperor. At the ecclesiastical council held in Paris in 825, Jonas presented the position of the Frankish clergy on Iconoclasm to Pope Eugenius II. He later wrote the treatise De cultu imaginum on the question. At a council in 829, again at Paris, he was a supporter of the rights of the Emperor over the clergy. He participated in councils at Worms in 833, Thionville in 835, and Aachen in 836.
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It is located at the beginning of the road that leaves the main road in the south of Tirilye and leads to the land with olive groves. The monastery was established in the late 8th century, and produced some important iconodule figures during the Byzantine Iconoclasm. After that, its history is obscure; it is mentioned in 1054, and it is known that it burned down and was rebuilt in 1800–01, but had fallen into disuse by the end of the 19th century, Today, only the outer wall of the complex survives.
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Acta Eruditorum In 1596 the Haarlem City council decided to start a library, or librije as it was then called. This was a collection of books attached by chain to a lessenaar, an elongated lectern that held the books below on a shelf. The chain was long enough so that the reader could select a book from below to read while standing. This collection was kept in the Sint-Bavokerk, where it probably came from (all church property was seized by the city council after the iconoclasm riots of the Protestant Reformation).
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A rare example of stained glass that survived the Reformation, in the Magdalen Chapel, Edinburgh Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm, with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass and religious sculpture and paintings. The only significant surviving pre-Reformation stained glass in Scotland is a window of four roundels in the St. Magdalen Chapel of Cowgate, Edinburgh, completed in 1544.T. W. West, Discovering Scottish Architecture (Botley: Osprey, 1985), , p. 55. Wood carving can be seen at King's College, Aberdeen and Dunblane Cathedral.
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Sculpted relief of the orphans above the doorway to the Amsterdam orphanage, today the Amsterdam Museum He was born in Amsterdam in 1521 according to the RKD and in 1541 according to Jan Wagenaar's History of Amsterdam.Joost Janszoon Bilhamer in the RKD He made a map of Leiden in 1573 and a map of North Holland in 1575. He was known for sculpted groups in religious buildings in Amsterdam, that were lost during the iconoclasm known as the beeldenstorm. He lived in the Kalverstraat in the house known as "'t Ossehooft".
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Michael then masterminded a conspiracy which resulted in Leo's assassination at Christmas in 820. Immediately he faced the long revolt of Thomas the Slav, which almost cost him his throne and was not completely quelled until spring 824. The later years of his reign were marked by two major military disasters that had long-term effects: the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily, and the loss of Crete to the Saracens. Domestically, he supported and strengthened the resumption of official iconoclasm, which had begun again under Leo V.
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This marriage was probably intended to strengthen Michael's position as Emperor, but it incurred the opposition of the clergy, as Euphrosyne had previously become a nun. Michael II died on October 2, 829. Because of his Judeo-Christian origin and iconoclasm, Michael II was not popular among Orthodox clergy, who depicted him as an ignorant and poorly educated peasant, but Michael II was a competent statesman and administrator. Though the civil war his accession precipitated gravely weakened the imperial government, by the end of his reign he had begun a restoration of the Byzantine military.
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Rodin's The Thinker, Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, US Vandalism of art is intentional damage of an artwork. The object, usually exhibited in public, becomes damaged as a result of the act, and remains in place right after the act. This may distinguish it from art destruction and iconoclasm, where it may be wholly destroyed and removed, and art theft, or looting. Numerous acts of vandalism against art exhibits are known and some objects, such as Mona Lisa, Night Watch and The Little Mermaid, have been intentionally damaged several times.
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Only when Basel's reformers turned to iconoclasm in the later 1520s did his freedom and income as a religious artist suffer.Bätschmann & Griener, 97. Holbein continued to produce religious art, but on a much smaller scale. He designed satirical religious woodcuts in England. His small painting for private devotion, Noli Me Tangere,Wilson, 129; Foister, 127; Strong, 60; Rowlands, 130; Claussen, 49. Scholars are unsure of the exact date of Noli Me Tangere, usually given as between 1524 and 1526, or whether it was painted in England, Basel, or even France.
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In the wake of Wassy, Huguenot fears of massacre and desire for revenge were further compounded. While Condé had prohibited iconoclasm or the destruction of Catholic temples by his troops upon his entry into Orléans, news of Sens made this unenforceable. In nearby Troyes, news of the massacre would spur the Protestants to desperate action, seizing the gates of the town and holding them for several days before being convinced by the Duke of Nevers to stand down. Over the next several months they would face murder and repression.
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In the 10th century, after the period of iconoclasm in Byzantine art, this image became more widely used, possibly developing from an earlier type where the Virgin's right hand was on Christ's knee.Maria Vasilakē, p.196 An example of this earlier type is the Salus Populi Romani icon in Rome. Many versions carry the inscription "Hodegetria" in the background and in the Byzantine context "only these named versions were understood by their medieval audience as conscious copies of the original Hodegetria in the Hodegon monastery", according to Maria Vasilakē.
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It is known that the reverence for Ahura Mazda, as well as Anahita and Mithra continued with the same traditions during this period. The worship of Ahura Mazda with symbolic images is noticed, but it stopped within the Sassanid period. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda remained symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback which is found in Sassanian investiture.
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This was followed by outbreaks of iconoclasm in 1558/59. At the same time, plans were being drawn up for a Reformed programme of parish worship and preaching, as local communities sought out Protestant ministers. In 1558, the Regent summoned the Protestant preachers to answer for their teaching, but backed down when lairds from the west country threatened to revolt. Mary's coat of arms showing Scotland impaled with Lorraine in South Leith Parish Church. The accession of the Protestant Elizabeth in England in 1558 stirred the hopes and fears of Scottish Protestants.
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More significantly, there is a sense of unease hanging over the whole collection.Morris "Generation" Traditional values – myths, religion, convention – are found wanting, but more modern values such as speed, freedom and iconoclasm are also found to be hollow. The nymphs, shepherdesses and mythological figures of renaissance and Baroque poetry are brought into contact with department stores and other aspects of modern life only to appear banal. There is a sense in this collection that Alberti is writing in this collection as himself, not as the sailor, the troubadour or the tourist of his earlier books.
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The government also provided electricity and running water to farmers, built paved roads, and replaced thatched roofs with tin roofs. Reportedly, Park could not stand the sight of thatched roofs on farmers' homes, which for him was a sign of South Korea's backwardness, and their replacement reflected a personal obsession rather than a practical necessity. Controversially, the Saemaul Undong movement actively pushed a type of iconoclasm towards the "superstitions" in rural South Korea, leading many practitioners of Korean shamanism to be harassed and centuries old Korean traditions to be destroyed.
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This gave considerable power within the new kirk to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy, and resulting in widespread, but generally orderly, iconoclasm. At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the kirk would find it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), , pp. 121–33.
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William Dowsing the iconoclast gave his associate Francis Jessup charge of visiting the churches of Bungay, Blythburgh and Yoxford, but he made Sir Robert Brooke responsible for levelling the chancel steps at Bramfield.T. Cooper (ed.), The Journal of William Dowsing: Iconoclasm in East Anglia (Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2001), p. 82 (Google). In 1645 Brooke was created an Elder of the Halesworth Congregational classis (one of the fourteen precincts or divisional committees organized for Suffolk), representing the Blything Hundred with Dunwich and Southwold, together with his son John Brooke, Esq.
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Ptolemaic-era beliefs changed little after Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, with the Ptolemaic kings replaced by distant emperors. The cult of Isis appealed even to Greeks and Romans outside Egypt, and in Hellenized form it spread across the empire. In Egypt itself, as the empire weakened, official temples fell into decay, and without their centralizing influence religious practice became fragmented and localized. Meanwhile, Christianity spread across Egypt, and in the third and fourth centuries AD, edicts by Christian emperors and iconoclasm by local Christians eroded traditional beliefs.
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Despite a warm reception at Aachen and the ratification of a peace treaty between the two realms, Charlemagne, perhaps wary after the repeated failures of successive efforts to that effect over the previous decades, hesitated to agree to such a match. On their way to Charlemagne's court, the embassy passed through Rome, where Michael handed over the synodika (enthronement letter) of Tarasios' successor, Patriarch Nikephoros I, to Pope Leo III. He clashed with the Emperor Leo V the Armenian over Leo's re-adoption of iconoclasm in 815. He was arrested and exiled to Eudokias.
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Iconoclasm was officially condemned by the Western and Eastern Churches at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 AD (the Western Church was not represented, but approved the decrees later). This decision was based on the arguments including that the biblical commandment forbidding images of God was because no-one had seen God. But, by the Incarnation of Jesus, who is God incarnate in visible matter, humankind has now seen God. It was therefore argued that they were not depicting the invisible God, but God as He appeared in the flesh.
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Procession of the Knights of the Garter Gheeraerts was a painter, draughtsman, print designer, etcher and ornamemtal designer. As many of his paintings were lost as a result of the Iconoclasm of the 16th century, he is now mainly known for his work as a printmaker and print designer. He was a keen innovator and experimented with etching at a time when woodcut and engraving were dominant techniques. For example, his 1562 birds-eye view of the town of Bruges was etched on 10 different plates, and the resulting map measures 100 x 177 cm.
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Comparative studies of Myth, Ritual and Classification, New York 2014, , Chapter 7, footnote 5 (page unavailable) or "ideologically committed lay Catholic".Maria Angharad Thomas, The Faith and the Fury: Popular Anticlerical Violence and Iconoclasm in Spain, 1931 – 1936 [PhD thesis Royal Holloway University of London], London 2012, p. 26 Internationally he was acknowledged mostly thanks to work on Japanese atrocities in the Philippines and until today the volume is considered "deeply and broadly researched platform" that every scholarly investigation of the issue must commence with.Peter C. Parsons, The Battle of Manila – Myth and Fact, s.l.
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7 The painting propped against the chair at the center, Allegory of Iconoclasm depicts an ass, a cat, a fool, and an ape (symbols of ignorance and evil) destroying musical instruments, paintings, and scientific instruments. The painting over the mantel depicts an allegory of Painting being rescued by Wisdom and Fame from Ignorance. The dog, on the left side, appears to have two heads which is a result of the underpainting coming through the surface. The globe on the table at the left is one of Cornelis Drebbels' attempts at a perpetual-motion clock.
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The original chancel arrangement was altered, again much to the detriment of its design, destroying Pugin's intent. Its appearance today is a mere shadow of how it was originally conceived by Pugin, but its enduring beauty in the face of iconoclasm is testament to the skill of its original designers. St Barnabas Cathedral in Nottingham, also by Pugin, suffered similarly, with much of the original decoration smothered with whitewash, and fittings destroyed. The former Bishop's House, which stood nearby and was also by Pugin, was demolished in 1959 due to Road widening.
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He founded three monasteries on the Princes' Islands, a favourite place for exiling tonsured members of the imperial house. Empress Theodora appointed Ignatios, a staunch opponent of Iconoclasm, to succeed Methodios I as patriarch of Constantinople in 847. Ignatios soon became embroiled in the conflict between the Stoudites and the moderates in the Church, the issue being whether or not to depose clergymen who had cooperated with iconoclast policies in the past. Ignatios took the side of the conservative Stoudites and deposed the archbishop of Syracuse, Gregory Asbestas, the leader of the moderate party.
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In the plays van Haecht criticises the clergy and the persecution of Protestants. His moderate views based on the Augsburg Confession are clear from the fact that he distances himself from sects that were considered more radical such as the anabaptists and argues for civic unity in religious and social matters. In the plays he further shows that he rejected religious dogmatism in favor of tolerance and was opposed to the iconoclasm of certain Calvinists. According to his nephew Godevaert van Haecht the plays were liked by the general public but angered the Catholic clergy.
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Harley was in charge of the Committee for the Demolition of Monuments of Superstition and Idolatry, and presided over the destruction of a great deal of religious art and architecture.Julie Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm in England 1640-1660, University of London, 2000 He was an active member of that party both in Parliament and in Herefordshire, Brampton Bryan Castle undergoing siege in 1643 and 1644. On 30 September 1642, Parliamentarians led by Harley and Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford occupied Hereford without opposition.Ron Shoesmith,The Civil War in Hereford (Logaston Press, Almeley, Herefordshire), pp.
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During the great Iconoclasm of 1566, the Calvinist Caspar van der Heyden held a speech outside the convent gates the 24 August, after which the abbey was attacked. The nuns themselves were not molested but given save passage, but the abbey was given such damage that it could not be restored for a year. Because of the threat of war in 1567, Amalberga Vos evacuated the nuns to Gent. She was replaced as abbess by Louise Hanssens in 1573, but it is not known if she simply left the office or if she died.
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Byzantine silks were especially valued and large quantities were distributed as diplomatic gifts from Constantinople. There are records of Byzantine artists working in the West, especially during the period of iconoclasm, and some works, like the frescos at Castelseprio and miniatures in the Vienna Coronation Gospels, seem to have been produced by such figures. In particular, teams of mosaic artists were dispatched as diplomatic gestures by emperors to Italy, where they often trained locals to continue their work in a style heavily influenced by Byzantium. Venice and Norman Sicily were particular centres of Byzantine influence.
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Relief statues in the Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht, attacked in Reformation iconoclasm in the 16th century. In 1500, Charles V was born in Ghent. He inherited the Seventeen Provinces (1506), Spain (1516) with its colonies and in 1519 was elected Holy Roman Emperor.William Robertson, The History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V (NY, 1874), p 116 The Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, issued by Charles V, established the Low Countries as the Seventeen Provinces (or Spanish Netherlands in its broad sense) as an entity separate from the Holy Roman Empire and from France.
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Santa Maria Donnaromita is a former church located on via Paladino in Naples. Altar and cupola A church at the site was first founded by nuns putatively fleeing in 1025 from iconoclasm in Constantinople, and thus initially gave the monastery the title: Monasterium Monialum Santa Mariae de Percejo de Constantinopoli ordini Cisterciensium regulae San Bernardi. In time this became the church of Santa Mariae dominarum de Romania de Neapolitanum ordinis Cisterciensis.Notizie del bello dell'antico e del curioso della città di Napoli, Volume 3, 1870, by Carlo Celano, Giovanni Battista Chiarini, page 648.
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Stoss created a large gilded crown to hang over the frame, but this is now lost. Tucher commissioned craftsman Jakob Pulmann to design and install an iron candelabra holding a miniature statue of Mary in order to illuminate Stoss's work. The ensemble was completed on the eve of the German Reformation, when Lutheran reformers introduced ideas of iconoclasm as they began to question both the need for, and purpose of religious art.Smith, 354 In 1525 Tucher and the city split from the Catholic church in favour of Lutheranism.
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Saenredam's paintings frequently show medieval churches, usually Gothic, but sometimes late Romanesque, which had been stripped bare of their original decorations after the iconoclasm of the Protestant Reformation. Although Utrecht was the centre of the remaining Catholic population of the mainly Calvinist United Provinces, all the old churches were retained by the Protestants. The drawing for Saenredam's Interior of St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht (above) is typical. As a Catholic church the Cathedral had been highly decorated. Then, in the Dutch Revolt the church fell into Protestant hands, it was ‘cleaned’ of Catholic influences.
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It is part of an urban structure with a still largely intact medieval street layout. The church played an important role as a spiritual centre during the Reformation, with the Reformer active as a priest in the church. One of only four occurrences of violence due to iconoclasm during the Danish Reformation occurred in St. Peter's Church in 1529, when Claus Mortensen led the destruction of much of the ornamentation in the church, deemed "too Catholic" by the Reformer. Of the more than sixty pre-Reformation altarpieces, only one survived more or less intact.
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One side of the Beresford Hope Cross, circa 9th century, depicting the Virgin Mary praying flanked by busts of four saints The Beresford Hope Cross is a 9th-century Byzantine reliquary cross with cloisonné enameling. It was intended to be worn as a pectoral crucifix, perhaps holding a fragment of the True Cross in the compartment inside. The cross is thought to have been made in southern Italy around the end of Byzantine iconoclasm, between 843 and the mid tenth century. It has been held by the Victoria and Albert Museum since 1886.
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Drawings from 1856 The cross was probably made somewhere in southern Italy. Early Byzantine enamels before 726 used a filigree technique, but cloisonné became dominant later. The shade of translucent green enamel used as a body colour indicates a date between 843, when iconoclasm ended in Byzantium, to the mid tenth century. Based on the relatively crude depictions of Christ, Mary, and the saints, and the way the craftsman completed the work, scholars have concluded that the cross was made by an Eastern craftsman in a Western city.
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This could mean the craftsman was someone from the East who moved West during iconoclasm, or perhaps someone who had studied under an Eastern craftsman before practising their trade in the West.Breckenridge It is presumed that the cross was made in a much more isolated location than other crosses from the same time period. It has some stylistic similarities to the reliquary box known as the Fieschi Morgan Staurotheke, but is even more crude. It was first documented in a catalogue of the collection of Louis Fidel Debruge-Duménil (1788-1838), published in 1847.
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During the Beeldenstorm of the 16th century and continued iconoclasm of the 17th century, Catholic churches throughout Europe were systematically stripped of their religious symbols, iconography and relics. In response, the Vatican ordered that thousands of skeletons be exhumed from the catacombs beneath the city and installed in towns throughout Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Few, if any, of the corpses belonged to people of any religious significance though, given their burial, some may have been early Christian martyrs. Each was nonetheless painstakingly dressed and decorated as one of the various Catholic saints.
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One church spent 75 gulden dressing their saint. Though selling the relics would have been considered simony, enterprising church officials still managed to raise funds while countering the iconoclasm by charging for transportation, decoration, induction and blessing. Historian and author Diarmaid MacCulloch compared the collection of catacomb saints by rich Bavarian families as being akin to the modern-day practice of purchasing personalised number plates, given that many of the saints shared the name of their patron. Church officials became adept at uncovering saints related to particular wealthy families.
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Among its claims was that, prior to Protestantism, Christian art had iconoclasm built into it, most centrally in the image of the ruined Christ as crossed-out God. While writing the latter book, Koerner collaborated with Bruno Latour and Peter Weibel on the 2002 exhibition "Iconoclash" and the 2020-21 exhibition "Critical Zones" at the ZKM in Karlsruhe. He has also curated exhibitions of his father’s work, including a 1997 retrospective at the Austrian National Gallery. In the 1990s, he was a frequent contributor to The New Republic.
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Byzantine Iconoclasm, Chludov Psalter, 9th centuryThe period after the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527–565) evidently saw a huge increase in the use of images, both in volume and quality, and a gathering aniconic reaction. One notable change within the Byzantine Empire came in 695, when Justinian II's government added a full-face image of Christ on the obverse of imperial gold coins. The change caused the Caliph Abd al-Malik to stop his earlier adoption of Byzantine coin types. He started a purely Islamic coinage with lettering only.
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Revolutions and changes of regime, whether through uprising of the local population, foreign invasion, or a combination of both, are often accompanied by the public destruction of statues and monuments identified with the previous regime. This may also be known as damnatio memoriae, the ancient Roman practice of official obliteration of the memory of a specific individual. Stricter definitions of "iconoclasm" exclude both types of action, reserving the term for religious or more widely cultural destruction. In many cases, such as Revolutionary Russia or Ancient Egypt, this distinction can be hard to make.
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Throughout the radical phase of the French Revolution, iconoclasm was supported by members of the government as well as the citizenry. Numerous monuments, religious works, and other historically significant pieces were destroyed in an attempt to eradicate any memory of the Old Regime. A statue of King Louis XV in the Paris square which until then bore his name, was pulled down and destroyed. This was a prelude to the guillotining of his successor Louis XVI in the same site, renamed "Place de la Révolution" (at present Place de la Concorde).
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Such an icon is known to have been in the Hagios Demetrios basilica in Thessalonica in the 6th century, but was lost in the Byzantine Iconoclasm. An early Byzantine icon (7th century?) is preserved in the church of Santa Maria del Rosario on the Monte Mario, Rome.formerly in S. Agata in Trastevere, moved to San Sisto Vecchio and hence also known as "Madonna of San Sisto", and finally to Santa Maria del Rosario in 1931. The Madonna di sant'Alessio in the Basilica of the Saints Bonifacio and Alexis on the Aventine Hill in Rome is also of the type.
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Partially as a result of this religious sentiment, figures in painting were often stylized and, in some cases, the destruction of figurative artworks occurred. Iconoclasm was previously known in the Byzantine period and aniconicism was a feature of the Judaic world, thus placing the Islamic objection to figurative representations within a larger context. As ornament, however, figures were largely devoid of any larger significance and perhaps therefore posed less challenge. As with other forms of Islamic ornamentation, artists freely adapted and stylized basic human and animal forms, giving rise to a great variety of figural-based designs.
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Brazilian filmmakers modeled Cinema Novo after genres known for subversiveness: Italian neorealism and French New Wave. Johnson and Stam further claim that Cinema Novo has something in common "with Soviet film of the twenties," which like Italian neorealism and French New Wave had "a penchant for theorizing its own cinematic practice."Johnson & Stam, 55. Italian neorealist cinema often shot on location with nonprofessional actors and depicted working class citizens during the hard economic times following World War II. French New Wave drew heavily from Italian neorealism, as New Wave directors rejected classical cinema and embraced iconoclasm.
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The letter would however go on to point out that the act must demonstrate divine displeasure with the display of idolatry, providing a degree of tacit endorsement. Further reports of the iconoclasm being conducted in bands also suggest a degree of organisation. Regardless of elite involvement the council soon commissioned Nicolas de l'Isle a Mantire de la Mornau with the responsibility of collecting, weighing and melting down the looted gold plate. The total value came to 57,934 Livres and would be used to pay for the costs of garrisoning and defending the city, though it only provided enough for a months wages.
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These movements existed independently of each other. Philip II, a devout Catholic and self-proclaimed protector of the Counter- Reformation, suppressed Calvinism in Flanders, Brabant and Holland (what is now approximately Belgian Limburg was part of the Bishopric of Liège and was Catholic de facto). In 1566, the wave of iconoclasm known as the Beeldenstorm was a prelude to religious war between Catholics and Protestants, especially the Anabaptists. The Beeldenstorm started in what is now French Flanders, with open-air sermons () that spread through the Low Countries, first to Antwerp and Ghent, and from there further east and north.
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The last outburst of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire was overcome at the Council of Constantinople in 843, which reaffirmed the adoration of icons in an event celebrated as the Feast of Orthodoxy. The Council of Trent (XIX Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church) in 1563 confirmed iconodulism. But this Council, unlike the Council of Nicaea, used a different expression in relation to the icons: «honor and veneration» (). Its decree also reads as follows: «we kiss, and before which we uncover the head, and prostrate ourselves, we adore Christ; and we venerate the saints, whose similitude they bear» ()Sacrosanctum Concilium Tridentinum / p.
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Even NPL director Sir Charles Galton Darwin, while supporting the work, observed that Essen would get the correct result once he had perfected the technique. Moreover, W.W. Hansen at Stanford University had used a similar technique and obtained a measurement which was more consistent with the conventional (optical) wisdom. However, a combination of Essen's stubbornness, his iconoclasm and his belief in his own skill at measurement (and a little help with calculations from Alan Turing) inspired him to refine his apparatus and to repeat his measurement in 1950, establishing a result of 299,792.5±1 km/s.
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The history of the village (population 2,498 in 2001 census) is identified with the history of Panayia of Ayasos (the Greek word for Virgin Mary of Agiasos). About 1,200 years ago, during the Byzantine Era, toward the end of the 8th century, it was a time of the wars of iconoclasm. In Constantinople, Aghathon the Ephesian, priest of the Chapel of the Palaces, who was an iconophile, fell into the disfavour of Emperor Leo I and was self- exiled to Jerusalem. In early 802, Aghathon heard that Empress Irene of Athens, who was also an iconophile, lived in exile on Lesvos island.
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Gregory the Great dictating to a secretary Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly, the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and liturgy from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of the Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century issues such as iconoclasm, clerical marriage, and state control of the Church had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were greater than the similarities.
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Iconoclasm was not purely an imperial religious conviction, it also had considerable popular support: some of Constantine's actions against the iconodules may have been motivated by a desire to retain the approval of the people and the army. The monasteries were exempt from taxation and monks from service in the army; the Emperor's antipathy towards them may have derived to a greater extent from secular, fiscal and manpower, considerations than from a reaction to their theology.Angold, Ch. 5, 'Constantine V', paragraph 7Magdalino (2015), pp. 177–178Rochow, pp. 60–62 Constantine carried forward the administrative and fiscal reforms initiated by his father Leo III.
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Most information on Xianzi comes from the Transmission of the Lamp, a collection of hagiographies (1004-1007 C.E.) intended to highlight the “anti-textualism and iconoclasm of the Chan monks”. Included within this collection of hagiographies are many nontraditional Chan Buddhist figures, such as Xianzi, who never became patriarchs or abbots on their own, but whose stories were still considered vital for the transmission of Chan teachings. Additional information on Xianzi comes from the poems and inscriptions that monks wrote on paintings of him. One such inscription on a painting of Xianzi by the Japanese painter Josetsu reads: > edit.
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The village of Agros was named after the Monastery of Megalos Agros, which was built at the spot where the Church of Panayia of Agros is found today. According to tradition 40 monks from Cyzicus of Asia Minor, during the era of Byzantine Iconoclasm abandoned the Monastery of Megalos Agros and arrived in Cyprus carrying the icon of the Holy Mother. They ended up at the area where Agros is located today, stayed for a certain period in a cave. They built a new monastery naming it Monastery of Megalos Agros after the name of monastery they left in Minor Asia.
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The legalisation of Christianity with the Edict of Milan (313) transformed Catholic art, which adopted richer forms such as mosaics and illuminated manuscripts. The iconoclasm controversy briefly divided the Western Church and the Eastern Church, after which artistic development progressed in separate directions. Romanesque and Gothic art flowered in the Western Church as the style of painting and statuary moved in an increasingly naturalistic direction. The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century produced new waves of image-destruction, to which the Catholic Church responded with the dramatic, elaborate emotive Baroque and Rococo styles to emphasise beauty as a transcendental.
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Agobard displayed great activity as a pastor and a publicist in his opposition to the Jews and to various superstitions. His rooted hatred for all superstition led him in his treatise on images into certain expressions which savoured of Iconoclasm. The five historical treatises which he wrote in 833 to justify the deposition of Louis the Pious, who had been his benefactor, are a stain on his life. Louis the Pious, having been restored to power, caused Agobard to be deposed in 835 by the Council of Thionville, but three years later gave him back his see, in which he died in 840.
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On a visit to Constantinople in 536, Pope Agapetus was accused of being opposed to the veneration of the theotokos and to the portrayal of her image in churches.m. Mundell, "Monophysite church decoration" Iconoclasm (Birmingham) 1977, p. 72. Eastern examples show the Madonna enthroned, even wearing the closed Byzantine pearl-encrusted crown with pendants, with the Christ Child on her lap.As in the fresco fragments of the lower Basilica di San Clemente, Rome: see John L. Osborne, "Early Medieval Painting in San Clemente, Rome: The Madonna and Child in the Niche" Gesta 20.2 (1981), pp. 299–310.
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Chiang, as a nationalist and a Confucianist, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement. Motivated by his sense of nationalism, he viewed some Western ideas as foreign, and he believed that the great introduction of Western ideas and literature that the May Fourth Movement promoted was not beneficial to China. He and Dr. Sun criticized the May Fourth intellectuals as corrupting the morals of China's youth. Contrary to Communist propaganda that he was pro- capitalism, Chiang antagonized the capitalists of Shanghai, often attacking them and confiscating their capital and assets for the use of the government.
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The Lombard historian Paul the Deacon says that he had great difficulty in raising the necessary troops and his expedition was ultimately a failure.. The events of 725–727 in the Exarchate are recorded in the Liber pontificalis, a collection of papal biographies; the Chronicon Venetum of John the Deacon, a Venetian historian; the Historia Langobardorum of Paul the Deacon; and the much later Chronicon of the northern European historian Regino of Prüm. In 726, the iconoclasm of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (r. 717–741) first became public, possibly even through an edict against sacred images.
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Leontios () was Bishop of Neapolis (Limassol) in Cyprus in the 7th century. He wrote a Life of John the Merciful, commissioned by the archbishop of Constantia Arcadius; a Life of Simeon the Holy Fool; a lost Life of Spyridon, an apologia against the Jews and another apologia in defence of icons. His apologia in defence of the icons was read by the bishop of Constantia, Constantine II at the Second Council of Nicaea that focused on the Byzantine Iconoclasm. in His works are considered among the few works giving any insight into the vernacular Greek of Early and Middle Byzantium.
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The Last Judgment by Michelangelo Christian art is sacred art which uses themes and imagery from Christianity. Most Christian groups use or have used art to some extent, although some have had strong objections to some forms of religious image, and there have been major periods of iconoclasm within Christianity. Images of Jesus and narrative scenes from the Life of Christ are the most common subjects, and scenes from the Old Testament play a part in the art of most denominations. Images of the Virgin Mary and saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.
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In these icons, the Christ Child sits on his mother's left arm and she is depicted pointing to Christ with her right hand. Another famous icon based upon Hodegetria is Our Lady of Częstochowa. A unique characteristic of this icon is what appears to be a scar on the Virgin Mary's right cheek or her chin. A number of different traditions exist to explain this, but the one most commonly held by Orthodox Christians is that the icon was stabbed by a soldier in Nicaea during the period of Byzantine iconoclasm under the Emperor Theophilus (829–842).
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According to his hagiography, he began his elementary schooling at age eight, but fled his home to the mountains when his parents wanted to marry him (ca. 815/6). There he encountered the former bishop of Irenopolis, who had been forced to abandon his see due to his opposition to the renewed adoption of Iconoclasm. After receiving his blessing, and on the advice of his mother, he entered the monastery where his brother was already a monk. Soon, however, he fell out with his pro-iconoclast abbot, and abandoned the monastery for that of his maternal uncle, Symeon.
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By 829, when the young emperor Theophilos ascended the Byzantine throne, the Byzantines and Arabs had been fighting on and off for almost two centuries. At this time, Arab attacks resumed both in the east, where after almost twenty years of peace due to the Abbasid civil war, Caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) launched several large-scale raids, and in the west, where the gradual Muslim conquest of Sicily was under way since 827. Theophilos was an ambitious man and also a convinced adherent of Byzantine Iconoclasm, which prohibited the depiction of divine figures and the veneration of icons.
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Before using iconography as a flexible, expressive language, one needed to be fluent in its grammar, vocabulary and styles. There should be no rupture between the past and the present- theologically, semantically or aesthetically. In a nation suffering from its own iconoclasm, the first task was to restore the stability of the tradition. After decades of restoring and copying, she was one of the first painters to design new prototypes for icons of the martyred Romanov Family, and made a large icon on Millennium of Baptism of Russia (1988), commissioned by Metropolitan Philaret of Belarus, now in Minsk.
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Cormack, Robin. Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons. London: George Philip, 1985, Interior with rests of applicated light and dark fields of the arches St Demetrius, Thessalonica ground plan, Texier Charles,1864 The basilica is famous for six extant mosaic panels, dated to the period between the latest reconstruction and the inauguration of the Byzantine Iconoclasm in 730. These mosaics depict St. Demetrius with officials responsible for the restoration of the church (called the founders, ktetors) and with children. An inscription below one of the images glorifies heaven for saving the people of Thessalonica from a pagan Slavic raid in 615.
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Upon the election of Pope Gregory III as the Bishop of Rome in February 731, he wrote a series of letters to the Iconoclast Byzantine Emperor Leo III, expressing his condemnation of the practice of Iconoclasm and the persecution of the traditional venerators of religious images in the east.Mann, pgs. 204-205 Gregory handed the letters to an envoy, a priest named George, with orders to deliver them to the eastern emperor directly. However, upon reaching Constantinople, George was afraid of incurring the emperor’s wrath, and so he returned to Rome without having delivered the letters.
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In 768, Pepin's son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an extensive expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, the Low Countries and beyond, linking the Frankish kingdom with Papal lands.Johnson (1996), p. 22. Although antagonism about the expense of Byzantine domination had long persisted within Italy, a political rupture was set in motion in earnest in 726 by the iconoclasm of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian, in what Pope Gregory II saw as the latest in a series of imperial heresies.Duffy, 1997, pp. 62–63.
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Paul the Silentiary's poem is conventionally known under the Latin title Descriptio Sanctae Sophiae, and he was also author of another ekphrasis on the ambon of the church, the Descripto Ambonis. The mosaics were completed in the reign of Emperor Justin II (), Justinian I's successor. Polychrome marble revetment on the wall of the gallery In 726, the emperor Leo the Isaurian issued a series of edicts against the veneration of images, ordering the army to destroy all icons – ushering in the period of Byzantine iconoclasm. At that time, all religious pictures and statues were removed from the Hagia Sophia.
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Wycliffe's Bible appears to have been completed by 1384, additional updated versions being done by Wycliffe's assistant John Purvey and others in 1388 and 1395. Wycliffe's followers, derogatorily nicknamed Lollards, followed his lead pondering ideas such as theological virtues, predestination, iconoclasm, and the notion of caesaropapism, while questioning the veneration of saints, the sacraments, requiem masses, transubstantiation, monasticism, and the existence of the Papacy. From the 16th century, the Lollard movement is sometimes regarded as the precursor to the Protestant Reformation. Wycliffe was accordingly characterised as the evening star of scholasticism and as the morning star of the English Reformation.
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578–582) finishing it and carrying out its decoration.Cormack (2007), p. 304 However, Byzantine sources present conflicting accounts: the Suda encyclopedia attributes the building to Justin I (r. 518–527), and the Patria of Constantinople to the Emperor Marcian (r. 450–457), although the latter is usually rejected as unreliable. The historian Joannes Zonaras records that Justin II in fact reconstructed an earlier building, which has been suggested as the Heptaconch Hall of Justinian I (r. 527–565).Kostenec (2008) Following the Byzantine Iconoclasm, it was embellished again under the emperors Michael III (r. 842–867) and Basil I (r. 866–886).
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Historically the highlight of church treasures was often a collection of reliquaries. As a result of gifts and the desire to acquire sacred artifacts, many churches over the centuries gathered valuable and historic collections of altar plates, illuminated manuscripts of liturgical or religious books, as well as vestments, and other works of art or items of historical interest. Despite iconoclasm, secularism, looting, fire, the enforced sale of treasure in times of financial difficulty, theft and other losses, much of this treasure has survived or has even been repurchased. Many large churches have been displaying their riches to visitors in some form for centuries.
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Popular among fans of European horror for their subversiveness and obscurity, these later Spanish films allowed political dissidents to criticize the fascist regime within the cloak of exploitation and horror. Unlike most exploitation directors, they were not trying to establish a reputation. They were already established in the art-house world and intentionally chose to work within paracinema as a reaction against the New Spanish Cinema, an artistic revival supported by the fascists. As late as the 1980s, critics still cited Pedro Almodóvar's anti-macho iconoclasm as a rebellion against fascist mores, as he grew from countercultural rebel to mainstream respectability.
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It is known only from 16th- and 17th-century manuscripts, and frequently reflects Islamic rather than Christian understandings, so it cannot be taken as authoritative on Christian views. In Christianity's earliest centuries, some Christians had informally adorned their homes and places of worship with images of Christ and the saints, which others thought inappropriate. No church council had ruled on whether such practices constituted idolatry. The controversy reached crisis level in the 8th century, during the period of iconoclasm: the smashing of icons, and again in the Middle Ages, becoming a critical point of contention in the Protestant Reformation.
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Michael continued the practice of iconoclasm, which had been reinvigorated by Leo V. The reign of Michael II saw two major military disasters that would have permanent effects on the Empire: the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily, and the loss of Crete to the Saracens. Michael was not popular among the Orthodox clergy, but he would prove himself a competent statesman and administrator, eventually bringing much-needed stability to the Empire following decades of strife and warfare and even restorations of the military. He was succeeded by his only son, Theophilos, upon his death in 829.
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This was ascribed as a miracle at the time, but was apparently accomplished by doing nothing more than giving Paul a good, nutritious meal. Iconoclast persecution increased in the area, obliging Peter and James to leave for the safety of the monastery of St. Porphyrious on the Hellespont. Peter later left for the Bâlea Lake area, where he visited his friend and fellow opponent of iconoclasm Joannicius before returning again to St. Zachary's. After delivering a final statement of farewell to the assembly, he died in the choir while praying the evening office on 1 January 837.
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The popularity of Brussels' altarpieces lasted until about 1530, when the output of the Antwerp workshops grew in favour. This was in part because they produced at a lower cost by allocating different portions of the panels among specialised workshop members, a practice Borchert describes as an early form of division of labour. Multi-panel Netherlandish paintings fell out of favour and were considered old-fashioned as Antwerp Mannerism came to the fore in the mid-16th century. Later the iconoclasm of the Reformation deemed them offensive, and many works in the Low Countries were destroyed.
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In 2018, Moll completed his work on the Netflix television docuseries Medal of Honor in concert with executive producer Robert Zemeckis. The documentary miniseries profiles the acts of heroism and selflessness exhibited by eight American soldiers who were awarded the Medal of Honor, the United States military's highest and most prestigious military honor for acts of valor. Moll directed the 2017 documentary Obey Giant, which chronicles the artist Shepard Fairey's personal story, from his Charleston, S.C., skate-scene roots to his rise as a veritable brand of iconoclasm. It also examines the relationship between street art, activism, punk rock and politics.
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The Monastery of Saint Sergios of Medikion (), commonly simply known as the Medikion monastery (Μονή Μηδικίου; ), and later as the Monastery of the Holy Fathers () is a ruined Byzantine-era monastery near modern Tirilye in Turkey (medieval Trigleia in Bithynia). It is best known for the role its founders played in opposing Byzantine Iconoclasm. The only remnants of the monastery complex is the perimeter wall (peribolos), which has a fortress-like appearance with its high walls and solid door. Above the entrance, there is a heavily damaged inscription on which only the date 1801 is legible.
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This may be perceived as the "end of antiquity," and the beginning of the "Middle Byzantine" era. This was also the era of Iconoclasm (717-843) and of the origin of the Holy Roman Empire (800). Under the Macedonian Dynasty (10th-11th centuries) Byzantium regained power against the Islamic and Bulgarian states, but the death of Emperor Basil II marked a turning point, with Byzantine power in Asia Minor and southern Italy suffering from the Battle of Manzikert (1071) and the rise of the Normans, respectively. A certain stability was achieved under the Comnenian Dynasty, at least until the Battle of Myriokephalon (1176).
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5–10 Krum participated in the battle and abandoned the battlefield heavily injured. With the iconodule policy of his predecessors associated with defeats at the hands of Bulgarians and Arabs, Leo V reinstituted Iconoclasm after deposing patriarch Nikephoros and convoking a synod at Constantinople in 815. The Emperor used his rather moderate iconoclast policy to seize the properties of iconodules and monasteries, such as the rich Stoudios Monastery, whose influential iconodule abbot, Theodore the Studite, he exiled. Leo V appointed competent military commanders from among his own comrades-in-arms, including Michael the Amorian and Thomas the Slav.
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At first Leo was reluctant as he considered himself not worthy for this ordeal so he did not accept and decided to refute politely such summary acclaim. Afterwards, when the umpteen solicitations from Catania became doubtless and heartfelt, he persuaded at last. In fact on 765 he was appointed to rule over that Community of Christians. In the coming epoch, in every regions of the Byzantine Empire (of whom Catania with the entire Sicily was a dominion) began the fierce and unrestrainable destruction of the sacred icons, the so-called "iconoclasm", which Leo openly opposed to.
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When Patriarch Niketas of Constantinople died in 780, Leo IV appointed Paul of Cyprus, who had iconophile sympathies, as his successor, although he did force him to swear oaths that he would uphold the official iconoclasm. During Lent of 780, however, Leo IV's policies on iconophiles became much harsher. He ordered for a number of prominent courtiers to be arrested, scourged, tonsured, and tortured after they were caught venerating icons. According to the 11th century historian George Kedrenos, who wrote many centuries after Irene's death, this crackdown on iconophiles began after Leo IV discovered two icons hidden underneath Irene's pillow.
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War again broke out in 1567 after reports of iconoclasm in Flanders prompted Charles to support Catholics there. Huguenots, fearing a Catholic attack was imminent, tried to abduct the king at Meaux, seized various cities, and massacred Catholics at Nîmes in an action known as the Michelade. The Battle of Saint-Denis resulted in a Huguenot defeat and the death of Anne de Montmorency, the royal commander-in-chief, and the short war ended in 1568 with the Peace of Longjumeau. The privileges granted to Protestants were widely opposed, however, leading to their cancellation and the resumption of war.
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Similar outbreaks of iconoclasm took place in other parts of Europe, especially in Switzerland and the Holy Roman Empire in the period between 1522 and 1566, notably Zürich (in 1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), and Augsburg (1537).John Phillips, Reformation of Images: Destruction of Art in England, 1535–1660, (Berkeley: University of California Press) 1973. In England there was both government-sponsored removal of images and also spontaneous attacks from 1535 onwards, and in Scotland from 1559. In France there were several outbreaks as part of the French Wars of Religion from 1560 onwards.
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Following the 1566 attacks in Antwerp there was a further period of iconoclasm there in 1581, after a Calvinist city council was elected and purged the city's clergy and guilds of Catholic office-holders. This is known as the "quiet" or "stille" beeldenstorm, as the removal of images was carried out by the institutions they belonged to, the council itself, churches and the guilds. Some images were sold rather than destroyed, but most seem to have been lost. By the summer of 1584 Antwerp was besieged by the Duke of Parma's Spanish army, falling a year later.
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Williams had a reputation for both non-conformity and piety, although historian Everett Emerson calls him a "gadfly whose admirable personal qualities were mixed with an uncomfortable iconoclasm". Boston's minister John Wilson returned to England to get his wife in 1632, and Williams again refused an invitation to fill in during his absence. Williams had distinctive theological views, and Cotton differed with him on the issues of separatism and religious toleration. Williams had gone to Plymouth for a short while but returned to Salem, and was called to replace Salem's minister Samuel Skelton upon his death.
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Louis Dufort (born July 29, 1970) is a Canadian composer of electroacoustic music. He was born and lives in Montréal, Canada. Dufort has a bachelor's degree in electroacoustic music composition from the Université de Montréal as well as a master's degree from the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Montréal, where he received a first prize with distinction. But university studies have not altered his iconoclasm and originality: his passion for electronic music and his love of cinema, painting and contemporary dance lead him to incorporate elements in his composition that are drawn from beyond music.
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God the Father on a throne, with the Virgin Mary and Jesus, Westphalia, Germany, late 15th century. The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 effectively ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the honouring of icons and holy images in general.Edward Gibbon, 1995 The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire page 1693 However, this did not immediately translate into large scale depictions of God the Father. Even supporters of the use of icons in the 8th century, such as Saint John of Damascus, drew a distinction between images of God the Father and those of Christ.
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There, he emulated Willem de Kooning and seemed "destined to become a third-generation abstract expressionist, although with a dash of Pop iconoclasm". After a period in which he experimented with figurative constructions, Close began a series of paintings derived from black-and-white photographs of a female nude, which he copied onto canvas and painted in color.Chuck Close Tate Modern, London. As he explained in a 2009 interview with Cleveland, Ohio's The Plain Dealer newspaper, he made a choice in 1967 to make art hard for himself and force a personal artistic breakthrough by abandoning the paintbrush.
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In the late 1910s and early 1920s, students and intellectuals began to challenge old customs in what became the New Cultural Movement. The era called for iconoclasm, the assertion of individuality, and the liberalization of society (such as through the abolition of arranged marriages). Universities began to incorporate western subjects into the curriculum and discussion of numerous philosophies such as communism and anarchism ensued. Notably, Lu Xun published his satire Diary of a Madman to challenge Confucianism, Ba Jin questioned the hierarchical family structure, and Hu Shih called for writing in Vernacular Chinese instead of Literary Chinese for mass appeal.
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Retrieved 14 January 2015; and Dowsing, The Journal of William Dowsing: Iconoclasm in East Anglia During the English Civil War, edited by Trevor Cooper (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2001), 192-194. Crashaw's poetry took on decidedly Catholic imagery, especially in his poems written about of Spanish mystic St Teresa of Avila. Teresa's writings were unknown in England and unavailable in English. However, Crashaw had been exposed to her work, and the three poems he wrote in her honor—"A Hymn to Sainte Teresa," "An Apologie for the fore-going Hymne," and "The Flaming Heart"— are, arguably, his most sublime works.
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George gained renown for his piety and after the death of the bishop of the island, was chosen by the people of Lesbos to succeed him, and was ordained Archbishop of Mytilene in 804.Saint George, Bishop of Mytilene (+ 821). Mystagogy Resource Centre In 813, during the reign of Emperor Michael I, George travelled to Constantinople to settle cases, but remained for a further two years at the request of Nikephoros, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. At the onset of his reign, Leo V, Michael's successor, restored iconoclasm and began to persecute iconodules (supporters of religious images).
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Michael Lachanodrakon (; died 20 July 792) was a distinguished Byzantine general and fanatical supporter of Byzantine Iconoclasm under Emperor Constantine V (). As a result of his iconoclast zeal, in 766 he rose to high office as governor of the Thracesian Theme, and instigated a series of repressive measures against iconophile practices, particularly targeting the monasteries. A talented general, he also led a series of campaigns against the Arabs of the Abbasid Caliphate before being dismissed from office in about 782. Restored to imperial favour in 790, he fell at the Battle of Marcellae against the Bulgars in 792.
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Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, circa 1820 Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial.
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The museum also has the largest collection of Classical sculpture in Portugal. From this period, items of particular technical and stylistic value are the toga-draped statues from Mertola, Apollo from the Herdade do Álamo (Alcoutim) and the sarcophagi from Tróia and Castanheira do Ribatejo. Of note is the collection found in the Sanctuary of S. Miguel da Mota, which is the largest collection of its kind sculpted in Vila Viçosa / Estremoz type marble. The latter collection was found extensively vandalised; this is presumed to be the result of iconoclasm carried out by early Christian communities.
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At the same time, the area's surfeit of reappropriated industrial lofts played an integral role in the development and sustenance of the minimalist composition, free jazz, and disco/electronic dance music subcultures. The area's many nightclubs and bars—though mostly shorn of the freewheeling iconoclasm, pioneering spirit, and do-it-yourself mentality that characterized the pre-gentrification era—still draw patrons from throughout the city and the surrounding region. In the early twenty-first century, the Meatpacking District, once the sparsely populated province of after-hours BDSM clubs and transgender prostitutes, gained a reputation as New York's trendiest neighborhood.
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At the time of Reformation the majority of the Ämter converted to the new faith. In 1529 a wave of iconoclasm swept through the area and wiped away much of the old religion. After the defeat of Zurich in the second Battle of Kappel in 1531, the victorious five Catholic cantons marched their troops into the Freie Ämter and reconverted them to Catholicism. In the First War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712, the Freie Ämter became the staging ground for the warring Reformed and Catholic armies.
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There is mention that a church at the site dates from the time of emperor Constantine in the 4th century, but there is only documentation for a foundation by the seventh century by the Bishop of Naples, Sant’Agnello. The early name of the church was San Gennaro ad Diaconiam, and this was the first church in the city dedicated to this saint. In the 8th century, Armenian monks fleeing the Byzantine Iconoclasm, were accommodated in this church, where they brought relics of St Gregory and St Blaise. The adjacent San Biagio Maggiore was built to house the latter's skull.
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Many major religions have experienced times during their history when images of their religious figures were forbidden. In Judaism, one of the Ten Commandments states "Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image", while in the Christian New Testament all covetousness (greed) is defined as idolatry. In Byzantine Christianity during the periods of Iconoclasm in the 8th century, and again during the 9th century, visual representations of sacred figures were forbidden, and only the Cross could be depicted in churches. The visual representation of Jesus and other religious figures remains a concern in parts of stricter Protestant Christianity.
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Other images may have survived, at least for a time. More systematic iconoclasm happened in the reign of Edward VI; the Grey Friar’s Chronicle reports that the rood and other images were destroyed in November 1547, and "Alle the alteres and chappelles in alle Powlles churche" were taken down in October 1552. Some of the buildings in St Paul's Churchyard were sold as shops and rental properties, especially to printers and booksellers. In 1561 the spire was destroyed by lightning, an event that Roman Catholics writers claimed was a sign of God's judgement on England's Protestant rulers.
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Another group of writers—collectively said to constitute the Roots (尋根) movement—including Han Shaogong (韓少功), Mo Yan, Ah Cheng (阿城), and Jia Pingwa (賈平凹) sought to reconnect literature and culture to Chinese traditions, from which a century of modernization and cultural and political iconoclasm had severed them. Other writers (e.g., Yu Hua (余華), Ge Fei (格非), Su Tong (蘇童) experimented in a more avant-garde (先鋒) mode of writing that was daring in form and language and showed a complete loss of faith in ideals of any sort.
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1911 diagram of the ruins after the Puchstein excavations. (Facing SW, with the Temple of Jupiter labelled "Temple of the Sun") The Tell Baalbek temple complex, fortified as the town's citadel during the Middle Ages, was constructed from local stone, mostly white granite and a rough white marble. Over the years, it has suffered from the region's numerous earthquakes, the iconoclasm of Christian and Muslim lords, and the reuse of the temples' stone for fortification and other construction. The nearby Qubbat Duris, a 13th-century Muslim shrine on the old road to Damascus, is built out of granite columns, apparently removed from Baalbek.
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Only in the late 730s did the Muslim raids again become a threat, but the great Byzantine victory at Akroinon and the turmoil of the Abbasid Revolution led to a pause in Arab attacks against the Empire. It also opened up the way for a more aggressive stance by Constantine V (r. 741–775), who in 741 attacked the major Arab base of Melitene, and continued scoring further victories. These successes were also interpreted by Leo III and his son Constantine as evidence of God's renewed favour, and strengthened the position of Iconoclasm within the Empire.
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Relations between East and West had long been embittered by political and ecclesiastical differences and theological disputes. There were doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Pope involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks. Prior to that, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church had frequently been in conflict, particularly during the periods of iconoclasm and the Photian schism. The Orthodox East perceived the Papacy as taking on monarch type characteristics that were not in line with the church's historical tradition.
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Key was able to emerge as one of the leading painters in Antwerp in the second half of the sixteenth century after the iconoclasm had abated. He was admitted as a master painter in the Guild in 1567. Portrait of a 27-year-old woman with a bouquet of flowers, flowers by Ludger tom Ring the Younger When Willem Key died in 1568, Adriaen Thomasz took over his workshop. Although he had converted to Calvinism he did not leave Antwerp after the Fall of Antwerp in 1585 when the Calvinist government of Antwerp was overthrown by Spanish forces led by Alessandro Farnese.
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While the formations of the Divine Liturgy in the 6th and 7th centuries preceded the beginnings of the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm, it was perhaps during the 11th century that the Theotokia became part of the liturgical books of the Eastern Church. As of the 12th century an increasing number of diataxeis, giving the order of the liturgy included Marian hymns. By the 13th century, Triodion liturgical books were combining references to icon veneration within hymns, e.g. "...to those who honor your holy image, O reverend one, and with one accord proclaim you as the true Mother of God and faithfully venerate you".
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This continued from the time of Justinian into the middle Byzantine period, as shown from a 10th-century excavation in Sebaste in Phrygia, which uncovered a marble templon whose epistyle is covered with busts of saints. There is evidence that icons were hung from the columns of the templon prior to iconoclasm. Nicephorus I, Patriarch of Constantinople from 806 to 815 describes portable icons hung from columns and the gate of the templon in his Antirretikoi. Important portable and colossal icons were also placed in front of the templon, as in the 11th-century church of Saint Panteleimon in Nerzei.
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The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the medieval Church. The reformed Kirk gave considerable power to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy. There were widespread, but generally orderly outbreaks of iconoclasm. At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk found it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.
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293-302), in which the Sassanian king (second from right) receives the ring of kingship from Anahita (right). Notwithstanding the dissolution of the temple cults, the triad Ahura Mazda, Anahita, and Mithra (as Artaxerxes II had invoked them) would continue to be prominent throughout the Sassanid age, "and were indeed (with Tiri and Verethragna) to remain the most popular of all divine beings in Western Iran.". Moreover, the iconoclasm of Bahram I and later kings apparently did not extend to images where they themselves are represented. At an investiture scene at Naqsh-e Rustam, Narseh (r.
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Painted in egg tempera on gold leaf over a wooden panel covered with gesso and linen in the late 14th century, its focal point is the famous icon, here intended to be understood as the physical icon itself, the Virgin Hodegetria, which was commonly believed to have been created by St Luke. The Hodegetria is being held up by two angels while to the left stand Empress Theodora and her son Michael III, who were responsible for ending Iconoclasm in 843. To the right of the Hodegetria are Patriarch Methodios, Bishop Theodore and two monks. Beneath them are 11 saints and martyrs.
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Despite the name, the typical mercat cross is not usually cruciform, or at least has not been since the iconoclasm of the Scottish Reformation. The cross atop the shaft may have been replaced with a small statue, such as a royal unicorn or lion, symbols of the Scottish monarchy, or a carved stone displaying the arms of the royal burgh, or, in the cases of ecclesiastical burghs or burghs of barony, the bishop's or feudal superior's coat-of-arms. These are often painted. Another finial commonly seen is a stone ball as at Clackmannan and Newton Stewart.
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British missionary William Ellis, who described the battle as "the most eventful day that had yet occurred in the history of Tahiti", gives a post-facto description of Mahine and Teriitaria preparing for the battle: The Tahitians abandoned the old religion and converted en masse to Christianity following the battle. The king sanctioned a Tahitian iconoclasm, destroying the traditional foundation of the old religion for any remaining adherents. The marae temples were destroyed, the ti'i figures representing the traditional deities were burned and the construction of new churches commenced. He also sent a collection of his family gods to the London Missionary Society.
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With these reforms, the Byzantines were able to inflict a number of defeats against the Arabs; twice at Constantinople in 674 and 717 and at Akroinon in 740. Constantine V, the son of Leo III (who had led Byzantium to victory in 717 and 740) continued the successes of his father by launching a successful offensive that captured Theodosioupolis and Melitene. Nonetheless, these conquests were temporary; the Iconoclasm controversy, the ineffective rule of Irene and her successors coupled with the resurrection of the Western Roman Empire under the Frankish Carolingian Empire and Bulgarian invasions meant that the Byzantines were on the defensive again.
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Like most contemporary Indian writers, Ugra was committed to promoting both social reform and Indian independence from the British Empire.Ruth Vanita, 'Introduction', in Pandey Bechan Sharma 'Ugra', ‘Chocolate’ and Other Writings on Male Homoeroticism, trans. by Ruth Vanita (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), p. xv. In the words of Ruth Vanita, "he delighted in iconoclasm; few writers of the time match his unsentimental depictions of the family, whether urban or rural, as a hotbed of violence, neglect, hatred, sexual depravity, and oppression";Ruth Vanita, 'Introduction', in Pandey Bechan Sharma 'Ugra', ‘Chocolate’ and Other Writings on Male Homoeroticism, trans.
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The exterior of the church, 2015 Saint Peter's Church () is a Brick Gothic church in Malmö, Sweden. Built in the 14th century as the main church of the city, it has been described as "the main Gothic monument within church architecture in Skåne". The church was a spiritual centre during the Reformation, and was one of only a few churches in what was at the time medieval Denmark that suffered damage due to iconoclasm as a consequence of the Reformation. St. Peter's Church contains late medieval murals of recognized high quality, as well as a number of unusual furnishings.
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Fieschi Morgan Staurothèque - early 9th century Fieschi Morgan Staurothèque - early 9th century The Fieschi Morgan Staurotheke is a small reliquary designed to hold a relic of the true cross, it is 1 1/16 x 4 1/16 x 2 13/16 inches (2.7 x 10.3 x 7.1 cm) overall with lid. It is an example of Byzantine enameling. The box is dated to 843 (some scholars speculate an earlier date of 815). Both dates hover around the second wave of Byzantine Iconoclasm from 814–842, allowing this piece to become a lens into the post iconoclastic art.
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Campbell, p.10 One of the earliest examples of Byzantine enamel work is a medallion created in either the late 5th or early 6th century and features a bust portrait of Empress Eudoxia.Campbell, p.10 The period after Iconoclasm saw an upswing in the production of iconic portraits, to which the intricate form of cloisonné developed by the Byzantines lends itself easily. Most enamel works known today have been housed in western Europe since the beginning of the 13th century. Any examples of enamel work still inside Constantinople immediately prior to its destruction were lost or destroyed.
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While it seems Artabasdos abandoned his predecessor's religious policy of Iconoclasm and restored Orthodoxy with some support, there is actually little support from contemporary sources. Soon after his accession, Artabasdus crowned his wife Anna as Augusta and his son Nikephoros as co-emperor, while putting his other son Niketas in charge of the Armeniac theme. But while Artabasdus could rely also on the support of the themes of Thrace and Opsikion, Constantine secured for himself the support of the Anatolic and Thracesian themes. The inevitable clash came in May 743, when Artabasdus led the offensive against Constantine but was defeated.
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Peter G. B. McNeill and Hector L. MacQueen, eds., Atlas of Scottish History to 1707 (Edinburgh, 1996), pp. 390–91. This gave considerable power within the new kirk to local lairds (landowners), who often had control over the appointment of the clergy, and resulting in widespread, but generally orderly, iconoclasm. At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the kirk would find it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.
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Further, "there is no century between the fourth and the eighth in which there is not some evidence of opposition to images even within the Church".Ernst Kitzinger, The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm, Dumbarton Oaks, 1954, quoted by Pelikan, Jaroslav; The Spirit of Eastern Christendom 600–1700, University of Chicago Press, 1974. Nonetheless, popular favor for icons guaranteed their continued existence, while no systematic apologia for or against icons, or doctrinal authorization or condemnation of icons yet existed. The use of icons was seriously challenged by Byzantine Imperial authority in the 8th century.
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The minister arranged a meeting between those for and against the pulling down of the rails, but was unsuccessful in reaching a compromise and it was feared that they would be demolished by force.Puritan iconoclasm during the English Civil War, Spraggon, J.: Woodbridge, 2003 However, in 1663 the parish resumed Laudian practice and re- erected rails around its communion table.According to Ancient Custom: The Return of Altars in the Restoration Church of England, Fincham, K., pp. 29–54: Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 2003 Joseph Caryl was incumbent from 1645 until his ejection in 1662.
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The church again took on a typical basilican cross-section with the construction of a higher nave between about 1425 and 1440. The Delft town fire of 1536 and the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation brought a premature end to an ambitious expansion project led by two members of the Keldermans family of master builders. This construction phase resulted in the flat-roofed, stone- walled northern transept arm that differs markedly in style from the older parts. The great fire, iconoclasm, weather, and the explosion of the town's gunpowder store in 1654 (see Delft Explosion) took their toll on the church and its furnishings, necessitating much repair work over the years.
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The Economist remarked on the news of the errors that "for someone of Mr Levitt's iconoclasm and ingenuity, technical ineptitude is a much graver charge than moral turpitude. To be politically incorrect is one thing; to be simply incorrect quite another." In January 2006, Donohue and Levitt published a response, in which they admitted the errors in their original paper but also pointed out Foote and Goetz's correction was flawed due to heavy attenuation bias. The authors argued that, after making necessary changes to fix the original errors, the corrected link between abortion and crime was now weaker but still statistically significant, contrary to Foote and Goetz's claims.
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Pope Leo X had earlier awarded to Henry himself the title of fidei defensor (defender of the faith), partly on account of Henry's attack on Lutheranism. Some Protestant- influenced changes under Henry included a limited iconoclasm, the abolition of pilgrimages, and pilgrimage shrines, chantries, and the extinction of many saints' days. However, only minor changes in liturgy occurred during Henry's reign, and he carried through the Six Articles of 1539 which reaffirmed the Catholic nature of the church. All this took place, however, at a time of major religious upheaval in Western Europe associated with the Reformation; once the schism had occurred, some reform probably became inevitable.
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Tucker, Marcia, "Bad" Painting, catalogue essay, in Albertson, James, et al, "Bad" Painting, New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, 1978, Unfortunately there are no page numbers to the catalogue, so numbers offered here count from the first page of Tucker's essay (as 1) - p.3, p.17. At best, this explains the selection as a retreat from photographic or "classicizing" standards for figuration to an older style. Tucker identifies a shared theme of iconoclasm, and a preference for parody and antagonism for her selection,Tucker, Marcia, "Bad" Painting, catalogue essay, in Albertson, James, et al, "Bad" Painting, New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, 1978; p.
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The Economist remarked on the news of the errors that "for someone of Mr Levitt's iconoclasm and ingenuity, technical ineptitude is a much graver charge than moral turpitude. To be politically incorrect is one thing; to be simply incorrect quite another." In January 2006, Donohue and Levitt published a response, in which they admitted the errors in their original paper but also pointed out Foote and Goetz's correction was flawed due to heavy attenuation bias. The authors argued that, after making necessary changes to fix the original errors, the corrected link between abortion and crime was now weaker but still statistically significant, contrary to Foote and Goetz's claims.
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Some of the frescoes in the church exemplify a transition of Byzantine art periods, from Komnenian to Palaiologan, as many paintings were completed between 1263-1268. The Dormition, with its stately compositions and monumental figures, is an example of this. The period following iconoclasm brought upon a resurgence in these art styles moving forward into the 13th century, at the time of the construction of the monastery. Other motifs seen in the church (such as water-birds and use of specific lotuses) are indicative of influences from early Byzantine art dating to the era of Justinian I, although these influences are less prominently featured in the church.
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One day, Utz visits the shop to buy an idol. Abraham innocently asks Utz to explain how an inanimate idol of stone can provide for and he urges Utz to disavow idolatry. Then, after destroying all the idols in the shop, Avraham places the mallet into the hand of a stone likeliness of Nimrod, the largest idol in the shop and attempts to mollify his father Terakh, insisting that the idol of Nimrod was the perpetrator of the iconoclasm. Enraged by the carnage of his idols, Terakh permits Nimrod's men to frogmarch his son to Nimrod to be condemned for his blasphemous and treasonable actions.
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He seems to have been active with his parents in their separatist group, supporting John Lilburne from the 1630s, during the period of Thorough, the attempt by Charles I to practise absolute monarchy. David Brown, a veteran of the group led by Duppa and the Chidleys reminisced about tearing a surplice as a deliberate act of iconoclasm one St Luke's Day (18 October) at Greenwich, a place made notorious in their eyes for the Catholic chapel that Queen Henrietta Maria had installed in her house there.Brown (1652), p. 14. The Chidleys seem also to have been very open to the economic opportunities afforded by the capital.
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The Emperor called the following Ecumenical Council in an attempt to reach a compromise position that all parties could accept, urging those involved to do so. A compromise was not reached, and the schism persisted. Later emperors introduced policies of iconoclasm; yet many Christians and Church leaders resisted for decades, eventually triumphing when a later Empress (Irene) came to power who was sympathetic to their cause. In Russia, Basil, a "Fool for Christ", repeatedly stood up to Ivan the Terrible, denouncing his policies and calling him to repentance; for this and other reasons he was buried in the cathedral that now popularly bears his name in Moscow.
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The Govan sarcophagus is a stone coffin with a carved exterior; it was rediscovered when the sexton was digging a grave in the south-east corner of the churchyard in December 1855, surrounded by roots from two elm trees. No human remains were found with the sarcophagus, so it is thought that it was buried at an earlier date to protect the monument, perhaps during the Scottish Reformation when iconoclasm was common practice. Today, the sarcophagus is on display in the modern Govan Old Parish Church Museum. The sarcophagus is supposed to have been dedicated to the patron saint of the church, St Constantine.
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This achievement was checked by the controversy over the use of graven images, and the proper interpretation of the Second Commandment, which led to the crisis of Iconoclasm or destruction of religious images, which racked the Empire between 726 and 843. The restoration of Orthodoxy resulted in a strict standardization of religious imagery within the Eastern Church. Byzantine art became increasingly conservative, as the form of images themselves, many accorded divine origin or thought to have been be painted by Saint Luke or other figures, was held to have a status not far off that of a scriptural text. They could be copied, but not improved upon.
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The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek museum in Copenhagen has a nasothek collection that displays restored noses that were removed from portrait busts and statues after changes in the museum's art restoration policies. The noses, some made of marble and others of plaster, were all originally exhibited on the Greek and Roman statues in the glyptotek itself.Sign in Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek under its nasothek display Detail: A closer look at the Copenhagen Nasothek display shows wide variety in surface textures and style.The white marble favored by Classical sculptors is easily broken, and many antique statues have been damaged since their creation by accidents, iconoclasm, or vandalism.
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Peppers 40th anniversary, for Mojo, John Harris said that, such was its "seismic and universal" impact and subsequent identification with 1967, a "fashion for trashing" the album had become commonplace. He attributed this to iconoclasm, as successive generations identified the album with baby boomers' retreat into "nostalgia-tinged smugness" during the 1970s, combined with a general distaste for McCartney following Lennon's death. Citing its absence from the NMEs best-albums list in 1985 after it had topped the magazine's previous poll, in 1974, Harris wrote: > Though by no means universally degraded ... Sgt. Pepper had taken a > protracted beating from which it has perhaps yet to fully recover.
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The beatification of the martyrs took place on 14 November 1675, and their canonization on 29 June 1867."Martyrs of Gorkum", Oxford ReferenceMüller, Daniela et al, Iconoclasm and Iconoclash, Brill, 2007 Their elevation to sainthood, which took place on the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, was part of grand celebrations marking 1,800 years since the traditional year for the martyrdom of the two apostles in Rome.McCarthy, Kathleen. "The martyrs of Gorkum - a painting in the Goold collection", Footprints, Volume 30 Issue 2 (Dec 2015), ISSN 0015-9115 For many years the place of their martyrdom in Brielle has been the scene of numerous pilgrimages and processions.
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The interior of the Minster has been very austere since the iconoclasm of the 16th Century In 1515, Thomas Wyttenbach, Huldrych Zwingli's teacher, became a priest at the Minster of Bern. In the latter part of Wyttenbach's stay in Bern, a local priest, Berchtold Haller, lived with him. Around the time that Wyttenbach left Bern in 1520 to become a Reformer of his birthplace, Biel, Haller was elected a canon of the cathedral. In 1521, he became friends with Zwingli in Zurich and began to preach more Protestant sermons. In February, 1522, two Fastnacht plays were given at Bern, which attacked the Catholic Church.
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After an early period when aniconism was strong,Kitzinger, Ernst, "The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 8, (1954), pp. 83–150, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, JSTOR surviving Early Christian art began, about two centuries after Christ, with small images in the Catacombs of Rome that show orans figures, portraits of Christ and some saints, and a limited number of "abbreviated representations" of biblical episodes emphasizing deliverance. From the Constantinian period monumental art borrowed motifs from Roman Imperial imagery, classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art – the motif of Christ in Majesty owes something to both Imperial portraits and depictions of Zeus.
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In 727, a revolt of the thematic fleets, largely motivated by resentment against the Emperor's iconoclasm, was put down by the imperial fleet through the use of Greek fire. Despite the losses this entailed, some 390 warships were reportedly sent to attack Damietta in 739, and in 746 the Byzantines decisively defeated the Alexandrian fleet at Keramaia in Cyprus, breaking the naval power of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Byzantines followed this up with the destruction of the North African flotillas and coupled their successes at sea with severe trading limitations imposed on Muslim traders. Given the Empire's new ability to control the waterways, this strangled Muslim maritime trade.
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In 1570, Junius finished the first draft of his Batavia. By then, the political landscape had altered dramatically: 1566 saw a wave of iconoclasm (Junius reported on the smashing of statues in churches in Amsterdam), in 1567 the Duke of Alba arrived and William the Silent went into exile, and in 1568, Alba had the counts of Egmond and Horne beheaded in Brussels. The States of Holland now recoiled from publishing a work which openly defended the plea for more independence of Holland. Yet, there is very little politics in Junius’ Batavia: it is more a loosely organised overview of all sorts of individual histories and antiquarian aspects of ‘Batavia’ (i.e.
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In addition to his inquisitorial duties, every year witnessed the publication of one or more writings against iconoclasm and in defense of the doctrines of the Mass, purgatory, and auricular confession. His Enchiridion locorum communium adversus Lutherum et alios hostes ecclesiae (Landshut, 1525) went through forty-six editions before 1576. As its title indicates, it was directed primarily against Melanchthon's Loci Communes, although it also concerned itself to some extent with the teachings of Huldrych Zwingli. At Baden-in-Aargau from 21 May until 18 June 1526 a public disputation on the doctrine of transubstantiation was held, in which Eck and Thomas Murner were pitted against Johann Oecolampadius.
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Eutychius was short on manpower, thus Pope Gregory II (), who did not support Leo III, but opposed the creation of rival emperors, sent several bishops, as well as Papal forces to support Eutychius. Their combined armies marched to Castrum Manturianense, crushed the rebellion in battle, and killed Tiberius. After killing Tiberius, Eutychius sent his head to Leo III. The issue of Iconoclasm may have played a part in Tiberius revolt, with Tiberius deriving support from Italians who opposed Leo III's iconoclastic policies, although the only source which states that the anti- Iconoclastic sentiment of the Italians was related to the revolt of Tiberius comes from a much later anti-Iconoclast.
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The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the Medieval church. This gave considerable power within the new Kirk to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy, and resulting in widespread, but generally orderly, iconoclasm. At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk would find it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 121–33.
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Close view Choir at Kontariotissa during the Olympus Festival Judging by the shape (morphology) of the building, it was built at the time of the Byzantine Iconoclasm or earlier.Byzantine Macedonia, Art Architecture Music Hagiography, edited by John Burke and Roger Scott, Melbourne 2001, Aristotle Mentzos, page 9, ISBN 1-864465--49-2 The construction is dated to the 7th century, structural changes took place in the 11th century and in the 15th century the building was restored. Parts of the exterior wall show various styles of stonework. The construction of the church is said to be related to the simultaneous destruction and abandonment of ancient Dion.
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In the years shortly before 858, the Byzantine Empire emerged from a time of turmoil and entered into a period of relative stability following the crisis over Byzantine Iconoclasm. For nearly 120 years, from 720 to 843, Byzantines waged war with each other over the legitimacy of religious art, specifically whether that art constituted idol worship or merely legitimate veneration, with only the latter being acceptable according to Christian standards. Emperors generally took the side of the iconoclasts, who unlike the iconodules believed that such images were idolatrous. The situation reached a high point in 832 when Emperor Theophilos issued a decree banning the "worship" of idols in the Roman Empire.
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The removal of almost all the many wall-paintings in English churches in the iconoclasm of the English Reformation and the English Commonwealth left plenty of bare spaces. Over the following centuries, these were gradually filled by monuments of the wealthy. It is the lack of competition from religious paintings and a tolerance of figurative sculpture in memorials, which most Protestant countries did not share, that produced the exceptionally rich English holdings of large sculptural church monuments. In the 16th century, church monuments became increasingly influenced by Renaissance forms and detailing (pilasters, wreaths, strapwork, skulls, coffered arches, obelisks, allegorical figures, etc.), particularly in France, the Netherlands and, eventually, England.
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Platon the Studite, also Plato of Sakkoudion (), probably Constantinople, ca. 735 – Constantinople, 4 April 814, was a Byzantine minor official who became a monk in 759. After refusing the metropolitan see of Nicomedia or the headship of a monastery in Constantinople, in 783 he founded the monastery of Sakkoudion on Mount Olympus in Bithynia, of which he became the first abbot. He is notable, along with his nephew Theodore Stoudites, for his iconodule stance during the Byzantine Iconoclasm and his participation in the Second Council of Nicaea, and to his firm opposition to the second marriage of Emperor Constantine VI to his niece Theodote (the "Moechian Controversy").
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The Shiv temple has witnessed Islamic iconoclasm on multiple occasions. When the general of the Bijapur Sultanate - Afzal Khan - was sent to capture Shivaji, this is one of the several temples he destroyed on his march into Konkan where Shivaji was ensconced (other notable temples destroyed/desecrated at this time were Tulza Bhavani, and Pandharpur). Later, when Aurangzeb started destroying temples during the 27 year Mughal-Maratha war, this temple was also affected so a lot of the art and the statues on wall are in a damaged condition. Oral tradition says that there were seven other temples around the main one, but all were destroyed.
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The second crisis of iconoclasm also caused the end of the Studites reform, so that the monastic reform was continued partly in Constantinople and partly in Sinai. Menaion with two kathismata ( and ) dedicated to Saint Eudokia (1 March) and the sticheron prosomoion χαῖροις ἡ νοητῇ χελιδῶν in echos plagios protos which has to be sung with the melos of the avtomelon χαῖροις ἀσκητικῶν. The scribe rubrified the book Τροπολόγιον σῦν Θεῷ τῶν μηνῶν δυῶν μαρτίου καὶ ἀπριλλίου (ET-MSsc Ms. Gr. 607, ff. 2v-3r) During the reform of the Studites and at Sinai the avtomela were not notated, but they existed within an oral tradition.
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The barrow was further damaged by the construction of the small road running through the middle of it. Claims that people in the Middle Ages deliberately dug into and damaged the long barrows have been made for other Medway Megaliths, including Smythe's Megalith, Chestnuts Long Barrow, Lower Kit's Coty House, Kit's Coty House, Coldrum Long Barrow, and Addington Long Barrow. Ashbee suggested that this destruction was probably due to iconoclasm, believing that the burial of the stones likely indicated that medieval Christian zealots had tried to deliberately destroy and defame the pre- Christian monument. Conversely, the archaeologist John Alexander believed that this damage resulted from a robbery by medieval treasure hunters.
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In his youth, George became a monk and gained renown for his piety, and was later ordained bishop of Antioch in Pisidia. In 754, George attended the iconoclast Council of Hieria in Constantinople, which banned the veneration of icons. However, as an iconodule, George refused to comply with the rulings of the council and was subsequently exiled by Emperor Constantine V. He later returned from exile and attended the restoration of the veneration of icons at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. George criticised the restoration of iconoclasm at the onset of the reign of Emperor Leo V, and once more refused to remove icons from churches within his diocese.
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Though the cathedral was spared in the 1566 Iconoclasm, Mechelen was sacked in the 1572 three-days Spanish Fury by slaughtering troops under command of Alva's son Fadrique, and suffered the English Fury of pillaging by rampant mercenaries in the service of the States General in 1580. The interior features a Baroque high altar and choir by Lucas Faydherbe (with twenty-five paintings illustrating the life of Saint Rumbold), as well as paintings by Anthony van Dyck, sculptures by Lucas Faydherbe and Michiel Vervoort, and stained-glass windows, www.kerkmechelen.be Sint-Rombouts (incl. a few photographs) including one depicting – though with a white face – the Black Madonna painting in the church.
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Wood's dissertation and first book, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape (Reaktion and Chicago, 1993), was a monograph on the sixteenth- century German painter who created the first pure landscape paintings in the European tradition. This book was reissued with a new Afterword in 2014. Wood has published many articles on the art and culture of the German late Middle Ages and Renaissance, including essays on Albrecht Dürer and Albrecht Altdorfer; on drawings; on the cult of images and Reformation iconoclasm; on ex votos; and on early archeological scholarship. He has also written on Italian artists including Piero della Francesca, Raphael, and Dosso Dossi.
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Anastasius 40 nummi (M) and 5 nummi (E) The type of Justinian II was revived after the end of Iconoclasm, and with variations remained the norm until the end of the Empire. In the 10th century, so-called "anonymous folles" were struck instead of the earlier coins depicting the emperor. The anonymous folles featured the bust of Jesus on the obverse and the inscription "XRISTUS/bASILEU/bASILE", which translates to "Christ, Emperor of Emperors" Byzantine coins followed, and took to the furthest extreme, the tendency of precious metal coinage to get thinner and wider as time goes on. Late Byzantine gold coins became thin wafers that could be bent by hand.
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Map by Van Scorel in Ziper museum Perhaps because of the work on this polder, he is registered in Haarlem in 1528, where he collaborated with Heemskerck and assisted with the school there that Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert would later run. Mary Magdalene, circa 1530 Considered to be the leading Netherlandish Romanist, Van Scorel moved to Ghent for painting contracts before returning to Utrecht for the same reason, where he died in 1562, leaving behind a wealth of portraits and altarpieces. Though many of his works fell victim to the Iconoclasm in 1566, some still remain and can be seen primarily at museums in the Netherlands.
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Relations were very strained in the mid-8th century between the papacy and the Eastern Roman emperors over the support of the Isaurian dynasty for iconoclasm. Likewise, maintaining political control over Rome became untenable as the Eastern Roman Empire itself was beset by the Abbasid Caliphate to the south and Bulgars to the northwest. Constantinople could send no troops, and Emperor Constantine V Copronymus, in answer to the repeated requests for help of the new pope, Stephen II, could only offer him the advice to act in accordance with the ancient policy of Rome, to pit some other Germanic tribe against the Lombards.Schnürer, Gustav.
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While an officer was executing the order, a group of women gathered to prevent the operation, and one of them, a nun named Theodosia, let him fall from the ladder. The man died, and Theodosia was captured and executed.It should be noticed that according to modern sources, the figure of Theodosia of Constantinople, like those of all the iconophile Saints lived under Leo III, is legendary. Brubaker, 2011 After the end of the Iconoclasm, Theodosia was recognized as a martyr and saint, and her body was kept and worshiped in the church of Hagia Euphemia en tō Petriō, in the quarter named Dexiokratiana, after the houses owned here by one Dexiokrates.
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David Turner, The Politics of Despair: The Plague of 746–747 and Iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire, The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 85 (1990), p428 From the 840s on, Nicomedia was the capital of the thema of the Optimatoi. By that time, most of the old, seawards city had been abandoned and is described by the Persian geographer Ibn Khurdadhbih as lying in ruins, with settlement restricted to the hilltop citadel. In the 1080s, the city served as the main military base for Alexios I Komnenos in his campaigns against the Seljuk Turks, and the First and Second Crusades both encamped there.
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Iconoclasm during the Reformation in Zürich, Stadelhofen, illustrated Bullinger chronicle Besides theological works, Bullinger also wrote some historical works of value. The main of it, the "Tiguriner Chronik" is a history of Zürich from Roman times to the Reformation, others are a history of the Reformation and a history of the Swiss confederation. Bullinger also wrote in detail on Biblical chronology, working within the framework that was universal in the Christian theological tradition until the second half of the 17th century, namely that the Bible affords a faithful and normative reference for all ancient history.Refer to Jean-Marc Berthoud's paper for a fuller discussion.
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In 1529, a wave of iconoclasm swept through the area and wiped away much of the old religion. After the defeat of Zürich in the second Battle of Kappel in 1531, the victorious five Catholic cantons marched their troops into the Freie Ämter and reconverted them to Catholicism. In the First War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712, the Freie Ämter became the staging ground for the warring Reformed and Catholic armies. While the peace after the 1656 war did not change the status quo, the fourth Peace of Aarau in 1712 brought about a reorganization of power relations.
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Fingerprints found around the edge of the bulla may belong to Barachel himself. His name, which invokes the name of the god El (as do the names of his fellow Ammonite kings Pado'el and Hissalel) suggests that El was worshipped in Ammon alongside Milcom and other deities. The seal is aniconic, unusual for a device of its type, some scholars have speculated that this may be due to the influence of Israelite iconoclasm (though others dispute this, maintaining that an image may well have appeared on the reverse of the seal and/or that rejection of images is not entirely evident from contemporary excavations in Israel itself.
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The rows of holes that can be seen in photographs held wooden pegs that stabilized the outer stucco. The statues were blown up and destroyed in March 2001 by the Taliban, on orders from leader Mullah Mohammed Omar, after the Taliban government declared that they were idols. An envoy visiting the United States in the following weeks said that they were destroyed in protest of international aid exclusively reserved for statue maintenance while Afghanistan was experiencing Epidemic, Pandemic and famine, while the Afghan Taliban Foreign Minister claimed that the destruction was merely about carrying out Islamic religious iconoclasm. International and local opinion strongly condemned the destruction of the Buddhas.
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In its present form, the rite is the product of a long cultural synthesis that developed in the years after the 8th-9th century Iconoclasm, in which synthesis monasteries and their cultural contacts with the Holy Land played a decisive role. From the 9th to the 14th centuries, the influence of the Palestinian RiteReferring to the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, rather than the Coptic or Antiochene Churches, which were Monophysite. exerted a dominating influence.and the rite has been called a "hybrid" between an earlier ceremonial scholars have dubbed the cathedral rite of Constantinople, called the asmatiki akolouthia ("sung services") and the Palestinian Rite of Jerusalem, the Hagiopolitan (Gr.
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The great treasure of the church is the mosaic of the Ark of the Covenant, on the ceiling of the apse. This mosaic is the only surviving Byzantine mosaic in France, although traces of mosaics elsewhere on the roof indicate that it was part of a wider decorative scheme. The mosaic owes its preservation to being plastered over at the time of the French Revolution; it was rediscovered in the middle of the 19th century. The mosaic is one of the few remaining artworks from the period of the Iconoclasm which convulsed the Eastern Church during the 8th & 9th centuries, but which also impacted on Western Christendom.
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The art exhibition Bilderstreit – Widerspruch, Einheit und Fragment in der Kunst seit 1960 (Iconoclasm – appeal, unity and fragment in art since 1960) was a retrospective in the Rheinhallen in Cologne from 8 April 1989 to 28 June 1989 and was held by the Museum Ludwig shortly before the German reunification. It was organized by Siegfried Gohr, Johannes Gachnang and Walter Nikkels and assisted by Cornelia Barth, Pier de Jonge, Kay Heymer and Nicola von Velsen. Christa Steinbüchel did conservatory work. The advisory body consisted of Carmen Giménez (Ministry of Culture Madrid), Knud W. Jensen (Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humbleback) and Nicholas Serota (The Tate Gallery, London).
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Kwak, 223–228. The painting's location is unknown, and it was last known in a private collection in Berlin in 1929. Christ in the House of Martha and Mary, 1553 Later in life, he also painted more conventional treatments of religious subjects, now mostly lost as during the iconoclasm of the beeldenstorm several paintings that had been commissioned for Catholic churches were destroyed. Several of his best works, including altarpieces in various churches in Amsterdam, were also destroyed during the days surrounding the event known as the Alteratie, or "Changeover", when Amsterdam formally reverted to Protestantism from Catholicism on 26 May 1578 at the start of the Eighty Years' War.
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Constantine's position about iconoclasm was clear: In February 754 Constantine convened a synod at Hieria, which was attended entirely by Iconoclast bishops. The council approved of Constantine's religious policy and secured the election of a new Iconoclast patriarch, but refused to follow in all of Constantine's views. The council confirmed the status of Mary as Theotokos, or Mother of God, reinforced the use of the terms "saint" and "holy" as meet, and condemned the desecration, burning, or looting of churches in the quest to quench Iconophiles. It was followed by a campaign to remove images from the walls of churches and to purge the court and bureaucracy of Iconodules.
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With the death of Theophilos, his son Michael III () ascended the throne. As he was only two years old, a regency council was set up headed by Theodora. Bardas and his brother Petronas, as well as their relative Sergios Niketiates, were also members, but it was the logothete Theoktistos who quickly established himself as Theodora's chief advisor. Bardas still played an active role in the early days of the regency, encouraging Theodora to abandon Iconoclasm for good and taking part in the investigations that led to the deposition of the pro-iconoclast patriarch John the Grammarian and the restoration of the veneration of icons in 843.
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The next edition of the Bristol Times reported that 'a more rough and open exhibition of iconoclasm has not been seen in Bristol since the days of Oliver Cromwell.' The sculptor, James Redfern, was made the scapegoat by the architect and the church, he retreated from the project, fell ill, and died later that year. As a result of Elliot's actions, the committee resigned en masse and the completion of the works was taken over by the Dean and Chapter. Elliot's drop in popularity meant that raising funds was a harder and slower process and the nave had to be officially opened before the two west towers were built.
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Life of St Columba, Penguin books, 1995. Early Byzantine depictions such as that in the Rabbula Gospels often show Christ flanked by Longinus and Stephaton with their spear and pole with vinegar. According to the gospels, the vinegar was offered just before Christ died, and the lance used just after, so the presence of the two flanking figures symbolizes the "double reality of God and man in Christ".Schiller, 93 In images from after the end of the Byzantine Iconoclasm, Christ is shown as dead, but his "body is undamaged and there is no expression of pain"; the Eastern church held that Christ's body was invulnerable.
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At Hujun, she participated in student protests against the Paris Peace Conference. It was at Hujun while she became fluent in English that she imbibed the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement, which inspired her to spearhead the movement for women's emancipation. After graduation, she moved to Shanghai where her cousin, Shen Yanbing, later known as Mao Dun (in later years one of the well known writers of China), introduced Wang to Marxists. She married Li Da, a Marxist philosopher and feminist, who had returned from Japan after studies, in autumn of 1920; they shared an apartment with Chen Duxiu and his wife, Gao Junman.
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Only a few works by Jan van Wechelen are known to exist as most of his oeuvre was destroyed by war and the Iconoclasm of the 16th century.Hans van Wechelen at De Jonchkeere Master Paintings The majority of these are landscapes and religious scenes. His oeuvre also includes a few genres scenes and an architectural painting of a church interior.Church interior with Christ preaching to a crowd, at the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam The artist’s work enjoyed an excellent reputation at the beginning of the 17th century and was collected by Rubens as well as the prominent art collectors Cornelis van der Geest and Pieter Stevens.
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Van Dalem, his collaborator on this composition, was suspected of being a Protestant and possibly the composition contains criticism of the Catholic Church. By placing a preaching Jesus amidst modern church architecture and a contemporary crowd the composition should possibly also be read against the background of the iconoclasm of the Beeldenstorm, which had caused a reflection on the role of religious art in the Low Countries. The attack on sculptures and paintings had placed the entire church interior under discussion. Finding answers to questions such as what a church should be, which type of architecture was suitable and how it should be embellished had become urgent.
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Modern academic art history considers that, while images may have existed earlier, the tradition can be traced back only as far as the 3rd century, and that the images which survive from Early Christian art often differ greatly from later ones. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, though very few of these survive. Widespread destruction of images occurred during the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 726–842, although this did settle permanently the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then icons have had a great continuity of style and subject; far greater than in the icons of the Western church.
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The Sphinx profile in 2010, without the noseAl-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributes the missing nose on the Great Sphinx of Giza to iconoclasm by Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim in the mid-1300s. He was reportedly outraged by local Muslims making offerings to the Great Sphinx in the hope of controlling the flood cycle, and he was later executed for vandalism. However, whether this was actually the cause of the missing nose has been debated by historians. Mark Lehner, having performed an archaeological study, concluded that it was broken with instruments at an earlier unknown time between the 3rd and 10th centuries.
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Many of the temples were damaged by local Muslim population whose religion proscribed figurative images of sentient beings; all statues were destroyed, some paintings defaced and others smeared with mud, the eyes and mouths were often gouged out due to the local belief that the figures may otherwise come to life at night. Michael Dillon considered Bezeklik's Thousand Buddha Caves are an example of the religiously motivated iconoclasm against depiction of religious and human figures. Pieces of murals were also broken off for use as fertilizer by the locals. During the late nineteen and early twentieth century, European and Japanese explorers found intact murals buried in sand, and many were removed and dispersed around the world.
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Akroinon was a major success for the Byzantines, as it was the first victory they had scored in a major pitched battle against the Arabs. Seeing it as evidence of God's renewed favour, the victory also served to strengthen Leo's belief in the policy of iconoclasm that he had adopted some years before. In the immediate aftermath, this success opened up the way for a more aggressive stance by the Byzantines, who in 741 attacked the major Arab base of Melitene. In 742 and 743, the Umayyads were able to exploit a civil war between Constantine V and the general Artabasdos and raid into Anatolia with relative impunity, but the Arab sources do not report any major achievements.
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Inside the town a fraught dynamic quickly developed between the moderate rebels and those who wished to go further, a split in part on lines of class between the elders and the artisan converts. On 3–4 May a wave of systematic iconoclasm swept the city with armed Protestants breaking into churches to destroy the altars, smash icons and loot precious metals. The iconoclasts further invaded the houses of members of the Catholic elite, in particular those members associated with the Guise, seizing what arms they found in them. The Huguenot elite would quickly distance themselves from the actions, writing a formal apology in which they asserted it had been a spontaneous outbreak led by children.
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Although the treaty was in Bulgaria's favour, it was a welcome respite by the Byzantines, who had to regroup their forces after successive defeats, and who faced another round of internal turmoil because of the revival of iconoclasm. Bulgaria on the other hand also faced religious problems, as the growing number of Christians disturbed Omurtag: the Khan began anti-Christian persecutions, to which his eldest son Enravota also fell victim. The Bulgarians also had to restore their economy following the bloody conflicts of the first decade of the century, while their capital Pliska still lay in ruins. The peace treaty was reaffirmed in 820, when Emperor Michael II seized the Byzantine throne.
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Church leaders defended images of Christ on the basis that they were representations of the true incarnation God and clarified the relationship between an image and the one depicted by the image. The principle of respected worship is that, in honoring an image, the honor is to paid not to the image itself, but the one who is portrayed. After the period of Iconoclasm was over, respected veneration of icons spread to Serbia, Bulgaria, and to distant Russia. Depictions of icons bearing the image of God the Father were forbidden in the Orthodox Church, unless depicted in the context of the Revelation or Apocalypse of Saint John, where God the Father is described as an older version of Jesus.
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T. Mathews, The early churches of Constantinople: architecture and liturgy (University Park, 1971); N. Henck, "Constantius ho Philoktistes?", Dumbarton Oaks Papers 55 (2001), 279-304 (available online ). As the Western Roman Empire disintegrated and was taken over by "barbarian" peoples, the art of the Byzantine Empire reached levels of sophistication, power and artistry not previously seen in Christian art, and set the standards for those parts of the West still in touch with Constantinople. This achievement was checked by the controversy over the use of graven images, and the proper interpretation of the Second Commandment, which led to the crisis of Iconoclasm or destruction of religious images, which racked the Empire between 726 and 843.
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During the sixteenth century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominantly Calvinist national Church of Scotland (kirk), which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook.Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 102–4. Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Protestant iconoclasm, with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass, religious sculpture and paintings. The nature of the Scottish Reformation may have had wider effects, limiting the creation of a culture of public display and meaning that art was channelled into more austere forms of expression with an emphasis on private and domestic restraint.N. Prior, Museums and Modernity: Art Galleries and the Making of Modern Culture (Oxford: Berg, 2002), , p. 102.
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In 813 Michael and his two disciples left Jerusalem originally on a journey to Rome. They had been sent by the Patriarch of Jerusalem to support the Pope in his stand against the Franks over the question of the filioque, which some Benedictines from the West had recently introduced to Jerusalem. In the course of their journey, in about 812, they landed in Constantinople, entered a monastery, and where in opposition to the Emperor Leo V (813-20) they energetically defended the veneration of images. However, the Seventh Ecumenical Council had condemned Iconoclasm as a heresy, so they were detained, interrogated, beaten and imprisoned by order of the Emperor Leo V (the Armenian) in 815.
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Richard John Lynn in Pacific Affairs argued that the editor correctly stated that traditional times had major evolutionary processes that lead to the modern period but that the editor and the authors had not "realized the full extent of this interaction and influence" and that he believed they did not "entirely emancipated themselves from the limitations of May Fourth iconoclasm."Lynn, p. 542-543. Lynn argued that even with his critiques, "there is no doubt that this is a very significant contribution to the study of Chinese fiction" and he praised the editor and authors for "presenting a new and challenging look at the premodern-modern watershed in Chinese literary history".Lynn, p. 543.
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Many of its inhabitants were slaughtered, and the remainder driven off as slaves. Most of the survivors were released after a truce in 841, but prominent officials were taken to the caliph's capital of Samarra and executed years later after refusing to convert to Islam, becoming known as the 42 Martyrs of Amorium. The conquest of Amorium was not only a major military disaster and a heavy personal blow for Theophilos, but also a traumatic event for the Byzantines, its impact resonating in later literature. The sack did not ultimately alter the balance of power, which was slowly shifting in Byzantium's favour, but it thoroughly discredited the theological doctrine of Iconoclasm, ardently supported by Theophilos.
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All were painted with religious images, commonly the Christ or the Virgin, with the saints appropriate to the dedication of the church, and the local town or diocese, or to the donor. Donor portraits including members of the donor's family are also often shown, usually kneeling to the side. They were for some time a cheaper alternative to the far more prestigious equivalents in metalwork, decorated with gems, enamels, and perhaps ivory figures, most of which have long been broken up for their valuable materials. Painted panels for altars are most numerous in Spain, especially Catalonia, which is explained by the poverty of the country at this time, as well as the lack of Reformation iconoclasm.
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Perhaps the strongest indication that the picture is situated in the context of the Counter-Reformation in Utrecht, and thus would have been painted for a Catholic client, is the unnatural, archaic rendering of the blood from Christ's wounds. Christ's blood looks like it has been painted on the picture plane, and could thus serve as a strong symbol of the Eucharist. In this context Mary acts as intercessor for the faithful. This motif of blood was frequently employed in painting before 1400, and shortly after, such as in a Jan van Eyck Crucifixion (1430) in Berlin, but was rarely used in Ter Brugghen's time due to the iconoclasm of the Calvinists and the post-Tridentine Catholic theologians.
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Iconoclasm: The organised destruction of Catholic images swept through Netherlands' churches in 1566. Alba took harsh measures and rapidly established a special court (Raad van Beroerten or Council of Troubles) to judge anyone who opposed the King. Alba considered himself the direct representative of Philip in the Netherlands and frequently bypassed Margaret of Parma, the king's half-sister who had been appointed governor of the Netherlands, and made use of her to lure back some of the fugitive nobles, notably the counts of Egmont and Horne, causing her to resign office in September 1567. Egmont and Horne were arrested for high treason, condemned, and a year later beheaded on the Grand Place in Brussels.
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Assisted by the workshop system, panels and a variety of crafts were sold to foreign princes or merchants through private engagement or market stalls. A majority of the works were destroyed during waves of iconoclasm in the 16th and 17th centuries; today only a few thousand examples survive. Early northern art in general was not well regarded from the early 17th to the mid-19th century, and the painters and their works were not well documented until the mid-19th century. Art historians spent almost another century determining attributions, studying iconography, and establishing bare outlines of even the major artists' lives; attribution of some of the most significant works is still debated.
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After moving Liberty from Boston to New York in 1892, Tucker opened his Unique Book Shop in New York in 1906, promoting "Egoism in Philosophy, Anarchism in Politics, Iconoclasm in Art". In 1908, a fire destroyed Tucker's uninsured printing equipment and his thirty-year stock of books and pamphlets. Tucker's lover Pearl Johnson, twenty-five years his junior, was pregnant with their daughter Oriole Tucker. Six weeks after his daughter's birth, Tucker closed both Liberty and the book shop and retired with his family to France. In 1913, he came out of retirement for two years to contribute articles and letters to The New Freewoman which he called "the most important publication in existence".
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The mosaic map depicts an area from Lebanon in the north to the Nile Delta in the south, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Eastern Desert. Among other features, it depicts the Dead Sea with two fishing boats, a variety of bridges linking the banks of the Jordan, fish swimming in the river and receding from the Dead Sea; a lion (rendered nearly unrecognisable by the insertion of random tesserae during a period of iconoclasm) hunting a gazelle in the Moab desert, palm-ringed Jericho, Bethlehem and other biblical-Christian sites. The map may partially have served to facilitate pilgrims' orientation in the Holy Land. All landscape units are labelled with explanations in Greek.
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The poems of the Contention share a sense of national culture, but their political allegiance is clan-centred. It was a period of decline for the court bards, and the fact that they were addressing each other suggests a realisation that their audience was losing its influence and that few within the new dispensation were paying heed to them. In the course of the exchange, the theme of North-South rivalry was developed to include a debate about the struggle between tradition and iconoclasm. That allowed the poets to vent their bitterness at the late conquest and colonisation of the country and at the collapse of the political order upon which they depended.
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Constantine V (741–775) had a less successful reign than his father, for no sooner had he ascended the throne than he was attacked and defeated by his brother in law, Artabasdos who proceeded to seize the title resulting in civil war between the forces of the two emperors, who had divided the themata between them. However Constantine managed to overcome his adversary by 743. The conflict was at least in part one over icons, Artabasdos being supported by the iconodule faction. Under Constantine, Iconoclasm became further entrenched following the Council of Hieria in 754, followed by a concerted campaign against the iconodules and the suppression of monasteries which tended to be the centre of iconophilia.
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Iconography of assembled figures and the throne of Christ would also relate to this. Portraits of Christ began to replace gold crosses at the centers of church domes beginning in the late eighth century, which Charles Stewart suggests may have been an over-correction in favor of images after the periods of Iconoclasm in the eighth and ninth centuries. One of the first was on the nave dome of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki, and this eventually developed into the bust image known as the Pantokrator. Otto Demus writes that Middle Byzantine churches were decorated in a systematic manner and can be seen as having three zones of decoration, with the holiest at the top.
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Rather, it has been suggested that the emperor's drive against monasticism had military and financial reasons, since the monasteries paid no tax and the monks were exempt from military duty. Consequently, the persecution of Stephen may have had more to do with his popularity and strong advocacy of monasticism, rather than his active opposition to iconoclasm as reported in his Life.. Constantine V then sent soldiers who arrested him and brought him to a monastery in Chrysopolis. There again he refused to accept the decisions of Hieria, and was banished to the island of Prokonnesos. In his second year of exile (circa 764), he was brought to the Phiale prison in Constantinople, and was questioned by the emperor himself.
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Breaking the boundaries of syllabic meter, he changed his form and began writing in free verse, which harmonised with the rich vocal properties of the Turkish language. He has been compared by Turkish and non-Turkish men of letters to such figures as Federico García Lorca, Louis Aragon, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Faiz Ahmed Faiz and Pablo Neruda. Although Ran's work bears a resemblance to these poets and owes them occasional debts of form and stylistic device, his literary personality is unique in terms of the synthesis he made of iconoclasm and lyricism, of ideology and poetic diction. Many of his poems have been set to music by the Turkish composer Zülfü Livaneli and Cem Karaca.
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From August to October 1566, a wave of iconoclasm (known as the Beeldenstorm) spread through the Low Countries. Calvinists (the major Protestant denomination), Anabaptists, and Mennonites, angered by Catholic oppression and theologically opposed to the Catholic use of images of saints (which in their eyes conflicted with the Second Commandment), destroyed statues in hundreds of churches and monasteries throughout the Netherlands. Following the Beeldenstorm, unrest in the Netherlands grew, and Margaret agreed to grant the wishes of the Confederacy, provided the noblemen would help to restore order. She also allowed more important noblemen, including William of Orange, to assist the Confederacy, and William went to Antwerp where he succeeded in quelling the riot.
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Irene of Athens (, ; 752 – 9 August 803), surnamed Sarantapechaina (), was Byzantine empress consort by marriage to Emperor Leo IV from 775 to 780, regent during the minority of her son Constantine VI from 780 until 790, co- regent from 792 until 797, and finally sole ruler and first empress regnant of the Byzantine Empire from 797 to 802. A member of the politically prominent Sarantapechos family, she was selected as Leo IV's bride for unknown reasons in 768. Even though her husband was an iconoclast, she harbored iconophile sympathies. During her rule as regent, she called the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which condemned iconoclasm as heretical and brought an end to the first iconoclast period (730–787).
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Local magistracies were often opposed, but ineffective in stopping the destruction.Petegree, 119–124; Arnade, 120–122 In many towns the archer's guild, who had a function in controlling public order, took no steps against the crowds.Arnade, 120 In 1566, unlike the situation after the Eighty Years War and today, Protestantism in the Low Countries was mainly concentrated in the south (roughly modern Belgium), and much weaker in the north (roughly now the Netherlands), and iconoclasm in the north began later, after news of the events in Antwerp was received, and was more successfully resisted by local authorities in some towns, although still succeeding in most. Once again individually socially prominent laymen often took the lead.
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"Charles' books") to refute what his court mistakenly understood to be the iconoclast decrees of the Byzantine Second Council of Nicaea regarding sacred images. Although not well known during the Middle Ages, these books describe the key elements of the Catholic theological position on sacred images. To the Western Church, images were just objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake of the subject represented, not in themselves. The Council of Constantinople (869) (considered ecumenical by the Western Church, but not the Eastern Church) reaffirmed the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea and helped stamp out any remaining coals of iconoclasm.
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A forerunner of the modern ideas of cyberspace is the Cartesian notion that people might be deceived by an evil demon that feeds them a false reality. This argument is the direct predecessor of modern ideas of a brain in a vat and many popular conceptions of cyberspace take Descartes's ideas as their starting point. Visual arts have a tradition, stretching back to antiquity, of artifacts meant to fool the eye and be mistaken for reality. This questioning of reality occasionally led some philosophers and especially theologiansRanging across history, from the interference of depictions of newly-died in the Great Dreaming of Australian aboriginal ancestors; East Roman/Byzantine iconoclasm movements in the 8th and 8th c.
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According to Owen Davies Sufis remained at receiving end from orthodox and modernist for some of their superstitious practices from both opposite end of reformists, not only that Sufis got persecuted too for their variant belief systems. According to J.D.Kila there are multiple extreme instances of attempts to erase Sufi identity mixed with iconoclasm, considering the same to be idolatrous, like desecration and destruction of Sufi places of worship and cultural heritage, banning Sufi singing and dancing and cultural festivals, for example to disprove an un-Islamic superstition a sacred door of Sidi Yahya Mosque was forcefully destroyed since people believed that door supposedly not to be opened till end of the world.
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Colosseum, the All India Inter Collegiate Technical Fest is the second largest technical festival organized in the north zone of the country. It has a participation of 3,000 students from over 40 colleges of the country. It comprises several events including Biz-czar-the business plan presentation contest, Iconoclasm-the case study contest, X-Quiz-It-the core quizzing contest, The Game Changers-the theme event of Colosseum, Voroc-the problem solving Contest, Ranbhumi -the robotics contest, Aurum- the personality development workshop, Renaissance- the workshop and guest lecture series, Sanrachna -the model making contest, Kurukshetra- the LAN gaming contest and Inspire India -the youth parliament. The annual tech-fest is organized every year in the last week of March.
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What should be observed when the emperor intends to go on an expedition: The text consists of two case studies: Constantine the Great and Julius Caesar; only it cannot really be them because they are described very anachronistically – particularly a Christian Julius Caesar. Their names however could be a cover up for using the case studies of the 'heretical' Isaurian emperors, Leo III and Constantine V, etc. – if so then this is proof that iconoclasm was still bitterly condemned during the 10th century. Constantine the Great is presented as being thorough in campaigns, taking care about gathering information, throwing off spies, and ensuring there was enough equipment – overall stress is laid on the importance of good order ().
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Its association with St Gregory derives from a vision by Pope Gregory the Great when celebrating mass of Christ's real presence and sacrifice in the eucharistic bread. One of the later Hostels of Michaelhouse shared the dedication of the College chapel. While the altarpiece may have survived the reformation, it certainly would not have survived local Cromwellian iconoclasm, and was most likely destroyed, alongside other images in St Michael's, on Boxing Day 1643. However, a late-medieval scutum sancti Trinitatis (Shield of the Trinity), in the middle ages widely believed to be the Shield of St Michael and probably used as the College's coat of arms, has survived in the chapel's stained glass window.
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According to a modern critic, the poem connects this history to the contemporary moment by "imagining wartime Boston as the legitimate inheritor of Puritan militance, severity, iconoclasm, and singleness of purpose, if not necessarily its literal theology." (Indeed, Emerson's early working title was "The Pilgrims".) In this way, the poem places the Emancipation Proclamation within the history of the Puritans' mission in America and a fulfillment of America's sacred destiny. It conceives of a covenant between God and America, parallel to the covenant with Israel, in which adoption of the Puritan ideals of equality and democracy are rewarded with prosperity. The poem is narrated by God, suggesting divine authority behind the Emancipation Proclamation.
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In Portrait of a Marxist as a Young Nun, Professor Helena Sheehan said that the analogy between commodity fetishism and religion is mistaken, because people do not worship money and commodities in the spiritual sense, by attributing to them supernatural powers. Human psychological beliefs about the value-relationships inherent to commodity fetishism are not religious beliefs, and do not possess the characteristics of spiritual beliefs. The proof of this interpretation lies in the possibility of a person's being a religious believer, despite being aware of commodity fetishism, and being critical of its manifestations; toppling the Golden Calf might be integral to one's religiousness, and such iconoclasm would lead to opposing all manifestations of idolatry.
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During the 6th and 7th centuries, the growing menace of the Lombards and the Franks, as well as the split between Eastern and Western Christendom inspired both by iconoclastic emperors and medieval developments in Latin theology and culminating in the acrimonious rivalry between the Pope of Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople, made the position of the exarch more and more untenable. Ravenna remained the seat of the exarch until the revolt of 727 over iconoclasm. Eutychius, the last exarch of Ravenna, was killed by the Lombards in 751. The exarchate was reorganized as the Catepanate of Italy headquartered in Bari, which was lost to the Saracen Berbers in 847 and only recovered in 871.
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There are at least five (largely) authentic medieval churches from the 12th century in the municipality (in Södra Åsum, Tolånga, Björka, Blentarp and Everlöv). They are notable for not having undergone the severe restorations that many other churches in Scania suffered once the population began growing in the second half of the 19th century and Helgo Zetterwall was hired to expand on them. Frescos which adorned the apse of Södra Åsum church and the ceilings of the churches in Everlöv and Illstrop centuries ago have been slowly uncovered in recent years. Many similar churches had their ornamentation stripped and their paintings plastered over as part of the iconoclasm of Sweden's adoption of Lutheranism.
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However, even before this exclusionary tendency from the West, well before 1054, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church were in perpetual conflict, particularly during the periods of Eastern iconoclasm and the Photian schism. sacking the city of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Orthodox controlled Byzantine Empire, in 1204. The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204; the final break with Rome occurred circa 1450. The sacking of Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day.
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The first wave of the Muslim conquests ended with the siege of Constantinople in 718, and the border between the two empires became stabilized along the mountains of eastern Anatolia. Raids and counter-raids continued on both sides and became almost ritualized, but the prospect of outright conquest of Byzantium by the Caliphate receded. This led to far more regular, and often friendly, diplomatic contacts, as well as a reciprocal recognition of the two empires. In response to the Muslim threat, which reached its peak in the first half of the 8th century, the Isaurian emperors adopted the policy of Iconoclasm, which was abandoned in 786 only to be readopted in the 820s and finally abandoned in 843.
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There, Hemingway met and fell in love with Red Cross nurse Agnes von Kurowsky. Although seven years his senior, Hemingway loved her deeply and the two were to marry on his return to the US at the end of his recuperation.Meyers (1985), 37–42 However, after Hemingway went home, he was devastated when Kurowsky broke off the romance in a letter,Oliver (1999), 189-190 telling him of her engagement to an Italian officer. The background of "The Revolutionist" is based on the 1919 Hungarian White Terror, caused when Communist iconoclasm resulted in a bloody and violent backlash leading to a period of severe repression, from which the young Magyar revolutionist flees.
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The Spanish Fury at Maastricht in 1579 Several requests for relaxation of religious coercion in the Low Countries, including a petition by a covenant of noblemen in the winter of 1565–66, had been rejected. The summer then brought renewed violent outbursts of iconoclasm, in which 'Beeldenstorm' Calvinists destroyed religious images in Catholic monasteries and churches. The Battle of Oosterweel in March 1567 was the first Spanish military response to the many riots, and a prelude to or the start of the Eighty Years' War.The 80 Years' War can be seen to have started on 13 March 1567 with the defeat of the rebels at Oosterweel, or eleven days later, when besieged Valenciennes surrendered.
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Several historians credit the Catholic Church for what they consider to be the brilliance and magnificence of Western art. "Even though the church dominated art and architecture, it did not prevent architects and artists from experimenting..." Historians such as Thomas Woods refer to the western Church's consistent opposition to Byzantine iconoclasm, an eastern movement against visual representations of the divine, and the western church's insistence on building structures befitting worship. Important contributions include its cultivation and patronage of individual artists, as well as development of the Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance styles of art and architecture. Augustine's repeated reference to (God "ordered all things by measure and number and weight") influenced the geometric constructions of Gothic architecture.
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John Oxenford's anonymous 1853 article, "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy", was translated and published in the Vossische Zeitung. This led to a new interest in Schopenhauer's writings. Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot) became assistant editor and produced a four–page prospectus setting out their common beliefs in progress, ameliorating ills and rewards for talent, setting out a loosely defined evolutionism as "the fundamental principle" of what she and Chapman called the "Law of Progress". The group was divided over the work of Thomas Malthus, with Holyoake opposing it as the principle of the workhouse which blamed the poor for their poverty, while to Greg and Martineau this was a law of nature encouraging responsibility and self-improvement.
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Some of the best preserved of these images are from the Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt. The late 12th-century templon beam shows twelve canonical feast scenes, with the Deesis (Christ enthroned, flanked by Mary and St. John the Baptist) located in the middle between the Transfiguration and the Raising of Lazarus, linking the scene of Lazarus with the Holy Week images according to liturgical practice. Several epistyles of this form have been excavated throughout the empire, none earlier than the 12th century, indicating a change from busts on the architrave to scenic decoration. This new scenic style is representative of the increasing liturgification in Byzantine representational art after iconoclasm.
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When a small group of his pupils met up for a reunion after his death they were able to compile a list of 120 of his pupils.Isaack Claessen Cloeck, in Frans Floris biography in Karel van Mander's Schilderboeck, 1604 Van Mander recounts that at the end of his life Floris became heavily indebted and started drinking. The debts were likely related to his high costs of living as well as the impact of the Beeldenstorm or Iconoclastic Fury that commenced from the 1560s and reached its peak in 1566. During the period of iconoclasm, Catholic art and many forms of church fittings and decoration were destroyed by nominally Calvinist Protestant crowds as part of the Protestant Reformation.
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Although the Jesuit Louis Maimbourg did not write a continuous ecclesiastical history, he published numerous treatises (Paris, 1673–83): on Arianism, Iconoclasm, the Greek Schism, struggle between the popes and the emperors, Western Schism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism. Among the major ecclesiastical historians of this period are: Noël Alexandre (Natalis Alexander) a Dominican; Claude Fleury, who wrote a Histoire ecclésiastique in 20 volumes, reaching to 1414 (Paris, 1691–1720) as a moderate Gallican; and Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont. To these must be added Bossuet, who, in his Discours sur l'histoire universelle (Paris, 1681), treated the history of the Church as far as Charlemagne. His Histoire des variations des églises protestantes (2 vols.
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The Church Fathers, an 11th-century Kievan Rus' miniature from Svyatoslav's Miscellany The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. There is no definitive list. The historical period during which they flourished is referred to by scholars as the Patristic Era ending approximately around AD 700 (Byzantine Iconoclasm began in AD 726,Iconoclastic Controversy John of Damascus died in AD 749Saint John of Damascus). In the past, the Church Fathers were regarded as authoritative, and more restrictive definitions were used which sought to limit the list to authors treated as such.
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The dispute was almost entirely restricted to the Eastern church; the iconoclasts wished to prohibit icons, while the iconodules supported their veneration, a position consistently backed by the Western Church. At the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, the ecumenical council determined that the veneration of icons and statues was not in violation of the commandment and stated "whoever venerates an image venerates the person portrayed in it."Schreck, p. 305 At around the time of the controversy over Iconoclasm, the Western church began to use monumental sculpture, which by the Romanesque period became a major feature of Western Christian art, that has remained part of the Catholic tradition, in contrast to Eastern Christianity, which avoids large religious sculpture.
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For some reason the actual moment of transferral of the deeds only took place fifteen years later in 1596, and the Catholic associations with this property was probably the reason it was selected by the executors of the Frans Loenen will. Two years later, in 1607, the provost Jacobus Zaffius sponsored an additional 5 rooms, thereafter known as the "provost rooms" of the Frans Loenen Hofje. Jacobus Zaffius had been abbot in the St. Anthony's monastery in Heiloo from 1578 to 1571, when he became provost of the Sint-Bavokerk. He witnessed the iconoclasm and 3 years later went to jail for refusal to turn over Catholic property to the city council.
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When talking of hofjes, most people refer to the name given to the buildings themselves, but the foundations they are based on may have moved premises several times since the original foundation date, and even changed their names. Hofjes in Haarlem were primarily the result of generous bequests by wealthy men or women in their own name, rather than from any group religious or municipal effort. Most hofjes were meant for elderly women, because there were far more poor aged women in the streets than poor aged men. However, after the iconoclasm of the Reformation in Haarlem in 1566, the Catholics (and their hofjes) were forced underground, and many became quite poor.
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Andrei Rublev's Trinity Iconoclasm as a movement began within the Eastern Christian Byzantine church in the early 8th century, following a series of heavy military reverses against the Muslims. There was a Christian movement in the eighth and ninth centuries against the worship of imagery, caused by worry that the art might be idolatrous. Sometime between 726–730 the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian ordered the removal of an image of Jesus prominently placed over the Chalke gate, the ceremonial entrance to the Great Palace of Constantinople, and its replacement with a cross. This was followed by orders banning the pictorial representation of the family of Christ, subsequent Christian saints, and biblical scenes.
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Lutherans strongly defended their existing sacred art from a new wave of Calvinist-on-Lutheran iconoclasm in the second half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or city authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the "Second Reformation" of about 1560–1619.Michalski, 84. Google books Against the Reformed, Lutherans exclaimed: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return". The Beeldenstorm, a large and very disorderly wave of Calvinist mob destruction of Catholic images and church fittings that spread through the Low Countries in the summer of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions.
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As a reflection of this theological opposition, Protestant reformers destroyed much religious art and Marian statues and paintings in churches in northern Europe and England. Some of the Protestant reformers, in particular Andreas Karlstadt, Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, encouraged the removal of religious images by invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry and the manufacture of graven images of God. Major iconoclastic riots took place in Zürich (in 1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), Augsburg (1537), and Scotland (1559). Protestant iconoclasm swept through the Seventeen Provinces (now the Netherlands and Belgium and parts of Northern France) in the summer of 1566. In the middle of the 16th century, the Council of Trent confirmed the Catholic tradition of paintings and artworks in churches.
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When Iconoclasm became state policy in the Byzantine empire, again the caves of Nevşehir became shelters for those escaping persecution. The castle on the hill dates from the Byzantine period, when the region was on the frontline in the (holy) wars against the Islamic Caliphate. At the Battle of Manzikert (present-day Malazgirt) in AD 1071, the Byzantine emperor Romanos IV was defeated by the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan. This led to the occupation of Anatolia by the Seljuks by 1074 and Nevşehir along with the rest of the region became part of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, then under the rule of the Karamanid dynasty in 1328 and finally under rule of the Ottoman Empire around 1487 AD and was renamed "Muşkara".
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Wells Cathedral has a rare example of an intact 14th-century Jesse Tree window which survived the iconoclasm of the 17th-century and the losses of World War II.Wells Cathedral website, Jesse Tree window , (retrieved 21-11-2013) The window is located high up in the eastern end of the choir. The colours of this window are red, yellow, green, white and brown, with very little blue. The window is wide for its height, having seven lights, and being topped by tracery. Consequently, the tendrils of the Tree spread out sideways and the central panel has only three figures: the reclining Jesse at the bottom; the Blessed Virgin holding the Christ Child in her arms and above, the crucified Christ.
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Online film reviewer, The Movie Blogger Fella, claims Petaling Street Warriors to be "a smart film, something its detractors clearly fail to recognise". Malaysian writer and independent filmmaker, Amir Muhammad, claims that Petaling Street Warriors reminded him of the robust iconoclasm of Ali Baba Bujang Lapok. According to his blog review, "the movie was effortlessly political as it flipped about notions of citizenship and governance", and it "shows that mish-mash of pop genres, when handled with wit and verve, can be utterly zany and utterly serious at the same time". He explained that the ending of Petaling Street Warriors is "in the spirit of democratic optimism: it's only when we give up inherited privileges that we can truly live (together)".
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At the passage of the most important decrees, not more than sixty prelates were present. Although most Protestants did not attend, ambassadors and theologians of Brandenburg, Württemberg, and Strasbourg attended having been granted an improved safe conductTrent, Council of from the Christian Cyclopedia, Edited by: Erwin L. Lueker, Luther Poellot, Paul Jackson. Concordia Publishing House: 2000 The French monarchy boycotted the entire council until the last minute when a delegation led by Charles de Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine finally arrived in November 1562. The first outbreak of the French Wars of Religion had occurred earlier in the year and the French Church, facing a significant and powerful Protestant minority in France, experienced iconoclasm violence regarding the use of sacred images.
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At first a suffragan of Synnada, the see of Nakoleia became important in the early 8th century, when its bishop Constantine became one of the leading proponents of Byzantine Iconoclasm under Leo III the Isaurian (ruled 717–741) and was later condemned as an heresiarch at the Second Council of Nicaea (787). Nakoleia was elevated to the rank of an archbishopric between 787 and 862, and eventually to a metropolitan see between 1035 and 1066, when its incumbent appears in the last place among the metropolitans attending a council. The see continued in existence as a metropolis, without suffragans, until the 14th century. Nakoleia is included, with archiepiscopal rank, in the Catholic Church's list of titular seesAnnuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2013, ), p.
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The Ditchley Portrait of Elizabeth I by the foreign Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, c.1592 England was very slow to produce visual arts in Renaissance styles, and the artists of the Tudor court were mainly imported foreigners until after the end of the Renaissance; Hans Holbein was the outstanding figure. The English Reformation produced a huge programme of iconoclasm that destroyed almost all medieval religious art, and all but ended the skill of painting in England; English art was to be dominated by portraiture, and then later landscape art, for centuries to come. The significant English invention was the portrait miniature, which essentially took the techniques of the dying art of the illuminated manuscript and transferred them to small portraits worn in lockets.
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The Roman Papacy was to become the instrument of the Imperial idea's revival in the West. The position of the Popes had been strengthened by the reconquest of Rome by Justinian, as the Emperors periodically reaffirmed the traditional primacy of the Bishop of Rome to check the potential political influence of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Furthermore, for various reasons, Catholicism finally triumphed over Arianism in the Western kingdoms: in the Visigothic Iberian Peninsula with the conversion of Reccared I in 587, and in Lombard-held Italy, after some back-and-forth, following the death of King Rothari in 652. The promotion of iconoclasm by Emperor Leo III the Isaurian from 726 led to a deepening rupture between the Eastern Empire and the Papacy.
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Petronas (; died November 11, 865) was a notable Byzantine general and leading aristocrat during the mid-9th century. Petronas was a brother of Empress Theodora and hence brother-in-law of Emperor Theophilos, under whom he advanced to the rank of patrikios and the post of droungarios of the Vigla regiment. After Theophilos' death, he played a role in the ending of Iconoclasm, but was sidelined along with his brother Bardas during the minority of his nephew, Michael III, when power was held by the regent Theoktistos. In 855, Petronas and Bardas encouraged Michael III to seize control of the government: Theoktistos was murdered, Theodora banished to a monastery, Bardas became Michael's chief minister, and Petronas was tasked with the war against the Arabs.
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James VI, whose inheritance of the thrones of England and Ireland created a dynastic union in 1603 In the 16th century, under James V of Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots, the Crown and court took on many of the attributes of the Renaissance and New Monarchy, despite long royal minorities, civil wars and interventions by the English and French.A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), , p. 188. In the mid-16th century, Scottish Reformation was strongly influenced by Calvinism, leading to widespread iconoclasm and the introduction of a Presbyterian system of organisation and discipline that would have a major impact on Scottish life.Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 120–33.
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An opponent of image worship has been referred to as an εἰκονοκλάστης (iconoclast), while those supporting image worship have been variously described as εἰκονολάτραι (iconolaters), εἰκονόδουλοι (iconodules) or εἰκονόφιλοι (iconophiles). The traditional view was that Leo III issued an edict ordering the removal of images in 726, followed by prohibiting the veneration of images, but the controversy had existed in the church for some time and received some impetus from the rise of proximity of Islam and its attitude to imagery. The iconoclastic movement in the east considerably exacerbated the rift between it and the western church. The first phase of iconoclasm coincided with the Isaurian dynasty, from the edict of Leo III to Irene and the Second Council of Nicaea (Seventh Ecumenical Council) in 787.
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This is for instance the case with the grisaille Saints John and Matthew of 1602, which is the exterior of the right wing of a tryptich painted by multiple Antwerp mastersThe other artists who worked on the tryptich included Otto van Veen, Simon de Vos and Ambrosius Francken the Elder, see: David Freedberg, Iconoclasm and painting in the revolt of the Netherlands, 1566-1609, Garland, 1 Jan 1988, p. 212 for the Guild of St Luke in Antwerp (Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp). This wing is now attributed to Ambrosius Francken the Elder by the Netherlands Institute for Art History.Attributed to Ambrosius Francken (I), De evangelisten Johannes en Matthëus at the Netherlands Institute for Art History Pepijn’s work is further characterized by its excellent portraiture.
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An author portrait of Jean Miélot writing his compilation of the Miracles of Our Lady, one of his many popular works. Despite this ambiguity, monasteries in the West and the Eastern Empire permitted the conservation of a certain number of secular texts, and several libraries were created: for example, Cassiodorus ('Vivarum' in Calabria, around 550), or Constantine I in Constantinople. There were several libraries, but the survival of books often depended on political battles and ideologies, which sometimes entailed massive destruction of books or difficulties in production (for example, the distribution of books during the Iconoclasm between 730 and 842). A long list of very old and surviving libraries that now form part of the Vatican Archives can be found in the Catholic Encyclopedia.
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The possible appropriation of Constantine VI's identity is linked in some Byzantine sources with the statement that Thomas was a rumoured supporter of iconolatry, as opposed to Michael's support for iconoclasm: it was under Constantine VI that veneration of the icons was restored. Nevertheless, the ambiguous phrasing of the sources, the iconoclast leanings of many themes in Asia Minor, and Thomas's alliance with the Arabs seem to speak against any open commitment to icon worship on his part.; ; . Indeed, given Michael II's conciliatory approach during his early reign, the icon worship controversy does not seem to have been a major issue at the time, and in the view of modern scholars most probably did not play a major role in Thomas's revolt.
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In late 1566, and early 1567, it became clear that she would not be allowed to fulfil her promises, and when several minor rebellions failed, many Calvinists and Lutherans fled the country. Following the announcement that Philip II, unhappy with the situation in the Netherlands, would dispatch his loyal general Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba (also known as "The Iron Duke"), to restore order, William laid down his functions and retreated to his native Nassau in April 1567. He had been financially involved with several of the rebellions. After his arrival in August 1567, Alba established the Council of Troubles (known to the people as the Council of Blood) to judge those involved in the rebellion and the iconoclasm.
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Though the old borders were still visible through the presence of monuments erected by the ancient emperors, the author of the Doctrina Jacobi stated that one could now see that the present Roman realm (the Romania) had been humbled.'''''' The losses that the empire had experienced, in particular the loss of the Levant, Egypt, and Northwest Africa in the Muslim conquests in the 7th century, were typically blamed on the heresy of the emperors (e.g. iconoclasm) and the Christians who had once lived in these lost regions ceased to be recognized by the Byzantines as "Romans". This eventually led to "Roman" being applied more to the dominant Greek-speaking population of the remaining empire than to inhabitants of the empire in general.
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Although never a formally organized movement, New Wave filmmakers were linked by their self-conscious rejection of classical cinematic form and their spirit of youthful iconoclasm, and their films are an example of European art cinema. Many also engaged in their work with the social and political upheavals of the era, making their radical experiments with editing, visual style and narrative part of a general break with the conservative paradigm. Some of the most prominent pioneers among the group, including François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Éric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol, and Jacques Rivette, began as critics for the film magazine Cahiers du cinéma. Auteur theory holds that the director is the "author" of his films, with a personal signature visible from film to film.
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Further information: Macedonian Renaissance Following the Iconoclasm, Byzantine artists were able to resume creating religious images, which people accepted not as idols to be worshiped, but as symbolic and ceremonial elements of religious ritual spaces. The first part of this period, from 867–1056, is sometimes called the Macedonian Renaissance and is seen as the second golden age of the Byzantine Empire. Churches throughout the empire, and especially the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, were redecorated with some of the finest examples of Byzantine art ever created. For instance, the monasteries at Hosios Loukas, Daphni, and Nea Moni of Chios have all been recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and they contain some of the most magnificent Byzantine mosaics from this period.
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If the former hypothesis is true, then the establishment of the Vigla by Irene may have been intended to counterbalance the two older tagmata, which remained loyal to iconoclasm and resented Irene's iconophile policies. The provincial parent unit, in turn, appears to have been of considerable ancestry: the presence of archaic Late Roman titles for its officers points to an origin, possibly as a cavalry vexillation, in the old East Roman army before the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. John B. Bury has traced a hypothetical lineage to the early 5th- century vexillationes palatinae of the Comites Arcadiaci, the Comites Honoriaci and the Equites Theodosiaci. As the name indicates, the Vigla was tasked with guard duties, both in the imperial palace and on campaign.
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Self portrait of George Jamesone, 1642 Rare example of pre-Reformation stained glass in the Magdalen Chapel, Edinburgh Art in early modern Scotland includes all forms of artistic production within the modern borders of Scotland, between the adoption of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century to the beginnings of the Enlightenment in the mid-eighteenth century. Devotional art before the Reformation included books and images commissioned in the Netherlands. Before the Reformation in the mid-sixteenth century the interiors of Scottish churches were often elaborate and colourful, with sacrament houses and monumental effigies. Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm, with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass, religious sculpture and paintings.
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Some observers, including Cardinal Timothy M. Dolan, have compared the vandalism and destruction of monuments and memorials to the period of iconoclasm in the former Soviet Union, or the Cultural Revolution in the People's Republic of China. U.S. president Donald Trump denounced the actions against statues as part of a "left-wing cultural revolution" to "wipe out our history", and proposed the creation of a National Garden of American Heroes. This list is limited to successful removals, and instances in which a person or body with authority has committed itself to removal. It does not include the many works that have been the subject of petitions, protests, defacement, or attempted removals, such as the Emancipation Memorial in Washington, D.C., and many statues of Leopold II in Belgium.
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The division of Italy between the Lombards and the Byzantines during Gregory III's pontificate Conscious of the ongoing Lombard threat, Gregory undertook and completed the restoration of the Aurelian Walls during the early 730s. He also refortified Centumcellae, purchasing from Thrasimund II of Spoleto the fortress of Gallese along the Via Flaminia, which had been taken by the Lombards, interrupting Rome’s communications with the exarch at Ravenna.Mann, p. 216 The return of the Lombard king Liutprand in 737 saw a renewal of the Lombard assault on the Exarchate of Ravenna. Gregory's opposition to iconoclasm did not stop his lending support to the Eastern Empire to help in the recapture of Ravenna after it had fallen to the Lombards in around 738.
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However, some of these, notably that at Naaran in the West Bank, have had the living figures removed, leaving inanimate symbols such as the menorah intact.Barber, 1018-1021 It has been proposed that this was done by the Jewish community in the 6th or early 7th century, as part of a controversy within Judaism over images that paralleled that within Christianity leading to the Byzantine iconoclasm, leading to a stricter attitude towards images, at least in synagogues. There is also evidence that from about 570 new synagogue mosaics were aniconic. An alternative explanation for the removals is that they were done after the Muslim Conquest, and related to the decree of Caliph Yazid II in 721 (although this referred to Christian images).
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Andrzej Piotrowski writes that Byzantine churches after Justinian's Hagia Sophia often had gold-covered domes with a ring of windows and that gold, as "the most precious metal and the paradigm of purity, was a sign of light and divinity in the writings of St. Basil and Pseudo-Dionysius. It 'does not rust, decompose, or wear and can be beaten to the fineness of air. Gold was used to invoke the transcendental nature of the Incarnate Christ.'" Beginning in the late eighth century, portraits of Christ began to replace gold crosses at the centers of church domes, which Charles Stewart suggests may have been an over-correction in favor of images after the periods of Iconoclasm in the eighth and ninth centuries.
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High church theologians have long used the terms latria for the sacrificial worship due to God alone, and dulia for the veneration given to saints and icons. They base this distinction on the conclusions of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (787), which also decreed that iconoclasm (forbidding icons and their veneration) is a heresy that amounts to a denial of the incarnation of Jesus. Prayer is directed to God; one prays with and for the saints as they pray with and for us through Christ to God. Article XXII of the Thirty-nine Articles states the "Romish doctrine" of the invocation of saints in the 16th century was not grounded in Scripture, hence many low-church or broad-church Anglicans consider prayer to the saints to be unnecessary.
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A Short History of Byzantium (1997) is a history of the Byzantine Empire by historian John Julius Norwich. It is a condensed version of his earlier three- volume work on the same subject, published from 1988 to 1995 in 1200 pages, which is approximately one page per year of historical time covered. Norwich's thesis (as stated in the introduction) is that Byzantium left behind a rich legacy, both as a cultural powerhouse and as a bulwark protecting Western Europe against invaders like the Sasanian Empire and the Arab Caliphate. The history of the Empire is considered in its entirety, from the reign of Constantine the Great to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. Historical events like the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, Byzantine Iconoclasm, and the Crusades are discussed.
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Those converts that chose to remain however were not idle, beginning in 1535 sporadic acts of iconoclasm and placard distribution were recorded. Illegal gatherings for worship likewise continued, and by 1560 they were confident enough in their numbers to gather publicly and sing psalms. When the Cardinal Charles de Bourbon visited the town he was heaped with insults and had his pulpit vandalised, At Lent in 1562 the Calvinists destroyed the Cathedral Portal while a Franciscan was preaching and then invaded the building to insult him. With the continuation of executions for heresy the Calvinists organised several prison breaks for their comrades in 1560, even pulling down another of their flock from the stake in 1561 despite the cities attempt to move the execution grounds to a more secure site.
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The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the Saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE. The Konark Sun Temple was built in mid 13th century. During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink. The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
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He did not feel himself worthy to do so and asked his fellow monks to go fetch it, but the image kept receding from them when they approached. Pietro then approached it with his arms stretched wide in welcome, at which the angels vanished and the image moved towards him. Historically, the image was probably made in a workshop in or near Constantinople and then brought from there to Italy either to escape iconoclasm or by a soldier on the First Crusade in the late 11th century. Pietro degli Onesti had definitely built a church dedicated to Mary in the 12th century, Santa Maria in Porto Fuori, mentioned by Dante as a "house of Our Lady on the Lido Adriano"Paradise, Canto XXI and destroyed in an air-raid on 6 November 1944.
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The introduction of venerable images in Christianity was highly controversial for centuries, and in Eastern Orthodoxy the controversy lingered until it re-erupted in the Byzantine Iconoclasm of the 8th and 9th centuries. Religious monumental sculpture remained foreign to Orthodoxy. In the West, resistance to idolatry delayed the introduction of sculpted images for centuries until the time of Charlemagne, whose placing of a life-size crucifix in the Palatine Chapel, Aachen was probably a decisive moment, leading to the widespread use of monumental reliefs on churches, and later large statues. The Libri Carolini, a somewhat mis-fired Carolingian counter-blast against imagined Orthodox positions, set out what remains the Catholic position on the veneration of images, giving them a similar but slightly less significant place than in Eastern Orthodoxy.
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While its title suggests a focus on iconoclasm, with an allusion to the ceremony of stripping the Altar of its ornaments in preparation for Good Friday, its concerns are broader, dealing with the shift in religious sensibilities in English society between 1400 and 1580. In particular, the book is concerned with establishing, in intricate detail, the religious beliefs and practices of English society in the century or so preceding the reign of Henry VIII. The main thesis of Duffy's book is that the Roman Catholic faith was in rude and lively health prior to the English Reformation. Duffy's argument was written as a counterpoint to the prevailing historical belief that the Roman Catholic faith in England was a decaying force, theologically spent and unable to provide sufficient spiritual sustenance for the population at large.
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Still other scholars have proposed an earlier date than the later 9th century. According to George Galavaris, the moasic seen by Photius was a Hodegetria portrait which after the earthquake of 989 was replaced by the present image not later than the early 11th century. According to Oikonomides however, the image in fact dates to before the Triumph of Orthodoxy, having been completed , during the iconodule interlude between the First Iconoclast (726–787) and the Second Iconoclast (814–842) periods. Having been plastered over in the Second Iconoclasm, Oikonomides argues a new, standing image of the Vrigin Hodegetria was created above the older mosaic in 867, which then fell off in the earthquakes of the 1340s and revealed again the late 8th-century image of the Virgin enthroned.
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The Psalter is the earliest and most fully illustrated of a "narrative" group of Carolingian Psalters and other manuscripts; the much greater freedom of their illustrations may represent a different, probably monastic, audience for them from the more hieratic productions for the court and the altar. Images are unframed, often varied and original in iconography, showing a "liveliness of mind and independence of convention" not found in the more formal books (Hinks, 117). Other members of the group are the Golden Psalter of St. Gall and the Drogo Sacramentary, which made the important innovation of placing most illustrations in inhabited initials. The Byzantine Chludov Psalter represents a comparable tradition in the East (Hinks, 115-119), and the Reims style was also influenced by artists fleeing Byzantine iconoclasm (Berenson, 163).
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The Gothic reference in the work is seen through the expressive nature of the facial features or postures or the way the work was handled. The roof of the shrine predicts a program through a series of images which convey the life of Jesus and the life of the Virgin Mary. Images of prophets and angels are located above the arcade along with some of the scenes depicted are from: The Visitation, The flight of Egypt, The Visit of Mary to her cousin Elizabeth, the birth of Christ, the adoration of Magi, the baptism of Christ, the flagellation of Christ and so on. The original relics disappeared in 1566 during the Iconoclasm but the shrine remains in a restored condition after 1890 due to the aftermath of the French revolution.
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Art historian Josef Strzygowski, who was the first European to thoroughly study Armenian architecture, and who placed Armenia in the center of European architecture, suggested that several churches and chapels in Western Europe have been influenced by the cathedrals of Etchmiadzin and Bagaran due to similarities found within their plans. According to Strzygowski, some examples of churches influenced by Etchmiadzin and Bagaran are the 9th-century church of Germigny- des-Prés in France (built by Odo of Metz, probably an Armenian) and San Satiro of Milan, Italy. This view was later supported by Alexander Sahinian and Varazdat Harutyunyan. Sahinian suggested that Armenian church architecture was spread in Western Europe in the 8th–9th centuries by the Paulicians, who migrated from Armenia en mase after being suppressed by the Eastern Roman government during the Iconoclasm period.
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Ashbee suggested that this destruction was probably due to iconoclasm, believing that the burial of the stones likely indicated that medieval Christian zealots had tried to deliberately destroy and defame the pre-Christian monument. Conversely, the archaeologist John Alexander believed that this damage resulted from a robbery by medieval treasure hunters. Supporting this idea is comparative evidence, with the Close Roll of 1237 ordering the opening of barrows on the Isle of Wight in search for treasure, a practice that may have spread to Kent around the same time. Alexander believed that the destruction may have been brought about by a special commissioner, highlighting that the "expertness and thoroughness of the robbery"—as evidenced at Chestnuts—would have necessitated resources beyond that which a local community could likely produce.
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His campaign was successful and Kanchipuram was held by the Golconda Sultanate until its conquest by the Mughal Empire led by Aurangazeb in October 1687.In the course of their southern campaign, the Mughals defeated the Marathas under Sambhaji, the elder son of Shivaji, in a battle near Kanchipuram in 1688 which caused considerable damage to the city but cemented Mughal rule. Soon after, the priests at the Varadharaja Perumal, Ekambareshwarar and Kamakshi Amman temples, mindful of Aurangazeb's reputation for iconoclasm, transported the idols to southern Tamil Nadu and did not restore them until after Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Under the Mughals, Kanchipuram was part of the viceroyalty of the Carnatic which, in the early 1700s, began to function independently, retaining only a nominal acknowledgement of Mughal rule.
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Seemingly before Lothair left Rome, there arrived ambassadors from Emperor Louis and from the Greeks concerning the controversy of Byzantine Iconoclasm. At first the iconoclast Eastern Roman Emperor Michael II showed himself tolerant towards the icon worshippers, and their great champion, Theodore the Studite, wrote to him to exhort him "to unite us [the Church of Constantinople] to the head of the Churches of God, Rome, and through it with the three patriarchs" and to refer any doubtful points to the decision of Old Rome in accordance with ancient custom. But Michael soon forgot his tolerance, bitterly persecuted the icon worshippers, and endeavoured to secure the co-operation of Louis the Pious. He also sent envoys to the pope to consult him on certain points connected with the worship of icons.
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The rejection of images in worship, although more prominent in Islam, is a common point in Protestantism and Islam. This was already extensively recognized from the earliest times, as in the correspondence between Elizabeth I of England and her Ottoman Empire counterparts, in which she implied that Protestantism was closer to Islam than to Catholicism. This is also a point developed by Martin Luther in On War against the Turk, in which he praised the Ottomans for their rigorous iconoclasm: Rich Protestant Transylvanian Saxon merchants traded with the Ottoman Empire and often donated Anatolian rugs to their churches as a wall decoration more according to their iconoclastic beliefs than the images of the saints used by the Catholics and the Orthodox. Churches like the Black Church of Brasov still hold collections of such rugs.
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Worcester Priory came to an end with King Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries. Shortly beforehand, in 1535, the prior William More resigned, and was replaced by Henry Holbeach. More had a reputation for fine living, although his standards seem in line with other senior ecclesiasts of the time. However, there certainly were problems with the administration of the priory, including divisions within the community. The Protestant Hugh Latimer was bishop from 1535, and preached for reform and iconoclasm. He resigned as bishop in 1539, as a result of a theological turn by Henry VIII towards Roman Catholicism, in the Six Articles. John Bell, a moderate reformer, was bishop from 1539–1543, during the period of the priory's dissolution. In the early 16th century, Worcester had around 40 monks.
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Tragic though they were for the Byzantines at the time, the defeat at Anzen and the subsequent sack of Amorion were militarily of no long-term importance to the Empire, since the Abbasids failed to follow up on their success. They did, however, play a crucial role in discrediting iconoclasm, which had always relied on military success to maintain its validity. Shortly after Theophilos's sudden death in 842, the veneration of icons was restored as part of the Triumph of Orthodoxy throughout the Empire. The Battle of Anzen is also notable for illustrating the difficulties faced by the Byzantine military of the time against horse-archers, a remarkable change from the army of the 6th–7th centuries, when such skills formed a core part of Byzantine tactical doctrine.
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Information on Linji is based on the Línjì yǔlù (臨濟語錄; Japanese: Rinzai-goroku), the Record of Linji. The standard form of these sayings was not completed until 250 years after Linji's death and likely reflect the teaching of Chán in the Linji school at the beginning of the Song Dynasty rather than those of Linji's in particular. This contains stories of his interactions with teachers, contemporaries, and students. The recorded lectures are a mixture of the conventional and the iconoclastic. Those who resented the iconoclasm saw Linji as “one of the most infamous Chinese Chan masters who censored traditional Buddhist practices and doctrines.” George A. Keyworth, “How the Mount Wutai Cult Stimulated the Development of Chinese Chan in Southern China at Qingliang Monasteries,” Studies in Chinese Religions 2019, 5.
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The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the Saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE. The Konark Sun Temple was built in mid 13th century. During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink. The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
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Melody Maker (21 August 1993) While MM continued to devote most space to rock and indie music (notably Everett True's coverage of the emerging grunge scene in Seattle), it covered house, hip hop, post-rock, rave and trip hop. Two of the paper's writers, Push and Ben Turner, went on to launch IPC Media's monthly dance music magazine Muzik. Even in the mid-1990s, when Britpop brought a new generation of readers to the music press, it remained less populist than its rivals, with younger writers such as Simon Price and Taylor Parkes continuing the 1980s tradition of iconoclasm and opinionated criticism. The paper printed harsh criticism of Ocean Colour Scene and Kula Shaker, and allowed dissenting views on Oasis and Blur at a time when they were praised by the rest of the press.
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Each request for special permission would take at least four weeks for a response from Spain. This unrest over taxation without representation was amplified by a strong presence of Spanish troops brought in to oversee the order in these provinces. Meanwhile, a parallel religious revolt was seen as a direct threat to the (Roman Catholic) Spanish throne, by the spread of the Anabaptism of the Dutch reformer Menno Simons and the teachings of foreign Protestant leaders like Martin Luther and John Calvin, culminating with the Beeldenstorm, a country-wide outburst of iconoclasm in 1566. The date for the formal start of hostilities is often cited as the execution of the statesmen Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, on the main square in Brussels on June 5, 1568.
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By the time it passed to him its upper moulding, much of the bead-and-reel decoration of its lower moulding, and (most likely from an act of vandalism of unknown date, perhaps related to iconoclasm) the heads of the figures moving in two processions around the drum had all already been lost. One of Dodwell's images of the Guilford Puteal In the earliest years of the nineteenth century Notara presided over a guest-house for western travellers to Corinth, by which circumstances the Guilford Puteal became known to western Europeans. While there it was seen by Edward Dodwell in 1805 and drawn by his artist Simone Pomardi, and was described by Dodwell in his account of his travels in Greece.Dodwell, A Classical and Topographical Tour Through Greece (1819) ii:200-02.
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The abbey had never actually managed the estates, and the manorial lords who occupied them paid small rents for the land. Sir Edward Littleton (died 1558) had his seat at Pillaton Hall, while Bickford and Whiston were held by Sir John Giffard (died 1556) of Chillington Hall, near Brewood. Burton Abbey was surrendered by its monks early in 1539 after an outbreak of Iconoclasm. Overlordship of all three manors passed from the abbey to the Crown, and the Crown later sold it to Sir William Paget a moderate Protestant supporter of the protector Somerset during the minority of Edward VI. Littleton and Giffard both simply transferred payment of their rent to the new overlord and their families continued to prosper throughout the century, the Giffards despite their Catholic Recusancy.
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Religious art was not, however, limited to the monumental decoration of church interiors. One of the most important genres of Byzantine art was the icon, an image of Christ, the Virgin, or a saint, used as an object of veneration in Orthodox churches and private homes alike. Icons were more religious than aesthetic in nature: especially after the end of iconoclasm, they were understood to manifest the unique "presence" of the figure depicted by means of a "likeness" to that figure maintained through carefully maintained canons of representation.. The illumination of manuscripts was another major genre of Byzantine art. The most commonly illustrated texts were religious, both scripture itself (particularly the Psalms) and devotional or theological texts (such as the Ladder of Divine Ascent of John Climacus or the homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus).
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Robin Darwall-Smith and Michael Riordan have lauded it as "the first scholarly history, not just of University College, but of any Oxford or Cambridge college", and "the basis for all further histories of the college". Early-20th-century historian of University College, William Carr, named it "the first Oxford College history of real historical value", still maintaining "its position as an authority to which many writers on early Oxford have since been beholden". Arthur Oswald, in the 1954 Victoria County History of the college, acknowledged his debt to the Annals, summarising it as "a remarkable achievement", affirming that "though such iconoclasm was highly unpopular", "the [Annals] conclusions were inescapable". One of the Annals salient characteristics, commented on by several reviewers, is the total absence of any logical consistency in the book's structure.
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129; 137–138.Hinson, Crimes on Sacred Ground: Massacres, Desecration, and Iconoclasm in Lebanon’s Mountain War 1983-1984 (2017), p. 51. The Lebanese Forces command later accused the Druze PLA of committing "unprecedented massacres" in the Chouf,O'Ballance, Civil War in Lebanon (1998), p. 129.Jago Salmon, Massacre and Mutilation: Understanding the Lebanese Forces through their use of violence, Workshop on the 'techniques of Violence in Civil War', PRIO, Oslo, August 20–21, 2004, p. 10, footnote 19. after Walid Jumblatt's militia forces overran between 31 August and 13 September 1983 sixty-two Maronite villages (including Bmarian, Bireh, Ras el-Matn, Maaser Beit ed-Dine, Chartoun, Ain el-Hour, Bourjayne, Fawara, and Maaser el-Chouf), slaughtered 1,500 people and drove another 50,000 out of their homes in the mountainous areas east and west of Beirut.
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The period after the reign of Justinian (527-565) evidently saw a huge increase in the use of images, both in volume and quality, and a gathering aniconic reaction.Kitzinger, 85-87; 95-115 According to Kitzinger, "during the late sixth and seventh centuries devotional practices in front of images became elaborate, common, and intense".Kitzinger, 99 In addition it was in this period that images seem to have become common in Christian homes, and "Once admitted to that sphere their use and abuse was beyond control".Kitzinger, 98 Literary mentions of Christian images greatly increase, in the accounts of pilgrims to the Holy Land, in works of history, and in popular accounts of the lives of saints; at the same time some of these begin to mention acts of iconoclasm against images.
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Maybe this medal is also shaped by Jonghelinck or a befriended or cooperating medal maker; there is reasonable similarity in style and production method and the monogram does not bar the assumption. Dating the medal is more difficult, because '1566' in the text is not decisive (on the former medal “1566“ was found on the cut of the neck of Philip II, so being much more decisive). One of the nobles already retains beggars’ bowl and flask, but the other noble does not yet wear a Geuzen medal on a ribbon, which we will find on a Geuzen medal of 1572, to be discussed later. On the other hand, people in 1566 began to revolt extremely, the so-called "beeldenstorm" or Protestant iconoclasm, starting August 16 in Steenvoorde.
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The Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo (1534-41) came under persistent attack in the Counter-Reformation for, among other things, nudity (later painted over for several centuries), not showing Christ seated or bearded, and including the pagan figure of Charon. During the Reformation a great divergence arose between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformers of the north regarding the content and style of art work. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and Reformed iconoclasm as a threat to the church and in response came together at the Council of Trent to institute some of their own reforms. The church felt that much religious art in Catholic countries (especially Italy) had lost its focus on religious subject-matter, and became too interested in material things and decorative qualities. The council came together periodically between 1545 and 1563.
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Claude, Duke of Aumale, Leader of the First Siege Starting in April and continuing after the wave of iconoclasm in May, Catherine sought a negotiated settlement with the rebels of Rouen, proposing a readmission of the crown's officials in return for leniency for the rebels. This proposal ran afoul of the Catholic hardliners at court upon whom Catherine's power was dependant and the rebels, who wanted the Duke of Aumale's recently given commission over Normandy revoked as part of any deal, as such it came to nought. The Duke of Aumale himself arrived at the gates of Rouen on 28 May and summoned the city to yield to him but the rebels refused. Aumale began a siege, but having only 3000 men to his command and no siege guns, his bombardment of the town was ineffectual.
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Much of Kostanti-Kakhay's biography is known from the hagiographic work The Life and Passion of Kostanti-Kakhay, the full title of which is "the Life and Passion of the Holy Martyr Kostanti the Georgian, who was Martyred by Jafar, King of Babylonians" (ცხორებაჲ და წამებაჲ წმიდისა მოწამისა კოსტანტი ქართველისაჲ, რომელი იწამა ბაბილონელთა მეფისა ჯაფარის მიერ, cxorebaj da c'amebaj c'midisa moc'amisa k'ost'ant'isi kartvelisaj, romeli ic'ama babiloelta mepisa dzaparis mier). Its anonymous author, apparently a monk, identifies himself as a contemporary of Kostanti, saying that the martyr "lived during our time", when Theodora, the Byzantine empress who opposed iconoclasm, reigned as a "servant of God". In the same passage, the author also mentions Theodora's son Michael III (r. 842-67). In general, the Life and Passion of Kostanti-Kakhay reflects the rise of Byzantine cultural and political influence and of Georgian nationalism.
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They had a widespread political and military influence in Asia Minor, including a temporary independent state in the mid-9th century centered in Tephrike, because of which were continuously persecuted by Byzantine emperors since the mid-7th century. They were also persecuted because of religious reasoning but were not during the periods of Byzantine Iconoclasm or their activity was ignored in exchange for military duties. Between the mid-8th and mid-10th century, Byzantine emperors forcibly moved many Paulician colonies to Philippopolis in Thrace to defend the empire's boundary with the First Bulgarian Empire as well to weaken Paulician influence in the East, where they were eventually brought to the Catholic Church at the time of emperor Alexios III Angelos. In Armenia the movement evolved into Tondrakism, while in Europe influenced the formation of Bogomilism, Catharism and other heretic movements.
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The iconoclast Council of Hieria was a Christian council of 754 which viewed itself as ecumenical, but was later rejected by the Second Council of Nicaea (787) and by Catholic and Orthodox churches, since none of the five major patriarchs were represented in Hieria. The Council of Hieria was summoned by the Byzantine, Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine V in 754 in the palace of Hieria opposite Constantinople. The council supported the emperor's iconoclast position in the Byzantine iconoclasm controversy, condemning the spiritual and liturgical use of iconography as heretical. Opponents of the council described it as the Mock Seynod of Constantinople or the Headless Council because no patriarchs or representatives of the five great patriarchates were present: the see of Constantinople was vacant; Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria were under Islamic dominion; while Rome was not asked to participate.
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Revised edition (1985), pp. 74–75. This incident was followed by similar riots elsewhere in Flanders, and before long the Netherlands had become the scene of the Beeldenstorm, a riotous iconoclastic movement by Calvinists, who stormed churches and other religious buildings to desecrate and destroy church art and all kinds of decorative fittings over most of the country. The number of actual image-breakers appears to have been relatively small,Limm (1989) notes that "there were few cases of more than 200 people being involved at any one time", even in the northern provinces, where large crowds often attended the iconoclasm (p. 25). In the case of the southern provinces, he speaks of a relatively small, orderly group moving along the country. and the exact backgrounds of the movement are debated,See Spaans (1999), 152 ff.
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When Leo IV died in October 780, his sole heir was the young Constantine VI, his son by the Empress Irene of Athens. Due to Constantine's being underage, a regency was instituted under Irene, but this was not well received among leading officials. Not only was rule by a woman alien to the military-dominated establishment of the time, but Irene was also a confirmed iconophile, an adherent of the veneration of holy images. This was regarded as heresy by the state-sponsored doctrine of Iconoclasm, which was especially popular with the army and the officials loyal to Constantine V's memory... A number of them, including the Postal Logothete (foreign minister) Gregory, the former strategos (governor) of the Anatolic Theme Bardas and Constantine, the commander of the Excubitors guard regiment, consequently favoured the rise of Nikephoros to the imperial throne.
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One of the key elements of the Council was the reaffirmation of the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea in support of icons and holy images. The council thus helped stamp out any remaining embers of Byzantine iconoclasm. Specifically, its third Canon required the image of Christ to have veneration equal with that of the gospel book:Gesa Elsbeth Thiessen, 2005 Theological aesthetics page 65 > We decree that the sacred image of our Lord Jesus Christ, the liberator and > Savior of all people, must be venerated with the same honor as is given the > book of the holy Gospels. For as through the language of the words contained > in this book all can reach salvation, so, due to the action which these > images exercise by their colors, all wise and simple alike, can derive > profit from them.
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Iconoclasm: The organised destruction of Catholic images, or Beeldenstorm, swept through Dutch churches in 1566. The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces, but instead by multiple popular movements, which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the Anabaptist movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the Dutch Reformed Church, became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward. Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of Philip II contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the Eighty Years' War and eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant Dutch Republic from the Catholic-dominated Southern Netherlands, the present-day Belgium.
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Adriaen Isenbrandt, Mass of St Gregory, 1550, Museo del Prado The painting remained in the church for which it was painted until after the French Revolution, and was one of the well-known artistic attractions of Bruges for visitors. It was presumably one of the paintings in the church praised by Albrecht Dürer in his diary in 1521. In 1547 Mary of Hungary, Governess of the Spanish Netherlands, wanted to buy it for her collection, but the chapter politely refused, saying this would create "moans, protests, uproar and complaints" from the people. During a spate of Calvinist mob iconoclasm in 1578 it was moved to a private house for safety, and by 1600 it had been given a setting with side wings and now formed the main altarpiece, replacing a destroyed metalwork retable of the 14th century.
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The heterogenous repertoire itself, whose avtomela were sometimes simple and formulaic, sometimes they had the complexity of idiomela, was probably not collected before the Second Council of Nicaea. Yahya al-Mansur who was posthumously condemned as a heretic, was not only re-established as a hymnographer and monk called John of Damascus, he also became an important Greek church father and a saint.John of Damascus, born in a privileged family close to the caliph at Damascus, became posthumously anathemised under his Syrian name during the Council of Hieria during the first iconoclastic crisis in 754, mainly because of his polemic treatises against iconoclasm (see the extract of the translation in the Medieval Sourcebook of Fordham). For the same reason he was rehabilitated during the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, during which the former one was decanonised.
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Seals attributed to him also record him having progressively advanced through the levels of hypatos, anthypatos, protospatharios and patrikios, and having held the office of General Logothete or Logothete of the Drome (depending on the reading of the seals). In 843, Sergios was instrumental, along with the logothete Theoktistos and Theodora's brothers, Bardas and Petronas, in bringing about the final abandonment of Iconoclasm and the restoration of the veneration of icons, an act for which he is celebrated as a saint by the Orthodox Church on 28 June. In the same year, according to the Synaxarium Constantinopolitanum, he was entrusted with leading an expedition against the Emirate of Crete, but all other sources record that Theoktistos led the campaign. It is possible, however, that Sergios was left behind when Theoktistos was forced to hurriedly return to Constantinople.
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15th-century fresco showing Empress Irene and Emperor Constantine VI presiding over the final session of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (Second Council of Nicaea), which first overturned Iconoclasm. Staurakios emerged into prominence in 781, when Irene, as regent for her infant son Constantine VI, appointed him to the post of logothetes tou dromou, the Byzantine Empire's foreign minister. Already holding the high court rank of patrikios, through this appointment Staurakios became, in the words of the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor, "the foremost man of his day and in charge of everything" for most of Irene's subsequent reign... This appointment was part of Irene's consistent policy to rely on eunuch officials as ministers and generals, in large part the result of her distrust towards the established generals of her late husband, Leo IV (r. 775–780) and his father Constantine V (r. 741–775).
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The Scottish Reformation was strongly influenced by Calvinism leading to widespread iconoclasm and the introduction of a Presbyterian system of organisation and discipline that would have a major impact on Scottish life. In 1569 Mary returned from France, but her personal reign deteriorated into murder, scandal and civil war, forcing her to escape to England where she was later executed and leaving her Protestant opponents in power in the name of the infant James VI. In 1603 he inherited the thrones of England and Ireland, creating a dynastic union and moving the centre of royal patronage and power to London. His son Charles I attempted to impose elements of the English religious settlement on his other kingdoms. Relations gradually deteriorated resulting in the Bishops' Wars (1637–40), ending in defeat for Charles and helping to bring about the War of Three Kingdoms.
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Britannica Online Encyclopedia, Desiderius Erasmus Dutch humanist and scholar, Protestant challenge For Erasmus the essential point is that humans have the freedom of choice.work The conclusions Erasmus reached drew upon a large array of notable authorities, including, from the Patristic period, Origen, John Chrysostom, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine, in addition to many leading Scholastic authors, such as Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. The content of Erasmus's works also engaged with later thought on the state of the question, including the perspectives of the via moderna school and of Lorenzo Valla, whose ideas he rejected. As the popular response to Luther gathered momentum, the social disorders, which Erasmus dreaded and Luther disassociated himself from, began to appear, including the German Peasants' War, the Anabaptist disturbances in Germany and in the Low Countries, iconoclasm, and the radicalization of peasants across Europe.
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The English Reformation advanced under pressure from two directions: from the traditionalists on the one hand and the zealots on the other, who led incidents of iconoclasm (image-smashing) and complained that reform did not go far enough. Reformed doctrines were made official, such as justification by faith alone and communion for laity as well as clergy in both kinds, of bread and wine. The Ordinal of 1550 replaced the divine ordination of priests with a government-run appointment system, authorising ministers to preach the gospel and administer the sacraments rather than, as before, "to offer sacrifice and celebrate mass both for the living and the dead".; ; Cranmer set himself the task of writing a uniform liturgy in English, detailing all weekly and daily services and religious festivals, to be made compulsory in the first Act of Uniformity of 1549.
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Reformed Christianity has been known at times for its simple, unadorned churches and lifestyles, as depicted in this photograph of the interior of a Calvinist church in Semarang. John Calvin, the progenitor of the Reformed tradition of Christianity that influenced the Continental Reformed, Congregational, Anglican and Presbyterian traditions, was always extremely hostile to all publicly displayed religious images, which were systematically destroyed by Calvinists, as in the Beeldenstorm in the Netherlands. Towards the end of the 16th century there were disputes between Lutherans and Calvinists, with the Lutherans offering strong opposition to Calvinist iconoclasm. Though both groupings did not object to book illustrations or prints of biblical events, or portraits of reformers, production of large- scale religious art virtually ceased in Protestant regions after about 1540, and artists shifted to secular subjects, ironically often including revived classical mythology.
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Iconoclasm: The organised destruction of Catholic images, or Beeldenstorm, swept through Netherlands churches in 1566. The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces but instead by multiple popular movements, which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the Anabaptist movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the Dutch Reformed Church, became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward. Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of Philip II contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the Eighty Years' War and eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant Dutch Republic from the Catholic-dominated Southern Netherlands, the present-day Belgium.
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In later examples the figures become fewer and larger, and their style begins to merge with the Romanesque, as at the Dysert Cross in Ireland.Grove The 8th-century Northumbrian Ruthwell Cross (now in Scotland), unfortunately damaged by Presbyterian iconoclasm, is the most impressive remaining Anglo-Saxon cross, though as with most Anglo-Saxon crosses the original cross head is missing. Many Anglo-Saxon crosses were much smaller and more slender than the Irish ones, and therefore only had room for carved foliage, but the Bewcastle Cross, Easby Cross and Sandbach Crosses are other survivals with considerable areas of figurative reliefs, with larger-scale figures than any early Irish examples. Even early Anglo-Saxon examples mix vine-scroll decoration of Continental origin with interlace panels, and in later ones the former type becomes the norm, just as in manuscripts.
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Abiding themes are mortality, ageing, sexual identity, popular and youth culture and cinema. There is also a strong element of humour, iconoclasm and irony in his work, from their titles, such as "Art Can't Fart (for Rose Selavay)", "Four Wise Men Looking for God in Abstract Art", "Dr Fu Manchu's Death by Gyro" or "Ship of Fools (Hello sailor!)" to comic and grotesque figurative elements and their sometimes lurid but highly resolved colour schemes. On a technical level his paintings combine oils, enamels (both sprayed and applied with brush) and collaged elements from personal photographs to objects stuck on or painted over. Stylistically Sansom uses a wide array of painting techniques but signature devices include allowing earlier layers of paint to remain visible, hard-edge geometric shapes juxtaposed with playful, lyrical, more organic or atmospheric passages of paint and figurative "doodles", often at the margins of the paintings.
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He encouraged his personnel to engage themselves in Vietnamese society as much as possible and he constantly briefed that the Vietnam War must be envisaged as a long war at a lower level of engagement rather than a short war at a big-unit, high level of engagement. On one of his trips back to the U.S. in December 1967, Vann was asked by Walt Rostow, an advocate of more troops and Johnson administration National Security Advisor, whether the U.S. would be over the worst of the war in six months: "Oh hell no, Mr. Rostow", replied Vann, "I'm a born optimist. I think we can hold out longer than that." Vann's wit and iconoclasm did not endear him to many military and civilian careerists but he was a hero to many young civilian and military officers who understood the limits of conventional warfare in the irregular environment of Vietnam.
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Mid-16th century oak panel carving from a house in Dundee Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm, with the almost total loss of medieval religious sculpture.A. Thomas, The Renaissance, in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), , pp. 198–9. In the West Highlands, where there had been a hereditary caste of monumental sculptors, the uncertainty and loss of patronage caused by the rejection of monuments in the Reformation meant that they moved into another branches of the Gaelic learned orders or took up other occupations. The lack of transfer of carving skills is noticeable in the decline in quality when gravestones were next commissioned from the start of the seventeenth century.J. E. A. Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), , p. 331.
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Moreover, throughout the Middle Ages the Pope claimed the right to depose the Catholic kings of Western Europe, and tried to exercise it, sometimes successfully (see the investiture controversy, below), sometimes not, as with Henry VIII of England and Henry III of Navarre. "Delineation of Roman Catholicism: Drawn from the authentic and acknowledged standards of the Church of Rome", by Charles Elliott, 1877 edition, page 165 However, in the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, Church and state were closely linked and collaborated in a "symphony", with some exceptions (see Iconoclasm). Before the Age of Absolutism, institutions, such as the Church, legislatures, or social elites, restrained monarchical power. Absolutism was characterized by the ending of feudal partitioning, consolidation of power with the monarch, rise of state, rise of professional standing armies, professional bureaucracies, the codification of state laws, and the rise of ideologies that justify the absolutist monarchy.
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After the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace. More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, and the job of the artist was to copy them with as little deviation as possible. The Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism. Most modern Eastern Orthodox icons are very close to their predecessors of a thousand years ago, though development, and some shifts in meaning, have occurred – for example, the old man wearing a fleece in conversation with Saint Joseph usually seen in Orthodox Nativities seems to have begun as one of the shepherds, or the prophet Isaiah, but is now usually understood as the "Tempter" (Satan).
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The Byzantine Empire, based in Constantinople, continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with borders not far south of Rome. Charles' sitting in judgment of the Pope could be seen as usurping the prerogatives of the Emperor in Constantinople: Coronation of Charlemagne, drawing by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld For the Pope, then, there was "no living Emperor at that time" though Henri Pirenne disputes this saying that the coronation "was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople". Nonetheless, the Pope took the extraordinary step of creating one. The papacy had since 727 been in conflict with Irene's predecessors in Constantinople over a number of issues, chiefly the continued Byzantine adherence to the doctrine of iconoclasm, the destruction of Christian images; while from 750, the secular power of the Byzantine Empire in central Italy had been nullified.
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The image enshrined above the high altar of Ermita Church. According to the Anales de la Catedral de Manila, the crew of Miguel López de Legazpi discovered a group of natives in what is now Ermita along the eastern shores of Manila Bay worshiping a statue of a female figure. There are a number of theories as to its origin, it could either be an Animist-Tantrist Diwata which is a localization of the Hindu "Devata" (देवता), an East Asian idol due to her Chinese features, a Marian icon imported from nearby Portuguese Macau, or, due to its striking resemblance to the Santo Nino de Cebu, may be a relic left by the Magellan expedition when it passed by the Philippines during the first circumnavigation of the world. This sacred statue had managed to survive Islamic Iconoclasm by the Sultanate of Brunei (نڬارا بروني دارالسلام), a state that had invaded Manila.
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In particular, this new evidence invites us to rethink certain explanations of these phenomena that would link their genesis to the end of iconoclasm in the East (the ninth century) and the beginnings of the High Middle Ages in the West (the eleventh century). In the case of the Christian East, the importance of this early Life of the Virgin for understanding the emergence of new styles of Marian devotion is unmistakably clear. Yet its potential influence on similar developments in the Christian West is somewhat less certain and difficult to ascertain. Nevertheless, even if it may ultimately prove impossible to connect all of the dots between this late ancient text and the piety of the Western High Middle Ages, it seems increasingly clear that we have to reckon with the initial emergence of Marian lament and compassion and affective devotion in rather different historical circumstances than have traditionally been envisaged.
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However, the tradition that there was widespread mob action resulting in destruction and iconoclasm, that altars and windows were smashed, partly confuses the looting spree of the 1530s with the vandalism wrought by the Puritans in the next century against the Anglican privileges. Woodward concludes: Lacock Abbey in Wiltshire, Augustinian nunnery converted into an aristocratic mansion and country estate Once the new and re- founded cathedrals and other endowments had been provided for, the Crown became richer to the extent of around £150,000 (), per year, although around £50,000 () of this was initially committed to fund monastic pensions. Cromwell had intended that the bulk of this wealth should serve as regular income of government. However, after Cromwell's fall in 1540, Henry needed money quickly to fund his military ambitions in France and Scotland; and so monastic property was sold off, representing by 1547 an annual value of £90,000 ().
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The legal definition of genocide is unspecific about the exact way in which genocide is committed, only stating that it is destruction with the intent to destroy a racial, religious, ethnic or national group. As such, cultural genocide involves the eradication and destruction of cultural artifacts, such as books, artworks, and structures, as well as the suppression of cultural activities that do not conform to the destroyer's notion of what is appropriate. Among many other potential reasons, cultural genocide may be committed for religious motives (e.g., iconoclasm); as part of a campaign of ethnic cleansing in order to remove the evidence of a people from a specific locale or history; as part of an effort to implement a Year Zero, in which the past and its associated culture is deleted and history is "reset"; the suppression of an indigenous culture by invaders and colonisers, etc.
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In the first of its fifty-six canons the council condemned Adoptionism, and in the second repudiated the Second Council of Nicaea of 787, which, according to the faulty Latin translation of its Acts (see Caroline Books), seemed to decree that the same kind of worship should be paid to images as to the Blessed Trinity, though the Greek text clearly distinguishes between latreia and proskynesis; this constituted a condemnation of iconoclasm. The remaining fifty-four canons dealt with metropolitan jurisdiction, monastic discipline, superstition etc. Louis the Pious, Charlemagne's son, selected Frankfurt as his seat, extended the palatinate, built a larger palace, and in 838 had the city encircled by defensive walls and ditches. After the Treaty of Verdun (843), Frankfurt became to all intents and purposes the capital of East Francia and was named Principalis sedes regni orientalis (principal seat of the eastern realm).
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In light of the unenthusiastic reception of the philosopher's earlier publications, publishers were reluctant to commit to this, his last major work. It was only after significant difficulty and through the persuasion of the philosopher's disciple Julius Frauenstädt that Hayn of Berlin consented to publish the two volumes in a print run of 750 copies—with an honorarium of only ten copies for its author. Parerga and Paralipomena drew the attention of John Oxenford, a noted observer and translator of German literary culture, who contributed a favourable, albeit anonymous, review of the work for the English quarterly journal Westminster Review in 1852. The following year, Oxenford would write for the journal an article on Schopenhauer's philosophy entitled "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy", which, translated into German and printed in the Vossische Zeitung would spark immediate interest of Schopenhauer's work in Germany and propel the obscure figure to lasting philosophical prominence.
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In the English language, this work is known under three different titles. Although English publications about Schopenhauer played a role in the recognition of his fame as a philosopher in later life (1851 until his death in 1860)especially John Oxenford, "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," in Westminster Review, new series 3 (1853): 388–407 and a three volume translation by R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp, titled The World as Will and Idea, appeared already in 1883–1886,Arthur Schopenhauer, The World As Will and Idea, 3 vols. transl. R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1883–1886) the first English translation of the expanded edition of this work under this title The World as Will and Representation appeared by E. F. J. Payne (who also translated several other works of Schopenhauer) as late as in 1958Arthur Schopenhauer "The world as will and representation", transl. by E. F. J. Payne (Indian Hills, Colorado: The Falcon’s Wing, 1958) (paperback editions in 1966 and 1969).
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The controversy over the use of graven images, the interpretation of the Second Commandment, and the crisis of Byzantine Iconoclasm led to a standardization of religious imagery within the Eastern Orthodoxy. Madonna with an Angel, painted by Sandro Botticelli (1470) and commissioned by the Catholic Church during the Renaissance in Florence (Boston, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum) The Renaissance saw an increase in monumental secular works, but until the Protestant Reformation Christian art continued to be produced in great quantities, both for churches and clergy and for the laity. During this time, Michelangelo Buonarroti painted the Sistine Chapel and carved the famous Pietà, Gianlorenzo Bernini created the massive columns in St. Peter's Basilica, and Leonardo Da Vinci painted the Last Supper. The Reformation had a huge effect on Christian art, rapidly bringing the production of public Christian art to a virtual halt in Protestant countries, and causing the destruction of most of the art that already existed.
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Following the restoration of the veneration of icons in March 843, the Byzantine Empire's government, headed by the Empress-regent Theodora and the logothetes Theoktistos, embarked on a sustained assault on the Byzantines' main political and ideological foe, the Abbasid Caliphate and its dependencies. This aggressive stance was on the one hand facilitated by the internal stability that the end of the Iconoclasm controversy brought, and on the other encouraged by a desire to vindicate the new policy through military victories against the Muslims... The first such campaign, an attempted reconquest of the Emirate of Crete led by Theoktistos in person, made initial gains, but ultimately ended in disaster. After scoring a victory over the Arabs in Crete, Theoktistos learned of a rumour that Theodora intended to name a new emperor, possibly her brother Bardas. Theoktistos hurried back to Constantinople, where he discovered that the rumour was false, but in his absence, the Byzantine army in Crete was routed by the Arabs...
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The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, consecrated in 547, combines Western and Byzantine elements. The Byzantine Papacy was a period of Byzantine domination of the Roman papacy from 537 to 752, when popes required the approval of the Byzantine Emperor for episcopal consecration, and many popes were chosen from the apocrisiarii (liaisons from the pope to the emperor) or the inhabitants of Byzantine-ruled Greece, Syria, or Sicily. Justinian I conquered the Italian peninsula in the Gothic War (535–554) and appointed the next three popes, a practice that would be continued by his successors and later be delegated to the Exarchate of Ravenna. With the exception of Pope Martin I, no pope during this period questioned the authority of the Byzantine monarch to confirm the election of the bishop of Rome before consecration could occur; however, theological conflicts were common between pope and emperor in the areas such as monothelitism and iconoclasm.
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Church of Our Lady in Antwerp, the "signature event" of the Beeldenstorm, August 20, 1566, by Frans Hogenberganalysed in Arnade, 146 (quoted); see also Art through time Religious images came under close scrutiny as actually or potentially idolatrous from the start of the Protestant Reformation in the 1520s. Martin Luther accepted some imagery, but few Early Netherlandish paintings met his criteria. Andreas Karlstadt, Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin were wholly opposed to public religious images, above all in churches, and Calvinism soon became the dominant force in Netherlandish Protestantism. From 1520, outbursts of reformist iconoclasm broke out across much of Northern Europe.Nash (2008), 15 These might be official and peaceable, as in England under the Tudors and the English Commonwealth, or unofficial and often violent, as in the Beeldenstorm or "Iconoclastic Fury" in 1566 in the Netherlands. On 19 August 1566, this wave of mob destruction reached Ghent, where Marcus van Vaernewijck chronicled the events.
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For instance, while the eighty second canon of the Council of Trullo in 692 did not specifically condemn images of The Father, it suggested that icons of Christ were preferred over Old Testament shadows and figures.Steven Bigham, 1995 Image of God the Father in Orthodox Theology and Iconography page 27 The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppression and destruction of religious icons as the period of Byzantine iconoclasm (literally image-breaking) started. Emperor Leo III (717-741), suppressed the use of icons by imperial edict of the Byzantine Empire, presumably due to a military loss which he attributed to the undue veneration of icons.According to accounts by Patriarch Nikephoros and the chronicler Theophanes The edict (which was issued without consulting the Church) forbade the veneration of religious images but did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross.
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Hsia, ed. A Companion to the Reformation World (2006) pp 118-34 Protestants in Holland, after initial repression, were tolerated by local authorities. By the 1560s, the Protestant community had become a significant influence in the county, although it clearly formed a minority then.Jonathan I. Israel, The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806 (1995) p. 104 In a society dependent on trade, freedom and tolerance were considered essential. Nevertheless, the Catholic rulers Charles V and his successor Philip II felt it was their duty to defeat Protestantism, which was considered a heresy by the Catholic Church and a threat to the stability of the whole hierarchical political system.Hsia, ed. A Companion to the Reformation World (2006) pp 3-36 The Catholic Spanish responded with harsh persecution and introduced the Spanish Inquisition. Calvinists rebelled. First there was the iconoclasm in 1566, which was the systematic destruction of statues of saints and other Catholic devotional depictions in churches.
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De Baerze's two retables are probably the earliest Netherlandish examples to survive complete, although there were evidently many more such works in existence by this date, and the form probably developed first in the Low Countries. With hardly any works from the period to compare to those in Dijon, it is hard to assess the originality of de Baerze, or his place in the tradition, though he clearly participates in the International Gothic style of the period. Presumably most of his work was for local churches and religious houses. In fact the iconoclasm after the Reformation was so destructive of Netherlandish wood- carved altars that only a few fragments survive there from the following eighty years, while Germany has many examples.Snyder, 293-4 Other smaller carvings attributed to de Baerze survive, including the 28 cm high figure from an altar crucifix which formed part of the Champmol commission, now in the Art Institute of Chicago,Art Institute of Chicago see also for a bibliography on de Baerze.
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Loddon Holy Trinity The town centre of Loddon, a designated conservation area, is dominated by the Holy Trinity Church dates from 1490 by Sir James Hobart who lived at Hales Hall, and was Attorney General to King Henry VII. The outside of the building is faced with flintwork and the interior contains a hammerbeam roof, Jacobean pulpit, early Edwardian pews with carved poppy-head ends, several table-top tombs, an ancient poor-box and a panel on the painted rood screen which shows William of Norwich, a boy martyr who is reputed to have been crucified in the 12th century. There is also a medieval baptismal font set high on three steps, however despite its shaft and bowl were originally carved and painted, they were defaced during periods of iconoclasm. The church is said to have possibly replaced an earlier Norman church and an even older one built by St Felix, Bishop of East Anglia, about 630.
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The rood screen viewed from the nave On 18 November 1539 the royal commissioners took possession of the monastery and all its possessions, and for nearly two years its future hung in the balance as Henry VIII and his advisers considered what role, if any, Cathedrals might play in the emerging Protestant church. On 10 September 1541 a new charter was granted to Ely, at which point Robert Steward, the last prior, was re- appointed as the first dean, who, with eight prebendaries formed the dean and chapter, the new governing body of the cathedral. Under Bishop Thomas Goodrich's orders, first the shrines to the Anglo-Saxon saints were destroyed, and as iconoclasm increased, nearly all the stained glass and much of the sculpture in the cathedral was destroyed or defaced during the 1540s. In the Lady Chapel the free-standing statues were destroyed and all 147 carved figures in the frieze of St Mary were decapitated, as were the numerous sculptures on West's chapel.
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Closer relations with the papacy therefore had to wait for the outbreak of tensions caused by the worsening of the Byzantine tax, and the expedition in 724 conducted by the Exarch of Ravenna against Pope Gregory II. Later on he exploited the disputes between the pope and Constantinople over iconoclasm (after the decree of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian of 726) to take possession of many cities of the Exarchate and of the Pentapolis, posing as the protector of Catholics. In order not to antagonize the Pope, he gave up the occupation of the village of Sutri; however, Liutprand gave the city not to the emperor, but to "the apostles Peter and Paul", as Paul the Deacon related in his Historia Langobardorum.Paolo Diacono, Historia Langobardorum, VI, 49. This donation, known as the Donation of Sutri, provided the legal basis for attributing a temporal power to the papacy, which finally produced the Papal States.
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The band wrote two new songs exclusive for the film, "Love Parade" composed by Hoshino and "Steppers -Parade-" by Imai. Buck-Tick released the single "Keijijou Ryuusei" on May 14, 2014 and their nineteenth studio album, Arui wa Anarchy, on June 4. On June 28, 2015, Buck-Tick performed at the Lunatic Fest hosted by Luna Sea and were joined onstage by J for "Iconoclasm". At the end of their Day in Question concert on December 29, 2015 the band announced their return to Victor Entertainment with Lingua Sounda becoming its sub label. On September 11, 2016 the group played the live show entitled Climax Together 3rd at Yokohama Arena, 12 years after their second one and 24 years after their first one. Buck-Tick released the single "New World" on September 21, 2016, and their twentieth studio album Atom Miraiha No.9 on September 28. Buck-Tick won the special "Inspiration Award Japan" at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards Japan.
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The Kelly-Hopkinsville sighting is at the origin of the popularization of the words "little green men" (prior to this sighting, flying saucer occupants were called "little men"; "little green men" were limited to the science-fiction culture, in particular in Mack Reynolds' The Case for the Little Green Men (1951) and in Fredric Brown's Martians Go Home (1955). But the day following the sighting, the local reporters started to call the creatures "little green men" and the words were soon reproduced in many newspapers, quoted on the radio, and translated into other languages).Lagrange, Pierre (2005), « Les petits hommes verts débarquent ! » (Little Green Men Have Landed!), L'Histoire n° 304, décembre 2005, pp. 26–27; Lagrange, Pierre (2016), « Qui croit aux petits hommes verts? De l’iconoclasme sociologique aux cultures visuelles. » (Who Does Believe in Little Green Men? From Sociological Iconoclasm to Visual Cultures), in Gil Bartholeyns (dir), Politiques visuelles, Paris, Presses du Réel, 2016, pp. 229–271.
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Apse mosaic of the Transfiguration from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, 565–66, the earliest version of the Eastern iconography that has remained to the present day. The earliest known version of the standard depiction is in an apse mosaic at Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt, dating to the period of (and probably commissioned by) Justinian the Great, where the subject had a special association with the site, because of the meeting of Christ and Kitzinger, Ernst, Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd–7th century, 1977, p. 99, Faber & Faber, (US: Cambridge UP, 1977) Moses, "the 'cult hero' of Mount Sinai". This very rare survivor of Byzantine art from before the Byzantine iconoclasm shows a standing Christ in a mandorla with a cruciform halo, flanked by standing figures of Moses on the left with a long beard, and Elijah on the right.
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In the city of Augsburg the Catholic churches were seized by Lutheran and Zwinglian preachers; at the command of the council pictures were removed, and at the instigation of Bucer and others a disgraceful storm of popular iconoclasm followed, resulting in the destruction of many splendid monuments of art and antiquity. The greatest intolerance was exercised towards the Catholics who had remained in the Free Imperial City; their schools were dissolved; parents were compelled to send their children to Lutheran institutions; it was even forbidden to hear Mass outside the city under severe penalties. Under Otto Truchsess von Waldburg (1543æ73) the first signs of improvement were noted in the attitude towards Catholics. At the outbreak of hostilities (1546) between the emperor and the Schmalkaldic League, Augsburg, as a member of the league, took up arms against Charles V, and Bishop Otto invested and plundered Füssen, and confiscated nearly all the remaining possessions of the diocese.
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At the head of an exceptionally large army, some 80,000 men according to Arab sources, he crossed from allied Taron into northern Mesopotamia.. Mayyafiriqin, Amida, Nisibis, Dara--places where no Byzantine army had trod since the days of Heraclius 300 years earlier--were stormed and ravaged... The real aim of these campaigns, however, was Edessa, the repository of the "Holy Mandylion". This was a cloth believed to have been used by Christ to wipe his face, leaving an imprint of his features, and subsequently given to King Abgar V of Edessa. To the Byzantines, especially after the end of the Iconoclasm period and the restoration of image veneration, it was a relic of profound religious significance. As a result, its capture would provide the Lekapenos regime with an enormous boost in popularity and legitimacy.. Kourkouas assailed Edessa every year from 942 onward and devastated its countryside, as he had done at Melitene.
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To mark the millennium in 2000, a cross was erected in each of the 12 parishes to replace the wayside crosses that fell subject to the iconoclasm of the 16th century. Here, the millennium cross of Saint Helier bears the Jèrriais inscription À la glouaithe dé Dgieu (To the glory of God). The island embraced the French Calvinist form of Protestantism during the Reformation and the orders were received to remove all signs of Catholicism in 1547 with the Act of Dissolution of the Colleges and Chantries, which had been applied to Jersey in the Act of Uniformity 1549: numerous wayside crosses were destroyed along with religious statues and other symbols. In 1550 a Royal Commission visited the island to sell church property for the benefit of the crown; in 1551 Sir Hugh Paulet, a member of this Royal Commission, was made Governor of the island and so he returned with a Royal Commission addressed to himself to continue the task.
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Theodotos I Kassiteras, Latinized as Theodotus I Cassiteras (; died January 821) Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 1 April 815 to January 821.. Theodotos was born in Nakoleia, as the son of the patrikios Michael Melissenos by the sister of Eudokia, the last wife of Emperor Constantine V. Theodotos had become attached to the court bureaucracy and was a confidant of Emperor Michael I Rangabe. By the time Michael I was deposed by Leo V the Armenian in 813, Theodotos was an elderly spatharokandidatos, whom the near-contemporary Scriptor Incertus describes as "meek" and "uneducated". On 14 March 815, Leo forced the resignation of Patriarch Nikephoros I, and appointed the pro- iconoclast Theodotos Melissenos in his place. Later in 815, the new patriarch presided over a Church council in Constantinople, which overturned the Second Council of Nicaea and reinstated the ban on the veneration of icons, thus beginning the second period of Byzantine Iconoclasm.
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The Byzantine Empire was ruled by the Isaurian or Syrian dynasty from 717 to 802. The Isaurian emperors were successful in defending and consolidating the Empire against the Caliphate after the onslaught of the early Muslim conquests, but were less successful in Europe, where they suffered setbacks against the Bulgars, had to give up the Exarchate of Ravenna, and lost influence over Italy and the Papacy to the growing power of the Franks. The Isaurian dynasty is chiefly associated with Byzantine Iconoclasm, an attempt to restore divine favour by purifying the Christian faith from excessive adoration of icons, which resulted in considerable internal turmoil. By the end of the Isaurian dynasty in 802, the Byzantines were continuing to fight the Arabs and the Bulgars for their very existence, with matters made more complicated when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Imperator Romanorum ("Emperor of the Romans") which was seen as an attempt at making the Carolingian Empire the successor to the Roman Empire.
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The historical development of Ürgüp and the region can be traced back to 1800–1200 BC, to the Hittite period, and continues from the Phrygian, Persian, Roman and Byzantine periods onto the Seljukid and Ottoman empires. The ‘land of beautiful horses’, as it was called by the Persians, is renowned for the rock-carved shelters that were made by the early Christians fleeing the wave of iconoclasm which spread in the Byzantine Empire, and later by those who escaped the Arab attacks during the 8th – 9th centuries AD. The region is believed to be used as a missionary center, starting from the 1st – 2nd centuries AD, when the first Christian communities appeared, leading the construction of many churches and monasteries in Ürgüp – Göreme, which is now a Historical National Park, and in neighbouring areas. Nevşehir, Ihlara and Soğanlı are the three valleys where this kind of life was prevalent. Among the nearly 200 underground cities in Cappadocia, 45 of them are in Nevşehir Province.
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Rotunda of St. George, Thessaloniki, with remnants of the mosaics Byzantine art and architecture is divided into four periods by convention: the Early period, commencing with the Edict of Milan (when Christian worship was legitimized) and the transfer of the imperial seat to Constantinople, extends to AD 842, with the conclusion of Iconoclasm; the Middle, or high period, begins with the restoration of the icons in 843 and culminates in the Fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders in 1204; the Late period includes the eclectic osmosis between Western European and traditional Byzantine elements in art and architecture, and ends with the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The term post-Byzantine is then used for later years, whereas "Neo- Byzantine" is used for art and architecture from the 19th century onwards, when the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire prompted a renewed appreciation of Byzantium by artists and historians alike.
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Mosaics of Nea Moni of Chios (11th century) An example of Macedonian-era ivorywork from Constantinople: the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, now in the Bode Museum, Berlin The rulings of the Council of Hieria were reversed by a new church council in 843, celebrated to this day in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the "Triumph of Orthodoxy." In 867, the installation of a new apse mosaic in Hagia Sophia depicting the Virgin and Child was celebrated by the Patriarch Photios in a famous homily as a victory over the evils of iconoclasm. Later in the same year, the Emperor Basil I, called "the Macedonian," acceded to the throne; as a result the following period of Byzantine art has sometimes been called the "Macedonian Renaissance", although the term is doubly problematic (it was neither "Macedonian", nor, strictly speaking, a "Renaissance"). In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Empire's military situation improved, and patronage of art and architecture increased.
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The Cult of Reason was celebrated in a carnival atmosphere of parades, ransacking of churches, ceremonious iconoclasm, in which religious and royal images were defaced, and ceremonies which substituted the "martyrs of the Revolution" for Christian martyrs. The earliest public demonstrations took place en province, outside Paris, notably by Hébertists in Lyon, but took a further radical turn with the Fête de la Liberté ("Festival of Liberty") at Notre Dame de Paris, 10 November (20 Brumaire) 1793, in ceremonies devised and organised by Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette. The pamphlet Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever (1782) is considered to be the first published declaration of atheism in Britain—plausibly the first in English (as distinct from covert or cryptically atheist works). The otherwise unknown William Hammon (possibly a pseudonym) signed the preface and postscript as editor of the work, and the anonymous main text is attributed to Matthew Turner (d.
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Apart from official destruction of art, there were outbreaks of violent Calvinist iconoclasm - such as the Beeldenstorm in the Low Countries in 1566. During this time, early Anglicanism, falling with the broader Reformed tradition, also removed most religious images and symbols from churches and discouraged their private use. Elizabeth I of England (), the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, was one of many Anglicans to exhibit somewhat contradictory attitudes, both ordering a crucifix for her chapel when they were against a law she had approved, and objecting forcefully when the Dean of St Paul's put in the royal pew a service book with "cuts resembling angels and saints, nay, grosser absurdities, pictures resembling the Holy Trinity".Freedberg, 175 Many Reformed churches are now considerably more relaxed over the use of religious art and symbols than they were in the Reformation period, though many denominations avoid images in churches and may discourage the interpretation of Biblical texts in symbolic terms.
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The Arab historian al-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributes the loss of the nose to Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim from the khanqah of Sa'id al-Su'ada in AD 1378, who found the local peasants making offerings to the Sphinx in the hope of increasing their harvest and therefore defaced the Sphinx in an act of iconoclasm. According to al-Maqrīzī, many people living in the area believed that the increased sand covering the Giza Plateau was retribution for al-Dahr's act of defacement.The Wonders of the Ancients: Arab-Islamic Representations of Ancient Egypt, Mark Fraser Pettigrew, page 201, University of California, Berkeley Ibn Qadi Shuhba mentions his name as Muhammad ibn Sadiq ibn al-Muhammad al-Tibrizi al-Masri, who died in 1384. He attributed the desecration of the sphinxes of Qanatir al- Siba built by the sultan Baybars to him, and also said he might have desecrated the Great Sphinx.
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Alongside his letters, Choirosphaktes also composed theological works, hymns, and epigrams. The attribution of some of the works, however, is disputed. Among them are many celebratory anacreontic poems: two on one of the marriages (probably the second one) of Leo VI, one on a new palace bath built by the same emperor, one on the marriage of Emperor Constantine VII with Helena Lekapene in 920, and poems on the deaths of prominent figures of his time, such as Leo the Mathematician and the patriarchs Photios and Stephen I. Throughout his works, Choirosphaktes praises the intellectual qualities of his heroes, especially Leo VI, draws parallels between the absolute rule of God and the imperial autocracy of Byzantium, and notably marginalizes the role of the Church, promoting even elements of the rejected iconoclasm. Paul Magdalino has argued that he was advocating a new "ideology, indeed theology of rulership", where all power is concentrated in the hands of a "small secular elite of court philosophers", in direct contravention of the prevailing model of interrelation between Church and state.
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The Catholic theological position on sacred images has remained effectively identical to that set out in the Libri Carolini, although this, the fullest medieval expression of Western views on images, was in fact unknown during the Middle Ages. It was prepared circa 790 for Charlemagne after a bad translation had led his court to believe that the Byzantine Second Council of Nicaea had approved the worship of images, which in fact was not the case. The Catholic counterblast set out a middle course between the extreme positions of Byzantine iconoclasm and the iconodules, approving the veneration of images for what they represented, but not accepting what became the Orthodox position, that images partook in some degree of the nature of the thing they represented (a belief later to resurface in the West in Renaissance Neo-Platonism). To the Western church images were just objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake of the subject represented, not in themselves.
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The Caesar Constantius Gallus in a later copy of the Chronography of 354, with one of the best surviving indications of what the pictures on clothes described by Asterius looked like. In Oration 11, On the martyrdom of St. Euphemia, Asterius describes a painting of the martyrdom and compares it to pictures made by the famous pre-Christian Hellenistic painters Euphranor and Timomachus;Google books partial translation Castelli, Elizabeth A; in Religions of Late Antiquity in Practice, Ed Richard Valantasis, Princeton University Press, 2000, , the speech was quoted twice in the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which concluded the period of Byzantine iconoclasm, as evidence in favour of the veneration of images. As described, the icon was on canvas, and displayed in a church near her tomb; it has puzzled historians, as the manner of death, from fire, differs from all other accounts in the tradition. It is an exceptionally detailed ekphrasis, or description of a work of art, from this period, although scholars have wondered how well the description matched an actual work.
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In painting, the equestrian figure is also implicated in conquest, as he traverses a landscape that he metaphorically colonises or administers and which became (or was) his fiefdom, acquired and maintained more often than not through the exercise of illegitimate power. These iconographic conventions are here stood on their head (or lack thereof). In ‘Effigies of Turbulent Yesterdays’ we have a clash of different linguistic registers, with the powerful mimetic realism of the equestrian portrait meeting head on the schematised fountain of blood that springs from it, whose sources one can trace to miniature painting as well as comic book illustration. If the King is the Head of the State, then a decapitated monument is both a ludicrous and pitiful spectacle, – an act of iconoclasm which, like all forms of subversion attempts not to destroy it, but to turn it into an inverted representation of itself, or in this case, into an anti-monument that lays bare the disavowed histories of violence that sustain it, and by extension all such iconographies of power.
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"Stevenson (2007: 80) Tiriel Denouncing his Sons and Daughters (Fitzwilliam Museum); the illustrated text is "The cry was great in Tiriels palace his five daughters ran/And caught him by the garments weeping with cries of bitter woe/Aye now you feel the curse you cry. but may all ears be deaf/As Tiriels & all eyes as blind as Tiriels to your woes/May never stars shine on your roofs may never sun nor moon/Visit you but eternal fogs hover around your walls" (5:18-23). Northrop Frye reads the poem symbolically, seeing it primarily as "a tragedy of reason," and arguing that "Tiriel is the puritanical iconoclasm and brutalised morality that marks the beginning of cultural decadence of which the lassitude of Deism is the next stage, and Ijim is introduced to show the mental affinity between Deism and savagery."Frye (1947: 244) A different reading is given by S. Foster Damon, who argues that it is "an analysis of the decay and failure of Materialism at the end of the Age of Reason.
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With Harun al-Rashid's accession in 786, the raids launched over the next two years were relatively minor affairs; the first great invasion of the new reign occurred in 788, when a large expeditionary force crossed the Cilician Gates into the Anatolic Theme. Although the raid is not mentioned in Arabic sources, its description by the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor points to a major invasion, as it was confronted by the forces of the two most powerful Byzantine thematic armies, those of the Anatolic Theme itself and of the Opsician Theme. The site of the battle is called "Kopidnadon" in Theophanes, a name otherwise unattested. Modern scholars, beginning with Henri Grégoire in 1932, have identified it with the town of Podandos, on the western exit of the Cilician Gates.. According to the brief account of Theophanes, the battle ended in a bloody defeat for the Byzantines, who lost many men and officers, including members of the tagma of the Scholai who had been banished to the provinces by Irene in 786 for their continued support of Iconoclasm.
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His iconoclasm also facilitated their abilities to question received wisdom about historical theories and his formidable engagement with archival material prepared them to treat evidence in original ways. Chandavarkar's influence is reflected in research by his students in such diverse fields as the politics of the urban poor in the towns of Uttar Pradesh; the interplay of gender, class and community among jute workers in Bengal; and the shifting patterns of community formation and the development of Communism in Malabar. Many of his students explored labour history in the context of new perspectives such as the relationship between nationalism and labour radicalism in Solapur, comparisons between Bengal's jute workers and Dundee's working classes in the context of British imperialism, and the meaning of class in the context of popular movements in the jute mill towns outside Calcutta. Others explored wider fields, including the language of politics and the ideological predilections of nationalists in Uttar Pradesh, and the concerns of the urban middle class in Gujarat during the colonial period.
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Engraving of the statue of Fernando Álvarez de Toledo in Antwerp by Jacques Jonghelinck. From Nederlantsche Oorloghen by Pieter Bor the Golden Fleece in commemoration of his triumphs in 1571 with the Latin legend «FERDIN[andus] • TOLET[anus] • ALBÆ • DUX • BELG • PRÆF[ectus]», which means, in English, "Fernando de Toledo Duke of Alba Governor of the Netherlands" Back of the same medal with the Latin inscription «DEO et REGI VITÆ VSVS», which means, in English, "God and King are purposes of life" Fernando Álvarez de Toledo by Willem Key (1568) From August to October 1566, the "Iconoclasm" () took place in the Netherlands, during which Calvinist Protestant followers destroyed a number of monasteries and churches and defaced or destroyed Catholic statues. To tackle both civil and religious rebels, King Philip II sent the 3rd Duke of Alba to Brussels on 22 August 1567, at the head of a powerful army. On arrival, Alba replaced Margaret of Parma, the sister of the Spanish king, as head of the civil jurisdiction.
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During the period of Byzantine iconoclasm in 730-843 the vast majority of icons (sacred images usually painted on wood) were destroyed; so little remains that today any discovery sheds new understanding, and most remaining works are in Italy (Rome and Ravenna etc.), or Egypt at Saint Catherine's Monastery. Byzantine art was extremely conservative, for religious and cultural reasons, but retained a continuous tradition of Greek realism, which contended with a strong anti- realist and hieratic impulse. After the resumption of icon production in 843 until 1453 the Byzantine art tradition continued with relatively few changes, despite, or because of, the slow decline of the Empire. There was a notable revival of classical style in works of 10th century court art like the Paris Psalter, and throughout the period manuscript illumination shows parallel styles, often used by the same artist, for iconic figures in framed miniatures and more informal small scenes or figures added unframed in the margins of the text in a much more realist style.. Monumental sculpture with figures remained a taboo in Byzantine art; hardly any exceptions are known.
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In 1952, Reinhold Niebuhr expressed gratitude to Cherbonnier in his Preface to The Irony Of American History "for careful reading of my manuscript and for many suggestions for its improvement".Niebuhr, Reinhold (1952). The Irony Of American History p. ix In 1955, Cherbonnier’s book Hardness of Heart was published by Doubleday. A volume in the “Christian Faith Series” edited by Reinhold Niebuhr, the study provided a contemporary interpretation of the doctrine of sin. During the next year it was also published by London’s Victor Gollancz Ltd. Psychiatrist Karl Menninger, M.D. presented a synopsis of the book in his The Vital Balance: “Cherbonnier in his beautiful essay, Hardness of Heart, describes the forms of idolatry indulged in by the hardhearted. He lists the hidden gods of cynicism as nationalism, humanism, phallicism, promiscuity, the glorification of money, and the various euphemisms such as frugality, shrewdness, and sound economy. Cherbonnier also lists iconoclasm, existentialist despair, and a so-called state of “adjustment” and “relatedness” toward which some psychiatrists are believed to steer their patients.”Menninger, Karl (1963).
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They imported Hagiopolitan customs (of Jerusalem) like the Great Vesper, especially for the movable cycle between Lent and All Saints (triodion and pentekostarion), including a Sunday of Orthodoxy which celebrated the triumph over iconoclasm on the first Sunday of Lent.Unfortunately, the liturgical part has not survived in the late copies of his typikon, but it is assumed that its specific form was a synthesis of the monastic and the cathedral typikon: First of three prophetic lessons ἐλάλησεν κύριος πρὸς Μωυσῆν ἐνώπιος ἐνωπίῳ with ekphonetic notation in red ink (ἑσπ "evening" with the "lesson from Exodus": Ex. 33:11–23) on Good Friday Vespers preceded by a first prokeimenon Δίκασον, κύριε, τοὺς ἀδικοῦντάς με (Ps 34:1) in echos protos written in a 10th-century Prophetologion (ET-MSsc Ms. Gr. 8, f.223r). The preceding second prokeimenon Σοῦ, κύριε, φύλαξον with the double vers (stichos Ps. 11:2) Σῶσον με, κύριε in echos plagios protos concluded the Orthros. This prophetologion became very famous for its list of ekphonetic neumes on folio 303.
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" Marketing Society's website The Library states that Orange Man is the reason why Tango is included in their list of the "golden brands of 1992". Furthermore, Campaign Live stated that "no commercial better symbolized the creative iconoclasm of Howell Henry Chaldecott Lury during the early 90s" than Orange Man, and presenter Jenni Falconer said the advert was "brilliant, and everybody loved it and everyone thought it was great." In Nicholas Kochan's 1997 book The World's Greatest Brands, he wrote that the advertisement "succeeded not only in entertaining its audience but also in communicating its taste attributes–the "hit" of real oranges," adding that "the ad's fun scenarios of 'being hooked on Tango' have been extended into other promotions." Orange Man is also credited by Curveball Media for pioneering what would later become known as guerilla advertising, with Tim Delaney of Legas Delaney saying "the whole point was that this radical, strong, full-of- attitude campaign worked – it shifted cans of fizzy pop in a way that got Britvic's rivals panicking.
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Haldon has also served as the Shelby Cullom Davis Professor of European History at Princeton since 2005 and the Director of Graduate Studies for the Princeton History Department Since 2009. In addition, he has served as the Director of the Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Iran and Persian Gulf Studies. He is the author and co-author of over 25 books including The empire that would not die: The paradox of eastern Roman survival, 640 – 740, A tale of two saints: the passions and miracles of Sts Theodore 'the recruit' and 'the general', A Critical Commentary on the Taktika of Leo VI and Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era: A History, with Leslie Brubaker. His current projects include a re-examination of the relationship between environment and social and political change in the Byzantine world; research on some aspects of institutional and administrative history of the seventh-eighth centuries; preparation of an English translation of and critical commentary on the tenth-century text De Thematibus; research into the origins and development of the so-called Second Iconoclasm; work on comparative state formation in pre-modern societies.
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On March 25, Palm Sunday, he commanded his monks to process through the monastery's vineyard, holding up icons so that they could be seen over the walls by the neighbors. This provocation elicited only a rebuke from the emperor.. A new patriarch, Theodotos, was selected, and in April a synod was convened in Hagia Sophia, at which iconoclasm was re-introduced as dogma. Theodore composed a series of letters in which he called on "all, near and far," to revolt against the decision of the synod. Not long thereafter he was exiled by imperial command to a Metopa, a fortress on the eastern shore of Lake Apollonia in Bithynia.. Shortly thereafter Leo had Theodore's poems removed from the Chalke Gate and replaced by a new set of "iconoclastic" epigrams.. While Theodore was in exile, the leadership of the Studite congregation was assumed by the Abbot Leontios, who for a time adopted the iconoclast position and won over many individual monks to his party.. He was, however, eventually won back to the iconodule party.. The Studite situation mirrored a general trend, with a number of bishops and abbots at first willing to reach a compromise with the iconoclasts,.
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Beatlemania did not of itself create the apparent iconoclasm of the 1960s; however, as one writer put it, "just as Noël Coward and Cole Porter reflected the louche, carefree attitude of the [Nineteen] Twenties, so did the Beatles' music capture the rhythm of breaking free experienced by an entire generation of people growing up in the Sixties". By the middle of the decade, British pop music had stimulated the fashion boom of what Time called "swinging London".Time, 15 April 1966 Associated initially with such "mod" designs as Quant's mini-skirt, this soon embraced a range of essentially Bohemian styles. These included the military and Victorian fashions popularised by stars who frequented boutiques such as Granny Takes a Trip, the "fusion of fashion, art and lifestyle" opened by Nigel Waymouth in the King's Road, Chelsea in January 1966,See Times Magazine, 24 June 2006; David Moss in Antiques Trade Gazette, 27 August 2011 (number 2004) and, by 1967, the hippie look largely imported from America (although, as noted, London stores such as Biba had, for some time, displayed dresses that drew on Pre-Raphaelite imageryFiona MacCathy (2011) The Last Pre- Raphaelite).
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He has also contested the validity of conventional use of the term "postmemory" (as coined by Marianne Hirsch), suggesting in its place alternative conceptualizations of "postmemory", introducing a corresponding concept of "pre-memory" (when the memory of an event is shaped by memories of earlier events), and adding an original notion of "pre-forgetting" (with reference to concerns over the forgetting of an event that are raised prior to when it occurs). Examining modern cases of destruction of monuments, with reference to classical scholarship on damnatio memoriae, Beiner has argued that political iconoclasm does not necessary efface memory but in effect can instigate ambiguous remembrance, through which the former sites of commemoration and the acts of destruction continue to be recalled locally. While his case studies are often grounded in modern Irish history, Beiner has demonstrated the broader applicability of his theoretical innovations for historical studies elsewhere. His book Remembering the Year of the French: Irish Folk History and Social Memory (University of Wisconsin Press: Madison, 2007; paperback 2009) Reviews: Times Literary Supplement (7 December 2007), Dublin Review of Books (Winter 2007), Journal of British Studies (Oct.
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In the 8th century, the development of monastic liturgical practice was centered in the Monastery of the Stoudios in Constantinople where the services were further sophisticated, in particular with regard to Lenten and Paschal services and, most importantly, the Sabbaite Typikon was imported and melded with the existing typikon; as Fr. Robert F. Taft noted, > How the cathedral and monastic traditions meld into one is the history of > the present Byzantine Rite. ... [St. Theodore the Studite] summoned to the > capital some monks of St. Sabas to help combat iconoclasm, for in the > Sabaitic chants Theodore discerned a sure guide of orthodoxy, he writes to > Patriarch Thomas of Jerusalem. So it was the office of St. Sabas, not the > [sung service] currently in use in the monasteries of Constantinople, which > the monks of Stoudios would synthesize with material from the asmatike > akolouthia or cathedral office of the Great Church to create a hybrid > "Studite" office, the ancestor of the one that has come down to us to this > day: a Palestinian horologion with its psalmody and hymns grafted onto a > skeleton of litanies and their collects from the euchology of the Great > Church.
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Leslie A. Fiedler wrote in the Saturday Review that the writers were introduced as "brilliant and iconoclastic" on the jacket of the book, but thought that none of them "strikes one as really 'brilliant' (Tynan is funny enough by fits and starts and Osborne vigorously direct, but the rest are merely earnest and opaque), while their 'iconoclasm' consists of nothing more shocking than complaints against bureaucracy, the monarchy, and H-bomb tests, eked out with attacks on each other." Concerning the "angry young men" label, Fiedler went on to question Lessing's youth, the source of Osborne's anger, and all the writers' decision to contribute to the anthology; Kingsley Amis had been asked to participate but declined, which Fiedler commended. Fiedler continued: > Despite Mr. Osborne's protest that he is not the protagonist of Look Back in > Anger and the desperate plea of all the accused that they are not Amis's > Lucky Jim, it is evident that they write the same dialogue for themselves as > for their characters. For such angry-young-dialogue one is finally grateful; > it is what makes Mr. Osborne's piece, along with Mr. Tynan's, a hiatus of > brightness in a dim, dim book.
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