1000 Sentences With "gyrus" | Random Sentence Generator

Compared to peers who had less compulsive gaming habits, the I.G.D. group "showed significantly decreased cortical thickness in the left lateral orbitofrontal cortex, inferior parietal lobule, bilateral cuneus, precentral gyrus, and right middle temporal gyrus," the researchers announced.

The whole reason FGTL works is that the fusiform gyrus lets you recognize faces.

The ANG is the angular gyrus, which is activated when we remember something vividly.

Falling in love, according to Dr. Cacioppo, is an intense workout for the angular gyrus.

"Dietary cocoa flavanol consumption enhanced [dentate gyrus] function in the aging human hippocampal circuit," they concluded.

His paper concluded that flavanols may improve dentate gyrus function, according to specific cognitive ability tests.

Lotze noted that, during the brainstorming part of the test, magnetic imaging showed that the sensorimotor and visual areas were activated; once creative writing started, these areas were joined by the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the left inferior frontal gyrus, the left thalamus, and the inferior temporal gyrus.

And the MRIs found they had less brain activity in the posterior cingulate cortex and the temporal gyrus.

People with damage to the fusiform gyrus lose their ability to recognize faces, a disorder known as prosopagnosia.

The medial temporal lobe includes the hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus, both of which are important in memory.

" Olivia noticed that Charlotte was leafing through a pamphlet titled "Fusiform Gyrus Targeted Lesioning: An Investment In Your Child's Future.

Brain scans show that a part of our neocortex known as the fusiform gyrus becomes activated when we look at faces.

To put this another way: Yes, scientists can see our fusiform gyrus light up in brain scans when we recognize faces.

This time a different area, the parahippocampal gyrus (involved in spatial memory and navigation), responded — again as in a normal person.

After the children were taught to print, patterns of brain activation in response to letters showed increased activation of that reading network, including the fusiform gyrus, along with the inferior frontal gyrus and posterior parietal regions of the brain, which adults use for processing written language — even though the children were still at a very early level as writers.

The left fusiform gyrus, part of the brain that was dedicated to recognizing complicated objects, like faces, became a translator of letters into language.

The scientists found that the older subjects had more complexity in their brains' supporting structure, in a part of the brain called the fusiform gyrus.

They focused on an area in the brain's hippocampus - called the dentate gyrus - that's thought to play a role in memory, learning and other critical functions.

Well, it appears that laughter triggers the superior anterior temporal gyrus — an area of the brain, just above the right ear, associated with connecting distantly linked ideas.

Specifically, those areas are known as the bilateral anterior cingulate cortex, the right orbitofrontal and frontopolar cortex, the right superior temporal gyrus and the right insular cortex.

Yet when the researchers stimulated the dentate gyrus of these mice with blue light, they also froze, suggesting that they were now able to recall the original shock.

In fact, scientists who have studied Einstein's brain found his angular gyrus to be particularly enlarged and theorize that it might have played some part in his genius.

The researchers wanted to test whether cocoa flavanol supplements might stave off cognitive decline in the dentate gyrus region of the brain, which is associated with age-related memory loss.

Located behind the ear, the angular gyrus is found only in apes and in humans, which means it developed relatively late in evolutionary history, and is connected to creativity and abstract thought.

But Dr Tonegawa's team found that stimulating neurons in the dentate gyrus other than those directly involved with holding the fear memory prevented Alzheimer's mice from remembering their shocks in the long term.

Among people in the morphine group, gray matter volume decreased in several reward-processing regions, such as the gyrus rectus, which regulates learning and memory, and the insula, an area involved in cravings.

The researchers had wanted to test whether taking cocoa supplements might enhance a region of the brain called the dentate gyrus that deteriorates with age and is associated with age-related memory loss.

"The amount of information sharing for the right midfrontal gyrus was twice as large in placebo responders versus non responders," said Apkar V. Apkarian, lead author of the study and a professor of physiology.

As they report in Nature, the researchers prepared seven-month-old Alzheimer's mice by injecting a harmless virus into the rodents' dentate gyrus, a part of the hippocampus that helps to store fearful memories.

To help the Alzheimer's mice consolidate and keep their memory of the electric shock, the team flashed their dentate gyrus with blue light at 100 hertz, a frequency known to induce long-term potentiation.

Zaria Gorvett, the writer of the BBC article, reported that the brain uses an area known as the fusiform gyrus to create a bigger, more broader picture when analyzing the features of a person's face.

The study, published Tuesday in the journal Frontiers in Psychiatry, found variations in the activity of two regions of the brain associated with depression (the supramarginal gyrus and posterior cingulate) in adolescent boys and girls.

A man with a lesion to the left superior temporal gyrus is unable to understand what's said to him, spurring the neurologist Carl Wernicke to conclude that this area must be essential to language comprehension.

It then goes to the left fusiform gyrus, which translates those abstract symbols into letters, and then to the frontal and temporal lobes, where we figure out how to pronounce it and what it means.

They specifically looked at the dentate gyrus, a part of the hippocampus (the region of the brain that helps coordinate our capacity for memory) where research in mice and humans has long suggested new neurons are regularly born.

Compared to the teens who weren&apost obese, the study authors found the scans of obese teens showed more white matter damage in an area called the middle orbitofrontal gyrus, which is associated with emotional control and reward.

As expected, they found abundant proof of freshly made neurons in the samples taken from fetuses and newborns, specifically in the dentate gyrus, where neurogenesis is known to happen in other mammals such as rodents and speculated to happen in people.

"We conclude that recruitment of young neurons to the primate hippocampus decreases rapidly during the first years of life, and that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus [brain region] does not continue, or is extremely rare, in adult humans," the authors wrote.

In fetal samples that had gestated 14 weeks, the researchers saw rich streams of precursor cells and immature neurons migrating to a still-developing region within the hippocampus known as the dentate gyrus, known to be crucial to memory formation.

Another man, with a lesion to the left inferior frontal gyrus, is able to understand speech but can't articulate any words himself, other than a single syllable — tan, tan — providing a French surgeon named Paul Broca a glimpse of the cerebral root of language production.

For instance, it's possible that because the people studied had consciously renounced white supremacy, more sophisticated brain regions like the middle frontal gyrus, which is involved in emotional suppression, kicked in to try to counteract that initial difference in processing or to suppress emotions associated with it.

The student volunteers performed the best when the anode was attached above the right side of their inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)—part of the frontal cortex and a region associated with problem solving and spontaneity—and the cathode fitted above the left side of the IFG.

To track memory decline, the main outcomes the researchers used over a 12-week period were an fMRI test that looked at increases cerebral blood volume, as well as a cognitive function test — the Modified Benton — which was developed at Columbia to measure dentate gyrus function.

Mapping the results of the scans, Sun and her colleagues saw key differences between the men and women gaming: Men addicted to gaming, when compared to healthy controls, showed brain function alterations in the superior frontal gyrus, an area of the brain's prefrontal lobe that is important to impulse control.

All seven expression areas, including the middle temporal gyrus, the short insular gyrus, the postcentral gyrus, the cingulate gyrus, the inferior temporal gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, and the superior temporal gyrus are depicted in Allen Brain Atlas profiles below. 635x635px 638x638px These photos are courtesy of the Allen Brain Atlas.

Diagram of gyri of brain viewed on lateral hemisphere. Occipital gyri shown lower right. The border between the occipital lobe and the parietal and temporal lobes is characterized by different gyri: the superior occipital gyrus (also known as gyrus occipitalis superior), middle occipital gyrus (or gyrus occipitalis medius), inferior occipital gyrus (or gyrus occipitalis inferior), and descending occipital gyrus (gyrus occipitalis descendens).

The middle frontal gyrus makes up about one-third of the frontal lobe of the human brain. (A gyrus is one of the prominent "bumps" or "ridges" on the surface of the human brain.) The middle frontal gyrus, like the inferior frontal gyrus and the superior frontal gyrus, is more of a region in the frontal gyrus than a true gyrus. The borders of the middle frontal gyrus are the inferior frontal sulcus below; the superior frontal sulcus above; and the precentral sulcus behind.

In males, the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, cingulate cortex, insula, hippocampus, thalamus, caudate, hypothalamus, and cerebellum were shown to be activated. In females, activations in the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, angular gyrus, thalamus, and cerebellum were noted. Male activations were greater in the precentral gyrus, insula, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cerebellum, while women shower greater activations in the visual cortex, angular gyrus, and thalamus. Regions in the female brain have been implicated in detection of intention, deception, and trustworthiness of others.

The limbic lobe is an arc-shaped region of cortex on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere of the mammalian brain, consisting of parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The term is ambiguous, with some authors including the paraterminal gyrus, the subcallosal area, the cingulate gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the dentate gyrus, the hippocampus and the subiculum; while the Terminologia Anatomica includes the cingulate sulcus, the cingulate gyrus, the isthmus of cingulate gyrus, the fasciolar gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal sulcus, the dentate gyrus, the fimbrodentate sulcus, the fimbria of hippocampus, the collateral sulcus, and the rhinal sulcus, and omits the hippocampus.

The fusiform gyrus, also known as the lateral occipitotemporal gyrus, is part of the temporal lobe and occipital lobe in Brodmann area 37.Nature Neuroscience, vol7, 2004 The fusiform gyrus is located between the lingual gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus above, and the inferior temporal gyrus below. Though the functionality of the fusiform gyrus is not fully understood, it has been linked with various neural pathways related to recognition. Additionally, it has been linked to various neurological phenomena such as synesthesia, dyslexia, and prosopagnosia.

The inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), (gyrus frontalis inferior), is the lowest positioned gyrus of the frontal gyri, of the frontal lobe, and is part of the prefrontal cortex. Its superior border is the inferior frontal sulcus (which divides it from the middle frontal gyrus), its inferior border is the lateral sulcus (which divides it from the superior temporal gyrus) and its posterior border is the inferior precentral sulcus. Above it is the middle frontal gyrus, behind it is the precentral gyrus. photos on p526 & p.

Neurobiology of aging, 33(6), 1073-1084 studied role of aging on activation pattern in standing and found more activation in bilateral insula, superior and middle temporal gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, middle occipital gyrus and postcentral gyrus suggesting decreased reciprocal inhibition of these areas.

However results have shown comparative activation in the superior temporal gyrus and in the inferior temporal gyrus.

The inferior frontal sulcus is a sulcus between the middle frontal gyrus and the inferior frontal gyrus.

The superior frontal sulcus is a sulcus between the superior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus.

The posterior parahippocampal gyrus is a portion of the parahippocampal gyrus. It can show deterioration in Alzheimer's disease.

Continuing from the superior frontal gyrus on the lateral surface, into the uppermost part of the medial surface of the hemisphere is the medial frontal gyrus. The inferior frontal gyrus includes Broca's area. The lowest part of the inferior frontal gyrus rests on the orbital part of the frontal bone.

Anteriorly, both the gyrus rectus and the medial part of the medial orbital gyrus consist of area 11(m), and posteriorly, area 14. The posterior orbital gyrus consists mostly of area 13, and is bordered medially and laterally by the anterior limbs of the medial and lateral orbital sulci. Area 11 makes up a large part of the OFC involving both the lateral parts of the medial orbital gyrus as well as the anterior orbital gyrus. The lateral orbital gyrus consists mostly of area 47/12.

The portion of the inferior frontal lobe immediately adjacent to the longitudinal fissure (and medial to the medial orbital gyrus and olfactory tract) is named the straight gyrus,(or gyrus rectus) and is continuous with the superior frontal gyrus on the medial surface. A specific function for the straight gyrus has not yet been brought to light; however, in males, greater activation of the straight gyrus within the medial orbitofrontal cortex while observing sexually visual pictures has been strongly linked to HSDD (hypoactive sexual desire disorder).

Three horizontally arranged subsections of the frontal gyrus are the superior frontal gyrus, the middle frontal gyrus, and the inferior frontal gyrus. The inferior frontal gyrus is divided into three parts – the orbital part, the triangular part, and the opercular part. The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine neurons in the cerebral cortex. The dopaminergic pathways are associated with reward, attention, short-term memory tasks, planning, and motivation.

Wernicke’s area was named for German doctor Carl Wernicke, who discovered it in 1874 in the course of his research into aphasias (loss of ability to speak).This area of the brain is involved in language comprehension. Therefore, Wernicke’s area is for understanding oral language. Besides Wernicke’s area, the left posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG), middle temporal gyrus (MTG), inferior temporal gyrus (ITG), supramarginal gyrus (SMG), and angular gyrus (AG) participate in language comprehension.

The frontal gyri are four gyri of the frontal lobe in the brain. These are four horizontally oriented, parallel convolutions, of the frontal lobe. The other main gyrus of the frontal lobe is the precentral gyrus which is vertically oriented, and runs parallel with the precentral sulcus. The uppermost of the four gyri is the superior frontal gyrus, below this is the middle frontal gyrus, and below this is the inferior frontal gyrus.

The anterior part of the gyrus includes the perirhinal and entorhinal cortices. The term parahippocampal cortex is used to refer to an area that encompasses both the posterior parahippocampal gyrus and the medial portion of the fusiform gyrus.

The superior frontal gyrus (SFG) also marginal gyrus, makes up about one third of the frontal lobe of the human brain. It is bounded laterally by the superior frontal sulcus. The superior frontal gyrus is one of the frontal gyri.

Anatomically, the fusiform gyrus is the largest macro-anatomical structure within the ventral temporal cortex, which mainly includes structures involved in high-level vision. The term fusiform gyrus (lit. „spindle-shaped convolution“) refers to the fact that the shape of the gyrus is wider at its centre than at its ends. This term is based on the description of the gyrus by Emil Huschke in 1854.

Consistent abnormalities in adult first degree relatives include larger insular cortex volumes, while offspring demonstrate increased right inferior frontal gyrus volumes. The ENIGMA bipolar disorder working group reported cortical thinning in the left Pars opercularis (BA44-inferior frontal gyrus), left fusiform gyrus, left rostral middle frontal cortex, right inferior parietal cortex, along with an increase in the right entorhinal cortex. Duration of illness was associated with reductions bilaterally in the pericalcarine gyrus, left rostral anterior cingulate and right cuneus, along with increases in the right entorhinal cortex. Treatment with lithium was associated with increased cortical thickness bilaterally in the superior parietal gyrus, left paracentral gyrus, and left paracentral lobule.

In males, positively valenced words activated the left sensimotor cortex, angular gyrus, left hippocampus, left frontal eye field and the right cerebellum, while females had activations in the right putamen, right superior temporal gyrus, left supramarginal gyrus, left inferior frontal gyrus and the left sensorimotor cortex. By contrast, negatively valenced words stimulated greater activation in the right supramarginal gyrus in males, while greater activation in the left part of the hippocampus with negative stimuli. Therefore, different brain regions in males and females could allude to differential responses emotional processing in intimate situations.

Using a three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging procedure to measure the volume of the rostral anterior cingulate gyrus (perigenual cingulate gyrus), Takahashi et al. (2003) found that the rostral anterior cingulate gyrus is larger in control (healthy) females than males, but this sex difference was not found in people with schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia also had a smaller volume of perigenual cingulate gyrus than control subjects. Haznedar et al.

People with schizophrenia have differences in the anterior cingulate gyrus when compared with controls. The anterior cingulate gyrus was found to be smaller in people with schizophrenia. The volume of the gray matter in the anterior cingulate gyrus was found to be lower in people with schizophrenia. Healthy females have larger rostral anterior cingulate gyrus than males, this sex difference in size is absent in people with schizophrenia.

In nine out of ten people with tone deafness, the superior arcuate fasciculus in the right hemisphere could not be detected, suggesting a disconnection between the posterior superior temporal gyrus and the posterior inferior frontal gyrus. Researchers suggested the posterior superior temporal gyrus was the origin of the disorder.

The entorhinal cortex transmits its signals from the parahippocampal gyrus to the dentate gyrus via granule cell fibers known collectively as the perforant path. The dentate gyrus then synapses on pyramidal cells in CA3 via mossy cell fibers. CA3 then fires to CA1 via Schaffer collaterals which synapse in the subiculum and are carried out through the fornix. Collectively the dentate gyrus, CA1 and CA3 of the hippocampus compose the trisynaptic loop.

However, when literally interpretable idioms (i.e., break the ice) were processed, the left medial frontal gyrus (MFQ) and superior frontal gyrus (SFG) were activated.Hillert, D. G., & Buracas, G. T. (2009).

Individuals being reconditioned with quetiapine, who show reduced symptoms, show activation in other areas of the PFC as well, including the right medial prefrontal gyrus and the left orbitofrontal gyrus.

The anteromedial continuation of the dentate gyrus is called the tail of the dentate gyrus, or the band of Giacomini. Most of the dentate gyrus is not exposed on the surface of the brain but the band of Giacomini is visible, and makes an important landmark of the inferior surface of the uncus.

In 2003, V. S. Ramachandran collaborated with scientists from the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in order to identify the potential role of the fusiform gyrus within the color processing pathway in the brain. Examining the relationship within the pathway specifically in cases of synesthesia, Ramachandran found that synesthetes on average have a higher density of fibers surrounding the angular gyrus. The angular gyrus is involved in higher processing of colors. The fibers relay shape information from the fusiform gyrus to the angular gyrus in order to produce the association of colors and shapes in grapheme-color synesthesia.

The occipital gyri (OcG) are three gyri in parallel, along the lateral portion of the occipital lobe, also referred to as a composite structure in the brain. The gyri are the superior occipital gyrus, the middle occipital gyrus, and the inferior occipital gyrus, and these are also known as the occipital face area. The superior and inferior occipital sulci separates the three occipital gyri. The intraoccipital sulcus, also known as the superior occipital sulcus, stems from the intraparietal sulcus and continues until the sulcus reaches the transverse occipital sulcus, separating the superior occipital gyrus from the middle occipital gyrus.

Third and lastly, to have a full abstract learning experience there has to be an equal amount of baseline performance and transfer performance. Binder, Westbury, McKiernan, Possing, and Medler (2005) used fMRI to scan individuals' brains as they made lexical decisions on abstract and concrete concepts. Abstract concepts elicited greater activation in the left precentral gyrus, left inferior frontal gyrus and sulcus, and left superior temporal gyrus, whereas concrete concepts elicited greater activation in bilateral angular gyri, the right middle temporal gyrus, the left middle frontal gyrus, bilateral posterior cingulate gyri, and bilateral precunei. In 1986 Allan PaivioPaivio, A. (1986).

Some researchers think that the fusiform gyrus may be related to the disorder known as prosopagnosia, or face blindness. Research has also shown that the fusiform face area, the area within the fusiform gyrus, is heavily involved in face perception but only to any generic within-category identification that is shown to be one of the functions of the fusiform gyrus. Abnormalities of the fusiform gyrus have also been linked to Williams syndrome.A. L. Reiss, et al.

Location of the dentate gyrus and relations to other structures. The dentate gyrus, like the hippocampus, consists of three distinct layers: an outer molecular layer, a middle granule cell layer, and an inner polymorphic layer. (In the hippocampus the outer layer is the molecular layer, the middle layer is the pyramidal layer, and the inner layer the stratum oriens). The polymorphic layer is also the hilus of the dentate gyrus, (CA4, the junction of the hippocampus and dentate gyrus).

Since 1919, brain injuries to the angular gyrus have been known to often cause arithmetic deficits. Functional imaging has shown that while other parts of the parietal lobe bilaterally are involved in approximate calculations due to its link with spatiovisual abilities, the left angular gyrus together with left Inferior frontal gyrus are involved in exact calculation due to verbal arithmetic fact retrieval. When activation in the left angular gyrus is greater, a person's arithmetic skills are also more competent.

At the base of the SPL is the intraparietal sulcus, below which is the inferior parietal lobule (IPL), which in turn divides into Brodmann areas 39 (angular gyrus) and 40 (supramarginal gyrus).

Recent research has seen activation of the fusiform gyrus during subjective grapheme–color perception in people with synaesthesia.Imaging of connectivity in the synaesthetic brain « Neurophilosophy The effect of the fusiform gyrus in grapheme sense seems somewhat more clear as the fusiform gyrus seems to play a key role in word recognition. The connection to color may be due to cross wiring of (being directly connected to) areas of the fusiform gyrus and other areas of the visual cortex associated with experiencing color.

The supramarginal gyrus is located just anterior to the angular gyrus allowing these two structures (which compose the inferior parietal lobule) to form a multimodal complex that receives somatosensory, visual, and auditory inputs from the brain. Although the supramarginal gyrus is not considered a major portion of the language circuit, it still works with the angular gyrus to attempt to link words with meanings. It is also bound caudally by the lateral sulcus, one of the most prominent structures found in the brain.

The subcallosal area (parolfactory area of Broca) is a small triangular field on the medial surface of the hemisphere in front of the subcallosal gyrus, from which it is separated by the posterior parolfactory sulcus; it is continuous below with the olfactory trigone, and above and in front with the cingulate gyrus; it is limited anteriorly by the anterior parolfactory sulcus. The subcallosal area is also known as "Zuckerkandl's gyrus", for Emil Zuckerkandl. The parahippocampal gyrus, subcallosal area, and cingulate gyrus have been described together as the periarcheocortex. The "subcallosal area" and "parolfactory area" are considered equivalent in BrainInfo, but in Terminologia Anatomica they are considered distinct structures.

Additionally, some processing of the visual field that corresponds to the ventral stream of visual processing occurs in the lower portion of the superior temporal gyrus closest to the superior temporal sulcus. The medial and ventral view of the brain – meaning looking at the medial surface from below the brain, facing upwards – reveals that the inferior temporal gyrus is separated from the fusiform gyrus by the occipital-temporal sulcus. This human inferior temporal cortex is much more complex than that of other primates: non-human primates have an inferior temporal cortex that is not divided into unique regions such as humans' inferior temporal gyrus, fusiform gyrus, or middle temporal gyrus. This region of the brain corresponds to the inferior temporal cortex and is responsible for visual object recognition and receives processed visual information.

The supramarginal gyrus (SMG) aids in language comprehension and is responsible for compassionate responses. SMG links sounds to words with the angular gyrus and aids in word choice. SMG integrates tactile, visual, and auditory info.

In addition, evidence has been presented of a link between a specific emotion processing deficit in schizophrenia and the volume of temporal lobe structures, including fusiform gyrus and middle temporal gyrus, as measured using MRI.

Thus, the lateral fusiform gyrus is delineated by the OTS laterally and the MFS medially. Likewise, the medial fusiform gyrus is delineated by the MFS laterally and the CoS medially. Importantly, the mid-fusiform sulcus serves as a macroanatomical landmark for the fusiform face area (FFA), a functional subregion of the fusiform gyrus assumed to play a key role in processing faces.

Preliminary Evidence Of Abnormal White Matter Related To The Fusiform Gyrus In Williams Syndrome: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Tractography Study.Genes, Brain & Behavior 11.1, 62–68(2012) Fusiform gyrus has also been involved in the perception of emotions in facial stimuli. However, individuals with autism show little to no activation in the fusiform gyrus in response to seeing a human face.

The angular gyrus reacts differently to intended and consequential movement.Farrer C, Frey SH, Van Horn JD, Tunik E, Turk D, Inati S, Grafton ST. The angular gyrus computes action awareness representations. Centre de Neuroscience Cognitive. This suggests that the angular gyrus monitors the self's intended movements, and uses the added information to compute differently as it does for consequential movements.

The indusium griseum, (supracallosal gyrus, gyrus epicallosus) consists of a thin membranous layer of grey matter in contact with the upper surface of the corpus callosum and continuous laterally with the grey matter of the cingulate cortex. On either side of the midline of the indusium griseum are two ridges formed by bands of longitudinally directed fibers known as the medial and lateral longitudinal striae. The indium griseum is prolonged around the splenium of the corpus callosum as a delicate layer, the fasciolar gyrus, which is continuous below with the surface of the dentate gyrus. Toward the genu of the corpus callosum it curves down along the rostrum to form the subcallosal gyrus.

Portions of the fusiform gyrus are critical for face and body recognition.

The fusiform gyrus has a contentious history that has recently been clarified. The term was first used in 1854 by Emil Huschke from Jena, Germany, who called the fusiform gyrus a “Spindelwulst” (lit. spindle bulge). He chose this term because of the similarity that the respective cerebral gyrus bears to the shape of a spindle, or fusil, due to its wider central section. At first, researchers located the fusiform gyrus in other mammals as well, without taking into account the variations in gross organizations of other species’ brains.

The elaboration follows comprehension, involves the conscious generation of inferences for features not made explicit during comprehension, and elicits the unconscious or conscious feeling of amusement. Studies utilizing fMRI have shown that, like the incongruity-resolution theory, the comprehension-elaboration theory can be separated into two distinct neurological schedules of activity. During comprehension, greater activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus, left superior frontal gyrus, and left ventral stratum can be seen. During elaboration, the left ventromedial prefrontal gyrus, bilateral amygdala, and bilateral parahippocampal gyrus show greater activity.

Using positron emission tomography (PET) scans and event-related potentials, researchers have located two separate areas in the fusiform gyrus that respond specifically to strings of letters. The posterior fusiform gyrus responds to words and non-words, regardless of their semantic context.(Nobre, Truett & McCarthy, 1994) The anterior fusiform gyrus is affected by the semantic context, and whether letter combinations are words or pseudowords (novel letter combinations that mimic phonetic conventions, ex. shing). This role of the anterior fusiform gyrus may correlate to higher processing of the word's concept and meaning.

The orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus also known as the pars orbitalis is the orbital part of the inferior frontal gyrus. In humans, this region is bordered by the triangular part of the inferior frontal gyrus (pars triangularis) and, surrounding the anterior horizontal limb of the lateral sulcus, a portion of the opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus (pars opercularis). Bounded caudally by the anterior ascending limb of the lateral sulcus, it borders on the insula in the depth of the lateral sulcus. It is bordered anteriorly/inferiorly by the lateral orbital sulcus.

The results showed a greater activity in the left superior occipital cortex and right fusiform gyrus for grammatical stimuli, and greater activity in the left angular gyrus during grammaticality judgments, as compared to a matched recognition control task.

Scheider et al.: Morphologie of Heschl’s Gyrus reflects enhanced activation in the auditory cortex of musicians. Nature Neuroscience 5, 2002, 688-694 ()P. Scheider et al.: Structural and functional asymmetry of lateral Heschl’s gyrus reflects pitch perception asymmetry.

PROX1 is produced primarily in the dentate gyrus in the mouse, and in the dentate gyrus and white matter in humans. Gene expression data for mouse, human and macaque from the Allen Brain Atlases can be found here.

The collateral fissure (or sulcus) is on the tentorial surface of the hemisphere and extends from near the occipital pole to within a short distance of the temporal pole. Behind, it lies below and lateral to the calcarine fissure, from which it is separated by the lingual gyrus; in front, it is situated between the parahippocampal gyrus and the anterior part of the fusiform gyrus.

It consists of fibers that are said to arise in the parolfactory area, the gyrus subcallosus and the anterior perforated substance, and course backward in the longitudinal striae to the dentate gyrus and the hippocampal region. This is a cholinergic bundle of nerve fibers posterior to the anterior perforated substance. It interconnects the subcallosal gyrus in the septal area with the hippocampus and lateral olfactory area.

The fusiform gyrus has been speculated to be associated with various neurological phenomena.

By recording the discrepancy, the angular gyrus maintains an awareness of the self.

Another cause of both akinesia and mutism is ablation of the cingulate gyrus. Destruction of the cingulate gyrus has been used in the treatment of psychosis. Such lesions result in akinesia, mutism, apathy, and indifference to painful stimuli.Fix JD. Neuroanatomy.

However, whether significant neurogenesis exists in the adult human dentate gyrus has been a matter of debate. 2019 evidence has shown that adult neurogenesis does take place in the subventricular zone and in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus.

Inferior parietal lobule has been involved in the perception of emotions in facial stimuli, and interpretation of sensory information. The Inferior parietal lobule is concerned with language, mathematical operations, and body image, particularly the supramarginal gyrus and the angular gyrus.

Studies have implicated the lingual gyrus as being involved in modulating visual stimuli (especially letters) but not whether or not the stimulus was a word. Further, the gyrus is related to the naming of stimuli.Howard. D.. Patterson. K..Wise. R.. Brown.

Ventricular and third ventricle enlargement, abnormal functioning of the amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, neocortical temporal lobe regions, frontal lobe, prefontal gray matter, orbitofrontal areas, parietal lobs abnormalities and subcortical abnormalities including the cavum septi pellucidi, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, thalamus and cerebellar abnormalities. Such abnormalities usually present in the form of loss of volume. Most schizophrenia studies have found average reduced volume of the left medial temporal lobe and left superior temporal gyrus, and half of studies have revealed deficits in certain areas of the frontal gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus and temporal gyrus. However, at variance with some findings in individuals with chronic schizophrenia significant group differences of temporal lobe and amygdala volumes are not shown in first-episode people on average.

In a study that compared the semantic knowledge of category versus attributes, it was found that they play separate roles in how they contribute to recognition. For categorical comparisons, the lateral regions of the fusiform gyrus were activated by living objects, in comparison to nonliving objects which activated the medial regions. For attribute comparisons, it was found that the right fusiform gyrus was activated by global form, in comparison to local details which activated the left fusiform gyrus. These results suggest that the type of object category determines which region of the fusiform gyrus is activated for processing semantic recognition, whereas the attributes of an object determines the activation in either the left or right fusiform gyrus depending on whether global form or local detail is processed.

In the human it is located in parts of the lingual gyrus, the cuneus, the lateral occipital gyrus (H) and the superior occipital gyrus (H) of the occipital lobe where it is bounded approximately by the parieto-occipital sulcus. It is bounded on one side by the parastriate area 18, which it surrounds. It is bounded rostrally by the angular area 39 (H) and the occipitotemporal area 37 (H) (Brodmann-1909).

Brodmann area 33, also known as pregenual area 33, is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined cingulate region of cerebral cortex. It is a narrow band located in the anterior cingulate gyrus adjacent to the supracallosal gyrus in the depth of the callosal sulcus, near the genu of the corpus callosum. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded by the ventral anterior cingulate area 24 and the supracallosal gyrus (Brodmann-1909).

Activation of the angular gyrus shows that not only does it mediate memory retrieval, but also it notes contradictions between what is expected from the retrieval, and what is unusual. The angular gyrus can access both content and episodic memories and is useful in inferring from these the intentions of human characters. Furthermore, the angular gyrus may use a feedback strategy to ascertain whether a retrieval is expected or unusual.

Data from the fMRI showed activation in several structures, notably the lingual gyrus. Similar activation was recorded during the recollection several weeks later. It has also been shown that activation of the ventral occipitotemporal cortex, including the lingual gyrus, is related to the processing of visual information about parts of human faces. Furthermore, the left lingual gyrus activates during memorizing and maintaining images of human faces in working memory.

Reelin and Notch1 cooperate in the development of the dentate gyrus, according to another.

A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts elicit greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus compared to concrete concepts which elicit greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage.

Today, the fusiform gyrus is considered to be specific to hominoids. This is supported by research showing only three temporal gyri and no fusiform gyrus in macaques. The first accurate definition of the mid-fusiform sulcus was coined by Gustav Retzius in 1896.

Executive Function in Preschoolers: A Review Using an Integrative Framework. More specifically, subvocal rehearsal and verbal maintenance are associated with the posterior left precentral gyrus. The temporary storage of the phonological loop is often attributed to the supramarginal gyrus in the parietal lobe.

In terms of cytoarchitecture, it is bounded caudally by the opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann area 44 (BA44)), rostrodorsally by the middle frontal area 46 (BA46), and ventrally by the orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann area 47 BA47).

In the brain, C8orf34 is expressed in the dentate gyrus, epithalamus, and medulla. In the mouse brain, an orthologous C8orf34 is expressed highly in the granule layer of the dentate gyrus, the somatosensory areas of the cerebral cortex and in the amygdala.

After his death, his position at Vienna was filled by Hans Kundrat (1845-1893). Heschl is credited as the first physician to describe the transverse temporal gyrus or "Heschl's gyrus", located in the primary auditory cortex. This anatomical structure processes incoming auditory information.

PLoS ONE, 7(5). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038160 This link between memory and the gyrus extends to retrieval fluency in children, as well. Studies have shown elevated signals in the lingual gyrus when subjects were tasked with retrieval of facts while problem solving.

The granule cells are tightly packed in the granular cell layer of the dentate gyrus.

Singer, Tania. "ARE YOU EGOCENTRIC? CHECK YOUR RIGHT SUPRAMARGINAL GYRUS." Degreed, 28 May 2014. Web.

Unilateral activation of the amygdala due to fearful stimuli may also produce unilateral activation of other regions. The right middle temporal gyrus, right brainstem, left hippocampus, right cerebellum, right fuisform gyrus, and left lingual gyrus were also activated during fearful stimuli. Activation of multiple brain regions both indicates that emotions are processed in many parts of the brain and that emotions are complex. The amygdala probably plays a role in the conscious processing of emotion.

This region is believed to play an important role in vision and dreaming. Visual memory dysfunction and visuo-limbic disconnection have been shown in cases where the lingual gyrus has been damaged (due to stroke or other traumatic brain injuries). Further, impaired visual memory is related to either damage to the region or disconnections between the gyrus and other brain structures. Hypermetabolism in the lingual gyrus has been associated with visual snow syndrome.

The right superior temporal gyrus was the most significantly activated area during the processing happiness. The right superior temporal gyrus increasingly responds to an increasingly happy stimuli, while the left pulvinar increasingly responds to increasingly fearful stimuli. The right pulvinar is activated during aversive conditioning.

Basic circuit of the hippocampus, shown using a modified drawing by Ramon y Cajal. DG: dentate gyrus. Sub: subiculum. EC: entorhinal cortex Starting at the dentate gyrus and working inward along the S-curve of the hippocampus means traversing a series of narrow zones.

The cingulate gyrus commences below the rostrum of the corpus callosum, curves around in front of the genu, extends along the upper surface of the body, and finally turns downward behind the splenium, where it is connected by a narrow isthmus with the parahippocampal gyrus.

It is believed that portions of the left hemisphere fusiform gyrus are used in word recognition.

The third order neurons in the thalamus ascend to the sensory cortex of the postcentral gyrus.

Brownsett and Wise highlight the role of the left angular gyrus in both speaking and writing.

Neonatal hypothyroidism also reduces the number of dentate gyrus granule cells and impairs their dendritic arborization.

There was also activation found in the bilateral middle occipital gyri, precuneus, and left temporal gyrus for learned characters than novel characters. Overall, the results reveal that greater activation was detected in the bilateral lobules, bilateral middle occipital gyri, bilateral fusiform gyri, and left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus for Chinese characters than for analyzing English words. However, greater activation was found in the ventral left inferior frontal gyrus and left superior posterior temporal gyrus for analyzing English words rather than Chinese characters. This suggests that English speakers are able to account for specific features of the visual form shown for Chinese characters and mapping from visual form to pronunciation and meaning.

A larger body of research exists around neuroscientific studies with children diagnosed with a specific language impairment (SLI). fMRI studies have shown that children with SLI have a significantly smaller left hemispheric pars triangularis (Broca's area) and asymmetry of dominance of language structures, as opposed to the more typical left hemisphere dominance. Scientists are beginning to elucidate differences in activation patterns in children with SLIs using neuroimaging techniques to capture brain activity while performing different cognitive tasks. A major observation is lack of left hemisphere lateralization in major language structures such as the inferior frontal gyrus-opercularis, inferior frontal gyrus-triangularis, supramarginal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus.

Situations that contradict moral teachings generally produce negative emotions. Watching people behave badly by breaking moral codes most significantly activates the right parahippocampal gyrus, the right medial frontal gyrus, and left amygdala.Carla, L.H., and S. Hamann. Neural correlates of regulating negative emotions related to moral violations. NeuroImage.

Some evidence seen in the mouse suggests that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus increases in response to aerobic exercise. Several experiments have shown neurogenesis (the development of nerve tissues) often increases in the dentate gyrus of adult rodents when they are exposed to an enriched environment.

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(9), 1849-1866. Furthermore, the gyrus is potentially linked to the amygdala. Gyrus activation was observed when subjects were tasked with verbalizing high-emotion words in contrast to neutral-emotion words.Isenberg, N., Silbersweig, D., Engelien, A., Emmerich, S., Malavade, K., Beattie, B., . . .

When listening to semantic jokes, the left posterior middle temporal gyrus was again activated, as were the left posterior inferior temporal gyrus, the right posterior middle temporal gyrus, and the cerebellum. Brain activity in the medial ventral prefrontal cortex was associated with ratings of funniness that the participants gave after the brain scan and initial humor response. This response may stem from the mood or emotional change that occurs after hearing humor.Goel, V., & Dolan, R. (2001).

CA4 is often called the hilus or hilar region if considered as a part of the dentate gyrus. Unlike the pyramidal neurons in CA1 and CA3, the neurons here include mossy cells that primarily receive inputs from the granule cells in the dentate gyrus in the form of mossy fibers. They also receive a small number of connections from pyramidal cells in CA3. They, in turn, project back into the dentate gyrus at distant septotemporal levels.

For instance, there are studies that suggested it evokes activation at the lateral end of Heschl's gyrus.

The FPN is primarily composed of the rostral lateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (especially the middle frontal gyrus) and the anterior inferior parietal lobule. Additional regions include the middle cingulate gyrus and potentially the dorsal precuneus, posterior inferior temporal lobe, dorsomedial thalamus and the head of the caudate nucleus.

Bilateral cingulotomy targets the anterior cingulate cortex, which is a part of the limbic system. This system is responsible for the integration of feelings and emotion in the human cortex. It consists of the cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, amygdala and the hippocampal formation.Kandel E., Schwartz J., Jessel T., .. (2000).

The anterior cingulate is connected to the posterior cingulate at least in rabbits. Posterior cingulate gyrus is connected with retrosplenial cortex and this connection is part of the dorsal splenium of the corpus callosum. The anterior and posterior cingulate gyrus and retrosplenial cortex send projections to subiculum and presubiculum.

Nonprimary motor cortex is a functionally defined portion of the frontal lobe. It includes two subdivisions, the premotor cortex and the supplementary motor cortex. Largely coincident with the cytoarchitecturally defined area 6 of Brodmann (human), it is located primarily in the rostral portion of the precentral gyrus and caudal portions of the superior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus, It aids in cerebral control of movement. Anatomically speaking, several nonmprimary areas exist, and make direct connections with the spinal cord.

Studies during acute experiences of hallucinations demonstrate increased activity in primary or secondary sensory cortices. As auditory hallucinations are most common in psychosis, most robust evidence exists for increased activity in the left middle temporal gyrus, left superior temporal gyrus, and left inferior frontal gyrus (i.e. Broca's area). Activity in the ventral striatum, hippocampus, and ACC are related to the lucidity of hallucinations, and indicate that activation or involvement of emotional circuitry are key to the impact of abnormal activity in sensory cortices.

Ultimately, the SuM will modulate the granule cell outputs causing it to influence the dentate gyrus information processing.

The pars opercularis acts indirectly through the motor cortex to control the motor aspect of speech production, and codes motor programs for this system, while the auditory cortex (via the temporoparietal junction in the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure) houses a series of sensory targets. Together, these areas function as a sensory-motor loop for syllable information coding. In a study conducted comparing phonological and arithmetic processing and the involvement of different sections of the inferior frontal gyrus and angular gyrus, cortical activation for phonology, subtraction, and multiplication tasks was compared. The predetermined language-calculation network was limited to the left inferior frontal gyrus, angular gyrus, superior parietal lobule, and the horizontal portion of the intraparietal sulcus.

The auditory ventral stream (AVS) connects the auditory cortex with the middle temporal gyrus and temporal pole, which in turn connects with the inferior frontal gyrus. This pathway is responsible for sound recognition, and is accordingly known as the auditory 'what' pathway. The functions of the AVS include the following.

In contrast, larger volumes were found in some of the same areas including medial/anterior frontal, parietal and temporal cortex, cerebellum, middle temporal gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, and fusiform gyrus, as well as larger lateral ventricles on average. The cause of these inconsistencies are unknown. Additionally, reductions in cortical surface area/cortical thickness were found in the temporal lobes bilaterally and in left frontal and parietal areas. Thicker cortex was found bilaterally in the medial inferior and anterior parts of the frontal lobes and in the occipital lobes.

SLF III is the ventral component and originates in the supramarginal gyrus (rostral portion of the inferior parietal lobe) and terminates in the ventral premotor and prefrontal cortex (Brodmann 6, 44, and 46). SLF III connects the rostral inferior parietal cortex which receives information from the ventral precentral gyrus. This suggests that the SLF III transfers somatosensory information, such as language articulation, between the ventral premotor cortex, Brodmann 44 (pars opercularis), the supramarginal gyrus (Brodmann 40), and the laterial inferior prefrontal cortex working memory (Brodmann 46).

There is a type of giant pyramidal cell called Betz cells and are found just below the surface of the cerebral cortex within layer V of the primary motor cortex. The cell bodies of Betz cell neurons are the largest in the brain, approaching nearly 0.1mm in diameter. The primary motor cortex, or precentral gyrus, is one of the most important areas in the frontal lobe. The precentral gyrus is the most posterior gyrus of the frontal lobe and it lies anterior to the central sulcus.

Geschwind proposed that written word is translated to internal monologue via the angular gyrus. V. S. Ramachandran, and Edward Hubbard published a paper in 2003 in which they speculated that the angular gyrus is at least partially responsible for understanding metaphors. They stated: > There may be neurological disorders that disturb metaphor and synaesthesia. > This has not been studied in detail but we have seen disturbances in the > Bouba/Kiki effect (Ramachandran & Hubbard, 2001a) as well as with proverbs > in patients with angular gyrus lesions.

FCMS is primarily originates from damages in the posterior region of the inferior frontal gyrus and inferior region of the precentral gyrus. Anatomically, the word operculum is defined as the cortices encompassing the insula, which includes the pre and post-central, inferior-frontal, supramarginal, angular inferior parietal, and superior temporal convolutions. Parts of the brain such as Heschl's gyrus, Broadmann's area, Broca's Area, Wernicke's Area are amongst the most relevant in the operculum. These areas are responsible for auditory functions for language and speech.

Idiom comprehension: A prefrontal task? Cerebral Cortex, 18, 162-170. In addition, the right superior and middle temporal gyri, the right temporal pole, and the right inferior frontal gyrus were activated as well. In contrast, the left inferior parietal lobe and the right supramarginal gyrus were activated when literal sentences were presented.

This shows that the lingual gyrus is active during visual processing. The inferior occipital gyrus has been found to be related to the visual function of processing faces. The IOG is connected to the amygdala via white matter connectivity. This allows the IOG to form a network for facial recognition with the amygdala.

Activation of the lingual gyrus has been shown in selective visual attention studies. Subjects were tasked with memorizing symbols in certain visual fields while ignoring those in others. In some subjects, the lingual gyrus was activated. The hemispheric activation of the structure was dependent on which visual field the subject was focused on.

For those with dyslexia, it has been seen that the fusiform gyrus is underactivated and has reduced gray matter density.

546 The inferior frontal gyrus is the location of Broca's area, which is involved in language processing and speech production.

Nevertheless, Broca's area in the left hemisphere and its homologue in the right hemisphere are designations usually used to refer to the triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus (PTr) and the opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus (POp). The PTr and POp are defined by structural landmarks that only probabilistically divide the inferior frontal gyrus into anterior and posterior cytoarchitectonic areas of 45 and 44, respectively, by Brodmann's classification scheme. Area 45 receives more afferent connections from the prefrontal cortex, the superior temporal gyrus, and the superior temporal sulcus, compared to area 44, which tends to receive more afferent connections from motor, somatosensory, and inferior parietal regions. The differences between area 45 and 44 in cytoarchitecture and in connectivity suggest that these areas might perform different functions.

Damage to the inferior parietal region including the anterior (supramarginal gyrus) and posterior (angular gyrus) regions resulted in reduced SCR. Damage to the right hemisphere in these regions resulted in a significant (p < 0.001) decrease in SCR while the damage to the left hemisphere of these regions did not (p > 0.05).Lane, p. 192-195.

In the human this area is called ectosplenial area 26. It is a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the retrosplenial region of the cerebral cortex. It is a narrow band located in the isthmus of cingulate gyrus adjacent to the fasciolar gyrus internally. It is bounded externally by the granular retrolimbic area 29 (Brodmann-1909).

Brodmann area 46, or BA46, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. It is between BA10 and BA45. BA46 is known as middle frontal area 46. In the human brain it occupies approximately the middle third of the middle frontal gyrus and the most rostral portion of the inferior frontal gyrus.

Most lateral views of the dentate gyrus may appear to suggest a structure consisting of just one entity, but medial movement may provide evidence of the ventral and dorsal parts of the dentate gyrus. The axons of the granule cells called mossy fibres, make excitatory synaptic connections with the pyramidal cells of CA3 and CA1.

One study suggested that areas of the prefrontal cortex are part of a network of regions including dorsal and pregenual cingulate, bilateral middle frontal gyrus, insula and superior temporal gyrus that appear to be hypoactive in people with MDD. However the authors cautioned that the exclusion criteria, lack of consistency and small samples limit results.

For passive viewing, there was greater activation for Chinese characters than for English words. The activation was found in the left inferior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, bilateral precuneus, bilateral superior parietal lobules, bilateral middle occipital gyri, and bilateral fusiform gyri. Perfetti also found greater activation for viewing English words than for viewing Chinese characters which was detected in the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus and bilateral superior temporal gyri. The results indicated that passive viewing impacted differences in language and general effects of learning, but none for specific effects of the training condition.

Key areas of the brain are used in both music processing and language processing, such as Brocas area that is devoted to language production and comprehension. Patients with lesions, or damage, in the Brocas area often exhibit poor grammar, slow speech production and poor sentence comprehension. The inferior frontal gyrus, is a gyrus of the frontal lobe that is involved in timing events and reading comprehension, particularly for the comprehension of verbs. The Wernickes area is located on the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus and is important for understanding vocabulary and written language.

Activation of BA 40, the superior parietal lobe, the lateral left MRG, the striatum, and left thalamus was unique to truth while activation of the precuneus, posterior cingulate gyrus, prefrontal cortex, and cerebellum will be used to show a similar network for truth and lie. The most brain activity occurs in both sides of the prefrontal cortex, which is linked to response inhibition. This indicates that deception may involve inhibition of truthful responses. Overall bilateral activation occurs in deception in the middle frontal gyrus, Parahippocampal gyrus, the precuneus, and the cerebellum.

The Fusiform Face area is an area typically unilaterally, much like the language areas, and localized on the right fusiform gyrus. However, this brain region has been found to be more bilateral in left-handers; that is the left fusiform gyrus responds more to faces in left-handers than in right-handers. However the occipital face area shows no such correlation, and so handedness is thought to impact face processing on a level in the hierarchy which does not involve the occipital face area, however does include the fusiform gyrus.

The right angular gyrus has been associated with spatiovisual attention toward salient features. It may allocate attention by employing a bottom-up strategy which draws on the area's ability to attend to retrieved memories. For example, the angular gyrus plays a critical role in distinguishing left from right, by integrating conceptual understanding of the language term "left" or "right" with its location in space. Furthermore, the angular gyrus has been associated with orienting in three dimensional space, not because it interprets space, but because it may control attention shifts in space.

Stress causes alterations of cerebral circulation, increasing blood flow in the supramarginal gyrus and angular gyrus of the parietal lobe, the frontal lobe, and the superior temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere. Also, an increase in cardiac activity and change in the tonus of the heart vessels occurs, which is an elementary indication of stress development. In patients with normal stress, an adaptive fight-or-flight response is usually triggered by sympathetic nervous system activation. Hypokinesia patients experience these typical stress symptoms on a regular basis because of damage to the basal ganglia system.

An ALE meta analysis of various functional neuroimaging paradigms observed various abnormalities during Go/no go, interference, and task switching paradigms. Decreased likelihood of activation in right putamen and cerebellum was reported during Go/no go. During interference tasks, likelihood of activation was reported in the left superior frontal gyrus, right precentral gyrus, and left cingulate gyrus, to be decreased, and in the right caudate to be increased. Task switching was associated with extensive decreased likelihood of activation in the middle, medial, inferior, superior frontal gyri, caudate, cingulate and precuneus.

The inferior or orbital surface of the frontal lobe is concave, and rests on the orbital plate of the frontal bone. It is divided into four orbital gyri by a well-marked H-shaped orbital sulcus. These are named, from their position, the medial, anterior, lateral, and posterior, orbital gyri. The medial orbital gyrus presents a well-marked antero-posterior sulcus, the olfactory sulcus, for the olfactory tract; the portion medial to this is named the straight gyrus, and is continuous with the superior frontal gyrus on the medial surface.

The dorsal region of the anterior cingulate gyrus is associated with rational thought processes, most notably active during the Stroop task.

BA10 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex. It occupies the most rostral portions of the superior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus. In humans, on the medial aspect of the hemisphere it is bounded ventrally by the superior rostral sulcus. It does not extend as far as the cingulate sulcus.

The first section of the dual stream model is the ventral pathway. This pathway incorporates middle temporal gyrus, inferior temporal sulcus and perhaps the inferior temporal gyrus. The ventral pathway shows phonological representations to the lexical or conceptual representations, which is the meaning of the words. The second section of the dual stream model is the dorsal pathway.

Brodmann area 39, or BA39, is part of the parietal cortex in the human brain. BA39 encompasses the angular gyrus, lying near to the junction of temporal, occipital and parietal lobes. This area is also known as angular area 39 (H). It corresponds to the angular gyrus surrounding the caudal tip of the superior temporal sulcus.

Antisocial behavior may be related to head trauma. Antisocial behavior is associated with decreased grey matter in the right lentiform nucleus, left insula, and frontopolar cortex. Increased volumes have been observed in the right fusiform gyrus, inferior parietal cortex, right cingulate gyrus, and post central cortex. People that exhibit antisocial behavior demonstrate decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex.

Part of the difficulty in remembering culturally unfamiliar music may arise from the use of different neural processes when listening to familiar and unfamiliar music. For instance, brain areas involved in attention, including the right angular gyrus and middle frontal gyrus, show increased activity when listening to culturally unfamiliar music compared to novel but culturally familiar music.

The lingual gyrus, also known as the medial occipitotemporal gyrus, is a brain structure that is linked to processing vision, especially related to letters. It is thought to also play a role in analysis of logical conditions (i.e., logical order of events) and encoding visual memories. It is named after its shape, which is somewhat similar to a tongue.

Specifically, different patterns appear in the superior frontal sulcus, Sylvian fissure, inferior frontal gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, and olfactory sulci. These areas relate to working memory, emotional processing, language, and eye gaze, and their difference in location and level of gyrification when compared to a neurotypical human brain could explain some altered behaviors in autistic patients.

This suggests that Thy-1 KO mice have excessive GABAergic inhibition in the dentate gyrus and regional inhibition of long-term potentiation.

The medial orbital gyrus presents a well-marked antero-posterior sulcus, the olfactory sulcus. Its depth is an indicator of congenital anosmia.

The superior frontal gyrus makes up about a third of the frontal lobe. It is bounded laterally by the superior frontal sulcus.

Age-related memory loss is believed to originate in the dentate gyrus, whereas Alzheimer's is believed to originate in the entorhinal cortex.

This is thought to happen because matching environments activates areas of the brain known as the left inferior frontal gyrus and the hippocampus.

Photograph of hippocampal regions in a rat brain. DG: Dentate gyrus. Schematic showing regions of the hippocampus proper in relation to other structures.

Research suggests the existence of two multisensory routes for "what" and "where". The "what" route identifying the identity of things involving area Brodmann area 9 in the right inferior frontal gyrus and right middle frontal gyrus, Brodmann area 13 and Brodmann area 45 in the right insula-inferior frontal gyrus area, and Brodmann area 13 bilaterally in the insula. The "where" route detecting their spatial attributes involving the Brodmann area 40 in the right and left inferior parietal lobule and the Brodmann area 7 in the right precuneus-superior parietal lobule and Brodmann area 7 in the left superior parietal lobule.

He was the first to describe the sulcus sagittalis gyri fusiformis (today: mid- fusiform sulcus), and correctly determined that a sulcus divides the fusiform gyrus into lateral and medial partitions. W. Julius Mickle mentioned the mid- fusiform sulcus in 1897 and attempted to clarify the relation between temporal sulci and the fusiform gyrus, calling it the “intra-gyral sulcus of the fusiform lobule”.

The emotional processing effects observed in the fusiform gyrus are decreased in patients with amygdala lesions. This demonstrates possible connections between the amygdala and facial processing areas. Another aspect that affects both the fusiform gyrus and the amygdala activation is the familiarity of faces. Having multiple regions that can be activated by similar face components indicates that facial processing is a complex process.

Moreover, speech is the mechanism in which language is orally expressed. Language Areas of the brain. The Angular Gyrus is represented in orange, Supramarginal Gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area is represented in blue, Wernicke's area is represented in green and the Primary Auditory Cortex is represented in pink. Information is exchanged in a larger system including language-related regions.

The uncus is an anterior extremity of the parahippocampal gyrus. It is separated from the apex of the temporal lobe by a slight fissure called the incisura temporalis. Although superficially continuous with the hippocampal gyrus, the uncus forms morphologically a part of the rhinencephalon. An important landmark that crosses the inferior surface of the uncus is the band of Giacomini.

Recent experiments have demonstrated the possibility that stimulation of the right angular gyrus is the cause of out-of-body experiences.Out-of-Body Experience? Your Brain Is to Blame - New York Times Stimulation of the left angular gyrus in one experiment caused a woman to perceive a shadowy person lurking behind her. The shadowy figure is actually a perceived double of the self.

The term hippocampal formation is used to refer to the hippocampus proper and its related parts. However, there is no consensus as to what parts are included. Sometimes the hippocampus is said to include the dentate gyrus and the subiculum. Some references include the dentate gyrus and the subiculum in the hippocampal formation, and others also include the presubiculum, parasubiculum, and entorhinal cortex.

The subcallosal gyrus (paraterminal gyrus, peduncle of the corpus callosum) is a narrow lamina on the medial surface of the hemisphere in front of the lamina terminalis, behind the parolfactory area, and below the rostrum of the corpus callosum. It is continuous around the genu of the corpus callosum with the indusium griseum. It's also considered a part of limbic system of brain.

Hallucinations are associated with structural and functional abnormalities in primary and secondary sensory cortices. Reduced grey matter in regions of the superior temporal gyrus/middle temporal gyrus, including Broca's area, is associated with auditory hallucinations as a trait, while acute hallucinations are associated with increased activity in the same regions along with the hippocampus, parahippocampus, and the right hemispheric homologue of Broca's area in the inferior frontal gyrus. Grey and white matter abnormalities in visual regions are associated with visual hallucinations in diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, further supporting the notion of dysfunction in sensory regions underlying hallucinations. One proposed model of hallucinations posits that overactivity in sensory regions, which is normally attributed to internal sources via feedforward networks to the inferior frontal gyrus, is interpreted as originating externally due to abnormal connectivity or functionality of the feedforward network.

In neuroanatomy, the cingulum is a nerve tract – a collection of axons – projecting from the cingulate gyrus to the entorhinal cortex in the brain, allowing for communication between components of the limbic system. It forms the white matter core of the cingulate gyrus, following it from the subcallosal gyrus of the frontal lobe beneath the rostrum of corpus callosum to the parahippocampal gyrus and uncus of the temporal lobe.J. Edward Bruni, Donald Montemurro, Human Neuroanatomy: A Text, Brain Atlas and Laboratory Dissection Guide, Oxford University Press, 2009 Neurons of the cingulum receive afferent fibers from the parts of the thalamus that are associated with the spinothalamic tract. This, in addition to the fact that the cingulum is a central structure in learning to correct mistakes, indicates that the cingulum is involved in appraisal of pain and reinforcement of behavior that reduces it.

Lesions of the precentral gyrus result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body (facial palsy, arm-/leg monoparesis, hemiparesis) - see upper motor neuron.

This study shows that temporal lobe areas anterior to V4, which includes the inferior temporal gyrus, play a large role in patients with Cerebral Achromatopsia.

The prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in mediating executive functions. Planning involves activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate cortex, angular prefrontal cortex, right prefrontal cortex, and supramarginal gyrus. Working memory manipulation involves the DLPFC, inferior frontal gyrus, and areas of the parietal cortex. Inhibitory control involves multiple areas of the prefrontal cortex, as well as the caudate nucleus and subthalamic nucleus.

The effects of listening comprehension of various genres of literature on response in the linguistic area: An fMRI study. NeuroReport, 11, 1141-3. Another study using fMRI showed that the linguistic basis of jokes participants found to be humorous impacted which parts of the brain were activated. In response to puns, the left posterior middle temporal gyrus and the left inferior frontal gyrus were activated.

The right hemisphere fusiform gyrus is more often involved in familiar face recognition than the left. It remains unclear whether the fusiform gyrus is only specific for the recognition of human faces or if it is also involved in highly trained visual stimuli. Acquired prosopagnosia results from occipito-temporal lobe damage and is most often found in adults. This is further subdivided into apperceptive and associative prosopagnosia.

Differences in regional brain volume related to the extraversion–introversion dimension—a voxel based morphometry study. Neuroscience research, 72(1), 59–67. Task- related functional neuroimaging has shown that extraversion is associated with increased activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus, prefrontal cortex, middle temporal gyrus, and the amygdala. Extraversion has also been linked to physiological factors such as respiration, through its association with surgency.

When information enters via the perforant path, the dentate gyrus separates very similar information into distinct and unique details. This ensures that new memories are encoded separately without input from previously stored memories of similar feature, and prepares the relevant data for storage in the CA3 region. Pattern separation gives the ability to differentiate one memory from other stored memories. Pattern separation begins in the dentate gyrus.

Additional research has suggested that the right parahippocampal gyrus in particular has functions beyond the contextualizing of visual background. Tests by a California-based group led by Katherine P. Rankin indicate that the lobe may play a crucial role in identifying social context as well, including paralinguistic elements of verbal communication. For example, Rankin's research suggests that the right parahippocampal gyrus enables people to detect sarcasm.

The FBA shares overlapping structures with the FFA, both are located in Brodmann area 37, specifically a part of the occipital lobe and temporal lobe known as the fusiform gyrus. The FBA is located on the ventral surface of the brain, on the lateral posterior surface of the fusiform gyrus. Typically activation in the right hemisphere is larger, which suggests a degree of lateralization.

Sakai et al. used fMRI to observe whether activation of the fusiform gyrus correlated with the perception of colour and the after image. The subjects in the Sakai study were placed in the fMRI machine and were subsequently subjected to various visual stimuli. A series of three images were shown to subjects while fMRI was used to focus on the haemodynamics of the fusiform gyrus.

Language Areas of the human brain. The angular gyrus is represented in orange, supramarginal gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area is represented in blue, Wernicke's area is represented in green and the primary auditory cortex is represented in pink. The term modality means the chosen representational format for encoding and transmitting information. A striking feature of language is that it is modality-independent.

One of the first and most prominent sulci is the lateral sulcus (also known as the lateral fissure or Sylvian fissure), followed by others such as the central sulcus, which separates the motor cortex (precentral gyrus) from somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus). Most cortical gyri and sulci begin to take shape between weeks 24 and 38 of gestation, and continue to enlarge and mature after birth.

The subparietal sulcus (Sulcus subparietalis) or suprasplenial sulcus is a sulcus, or crevice, on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere, above the splenium of the corpus callosum. It separates the precuneus from the posterior part of the cingulate gyrus. It is the posterior continuation of the cingulate sulcus. The cingulate sulcus actually "terminates" as the marginal sulcus of the cingulate sulcus (margin of cingulate gyrus).

Human brains have the ability to detect ambiguous images displayed upon the Moon due to the brain's structure. On the left hemisphere of the human brain, the fusiform gyrus (an area linked to recognition), detects the accuracy of how “facelike” an object is. The right fusiform gyrus then uses information from the left fusiform gyrus to conclude whether or not the image is a face. The gyrus's inherent ability to detect faces and patterns in organisms and nature has also led to a phenomenon called Pareidolia, in which the brain detects and recognises faces and patterns in collections of objects where there should be none.

The occipital complex is primarily responsible for object recognition, including the functional properties and our perception of said objects. The middle occipital gyrus (MOG) was observed in a study of the early blind, which showed that it was activated more during spatial than nonspatial tactile and auditory tasks. Early blind people have an occipital cortex that is incorporates more senses than people with standard vision, but the MOG still keeps its functional role in processing space around a person. The lingual gyrus (also known as medial occipitotemporal gyrus) has been studied and found to be included in processing overall shapes, rather than the individual components that make up a shape.

The auditors also took issue with the accounting treatment of the preference shares. In its audit letter to Gyrus Group dated 26 April 2010, KPMG considered that there were "circumstances connected with our ceasing to hold office that should be brought to the attention of the company's members or creditors." Ernst & Young, the firm that succeeded KPMG, also expressed reservations about the 2010 Gyrus accounts for uncertainty, due to the lack of information about Axam. Bloomberg noted that both Gyrus annual reports were filed late: instead of filing within the nine- month statutory limit, the accounts were filed more than a year from the company's year end.

Cross-activation between the angular and fusiform gyri has been observed in the average brain, implying that the fusiform gyrus regularly communicates with the visual pathway.

Studies by researchers at Columbia University Medical Center indicate that poor glucose control can lead to deleterious effects on the dentate gyrus, resulting in memory decline.

The angular gyrus is part of the default mode network, a network of brain regions activated during multi-modal activities that are independent of external stimuli.

Paleocortex is present in the parahippocampal gyrus, olfactory bulb, accessory olfactory bulb, olfactory tubercle, piriform cortex, periamygdalar area, anterior olfactory nucleus, anterior perforated substance, and prepyriform area.

The lateral olfactory stria is directed across the lateral part of the anterior perforated substance and then bends abruptly medially toward the uncus of the parahippocampal gyrus.

Human right cerebral hemisphere. Lateral view (left) and medial view (right). In both images, inferior temporal gyrus labeled at bottom. The areas colored green represent temporal lobe.

The frontal lobe contains the precentral gyrus and prefrontal cortex and, by some conventions, the orbitofrontal cortex. These three areas are represented in both the left and the right cerebral hemispheres. The precentral gyrus or primary motor cortex is concerned with the planning, initiation and control of fine motor movements dorsolateral to each hemisphere. The dorsolateral part of the frontal lobe is concerned with planning, strategy formation, and other executive functions.

Prefrontal cortex (PFC) is suggested to be important for idiom comprehension. It may play a role in selecting the appropriate interpretation and suppressing the incorrect ones when an idiomatic expression is encountered. Research using fMRI indicated that the left temporal cortex, left superior medial frontal gyrus, and left inferior frontal gyrus were activated when idiomatic phrases were presented.Lauro, L. J. R., Tettamanti, M., Cappa, S. F., & Papagno, C. (2008).

Damage to the right inferior frontal gyrus causes a diminished ability to convey emotion or emphasis by voice or gesture, and damage to right superior temporal gyrus causes problems comprehending emotion or emphasis in the voice or gestures of others. The right Brodmann area 22 aids in the interpretation of prosody, and damage causes sensory aprosodia, with the patient unable to comprehend changes in voice and body language.

The entorhinal cortex (EC) is a major part of the hippocampal formation of the brain, and is reciprocally connected with the hippocampus. The hippocampal formation, which consists of the hippocampus, perirhinal cortex, the dentate gyrus, the subicular areas and the EC forms one of the most important parts of the limbic system. The entorhinal cortex is an infolding of the parahippocampal gyrus into the inferior (temporal) horn of the lateral ventricle.

The dentate gyrus (DG) is the innermost section of the hippocampal formation. The dentate gyrus consists of three layers: molecular, granular, and polymorphic. Granule neurons, which are the most prominent type of DG cells, are mainly found in the granular layer. These granule cells are the major source of input of the hippocampal formation, receiving most of their information from layer II of the entorhinal cortex, via the perforant pathway.

The superior temporal sulcus (STS) is the sulcus separating the superior temporal gyrus from the middle temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe of the brain. The superior temporal sulcus is the first sulcus inferior to the lateral fissure. Studies reveal multisensory processing capabilities. Research has documented activation in the STS as a result of five specific social inputs, and thus the STS is assumed to be implicated in social perception.

The Simpsons "Bart the General" and Seinfeld's "The Tape" were used in a Dartmouth College experiment to study brain activity in relation to humorous moments in television shows. The results were published in a 2004 issue of the academic journal Neurolmage. The researchers noted, "During moments of humor detection, significant [brain] activation was noted in the left posterior middle temporal gyrus ... and left inferior frontal gyrus."Quoted in Keay Davidson.

It is located primarily in the caudal portions of the fusiform gyrus and inferior temporal gyrus on the mediobasal and lateral surfaces at the caudal extreme of the temporal lobe. Cytoarchitecturally, it is bounded caudally by the peristriate Brodmann area 19, rostrally by the inferior temporal area 20 and middle temporal area 21, and dorsally on the lateral aspect of the hemisphere by the angular area 39 (H) (Brodmann-1909).

Brodmann area 38, also BA38 or temporopolar area 38 (H), is part of the temporal cortex in the human brain. BA 38 is at the anterior end of the temporal lobe, known as the temporal pole. BA38 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined temporal region of cerebral cortex. It is located primarily in the most rostral portions of the superior temporal gyrus and the middle temporal gyrus.

Males have a larger intra-hemispheric long-range interconnectivity than females, whereas females have larger inter-hemispheric connectivity. Males have larger left-hemispheric asymmetries than females in various brain areas, including the superior temporal gyrus, Heschl gyrus, deeper central sulcus, overall temporal and parietal, and inferior parietal lobule, thalamus and posterior cingulate. Although, few studies have found otherwise. There are also differences in the structure of specific areas of the brain.

The Schaffer collateral is located between the CA3 region and CA1 region in the hippocampus. Schaffer collaterals are the axons of pyramidal cells that connect two neurons (CA3 and CA1) and transfer information from CA3 to CA1. The entorhinal cortex sends the main input to the dentate gyrus (perforant pathway). From the granule cells of the dentate gyrus, connections are made to the CA3 regions of the hippocampus via mossy fibers.

50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. From the primary auditory cortex emerge two separate pathways: the auditory ventral stream and auditory dorsal stream. The auditory ventral stream includes the anterior superior temporal gyrus, anterior superior temporal sulcus, middle temporal gyrus and temporal pole. Neurons in these areas are responsible for sound recognition, and extraction of meaning from sentences.

Areas of the brain related to moral processing and their corresponding citation density The main brain regions that are involved in the regulation of moral cognition and behavior are those of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and amygdala. Less pronounced areas that are involved in moral regulation include the anterior cingulate gyrus, posterior cingulate gyrus, anterior insula, and the mesolimbic reward pathway.

Triangular part of the inferior frontal gyrus. Shown in red. A strong correlation has been found between speech-language and the anatomically asymmetric pars triangularis. Foundas, et al.

Adult NSCs differentiate into new neurons within the adult subventricular zone (SVZ), a remnant of the embryonic germinal neuroepithelium, as well as the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus.

In 1937, Wilder Penfield and Boldrey were able to show that stimulating the precentral gyrus elicited a response contralaterally; a significant finding given that it correlated to the anatomy based on which part of the brain was stimulated. In the early 1900s Charles Sherrington began to use monopolar stimulation in order to elicit a motor response. This technique allowed Sherrington to determine that the precentral gyrus (pre-Rolandic area) is a motor cortex and the postcentral gyrus (post-Rolandic area) is a sensory cortex. These findings, which were repeated by Harvey Cushing through the early 1900s, show that the Rolandic fissure is the point of separation between the motor and sensory cortices.

When dealing with involuntary word recognition tasks, activity in areas such as the left inferior frontal gyrus, left superior temporal gyrus, left hippocampus, and right superior occipital cortex have all been implicated. Yet, areas and structures that are uniquely associated with involuntary memory remain unclear and more research is needed to understand the cognitive and neurological basis of this memory phenomenon. The second study found that the medial temporal lobe, the posterior cingulate gyrus, and the precuneus, are activated during retrieval success with or without executive control seen within the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This implies that involuntary memories are successfully retrieved using the same system as voluntary memory when retrieving perceptual information.

Most notably, males have a larger amount of white matter in the frontal and temporal perisylvian region, and in the temporal stem and optic radiation, of the left hemisphere, whereas females have a larger amount of gray matter in the superior temporal gyrus, planum temporale, Heschl gyrus, cingulate gyrus, inferior frontal, and central sulci margins, of the left hemisphere. The degree of hemispheric asymmetry in males corresponds to the relative size of corpus callosum; however, this is not true in females. An increase in hemispheric asymmetry in male brains causes a male sex-dependent decrease in inter-hemispheric connectivity. Numerous studies suggest that, on average, female brains have more commissural tracts involved in inter-hemispheric connectivity than males.

The inferior temporal gyrus is one of three gyri of the temporal lobe and is located below the middle temporal gyrus, connected behind with the inferior occipital gyrus; it also extends around the infero-lateral border on to the inferior surface of the temporal lobe, where it is limited by the inferior sulcus. This region is one of the higher levels of the ventral stream of visual processing, associated with the representation of objects, places, faces, and colors . It may also be involved in face perception,Haxby indicates that a few studies have found face perception in the inferior temporal sulcus, with the majority of sites elsewhere in the brain: p.2, Haxby, et.al.

Differences in grey matter, white matter and structural connectivity have been observed in OCD. One meta-analysis reported grey matter increases in the bilateral lenticular nuclei, and grey matter decreases in the ACC (anterior cingulate cortex) and mPFC (medial prefrontal cortex). Another meta-analysis reported that global volumes are not decreased, but the left ACC and OFC demonstrate decreased volume, while the thalamus but not basal ganglia have increased volumes. An ALE meta analysis found increased grey matter in the left postcentral gyrus, middle frontal region, putamen, thalamus, left ACC, and culmen, while decreased grey matter was reported in the right temporal gyrus and left insula extending to the inferior frontal gyrus.

The authors also found a correlation (r=0.496, p=0.002) between activation of a region of the angular gyrus with a passionate-love scale measuring subjective feelings of love.

The lingual gyrus is a structure in the visual cortex that plays an important role in the identification and recognition of words.Mechelli. A.. Humphreys. G. W.. Mayall. K.. Olson.

Kobayashi et al. compared American-English monolingual and Japanese-English bilingual children's brain responses in understanding others' intentions through false-belief story and cartoon tasks. They found universal activation of the region bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex in theory of mind tasks. However, American children showed greater activity in the left inferior frontal gyrus during the tasks whereas Japanese children had greater activity in the right inferior frontal gyrus during the Japanese Theory of Mind tasks.

In mice, the projection to CA1, and the subiculum all come primarily from EC layer III. According to Suh et al. (2011 Science 334:1415) the projection to CA3 and dentate gyrus in mice is primarily from layer II of entorhinal cortex, and forms a trisynaptic path with hippocampus (dentate gyrus to CA3 to CA1), distinguished from the direct (monosynaptic) perforant path from Layer III of entorhinal cortex to CA1 and subiculum.

Brodmann area 44, or BA44, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. Situated just anterior to premotor cortex (BA6) and on the lateral surface, inferior to BA9. This area is also known as pars opercularis (of the inferior frontal gyrus), and it refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex. In the human it corresponds approximately to the opercular part of the inferior frontal gyrus.

The principal cell type of the dentate gyrus is the granule cell. The dentate gyrus granule cell has an elliptical cell body with a width of approximately 10 μm and a height of 18μm. The granule cell has a characteristic cone-shaped tree of spiny apical dendrites. The dendrite branches project throughout the entire molecular layer and the furthest tips of the dendritic tree end just at the hippocampal fissure or at the ventricular surface.

Pattern separation is the ability to differentiate one memory from other stored memories. Pattern separation begins in the dentate gyrus, a section of the hippocampus involved in memory formation and retrieval. Granule cells in the dentate gyrus process sensory information using competitive learning, and relay a preliminary representation to form place fields. Place fields are extremely specific, as they are capable of remapping and adjusting firing rates in response to subtle sensory signal changes.

Cytoarchitectonically defined subregions of rostral BA40/the supramarginal gyrus are PF, PFcm, PFm, PFop, and PFt. Area PF is the homologue to macaque area PF, part of the mirror neuron system, and active in humans during imitation. The supramarginal gyrus part of Brodmann area 40 is the region in the inferior parietal lobe that is involved in reading both as regards meaning and phonology.Stoeckel C, Gough PM, Watkins KE, Devlin JT. (2009).

View of left entorhinal cortex (red) from beneath the brain, with front of brain at top. Artist’s rendering. The superficial layers – layers II and III – of EC project to the dentate gyrus and hippocampus: Layer II projects primarily to dentate gyrus and hippocampal region CA3; layer III projects primarily to hippocampal region CA1 and the subiculum. These layers receive input from other cortical areas, especially associational, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices, as well as prefrontal cortex.

Wernicke's aphasia is associated with anomia, unknowingly making up words (neologisms), and problems with comprehension. The symptoms of Wernicke’s aphasia are caused by damage to the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus. Damage to the Broca’s area typically produces symptoms like omitting functional words (agrammatism), sound production changes, dyslexia, dysgraphia, and problems with comprehension and production. Broca’s aphasia is indicative of damage to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain.

Another meta analysis reported a similar increase volumes of the globus pallidus and lateral ventricles, as well as increased amygdala volume relative to people with schizophrenia. Reductions have also been reported in the right inferior frontal gyrus, insula, pars triangularis, pars opercularis, and middle and superior temporal gyrus. Structural neuroimaging in people who are susceptible to bipolar disorder (i.e., have a number of relatives with bipolar disorder) have produced few consistent results.

The auditory dorsal stream includes the posterior superior temporal gyrus and sulcus, inferior parietal lobule and intra-parietal sulcus. Both pathways project in humans to the inferior frontal gyrus. The most established role of the auditory dorsal stream in primates is sound localization. In humans, the auditory dorsal stream in the left hemisphere is also responsible for speech repetition and articulation, phonological long-term encoding of word names, and verbal working memory.

Brodmann area 25 (BA25) is the subgenual area, area subgenualis or subgenual cingulatea area in the cerebral cortex of the brain and delineated based on its cytoarchitectonic characteristics. It is the 25th "Brodmann area" defined by Korbinian Brodmann (thus its name). BA25 is located in the cingulate region as a narrow band in the caudal portion of the subcallosal area adjacent to the paraterminal gyrus. The posterior parolfactory sulcus separates the paraterminal gyrus from BA25.

The results were significant to support that there was a pattern of left lateralization for each of these tasks all activating the Perisylvian fissure network, with some general localized areas for phonology and arithmetic. It was supported that phonology activated the pars opercularis (BA44), and anterior angular gyrus, multiplication mainly implicated the pars triangularis (BA45), and the posterior angular gyrus. These systems are activated through similar neuronal processes but independently placed along the network.

Wernicke's aphasia is associated with anomia, unknowingly making up words (neologisms), and problems with comprehension. The symptoms of Wernicke’s aphasia are caused by damage to the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus. Damage to the Broca’s area typically produces symptoms like omitting functional words (agrammatism), sound production changes, dyslexia, dysgraphia, and problems with comprehension and production. Broca’s aphasia is indicative of damage to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain.

In more recent research, subcortical regions (those lying below the cerebral cortex such as the putamen and the caudate nucleus), as well as the pre-motor areas (BA 6), have received increased attention. It is now generally assumed that the following structures of the cerebral cortex near the primary and secondary auditory cortices play a fundamental role in speech processing: · Superior temporal gyrus (STG): morphosyntactic processing (anterior section), integration of syntactic and semantic information (posterior section) · Inferior frontal gyrus (IFG, Brodmann area (BA) 45/47): syntactic processing, working memory · Inferior frontal gyrus (IFG, BA 44): syntactic processing, working memory · Middle temporal gyrus (MTG): lexical semantic processing · Angular gyrus (AG): semantic processes (posterior temporal cortex) The left hemisphere is usually dominant in right-handed people, although bilateral activations are not uncommon in the area of syntactic processing. It is now accepted that the right hemisphere plays an important role in the processing of suprasegmental acoustic features like prosody; which is “the rhythmic and melodic variations in speech”. There are two types of prosodic information: emotional prosody (right hemisphere), which is the emotional that the speaker gives to the speech, and linguistic prosody (left hemisphere), the syntactic and thematic structure of the speech.

A potential mechanism of action is, that androstadienone alters the "emotional face processing". Androstadienone is known to influence the activity of the fusiform gyrus which is relevant for face recognition.

Splenium translates as bandage in Greek. The trunk of the corpus callosum lies between the splenium and the genu. The callosal sulcus separates the corpus callosum from the cingulate gyrus.

In 2006, Kapadia worked for Hilb, Rogal & Hobbs Co. (now Willis Group) as Chief Information Officer and Sourcing Officer. In 2009, Kapadia became the President and CEO of Gyrus System.

Broca's Area was first suggested to play a role in speech function by the French neurologist and anthropologist Paul Broca in 1861. The basis for this discovery was the analysis of speech problems resulting from injuries to this region of the brain, located in the inferior frontal gyrus. Paul Broca had a patient called Leborgne who could only pronounce the word “tan” when speaking. Paul Broca, after working with another patient with similar impairment, concluded that damage in the inferior frontal gyrus affected articulate language. Broca’s area is well-known for being the syntactic processing “center”. It has been known since Paul Broca associated speech production with an area in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus, which he called “Broca’s area”.

The first brain image of an individual with psychosis was completed as far back as 1935 using a technique called pneumoencephalography (a painful and now obsolete procedure where cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture). Both first episode psychosis, and high risk status is associated with reductions in grey matter volume (GMV). First episode psychotic and high risk populations are associated with similar but distinct abnormalities in GMV. Reductions in the right middle temporal gyrus, right superior temporal gyrus (STG), right parahippocampus, right hippocampus, right middle frontal gyrus, and left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) are observed in high risk populations.

In neuroscience, the sensorimotor network (SMN) is a large-scale brain network . The SMN includes somatosensory (post-central gyrus) and motor (pre-central gyrus) regions and extends to the supplementary motor areas. Studies have shown that this network is activated during motor tasks such as finger tapping indicating that these regions may involve a pre-mediated state that ready the brain when performing and coordinating a motor task. Dysfunction in the SMN has been implicated in various neuropsychiatric disorders.

When this area is damaged, the person experiences damage to the auditory-motor integration system. This results in disruption to the delayed auditory feedback network, causing the individual to have difficulty correcting themselves on speech repetition tasks. Additionally, recent evidence suggests that conduction aphasia can also be caused by lesions in the left superior temporal gyrus and/or the left supramarginal gyrus. Conduction aphasia can also be seen in cases of cortical damage without subcortical extensions.

Each hemisphere is divided into four main lobes – the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. Three other lobes are included by some sources which are a central lobe, a limbic lobe, and an insular lobe. The central lobe comprises the precentral gyrus and the postcentral gyrus and is included since it forms a distinct functional role. The brainstem, resembling a stalk, attaches to and leaves the cerebrum at the start of the midbrain area.

Progenitor cells in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus migrate to the nearby location and differentiate into granule cells. As a part of the limbic system, new neurons of the hippocampus maintain the function of controlling mood, learning and memory. In the dentate gyrus, putative stem cells, called type 1 cells, proliferate into type 2 and type 3 cells, which are transiently amplifying, lineage-determined progenitor cells. Type 1 cells in the hippocampus are multipotent in vitro.

Specifically, Brpf1 regulates placenta vascular formation, neural tube closure, primitive hematopoiesis and embryonic fibroblast proliferation. For the central nervous system, Brpf1 has high expression and is essential for the development of several important structures, including neocortex and dentate gyrus in the hippocampus. Brpf1 is dynamically expressed during forebrain development, especially the hippocampal neurogenesis. Brpf1 shares phenotypes with transcription factors Sox2, Tlx and Tbr2 in dentate gyrus development and has potential link to neural stem cells and progenitors.

The human primary motor cortex is located on the anterior wall of the central sulcus. It also extends anteriorly out of the sulcus partly onto the precentral gyrus. Anteriorly, the primary motor cortex is bordered by a set of areas that lie on the precentral gyrus and that are generally considered to compose the lateral premotor cortex. Posteriorly, the primary motor cortex is bordered by the primary somatosensory cortex, which lies on the posterior wall of the central sulcus.

Seven key brain tissues express LOC105377021 according to an Allen Brain Atlas probe. The temporal lobe, parietal lobe, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, and insula are five overarching regions of the seven brain tissues where expression was highlighted. The annotated figures below serve as fairly holistic representations of cranial expression in the context of LOC105377021. Light blue shaded regions posit more dense expression of LOC105377021, where as darker green and brighter red show less and least amounts of expression respectively.

The gyrus was added to the fort during its second period of occupation and its construction caused significant disruption to the fort. Having the gyrus within the fort affects not just the wall which curves to accommodate the structure deviating from the Roman playing card shape pattern but also the layout of the fort which is significantly different from the standard layout. This makes the fort unique not just in Britain but also in the Roman Empire.

The CA3 is a portion of the hippocampal formation adjacent to the dentate gyrus. Input is received from the granule cells of the dentate gyrus through the mossy fibres. The CA3 is rich in pyramidal neurons (like those found throughout the neocortex), which project mainly to the CA1 pyramidal neurons via the Schaffer collateral pathway. The CA3 pyramidal neurons have been analogized as the "pacemaker" of the trisynaptic loop in the generation of hippocampal theta rhythm.

Portraits activate the face area in the fusiform gyrus (FFA) and landscape paintings activate the place area in the parahippocampal gyrus (PPA). Beyond classifying visual elements, these sensory areas may also be involved in evaluating them. Beautiful faces activate the fusiform face and adjacent areas. The question of how much and what kind of valuation takes place in sensory cortices is an area of active inquiry. Looking at paintings that depict actions also engages parts of people’s motor systems.

Granule cells in the dentate gyrus process sensory information using competitive learning, and relay a preliminary representation to form place fields. Place fields are extremely specific, as they are capable of remapping and adjusting firing rates in response to subtle sensory signal changes. This specificity is critical for pattern separation, as it distinguishes memories from one another. The dentate gyrus shows a specific form of neural plasticity resulting from the ongoing integration of newly formed excitatory granule cells.

The supramarginal gyrus is part of the somatosensory association cortex, which interprets tactile sensory data and is involved in perception of space and limbs location. It is also involved in identifying postures and gestures of other people and is thus a part of the mirror neuron system.Carlson, N. R. (2012). Physiology of Behavior 11th Edition. Pearson. pp. 83; 268; 273-275 The right- hemisphere supramarginal gyrus appears to play a central role in controlling empathy towards other people.

It appears that genes are responsible for the decreased volume of gray matter in people with schizophrenia. Fujiwara et al. (2007) did an experiment in which they correlated the size of anterior cingulate gyrus in people with schizophrenia with their functioning on social cognition, psychopathology and emotions with control group. The smaller the size of anterior cingulate gyrus, the lower was the level of social functioning and the higher was the psychopathology in the people with schizophrenia.

Although the exact function of the supramammillary nucleus is still not clear, it is known that the SuM plays a role in modulating theta frequencies. Because of its role in modulating hippocampal theta, it is implicated in spatial and emotional memory formation.The axons of SuM neurons make monosynaptic connections to granule cells and GABAergic interneurons in the dentate gyrus. The SuM projects it's afferent signals exclusively to the dentate gyrus and CA2 region of the hippocampus.

Acalculia is associated with lesions of the parietal lobe (especially the angular gyrus) and the frontal lobe and can be an early sign of dementia. Acalculia is sometimes observed as a "pure" deficit, but is commonly observed as one of a constellation of symptoms, including agraphia, finger agnosia and right-left confusion, after damage to the left angular gyrus, known as Gerstmann's syndrome.Gerstmann, J. (1940). Syndrome of finger agnosia, disorientation for right and left, agraphia, acalculia.

The postcentral gyrus is a prominent gyrus in the lateral parietal lobe of the human brain. It is the location of the primary somatosensory cortex, the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch. Like other sensory areas, there is a map of sensory space in this location, called the sensory homunculus. The primary somatosensory cortex was initially defined from surface stimulation studies of Wilder Penfield, and parallel surface potential studies of Bard, Woolsey, and Marshall.

The medial olfactory stria turns medially behind the parolfactory area and ends in the subcallosal gyrus; in some cases a small intermediate stria is seen running backward to the anterior perforated substance.

These studies have shown that the P1 is associated with activation in the dorsal occipital areas (Woldorff et al., 1998) and the posterior fusiform gyrus (Mangun, Hopfinger, Kussmaul, Fletcher, and Heinze, 1997).

ATAT1 has an important role in the formation of the hippocampus, as it has been found that mice lacking ATAT1 possess a deficient tubulin acetylation and a bulge in the dentate gyrus.

Xiong, Z. Q. and F. L. Stringer (2000). "Sodium pump activity, not glial spatial buffering, clears potassium after epileptiform activity induced in the dentate gyrus." Journal of Neurophysiology 83(3): 1443-1451.

Moser, M-B. (1995). Field potential changes in the dentate gyrus during spatial learning in the rat. Thesis for the degree of Dr. Philos., University of Oslo (defended on 9 December 1995).

Dp140 is concentrated in the brain microvasculature while the Dp71 transcript is found throughout the brain but is particularly abundant in the dentate gyrus of the temporal lobe, and the olfactory bulb.

The rostral cingulate gyrus (Brodmanns's area 32) projects to the rostral superior temporal gyrus, midorbitofrontal cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex. The ventral anterior cingulate (Brodmann's area 24) sends projections to the anterior insular cortex, premotor cortex (Brodmann's area 6), Brodmann's area 8, the perirhinal area, the orbitofrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 12), the laterobasal nucleus of amygdala, and the rostral part of the inferior parietal lobule. Injecting wheat germ agglutinin and horseradish peroxidase conjugate into the anterior cingulate gyrus of cats, revealed that the anterior cingulate gyrus has reciprocal connections with the rostral part of the thalamic posterior lateral nucleus and rostral end of the pulvinar. The postsubiculum receives projections from the retrospleinal dysgranular cortex and the retrosplenial granular cortex A and B. The parasubiculum receives projections from the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex and retrosplenial granular cortex A. Caudal and lateral parts of the entorhinal cortex get projections from the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex, while the caudal medial entorhinal cortex receives projections from the retrosplenial granular cortex A. The retrosplenial dysgranular cortex sends projections to the perirhinal cortex.

Pyramidal cells of CA1 send their axons to the subiculum and deep layers of the EC. Subicular neurons send their axons mainly to the EC. The perforant path-to-dentate gyrus-to-CA3-to-CA1 was called the trisynaptic circuit by Per Andersen, who noted that thin slices could be cut out of the hippocampus perpendicular to its long axis, in a way that preserves all of these connections. This observation was the basis of his lamellar hypothesis, which proposed that the hippocampus can be thought of as a series of parallel strips, operating in a functionally independent way. The lamellar concept is still sometimes considered to be a useful organizing principle, but more recent data, showing extensive longitudinal connections within the hippocampal system, have required it to be substantially modified. Perforant path input from EC layer II enters the dentate gyrus and is relayed to region CA3 (and to mossy cells, located in the hilus of the dentate gyrus, which then send information to distant portions of the dentate gyrus where the cycle is repeated).

The regions of the diencephalon have shown brain activation when a remote memory is being recovered and the occipital lobe, ventral temporal lobe, and fusiform gyrus all play a role in memory formation.

In humans, connections of these regions with the middle temporal gyrus are probably important for speech perception. The frontotemporal system underlying auditory perception allows us to distinguish sounds as speech, music, or noise.

Unlike in response to the Movie questions, the Context questions for both groups revealed several overlapping networks of activity, including visual, sensory and perceptual regions, the cerebellum, the parietal lobes, the superior frontal gyrus, and the inferior frontal gyrus. The post-hypnotic amnesia group showed reduced memory for the contents of the movie but not for context of viewing. These results identify specific circuits within the brain that regulate the suppression of long-term memory retrieval during post-hypnotic suggestion.

Put forward by Cohen and colleagues (2000). The basics of this theory state that the neurons in the ventral occipital-temporal cortex (vOT) – which the posterior fusiform gyrus is a part of – have receptive fields that are sensitive to bigrams, or two letter combinations that commonly occur in words. The neurons sense and process the bigrams, to detect their legality. Here the posterior left fusiform gyrus (part of the vOT), is thought to be one station in a long line of processing areas.

In males, activation of brain areas that were induced by sexual infidelity laden statements included the visual cortex, middle temporal gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus, and claustrum. In females, the visual cortex, middle frontal gyrus, thalamus, and cerebellum were activated. It was found that males showed more stimulation in the amygdala in regards to sexual infidelity, while females showed greater activation in the visual cortex and thalamus. The regions in the male brain provided insight on neuroanatomy associated with sexual and aggressive behavior.

Evidence from neurophysiology studies with humans and monkeys also support face superiority. Neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies in humans shows the effects of holistic face recognition. In particular, when humans are shown normal upright faces, neuroimaging displays higher brain activity and response rates in the middle fusiform gyrus (MFG), and the inferior occipital gyrus (IOG) than when shown scrambledKanwisher N, McDermott J, Chun MM. The fusiform face area: a module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. Journal of Neuroscience. 1997;17:4302–4311.

Here, Penfield tried to induce this warning sign in an attempt to specifically pinpoint the source of epilepsy. Penfield confirmed the presence of a spatial map of the contralateral body of the brain. He noted the location of muscle contractions with the site of electro- stimulation on the surface of the motor cortex and subsequently mapped the motor representation of the pre-central gyrus. This follows the same trends and disproportions in the somatic sensory maps in the post central gyrus.

LTP was first observed by Terje Lømo in 1966 in the Oslo, Norway, laboratory of Per Andersen. There, Lømo conducted a series of neurophysiological experiments on anesthetized rabbits to explore the role of the hippocampus in short-term memory. Lømo's experiments focused on connections, or synapses, from the perforant pathway to the dentate gyrus. These experiments were carried out by stimulating presynaptic fibers of the perforant pathway and recording responses from a collection of postsynaptic cells of the dentate gyrus.

They found that the highest density of labeling was in the subventricular zone and in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. It was known that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus is essentially devoid of glia. Therefore, Altman attributed the labeling in this region to the uptake of thymidine by dentate granule cells. However, he could not prove that the adult-generated cells were neurons rather than glia, since no phenotypic markers were available that could be used in conjunction with thymidine autoradiography.

A meta-analysis of recent fMRI studies of empathy confirmed that different brain areas are activated during affective–perceptual empathy and cognitive–evaluative empathy. Also, a study with patients with different types of brain damage confirmed the distinction between emotional and cognitive empathy. Specifically, the inferior frontal gyrus appears to be responsible for emotional empathy, and the ventromedial prefrontal gyrus seems to mediate cognitive empathy. Research in recent years has focused on possible brain processes underlying the experience of empathy.

Right-hand-side AC is more sensitive to tonality, left-hand- side AC is more sensitive to minute sequential differences in sound. Rostromedial and ventrolateral prefrontal cortices are involved in activation during tonal space and storing short-term memories, respectively. The Heschl’s gyrus/transverse temporal gyrus includes Wernicke’s area and functionality, it is heavily involved in emotion-sound, emotion-facial-expression, and sound- memory processes. The entorhinal cortex is the part of the ‘hippocampus system’ that aids and stores visual and auditory memories.

In primates, the part of the hippocampus at the bottom, near the base of the temporal lobe, is much broader than the part at the top. This means that in cross-section the hippocampus can show a number of different shapes, depending on the angle and location of the cut. In a cross- section of the hippocampus, including the dentate gyrus, several layers will be shown. The dentate gyrus has three layers of cells (or four if the hilus is included).

Upon necropsy conducted by Benson et al., it was apparent that a discrete lesion in the right fusiform gyrus, a part of the inferior temporal gyrus, was one of the main causes of the subject’s symptoms. A more in depth observation can be seen with the example of patient L.H. in the study conducted by N.L. Etcoff and colleagues in 1991. This 40-year-old man was involved in an automobile accident when he was 18, which resulted in severe brain injury.

No previous work had been able to study the roles of newborn and mature cells in the dentate gyrus as it was not previously possible to image the dentate gyrus at all, much less observe individual dentate gyrus cells in detail, as it lies too deep in the midbrain. To overcome these obstacles, Losonczy and his collaborators pioneered and implemented several novel techniques to be used simultaneously including the implantation of a miniature microscope into the brains of mice, genetically modifying mouse neurons to fluoresce, and optogenetically silencing a subset of neurons. This discovery repudiated the pre-existing theory that newborn neurons carried new memories. Rather, Losonczy found that the firing of older cells was more localised and newborn neurons fire indiscriminately, not taking on a stereotyped firing pattern until they got older.

Gestures are processed in the same areas of the brain as speech and sign language such as the left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area) and the posterior middle temporal gyrus, posterior superior temporal sulcus and superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke's area). It has been suggested that these parts of the brain originally supported the pairing of gesture and meaning and then were adapted in human evolution "for the comparable pairing of sound and meaning as voluntary control over the vocal apparatus was established and spoken language evolved". As a result, it underlies both symbolic gesture and spoken language in the present human brain. Their common neurological basis also supports the idea that symbolic gesture and spoken language are two parts of a single fundamental semiotic system that underlies human discourse.

Sports Exerc. 37, 1967–1974. Exercise has been found to positively regulate hippocampal neurogenesis,van Praag H, Kempermann G, Gage FH. 1999b. Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus.

Additionally, we also found areas in the cerebellum and in the left > angular gyrus and left inferior parietal lobule that showed significant > structural difference between transgender subjects and controls, independent > from their biological gender.

Contrary to the name, the region has little to do with speech. It is believed that a hypermetabolism of the lingual gyrus is associated with visual snow.Gray. Henry. Peter L. Williams. and Henry Gray.

A PET Investigation of the Attribution of Intentions with a Nonverbal Task. NeuroImage, 11(2), 157-166. doi: 10.1006/nimg.1999.0525 Additional studies have shown a relationship between memorization and activation in the gyrus.

Doublecortin expression in the rat dentate gyrus, 21st postnatal day. Oomen et al., 2009. Doublecortin (DCX) is a microtubule-associated protein expressed by neuronal precursor cells and immature neurons in embryonic and adult cortical structures.

It lies in the middle frontal gyrus of humans (i.e., lateral part of Brodmann's area (BA) 9 and 46Brodmann, 1909). In macaque monkeys, it is around the principal sulcus (i.e., in Brodmann's area 46Walker, 1940).

The posterior superior temporal gyrus is specialized for the transient representation of the phonetic sequences used for vocal repetition. Part of the auditory cortex also can represent aspects of speech such as its consonantal features.

It synapses with a third order neuron and transmits the signal to the postcentral gyrus of the somesthetic cortex. This could apply to any muscle in the upper limb and not specific to this muscle.

The neurons for voluntary thigh contraction originate near the summit of the medial side of the precentral gyrus (the primary motor area of the brain). These neurons send a nerve signal that is carried by the corticospinal tract down the brainstem and spinal cord. The signal starts with the upper motor neurons carrying the signal from the precentral gyrus down through the internal capsule, through the cerebral peduncle, and into the medulla. In the medullary pyramid, the corticospinal tract decussates and becomes the lateral corticospinal tract.

The history of cortical stimulation mapping dates back to the late 19th century. Neurologists David Ferrier and Victor Horsley were some of the first to utilize this technique. Ferrier and Horsley employed CSM to further grasp the structure and function of the pre-Rolandic and post-Rolandic areas, also known as the pre central gyrus and post central gyrus. Prior to the development of more advanced methods, in 1888 C.B. Nancrede utilized a battery operated bipolar probe in order to map the motor cortex.

The concept of domain specificity is one that has helped researchers probe deeper into the neural substrates of recognition memory. Domain specificity is the notion that some areas of the brain are responsible almost exclusively for the processing of particular categories. For example, it is well documented that the fusiform gyrus (FFA) in the inferior temporal lobe is heavily involved in face recognition. A specific region in this gyrus is even named the fusiform face area due to its heightened neurological activity during face perception.

In addition, apperceptive sub-types of prosopagnosia struggle recognizing facial emotion. However, they may be able to recognize people based on non-face clues such as their clothing, hairstyle, skin color, or voice. Apperceptive prosopagnosia is believed to be associated with impaired fusiform gyrus. It is interesting that experiments on the formation of new face detectors in adults on face-like stimuli (learning to distinguish the faces of cats) indicate that such new detectors are formed not in the fusiform, but in the lingual gyrus.

Examining case studies of individuals with OFA lesions provides more insight into its function. Prosopagnosic patients have been essential for this initiative, especially patient P.S., a right handed woman with a lesion extending from the posterior part of the right inferior occipital gyrus into the posterior fusiform gyrus. This lesion left patient P.S. without a right OFA and she exhibited great difficulty with facial recognition in daily life. Additionally, she had trouble with facial gender discrimination and could not match unfamiliar faces seen from different viewing angles.

Previous scientific studies have concluded that neurons within the fusiform gyrus react better to faces. An experiment by Massachusetts Institute of Technology brain and cognitive sciences professor Pawan Sinha examined why the right and left fusiform gyrus acknowledges a face, especially when an object greatly resembles a face. In the project Sinha and his students gathered images that resembled human faces and images of genuine faces, which they ran through machine vision systems. This scan resulted in the systems wrongly tagging images as containing faces.

Mu waves are suppressed when these neurons fire, a phenomenon which allows researchers to study mirror neuron activity in humans. There is evidence that mirror neurons exist in humans as well as in non-human animals. The right fusiform gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, right anterior parietal cortex, and left inferior frontal gyrus are of particular interest. Some researchers believe that mu wave suppression can be a consequence of mirror neuron activity throughout the brain, and represents a higher-level integrative processing of mirror neuron activity.

As more granule cells are produced, the layer thickens and the cells are stacked up according to age - the oldest being the most superficial and the youngest being deeper. The granule cell precursors remain in a subgranular zone that becomes progressively thinner as the dentate gyrus grows, but these precursor cells are retained in adult rats. These sparsely scattered cells constantly generate granule cell neurons, which add to the total population. There are a variety of other differences in the rat, monkey and human dentate gyrus.

Language Areas of the human brain. The angular gyrus is represented in orange, supramarginal gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area is represented in blue, Wernicke's area is represented in green and the primary auditory cortex is represented in pink. Throughout the 20th century, our knowledge of language processing in the brain was dominated by the Wernicke-Lichtheim-Geschwind model. The Wernicke-Lichtheim-Geschwind model is primarily based on research conducted on brain-damaged individuals who were reported to possess a variety of language related disorders.

The superior parietal lobule is bounded in front by the upper part of the postcentral sulcus, but is usually connected with the postcentral gyrus above the end of the sulcus. The superior parietal lobule contains Brodmann's areas 5 and 7. Behind it is the lateral part of the parietooccipital fissure, around the end of which it is joined to the occipital lobe by a curved gyrus, the arcus parietooccipitalis. Below, it is separated from the inferior parietal lobule by the horizontal portion of the intraparietal sulcus.

Primarily, thalamocortical somatosensory radiation from the VPL, VPM and LP nuclei extends to the primary and secondary somatosensory areas, terminating in cortical layers of the lateral postcentral gyrus. S1 receives parallel thalamocortical radiations from the posterior medial nucleus and the VPN. Projections from the VPN to the postcentral gyrus account for the transfer of sensory information concerning touch and pain. Several studies indicate that parallel innervations to S1 and also S2 via thalamocortical pathways result in the processing of nociceptive and non-nociceptive information.

The report was key in that it established calculation disorders as separate from language disorders, as the two were formerly associated. Henshcen's research was consistent with Lewandowsky's and Stadelmann's finding. From his research, he was also able to propose that certain areas of the brain played particular roles involved in the understanding and execution of calculation. These areas include the third frontal convolution (pronunciation of numbers), the angular gyrus and the fissure interparietalis (reading of numbers), and the angular gyrus again for the writing of numbers.

Gould and her colleagues found that the ovarian steroid estrogen enhances cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat. This effect can be seen following ovariectomy and hormone replacement as well as under naturally occurring changes in hormone levels. They discovered that cell proliferation peaks during proestrus, a time when estrogen levels are highest. Also and conversely, steroid hormones of the adrenal glands were found to inhibit cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus but do so indirectly via an NMDA receptor-dependent mechanism.

Dow Jones. 7 November 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2011. The US$2.2 billion deal in 2008 to acquire British medical equipment maker Gyrus Group, and the US$687 million paid to a middle-man were questioned.

This pathway includes the sylvian parietotemporal, inferior frontal gyrus, anterior insula, and premotor cortex. Its primary function is to take the sensory or phonological stimuli and transfer it into an articulatory-motor representation (formation of speech).

Reductions in first episode psychosis span a region from the right STG to the right insula, left insula, and cerebellum, and are more severe in the right ACC, right STG, insula and cerebellum. Another meta analysis reported bilateral reductions in insula, operculum, STG, medial frontal cortex, and ACC, but also reported increased GMV in the right lingual gyrus and left precentral gyrus. The Kraepelinian dichotomy is made questionable by grey matter abnormalities in bipolar and schizophrenia; schizophrenia is distinguishable from bipolar in that regions of grey matter reduction are generally larger in magnitude, although adjusting for gender differences reduces the difference to the left dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. During attentional tasks, first episode psychosis is associated with hypoactivation in the right middle frontal gyrus, a region generally described as encompassing the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC).

In a normal situation, the granule cells in dentate gyrus should be tightly packed. But in granule cell dispersion, the compact formation was lost, and the axons need to extend longer to reach the neighboring granule cells.

About two thirds of the cortical surface is buried in the sulci and the insular cortex is completely hidden. The cortex is thickest over the top of a gyrus and thinnest at the bottom of a sulcus.

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the expression of A1 and A2A receptors in the frontal cortex of the human brain is increased, while the expression of A1 receptors in the outer layers of hippocampal dentate gyrus is decreased.

The OFC is divided into multiple broad regions distinguished by cytoarchitecture, including brodmann area 47/12, brodmann area 11, brodmann area 14, brodmann area 13, and brodmann area 10. Four gyri are split by a complex of sulci that most frequently resembles a "H" or a "K" pattern. Extending along the rostro-caudal axis, two sulci, the lateral and orbital sulci, are usually connected by the transverse orbital sulcus, which extends along a medial-lateral axis. Most medially, the medial orbital gyrus is separated from the gyrus rectus by the olfactory sulcus.

Language Areas of the brain. The Angular Gyrus is represented in orange, Supramarginal Gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area is represented in blue, Wernicke's area is represented in green, and the Primary Auditory Cortex is represented in pink. The brain is the coordinating center of all linguistic activity; it controls both the production of linguistic cognition and of meaning and the mechanics of speech production. Nonetheless, our knowledge of the neurological bases for language is quite limited, though it has advanced considerably with the use of modern imaging techniques.

For the lexical decision task, greater activation was found in the character-writing condition more than the pinyin-writing condition. The areas of the brain that were activated are the bilateral superior parietal lobules and the inferior parietal and postcentral gyrus. The results suggest that the identifying of learned characters in the character- writing training condition promoted activation of components used for the previous training exercise before. When activation was greater in the character-writing condition for the pinyin-writing condition than the character-writing condition, it existed in the right inferior frontal gyrus.

The term originally referred to a condition following acute brain damage (acquired prosopagnosia), but a congenital or developmental form of the disorder also exists, with a prevalence rate of 2.5%. The specific brain area usually associated with prosopagnosia is the fusiform gyrus, which activates specifically in response to faces. The functionality of the fusiform gyrus allows most people to recognize faces in more detail than they do similarly complex inanimate objects. For those with prosopagnosia, the new method for recognizing faces depends on the less sensitive object-recognition system.

Brodmann area 45 (BA45), is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. It is situated on the lateral surface, inferior to BA9 and adjacent to BA46. This area in humans occupies the triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus (H) and, surrounding the anterior horizontal limb of the lateral sulcus (H), a portion of the orbital part of the inferior frontal gyrus (H). Bounded caudally by the anterior ascending limb of the lateral sulcus (H), it borders on the insula in the depth of the lateral sulcus.

For example, it has been shown that disruptions within the trisynaptic circuit leads to behavioural changes in rodent and feline models. The trisynaptic circuit is a neural circuit in the hippocampus, which is made up of three major cell groups: granule cells in the dentate gyrus, pyramidal neurons in CA3, and pyramidal neurons in CA1. The hippocampal relay involves 3 main regions within the hippocampus which are classified according to their cell type and projection fibers. The first projection of the hippocampus occurs between the entorhinal cortex and the dentate gyrus.

The pyramidal cells of the precentral gyrus are also called upper motor neurons. The fibers of the upper motor neurons project out of the precentral gyrus ending in the brainstem, where they will decussate (intersect) within the lower medulla oblongata to form the lateral corticospinal tract on each side of the spinal cord. The fibers that do not decussate will pass through the medulla and continue on to form the anterior corticospinal tracts. The upper motor neuron descends in the spinal cord to the level of the appropriate spinal nerve root.

During executive function tasks, people with schizophrenia demonstrate decreased activity relative to controls in the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(dlPFC), right anterior cingulate cortex(ACC), and left mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus. Increased activation was observed in the left ACC and left inferior parietal lobe. During emotional processing tasks, reduced activations have been observed in the Medial prefrontal cortex, ACC, dlPFC and amygdala. A meta analysis of facial emotional processing observed decreased activation in the amygdala, parahippocampus, lentiform nuclei, fusiform gyrus and right superior frontal gyrus, as well as increased activation in the left insula.

Neuroimaging evidence suggests that left hippocampal areas show an increase in activity during semantic memory tasks. During semantic retrieval, two regions in the right middle frontal gyrus and the area of the right inferior temporal gyrus similarly show an increase in activity. Damage to areas involved in semantic memory result in various deficits, depending on the area and type of damage. For instance, Lambon Ralph, Lowe, & Rogers (2007) found that category- specific impairments can occur where patients have different knowledge deficits for one semantic category over another, depending on location and type of damage.

The original images (1878) of Fritsch's dogfish shark brain showing the nerve marked by an asterisk. The terminal nerve appears just anterior of the other cranial nerves bilaterally as a microscopic plexus of unmyelinated peripheral nerve fascicles in the subarachnoid space covering the gyrus rectus. This plexus appears near the cribriform plate and travels posteriorly toward the olfactory trigone, medial olfactory gyrus, and lamina terminalis. The nerve is often overlooked in autopsies because it is unusually thin for a cranial nerve, and is often torn out upon exposing the brain.

The trisynaptic circuit consists of excitatory cells (mostly stellate cells) in layer II of the entorhinal cortex, projecting to the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus via the perforant path. The dentate gyrus receives no direct inputs from other cortical structures. The perforant path is divided into the medial and lateral perforant paths, generated, respectively, at the medial and lateral portions of the entorhinal cortex. The medial perforant path synapses onto the proximal dendritic area of the granule cells, whereas the lateral perforant path does so onto their distal dendrites.

Differences in activation of regions of the rostral prefrontal cortex were seen in the results according to whether the task was time- or event- based. Three rostral prefrontal regions were more active in the time-based condition: the right superior frontal gyrus, anterior medial frontal lobe and anterior cingulate gyrus. These results suggest that there are different processing demands made by event- or time- based prospective memory tasks.Burgess, P., Frith, C., Scott, S. (2003) The role of the rostral cortex (area 10) in prospective memory: a lateral versus medial dissociation.

The primary auditory cortex is the first region of cerebral cortex to receive auditory input. Perception of sound is associated with the left posterior superior temporal gyrus (STG). The superior temporal gyrus contains several important structures of the brain, including Brodmann areas 41 and 42, marking the location of the primary auditory cortex, the cortical region responsible for the sensation of basic characteristics of sound such as pitch and rhythm. We know from research in nonhuman primates that the primary auditory cortex can probably be divided further into functionally differentiable subregions.

The entorhinal cortex (EC) is strongly and reciprocally connected with many cortical and subcortical structures as well as with the brainstem. Different thalamic nuclei, (from the anterior and midline groups), the medial septal nucleus, the supramammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus, and the raphe nuclei and locus coeruleus of the brainstem all send axons to the EC, so that it serves as the interface between the neocortex and the other connections, and the hippocampus. The EC is located in the parahippocampal gyrus, a cortical region adjacent to the hippocampus. This gyrus conceals the hippocampus.

Studies suggest that the analysis of pitch is primarily controlled by the right temporal region of the brain. The right secondary auditory cortex processes pitch change and manipulation of fine tunes; specifically, this region distinguishes the multiple pitches that characterize melodic tunes as contour (pitch direction) and interval (frequency ratio between successive notes) information. The right superior temporal gyrus recruits and evaluates contour information, while both right and left temporal regions recruit and evaluate interval information. In addition, the right anterolateral part of Heschl's gyrus (primary auditory cortex) is also concerned with processing pitch information.

With a primordial structure, the limbic system is involved in lower order emotional processing of input from sensory systems and consists of the amygdaloid nuclear complex (amygdala), mammillary bodies, stria medullaris, central gray and dorsal and ventral nuclei of Gudden. This processed information is often relayed to a collection of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon, including the prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, limbic thalamus, hippocampus including the parahippocampal gyrus and subiculum, nucleus accumbens (limbic striatum), anterior hypothalamus, ventral tegmental area, midbrain raphe nuclei, habenular commissure, entorhinal cortex, and olfactory bulbs.

The superior frontal gyrus is situated above the superior frontal sulcus and is continued on to the medial surface of the hemisphere, the medial frontal gyrus. The medial and superior frontal gyri are two of the frontal gyri of the frontal lobe. The portion on the lateral surface of the hemisphere is usually more or less completely subdivided into an upper and a lower part by an antero-posterior sulcus, the paramedial sulcus, which, however, is frequently interrupted by bridging gyri. There is some evidence that it plays a role in executive mechanisms.

The first of these, the dentate gyrus (DG), is actually a separate structure, a tightly packed layer of small granule cells wrapped around the end of the hippocampus proper, forming a pointed wedge in some cross-sections, a semicircle in others. Next come a series of Cornu Ammonis areas: first CA4 (which underlies the dentate gyrus), then CA3, then a very small zone called CA2, then CA1. The CA areas are all filled with densely packed Pyramidal cells similar to those found in the neocortex. After CA1 comes an area called the subiculum.

Therefore, it is still not clear in exactly which situations the fusiform gyrus becomes active, although it is certain that face recognition relies heavily on this area and damage to it can lead to severe face recognition impairment.

Encoding of new space is the priority of LTP, while information about orientation in space could be encoded by LTD in the dentate gyrus, and the finer details of space could be encoded by LTD in the CA1.

Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia. Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia thus identifying the effects of certain genes.

The first step the brain does to encode a memory is to process the face. The lateral fusiform gyrus is a facial recognition area of the brain.Ito, T.A. & Bartholow, B.D. The neural correlates of race. Trends Cogn. Neurosci.

It also receives direct input from V1, especially for central space. In addition, it has weaker connections to V5 and dorsal prelunate gyrus (DP). V4 is the first area in the ventral stream to show strong attentional modulation.

Equally proficient bilinguals use working memory more than bilinguals who have unequal proficiency. This suggests that optimal use of phonological working memory, specifically the left insula and left inferior frontal gyrus, is associated with higher second language acquisition.

Disgust was consistently activated with 16 clusters (the largest activation cluster in the right insula/ right inferior frontal gyrus) and was discriminated from the other emotion categories by significantly greater activity in the right putamen and the left insula.

Brpf1 forms a stable complex with Moz/Morf-Hbo1 and targets to chromatin to regulate transcription. Brpf1 null mutant mouse dies at embryonic day 9.5. Forebrain-specific knock out of Brpf1 cause hypoplasia in the dentate gyrus of mouse.

383 The superior frontal gyrus is the most significantly activated region while processing sadness.Vytal, K., and S. Hamann. Neuroimaging Support for Discrete Neural Correlates of Basic Emotions: A Voxel-based Meta-analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22(12): 2864–2885, 2010.

The fusiform face area (FFA); (meaning: spindular/spindle-shaped face area) is a part of the human visual system that is specialized for facial recognition. It is located in the inferior temporal cortex (IT), in the fusiform gyrus (Brodmann area 37).

The planum temporale makes up the superior surface of the superior temporal gyrus to the parietal lobe. The posterior extent of the planum temporale has been variably defined, which has led to disputes to estimates of size and degree of asymmetry.

Beyond this, studies have also shown that the claustrum is active during REM sleep, alongside other structures such as the dentate gyrus. These have associative roles in spatial memory, suggesting that some form of memory consolidation takes place in these areas.

The areas that showed bilateral activation were the inferior parietal lobes, fusiform gyri, and Brodmann Area 44, among others. The areas lateralized to the left hemisphere were the calcarine and fusiform gyrus, specifically at the location for visual word form.

The anterior cingulate gyrus was found to be bilaterally smaller in people with schizophrenia as compared with control group. No difference in IQ tests and basic visuoperceptual ability with facial stimuli was found between people with schizophrenia and the control.

The cingulum is a major association tract. The cingulum forms the white matter core of the cingulate gyrus and links from this to the entorhinal cortex. Another major association tract is the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) that has three parts.

Due to the unclear distinction in early neuroscience research as to whether there are two or three occipital gyri, there is not any data on when the middle occipital gyrus starts its formation, but it is likely at the same time.

Brodmann area 8 The frontal eye fields (FEF) are a region located in the frontal cortex, more specifically in Brodmann area 8 or BA8, of the primate brain. In humans, it can be more accurately said to lie in a region around the intersection of the middle frontal gyrus with the precentral gyrus, consisting of a frontal and parietal portion. The FEF is responsible for saccadic eye movements for the purpose of visual field perception and awareness, as well as for voluntary eye movement. The FEF communicates with extraocular muscles indirectly via the paramedian pontine reticular formation.

The corticomesencephalic tract originates from the frontal eye field in the caudal part of the middle frontal gyrus and the inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann's area 8). It runs rostral to the pyramidal tract in the posterior limb of the internal capsule. Then, it courses posteriorly toward the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI), the three cranial nerves that mediate eye movements. At the level of the caudal midbrain, corticomesencephalic fibers descend through the tegmentum in the medial lemniscus toward the oculomotor (III) and the trochlear (IV) nuclei on the contralateral (opposite) side.

The Angular Gyrus is represented in orange, Supramarginal Gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area is represented in blue, Wernicke's area is represented in green and the Primary Auditory Cortexis represented in pink. Furthermore, Broca’s area is structurally related to the thalamus and both are engaged in language processing. The connectivity between both areas is two thalamic nuclei, the pulvinar, and the ventral nucleus, which are involved in language processing and linguistic functions similar to BA 44 and 45 in Broca’s area. Pulvinar is connected to many frontal regions of the frontal cortex and ventral nucleus is involved in speech production.

Electrophysiological methods were used to evoke and record early and late phase LTP in the dentate gyrus of anesthetized rats, and immunoblotting was used to measure levels of memory-related signaling molecules in the same region. These Electrophysiological and molecular tests in the dentate gyrus showed that subAβ rats or stressed rats were not different from control rats. However, the present findings conclude that when stress and subAβ are combined, signiﬁcant suppression of E-LTP magnitude results. In summary, although the CA1 and DG regions are closely related physically and functionally, they react differently to insults.

The direct limbic connection makes the olfactory sense unique. The brain cortical regions are related to the auditory, visual, olfactory, and somatosensory (touch, proprioception) sensations, which are located lateral to the lateral fissure and posterior to the central sulcus, that is, more toward the back of the brain. The cortical region related to gustatory sensation is located anterior to the central sulcus. Note that the central sulcus (sometimes referred to as the central fissure) divides the primary motor cortex (on the precentral gyrus of the posterior frontal lobe) from the primary somatosensory cortex (on the postcentral gyrus of the anterior parietal lobe).

The three distinct stages of neural activation during the humor process implies that humor detection and appreciation operate as separate entities and engage different brain regions in an ordered fashion. Therefore, the cascade of neural events required to understand and appreciate humor can be functionally separated, and studies have shown this distinction to be consistent across all genres of comedy. During moments of humor detection, significant activation can be seen in the left posterior middle temporal gyrus and left inferior frontal gyrus. During moments of humor appreciation, increased activation in bilateral regions of insular cortex and amygdala can be observed.

Studies have shown that a wide area around the temporoparietal junction (temporo-occipital junction, posterior superior temporal sulcus, posterior middle temporal gyrus), temporal pole and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) is involved in cognitive humor processing of nonverbal cartoons. Studies in recent years have revealed discrete characteristic patterns of cerebral blood- oxygen-level dependent activity induced by non-verbal cartoons with different logical mechanisms. The TPJ is involved in successful incongruity resolution but not in the detection of incongruity. The extrastriate cortex is activated particularly during processing of visual puns, whereas semantic cartoons evoked activity mainly in the TPJ and precuneus.

DBS has been used in a small number of clinical trials to treat people with severe treatment-resistant depression (TRD). A number of neuroanatomical targets have been used for DBS for TRD including the subgenual cingulate gyrus, posterior gyrus rectus, nucleus accumbens, ventral capsule/ventral striatum, inferior thalamic peduncle, and the lateral habenula. A recently proposed target of DBS intervention in depression is the superolateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle; its stimulation lead to surprisingly rapid antidepressant effects. The small numbers in the early trials of DBS for TRD currently limit the selection of an optimal neuroanatomical target.

The dentate gyrus (DG) is part of the hippocampal formation in the temporal lobe of the brain that includes the hippocampus and the subiculum. The dentate gyrus is part of the hippocampal trisynaptic circuit and is thought to contribute to the formation of new episodic memories, the spontaneous exploration of novel environments and other functions. It is notable as being one of a select few brain structures known to have significant rates of adult neurogenesis in many species of mammals, from rodents to primates. Other sites of adult neurogenesis include the subventricular zone, the striatum and the cerebellum.

The oldest granule cells are generated in a specific region of the hippocampal neuroepithelium and migrate into the primordial dentate gyrus around embryonic days (E) 17/18, and then settle as the outermost cells in the forming granular layer. Next, dentate precursor cells move out of this same area of the hippocampal neuroepithelium and, retaining their mitotic capacity, invade the hilus (core) of the forming dentate gyrus. This dispersed germinal matrix is the source of granule cells from that point on. The newly generated granule cells accumulate under the older cells that began to settle in the granular layer.

It remains unclear how the hippocampus enables new memory formation, but one process, called long term potentiation (LTP), occurs in this brain region. LTP involves long- lasting strengthening of synaptic connections after repeated stimulation. While the dentate gyrus shows LTP, it is also one of the few regions of the mammalian brain where adult neurogenesis (the formation of new neurons) takes place. Some studies hypothesize that new memories could preferentially use newly formed granule cells of the dentate gyrus, providing a potential mechanism for distinguishing multiple instances of similar events or multiple visits to the same location.

The dentate gyrus may also have a functional role in stress and depression. For instance, in the rat, neurogenesis has been found to increase in response to chronic treatment with antidepressants. The physiological effects of stress, often characterized by release of glucocorticoids such as cortisol, as well as activation of the sympathetic nervous system (a division of the autonomic nervous system), have been shown to inhibit the process of neurogenesis in primates. Both endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids are known to cause psychosis and depression, implying that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus may play an important role in modulating symptoms of stress and depression.

Looking deeper into the tissue affected, single-cell imaging showed there were 3 main types of cells that make up the hippocampus. When observing cell activity and the number of cells of the hippocampus of rats, it was found that the CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cells continued to be active and of the same volume. However, the number of granule cells of the dentate gyrus continuously decreased with age; the function of these cells also declined leading Barnes and her team to conclude these gyrus cells are the weak link of the hippocampal circuit involved in memory.

One study found that the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex is active when people are experiencing both physical pain and "social pain," in response to social rejection. A subsequent experiment, also using fMRI neuroimaging, found that three regions become active when people are exposed to images depicting rejection themes. These areas are the posterior cingulate, the parahippocampal gyrus, and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. Furthermore, individuals who are high in rejection sensitivity (see below) show less activity in the left prefrontal cortex and the right dorsal superior frontal gyrus, which may indicate less ability to regulate emotional responses to rejection.

The fact that the angular gyrus is proportionately much larger in hominids than other primates, and its strategic location at the crossroads of areas specialized for processing touch, hearing and vision, leads Ramachandran to believe that it is critical both to conceptual metaphors and to cross-modal abstractions more generally. However, recent research challenges this theory. Research by Krish Sathian (Emory University) using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) suggests that the angular gyrus does not play a role in creating conceptual metaphors. Sathian theorizes that conceptual metaphors activate the texture-selective somatosensory cortex in the parietal operculum.

During the processes of each of the languages, there was bilateral activation in the occipital lobes, in the temporal lobes near the superior temporal sulcus, and in the frontal gyri. The processing of sign language showed stronger activation in both occipital lobes, both posterior temporal lobes, and in the thalamus bilaterally. It also showed strong activation particularly in structures in the right hemisphere: the superior temporal sulcus, the fusiform gyrus, and the inferior frontal gyrus. Opposed to processing sign language, when the individuals processed written French there was strong activation bilaterally and in the left hemisphere.

A 2014 meta-analysis found differences in grey matter levels between the sexes. The findings (where differences were measured) included males having more grey matter volume in both amygdalae, hippocampi, and anterior parahippocampal gyri, among others, while females had more grey matter volume in the right frontal pole, inferior and middle frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and lateral occipital cortex, among others. In terms of density, there were also differences between the sexes. Males tended to have denser left amygdalae, hippocampi, and areas of the right VI lobule of the cerebellum, among other areas, while females tended to have denser left frontal pole.

Historically, the arcuate fasciculus has been understood to connect two important areas for language use: Broca's area in the inferior frontal gyrus and Wernicke's area in the posterior superior temporal gyrus. The majority of scientists consider this to be an oversimplification; however, this model is still utilized because a satisfactory replacement has not been developed. The topographical relationships between independent measures of white matter and gray matter integrity suggest that rich developmental or environmental interactions influence brain structure and function. The presence and strength of such associations may elucidate pathophysiological processes influencing systems such as language and motor planning.

In 1973, Terje Lømo and Tim Bliss first described the now widely studied phenomenon of long-term potentiation (LTP) in a publication in the Journal of Physiology. The experiment described was conducted on the synapse between the perforant path and dentate gyrus in the hippocampi of anaesthetised rabbits. They were able to show a burst of tetanic (100 Hz) stimulus on perforant path fibres led to a dramatic and long-lasting augmentation in the post-synaptic response of cells onto which these fibres synapse in the dentate gyrus. In the same year, the pair published very similar data recorded from awake rabbits.

The FT queried why, this being the case, KPMG had signed off on the 2009 accounts. Tsutomu Okubo raised a question in the upper house of the Diet as to why the auditors apparently failed to stop the cover-up; the Japanese Institute of Certified Accountants said that it would look into the auditors' role. According to a letter filed with the UK Registrar of Companies, the auditors to Gyrus resigned "partly because of its client's accounting for the securities". KPMG qualified Gyrus' accounts because they could not ascertain that Axam was not a related party.

A buyback of preferred shares for $530–590 million was authorised by the Olympus board. Axam subsequently negotiated a further increase in the value of the shares, for which Olympus finally paid $620 million in March 2010. According to a UK corporate filing for Gyrus, the value of the securities at the time was disclosed as $177 million. Bloomberg notes that executives Olympus had delayed accounting for the true cost of the 'success fees' of Gyrus until March 2011, by which time Axam Investments had been struck off by the Cayman Islands registrar for nine months.

As a rule of thumb, one could say that each cytoarchitectonic field that contributes to the commissural projection also has a parallel associational fiber that terminates in the ipsilateral hippocampus. The inner molecular layer of dentate gyrus (dendrites of both granule cells and GABAergic interneurons) receives a projection that has both associational and commissural fibers mainly from hilar mossy cells and to some extent from CA3c Pyramidal cells. Because this projection fibers originate from both ipsilateral and contralateral sides of hippocampus they are called associational/commissural projections. In fact, each mossy cell innervates both the ipsilateral and contralateral dentate gyrus.

Though statistically there are sex differences in white matter and gray matter percentage, this ratio is directly related to brain size, and some argue these sex differences in gray and white matter percentage are caused by the average size difference between men and women. Others argue that these differences remain after controlling for brain volume. In a 2013 meta-analysis, researchers found on average males had larger grey matter volume in bilateral amygdalae, hippocampi, anterior parahippocampal gyri, posterior cingulate gyri, precuneus, putamen and temporal poles, areas in the left posterior and anterior cingulate gyri, and areas in the cerebellum bilateral VIIb, VIIIa and Crus I lobes, left VI and right Crus II lobes. On the other hand, females on average had larger grey matter volume at the right frontal pole, inferior and middle frontal gyri, pars triangularis, planum temporale/parietal operculum, anterior cingulate gyrus, insular cortex, and Heschl's gyrus; bilateral thalami and precuneus; the left parahippocampal gyrus and lateral occipital cortex (superior division).

Cultural differences exist in the ventral visual cortex and many studies have shown this. In a study conducted in 2005 they found that East Asians were more likely to keep their eyes focused on background scenes than westerners who would instead focus more on the central object such as a giraffe in a savanna. In a similar 2006 study it showed that in congruence to the difference in society structure westerners showed more activation in object processing regions, including the bilateral middle temporal gyrus, left superior parietal gyrus, and right superior temporal gyrus, although no activation differences were observed in context-processing regions such as the hippocampus. However, there has been some research contradicting cultural bias in the oculomotor control such as one conducted in 2007 by Rayner, Li, Williams, Cave, and well who failed to find evidence that East Asians focus more on context although they did find evidence that they are more likely to focus less on central objects.

Auditory attention in regards to the cocktail party effect primarily occurs in the left hemisphere of the superior temporal gyrus (where the primary auditory cortex is); a fronto-parietal network involving the inferior frontal gyrus, superior parietal sulcus, and intraparietal sulcus also accounts for the acts of attention-shifting, speech processing, and attention control. Both the target stream (the more important information being attended to) and competing/interfering streams are processed in the same pathway within the left hemisphere, but fMRI scans show that target streams are treated with more attention than competing streams. Furthermore, we see that activity in the superior temporal gyrus (STG) toward the target stream is decreased/interfered with when competing stimuli streams (that typically hold significant value) arise. The "cocktail party effect" - the ability to detect significant stimuli in multitalker situations - has also been labeled the "cocktail party problem" because our ability to selectively attend simultaneously interferes with the effectiveness of attention at a neurological level.

GMV reductions in MDD and BD Meta analyses performed using seed-based d mapping have reported grey matter reductions in a number of frontal regions. One meta analysis of early onset general depression reported grey matter reductions in the bilateral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC). One meta analysis on first episode depression observed distinct patterns of grey matter reductions in medication free, and combined populations; medication free depression was associated with reductions in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, right amygdala, and right inferior temporal gyrus; analysis on a combination of medication free and medicated depression found reductions in the left insula, right supplementary motor area, and right middle temporal gyrus. Another review distinguishing medicated and medication free populations, albeit not restricted to people with their first episode of MDD, found reductions in the combined population in the bilateral superior, right middle, and left inferior frontal gyrus, along with the bilateral parahippocampus.

The mid-fusiform sulcus is a shallow sulcus that divides the fusiform gyrus into lateral and medial partitions. Functionally, the MFS divides both large- scale functional maps and identifies fine-scale functional regions such as the anterior portion of the fusiform face area.

The cingulate gyrus and the amygdala also innervate the LC, allowing emotional pain and stressors to trigger noradrenergic responses. The cerebellum and afferents from the raphe nuclei also project to the LC, in particular the pontine raphe nucleus and dorsal raphe nucleus.

The 'orbital frontal cortex' is now thought to play a role in disinhibiting, and injury to other brain structures, such as to the right inferior frontal gyrus, a specific subregion of the PFC, has been associated with deficits in stop-signal inhibition.

Cajal DG: dentate gyrus. Sub: subiculum. EC: entorhinal cortex The major input to the hippocampus is through the entorhinal cortex (EC), whereas its major output is via CA1 to the subiculum.Kandel, 2012 Information reaches CA1 via two main pathways, direct and indirect.

The inferior frontal gyrus has a number of functions including the processing of speech and language in Broca's area. Neural circuitry has been shown to connect different sites of stimulus to other regions of response including other subdivisions and also other frontal gyri.

The pro-isocortex is a transitional area between the true isocortex and the periallocortex (part of the allocortex). It is found in the cingulate cortex (part of the limbic system), in Brodmann's areas 24, 25, 30 and 32, the insula and the parahippocampal gyrus.

Results showed differences in neural activity patterns in the right cerebellum, right superior temporal gyrus, and left temporoparietal junction during the encoding phase, and indicated differential neural activity in the inferior parietal, right superior temporal, and right cerebellum regions in the working memory tests.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalogram studies have found that problem solving requiring insight involves increased activity in the right cerebral hemisphere as compared with problem solving not requiring insight. In particular, increased activity was found in the right hemisphere anterior superior temporal gyrus.

Study showing four functional networks that were found to be highly consistent across subjects. These modules include the visual (yellow), sensory/motor (orange) and basal ganglia (red) cortices as well as the default mode network (posterior cingulate, inferior parietal lobes, and medial frontal gyrus; maroon).

Lingual gyrus activation has been linked to encoding of complex images. Subjects were scanned using fMRI while looking at pictures. The images were emotionally neutral, with no people in close-up. Subjects were tasked with memorizing the images for recognition at a later date.

Put forward by Kronbilcher et al. (2004), was based on functional imaging data that showed, in a parametric fMRI study, that a decrease in activation in the left fusiform gyrus was seen in response to an increase in the frequency of the word - where the frequency is how common the word is. This data refutes the previous pre-lexical theory as if the VWFA was pre-lexical one would expect equal activation throughout all frequencies. Instead a lexical theory was proposed where the left fusiform gyrus neurons are thought not to detect words by attempting to match them to stored representations of known words.

Devlin et al. (2006) state that the left posterior fusiform gyrus is not a 'word form area' as such, but instead hypothesizes that the area is dedicated to determining word meaning. That is to say, that this area of the brain is where bottom-up information (visual shapes of words (form), and other visual attributes if necessary) comes into contact with top-down information (semantics and phonology of words). Therefore, the left fusiform gyrus is thought to be the interface in the processing of the words not a dictionary that computes a word based on its form alone, as the lexical word form hypothesis states.

Research upon primates suggests that area 10 has inputs and output connections with other higher- order association cortex areas particularly in the prefrontal cortex while having few with primary sensory or motor areas. Its connections through the extreme capsule link it to the auditory and multisensory areas of the superior temporal sulcus. They also continue in the medial longitudinal fasciculus in the white matter of the superior temporal gyrus areas on the superior temporal gyrus (areas TAa, TS2, and TS3) and nearby multisensory areas on the upper bank of the superior temporal sulcus (TPO). Another area connected through the extreme capsule is the ventral region of the insula.

These brain areas also contribute to humor processing in three distinct spatiotemporal stages: surface level semantic analysis and two phases of the interpretative integrative processes. The surface level semantic analysis is subserved by bilateral anterior temporal and left inferior prefrontal regions. Interpretive integrative processing comprises detection of ambiguity or conflict between the dominant semantic representations of the punch line and the context, which is reflected in semantic, phonological, metaphorical, and other supralinguistic integrations of the punch line with the preceding sentence. In regards to the detection process, the right medial temporal gyrus is active during detection of semantic violations, and the right middle frontal gyrus is active for context monitoring.

It was found that increased hippocampal neurofibrillary tangles and higher neuritic plaque density (in the superior temporal gyrus, orbitofrontal gyrus, and the inferior parietal cortex) were associated with increased severity of dementia. Along with these biological factors, when the patient also had the apolipoprotein E (ApoE4) allele (a known genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease), the neuritic plaques increased although the hippocampal neurofibrillary tangles did not. It showed an increased genetic susceptibility to more severe dementia with Alzheimer's disease than without the genetic marker. As seen in the examples above, although memory does degenerate with age, it is not always classified as a memory disorder.

The volume of white matter starts its linear increase from age four to 20, but cortical gray matter is decreases in the parietal, occipital and temporal regions starting from age four, continually changing until after age 12. The development of the dentate gyrus starts forming at 12 to 15 months in the hippocampus, which is essential for the formation of declarative memory in eyewitness testimony. After the formation of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the density of synapses in the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in eyewitness memory, is peaks in its development during 15 to 24 months, changing until the age of adolescence.

Area 11 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex of the human. As illustrated in Brodmann-10, It constitutes most of the orbital gyri, gyrus rectus and the most rostral portion of the superior frontal gyrus. It is bounded medially by the inferior rostral sulcus (H) and laterally approximately by the frontomarginal sulcus (H). Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded on the rostral and lateral aspects of the hemisphere by the frontopolar area 10, the orbital area 47, and the triangular area 45; on the medial surface it is bounded dorsally by the rostral area 12 and caudally by the subgenual area 25.

The metabolic rate of glucose was lower in the left anterior cingulate gyrus and in the right posterior cingulate gyrus. In addition to changes in the cingulate cortex more brain structures show changes in people with schizophrenia as compared to controls. The hippocampus in people with schizophrenia was found to be smaller in size when compared with controls of the same age group, and, similarly, the caudate and putamen were found to be smaller in volume in a longitudinal study of people with schizophrenia. While the volume of gray matter is smaller, the size of the lateral and third ventricles is larger in people with schizophrenia.

Using fMRI brain imaging, scientists found three main areas stimulated by colour: V1, an area in the ventral occipital lobe, specifically the lingual gyrus, which was designated as human V4, or hV4, and another area located anteriorly in the fusiform gyrus, designated as V4α. The purpose of V4 has changed dynamically as new studies are performed. Since V4 responds strongly to colour in both macaque monkeys and humans, it has become an area of interest to scientists. The V4 area was originally attributed to colour selectivity, but new evidence has shown that V4, as well as other areas of the visual cortex, are receptive to various inputs.

CA3 receives input from the mossy fibers of the granule cells in the dentate gyrus, and also from cells in the entorhinal cortex via the perforant path. The mossy fiber pathway ends in the stratum lucidum. The perforant path passes through the stratum lacunosum and ends in the stratum moleculare. There are also inputs from the medial septum and from the diagonal band of Broca which terminate in the stratum radiatum, along with commisural connections from the other side of the hippocampus. The pyramidal cells in CA3 send some axons back to the dentate gyrus hilus, but they mostly project to regions CA2 and CA1 via the Schaffer collaterals.

The underlying mechanism is believed to involve excessive excitability of neurons in the right lingual gyrus and left cerebellar anterior lobe of the brain. Medications that may be used to treat the condition include lamotrigine, acetazolamide, or verapamil. These do not always result in benefits, however.

Neurology, 67(12), E21. AHS can involve damage to the anterior cingulate gyrus, the medial prefrontal cortex and the anterior corpus callosum when a patient has frontal AHS. The other type of AHS, callosal AHS, is due to an anterior callosal lesion and affects dominant hemisphere control.

Notch 1, then activated before birth, induces radial glia differentiation, but postnatally induces the differentiation into astrocytes. One study shows that Notch-1 cascade is activated by Reelin in an unidentified way. Reelin and Notch1 cooperate in the development of the dentate gyrus, according to another.

The subgranular zone (in rat brain). (A) Regions of the dentate gyrus: the hilus, subgranular zone (sgz), granule cell layer (GCL), and molecular layer (ML). Cells were stained for doublecortin (DCX). (B) Closeup of subgranular zone, located between the hilus and GCL, a site of adult neurogenesis.

Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered sodium in the kidneys, which is nearly equal to the entire sodium content in human blood under normal glomerular filtration rates. Aldosterone, probably acting through mineralocorticoid receptors, may positively influence neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus.

In more specific terms, fibers carrying information from the contralateral superior visual field traverse Meyer's loop to terminate in the lingual gyrus below the calcarine fissure in the occipital lobe, and fibers carrying information from the contralateral inferior visual field terminate more superiorly, to the cuneus.

Brodmann area 23 (BA23) is a region in the brain that lies inside the posterior cingulate cortex. It lies between Brodmann area 30 and Brodmann area 31 and is located on the medial wall of the cingulate gyrus between the callosal sulcus and the cingulate sulcus.

Proisocortex is found in the cingulate cortex (part of the limbic system), in Brodmann's areas 24, 25, 30 and 32, the insula and parahippocampal gyrus. The transitional cortical areas from isocortical side (i.e. proisocortex) and from allocortical side (i.e. periarchicortex and peripaleocortex) together are called mesocortex.

Damage to the left angular gyrus is known to cause computational difficulties like those associated with primary acalculia and anarithmetia. However, damage to various but not necessarily identified areas of the brain can cause computational difficulties, as various cognitive functions are necessary to execute mathematical calculations.

Mangun, G. R., Buonocore, M. H., Girelli, M., & Jha, A. P. (1998). ERP and fMRI measures of visual spatial selective attention. Hum Brain Mapp, 6(5-6), 383-389. Hemispheric-dependent gyrus activation has also been shown by isolating visual fields rather than by diverting focus.

The postcentral sulcus of the parietal lobe lies parallel to, and behind, the central sulcus in the human brain. (A sulcus is one of the prominent grooves on the surface of the brain.) The postcentral sulcus divides the postcentral gyrus from the remainder of the parietal lobe.

Sources could also include the inferior frontal gyrus, and the insular cortex. The amplitude and latency of the MMN is related to how different the deviant stimulus is from the standard. Large deviances elicit MMN at earlier latencies. For very large deviances, the MMN can even overlap the N100.

Friends and foes are represented differently in the brain. The fusiform cortex, posterior cingulate gyrus, amygdala, and areas involved in motivational control were differentially activated as a function of previous social encounters. In general, these areas were more active when faces were perceived as foes rather than friends.

Neuropeptide Y has been indicated as playing an important role in neurogenesis in various parts of the brain. Two particular brain areas where NPY affects neurogenesis are the sub-ventricular zone and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. These areas are where cell growth and proliferation occur into adulthood.

In 2017, Denny then crossed her ArcCreERT2 mouse line with an Alzheimer's model mouse line (APP/PS1) to look at memory traces in a neurodegenerative disease model. When they specifically reactivated neuronal ensembles in the dentate gyrus implicated in contextual fear conditioning in APP/PS1 mice, they found a significant increase in memory retrieval compared to controls suggesting that activated previously learned memory traces in the dentate gyrus might rescue memory loss phenotypes in disease. Denny's lab also investigates small molecule prophylactics for stress-induced depressive-like behavior. Since psychiatric illnesses often follow stressful events, Denny has proposed the importance of prophylactic therapies in preventing susceptible individuals from developing psychiatric disorders after stressful events.

My Brilliant Brain, partly about grandmaster Susan Polgar, shows brain scans of the fusiform gyrus while Polgar viewed chess diagrams. Although it is sometimes found that expertise recruits the FFA (e.g. as hypothesized by a proponent of this view in the preceding paragraph), a more common and less controversial finding is that expertise leads to focal category-selectivity in the fusiform gyrus—a pattern similar in terms of antecedent factors and neural specificity to that seen for faces. As such, it remains an open question as to whether face recognition and expert- level object recognition recruit similar neural mechanisms across different subregions of the fusiform or whether the two domains literally share the same neural substrates.

Correspondingly, it has been proposed that the immature, newborn granule cells are receptive to form new synaptic connections with the axons arriving from the layer II of the entorhinal cortex, this way a particular new constellation of events is remembered as an episodic memory by first associating the events in the young granule cells that have the appropriate, permissive age. This concept is reinforced by the fact that increased neurogenesis is associated with improved spatial memory in rodents, as seen through performance in a maze. The dentate gyrus is known to serve as a pre-processing unit. While the CA3 subfield is involved in encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory, the dentate gyrus is important in pattern separation.

Further research has since replicated these results with natural languages unfamiliar to infants, indicating that learning infants also keep track of the direction (forward or backward) of the transitional probabilities. Though the neural processes behind this phenomenon remain largely unknown, recent research reports increased activity in the left inferior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus during the detection of word boundaries. The development of syllable-ordering biases is an important step along the way to full language development. The ability to categorize syllables and group together frequently co-occurring sequences may be critical in the development of a protolexicon, a set of common language-specific word templates based on characteristic patterns in the words an infant hears.

The auditory N100 is generated by a network of neural populations in the primary and association auditory cortices in the superior temporal gyrus in Heschl's gyrus and planum temporale. It also could be generated in the frontal and motor areas. The area generating it is larger in the right hemisphere than the left. The N100 is preattentive and involved in perception because its amplitude is strongly dependent upon such things as the rise time of the onset of a sound, its loudness, interstimulus interval with other sounds, and the comparative frequency of a sound as its amplitude increases in proportion to how much a sound differs in frequency from a preceding one.

The uncinate fasciculus is a hook-shaped bundle of axons that links anterior portions of the temporal lobe with the inferior frontal gyrus and the lower surfaces of the frontal lobe. It arises in the anteriorior temporal lobe and amygdala,in the temporal lobe curving in an upward pathway behind the external capsule inward of the insular cortex and continuing up into the posterior part of the orbital gyrus.. It does not appear to have cell bodies in the hippocampus proper. The average length of the uncinate fasciculus is 45 mm with a range 40–49 mm. Its volume in adults is 1425.9±138.6 mm3, being slightly larger in men, at 1504.3±150.4, than women 1378.5±107.4.

Broca's area is now typically defined in terms of the pars opercularis and pars triangularis of the inferior frontal gyrus, represented in Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic map as Brodmann area 44 and Brodmann area 45 of the dominant hemisphere. Functional magnetic resonance imaging has shown language processing to also involve the third part of the inferior frontal gyrus the pars orbitalis, as well as the ventral part of BA6 and these are now often included in a larger area called Broca's region. Studies of chronic aphasia have implicated an essential role of Broca's area in various speech and language functions. Further, fMRI studies have also identified activation patterns in Broca's area associated with various language tasks.

Duret haemorrhages are named after Henri Duret. They are small linear areas of bleeding in the midbrain and upper pons of the brainstem. They are caused by a traumatic downward displacement of the brainstem with parahippocampal gyrus herniation through the tentorial notch. or acute hematoma, edema following trauma, abscess, or tumor.

Along with the other three muscles of mastication (temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid), the masseter is innervated by the anterior division of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve. The innervation pathway is: gyrus precentralis > genu capsula interna > nucleus motorius nervi trigemini > nervus trigeminus > nervus mandibularis > musculus masseter.

Along with the parahippocampal gyrus, the pyriform cortex is a chief component of paleocortex. The pyriform cortex is located in the anterior medial temporal lobe. Through the amygdalofugal pathway, it projects to the nucleus of the diagonal band. The pyriform cortex is adjoined to the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala.

Sustained Arc/Arg3.1 synthesis controls long-term potentiation consolidation through regulation of local actin polymerization in the dentate gyrus in vivo. J Neurosci, 27, 10445–10455.Huang, F., Chotiner, J.K., Steward, O. (2007). Actin polymerization and ERK phosphorylation are required for Arc/Arg3.1 mRNA targeting to activated synaptic sites on dendrites.

The sulci and fissures are both grooves in the cortex, but they are differentiated by size. A sulcus is a shallower groove that surrounds a gyrus. A fissure is a large furrow that divides the brain into lobes and also into the two hemispheres as the longitudinal fissure.Carlson, N. R. (2013).

Perceiving another person's affective state can cause automatic changes in brain activity in the viewer. This automatic change in brain activity is known as resonance and helps initiate an empathetic response. The inferior frontal gyrus and the inferior parietal lobule are two regions of the brain associated with empathy resonance.

Hilar mossy cells and CA3 Pyramidal cells are the main origins of hippocampal commissural fibers. They pass through hippocampal commissures to reach contralateral regions of hippocampus. Hippocampal commissures have dorsal and ventral segments. Dorsal commissural fibers consists mainly of entorhinal and presubicular fibers to or from the hippocampus and dentate gyrus.

The VPL receives information from the neospinothalamic tract and the medial lemniscus of the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway. It then projects this sensory information to Brodmann's Areas 3, 1 and 2 in the postcentral gyrus. Collectively, Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2 make up the primary somatosensory cortex of the brain.

Klob, B. & Whishaw, I.Q. (2009). ‘’Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology’’ (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers There is evidence for significant left hemisphere activation in the inferior and middle frontal gyri and inferior parietal gyrus during subvocal rehearsal. Broca's area has also been found to have activation in other studies exploring subvocal rehearsal.

The source analysis of the N400 effect indicated generators located in the posterior portion of the middle temporal gyrus (MTG, Brodmann´s area 21/37), quite close to the superior temporal sulcus. This localization concurs with numerous studies on the functional neuroanatomy of semantic processes at the level of both words and sentences.

The thumb The hippocampus is a structure in the brain that has been associated with various memory functions. It is part of the limbic system, and lies next to the medial temporal lobe. It is made up of two structures, the Ammon's Horn, and the Dentate gyrus, each containing different types of cells.

The ventral reticular nucleus is a continuation of the parvocellular nucleus in the brainstem. The ventral reticular nucleus has been shown to receive afferent projections from the dentate gyrus in rabbits.Tang, ZW et al. The fiber projections from the dentate nucleus to the reticular formation of the brain stem in the rabbit.

Diagram of a Timm-stained cross-section of the mouse hippocampus. The hippocampal subregion CA3-CA4 is indicated in black, stippled, and hatched areas. Black areas: suprapyramidal (SP), intra- and infrapyramidal (IIP) and hilar (CA4) mossy fiber terminal fields originating from the dentate gyrus. Stippled area: strata oriens (OR) and radiatum (RD).

BFP appears to be a symmetrical polymicrogyria that extends anteriorly from the frontal poles to the posterior precentral gyrus, and inferiorly to the frontal operculum. Patients who had polymicrogyria distribution similar to this also experienced similar symptoms including delayed motor and language developments, spastic hemiparesis or quadriparesis, and forms of mild mental retardation.

Brain, 106:271-311. It may be caused by disease of the sensory cortex or posterior columns. People suffering from Alzheimer's disease show a reduction in stereognosis. Astereognosis can be caused by damage to the posterior association areas of the parietal, temporal, or occipital lobes, or the postcentral gyrus of either hemisphere.

Haptic memory represents SM for the tactile sense of touch. Sensory receptors all over the body detect sensations such as pressure, itching, and pain. Information from receptors travel through afferent neurons in the spinal cord to the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe in the brain. This pathway comprises the somatosensory system.

Dispersion of the granule cell layer in the hippocampal dentate gyrus is occasionally seen in temporal lobe epilepsy and has been linked to the downregulation of reelin, a protein that normally keeps the layer compact by containing neuronal migration. It is unknown whether changes in reelin expression play a role in epilepsy.

Rotating image of human brain, illustrating the lateral sulcus Illustration depicting general brain structures including sulci In neuroanatomy, a sulcus (Latin: "furrow", pl. sulci) is a depression or groove in the cerebral cortex. It surrounds a gyrus (pl. gyri), creating the characteristic folded appearance of the brain in humans and other mammals.

This area is also known as ventral posterior cingulate area 23. It is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined cingulate region of cerebral cortex. In the human it occupies most of the posterior cingulate gyrus adjacent to the corpus callosum. At the caudal extreme it is bounded approximately by the parieto- occipital sulcus.

During the cross images, the subjected perceived an after-image. The results of the experiment showed that there was a significant increase of activity in the fusiform gyrus when the subject viewed the colour image. This provided more evidence to the existence of the colour centre outside of the primary visual cortex.

Theta waves recorded from above the hippocampus are smaller, and polarity-reversed with respect to the fissure signals. The strongest theta waves are generated by the CA1 layer, and the most significant input driving them comes from the entorhinal cortex, via the direct EC→CA1 pathway. Another important driving force comes from the CA3→CA1 projection, which is out of phase with the entorhinal input, leading to a gradual phase shift as a function of depth within CA1 (Brankack, et al. 1993). The dentate gyrus also generates theta waves, which are difficult to separate from the CA1 waves because they are considerably smaller in amplitude, but there is some evidence that dentate gyrus theta is usually about 90 degrees out of phase from CA1 theta.

This is significant because it suggests that voluntary and involuntary retrieval are largely not mediated by separate cortical networks, which begs the question for future research of what distinguishes the two sub-components of memory, if not cognitive pathways and brain activation areas. Further, it might be explored whether these similarities in cognitive mechanism reflect shared properties and impacts of the recalled memories themselves, regardless of intentionality of retrieval. In this particular study, voluntary and involuntary recall were both associated with increased activations in the posterior cingulated gyrus, left precuneus, and right parahippocampal gyrus. In addition, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and left precuneus were more active during voluntary recall, while left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was more active during involuntary recall.

Another significant finding of this study done by Qiu and Zhang (2008), was a late positive component (LPC) in successful guessing of the logograph and then recognition of the answer at 600 and 700 ms, post- stimulus, in the parahippocampal gyrus (BA34). The data suggests that the parahippocampus is involved in searching of a correct answer by manipulating it in working memory, and integrating relationships between the base of the target logograph. The parahippocampal gyrus may reflect the formation of novel associations while solving insight problem. Another ERP study is fairly similar to the Qiu and Zhang, 2008 study, however, this study claims to have anterior cingulate cortex activation at N380, which may be responsible for the mediation of breaking the mental set.

Some parts of the brain showing abnormal activity in OCD Functional neuroimaging during symptom provocation has observed abnormal activity in the orbitofrontal cortex, left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, right premotor cortex, left superior temporal gyrus, globus pallidus externus, hippocampus and right uncus. Weaker foci of abnormal activity were found in the left caudate, posterior cingulate cortex and superior parietal lobule. However, an older meta analysis of functional neuroimaging in OCD reported the only consistent functional neuroimaging findings have been increased activity in the orbital gyrus and head of the caudate nucleus, while ACC activation abnormalities were too inconsistent. A meta analysis comparing affective and non affective tasks observed differences with controls in regions implicated in salience, habit, goal-directed behavior, self-referential thinking and cognitive control.

Broca named the limbic lobe in 1878, identifying it with the cingulate and parahippocampal gyri, and associating it with the sense of smell - Treviranus having earlier noted that, between species, the size of the parahippocampal gyrus varies with the size of the olfactory nerve. In 1937 Papez theorized that a neural circuit (the Papez circuit) including the hippocampal formation and the cingulate gyrus constitutes the neural substrate of emotional behavior, and Klüver and Bucy reported that, in monkeys, resection involving the hippocampal formation and the amygdaloid complex has a profound effect on emotional responses. As a consequence of these publications, the idea that the entire limbic lobe is dedicated to olfaction receded, and a direct connection between emotion and the limbic lobe was established.

In 2014, Monteggia and her lab used a novel inducible knockout system to selectively knock out Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor, a neurotrophin, in the forebrains of mice to explore the role of BDNF in complex behaviors. They found that depletion of BDNF impaired hippocampal learning and long-term potentiation and they further found that a loss of BDNF also impaired the effects of the antidepressant, desipramine. Monteggia’s group then showed that selective loss of BDNF in the dentate gyrus region of the hippocampus, but not the CA1 region, attenuates the effects of the antidepressants desipramine and citalopram during the forced swim test. Her findings suggest that the actions of antidepressants on specifically the dentate gyrus region of the hippocampus mediate their therapeutic effects.

The colour centre is a region in the brain primarily responsible for visual perception and cortical processing of colour signals received by the eye, which ultimately results in colour vision. The colour centre in humans is thought to be located in the ventral occipital lobe as part of the visual system, in addition to other areas responsible for recognizing and processing specific visual stimuli, such as faces, words, and objects. Many functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies in both humans and macaque monkeys have shown colour stimuli to activate multiple areas in the brain, including the fusiform gyrus and the lingual gyrus. These areas, as well as others identified as having a role in colour vision processing, are collectively labelled visual area 4 (V4).

The somatic nervous system controls all voluntary muscular systems within the body, and the process of voluntary reflex arcs. The basic route of nerve signals within the efferent somatic nervous system involves a sequence that begins in the upper cell bodies of motor neurons (upper motor neurons) within the precentral gyrus (which approximates the primary motor cortex). Stimuli from the precentral gyrus are transmitted from upper motor neurons and down the corticospinal tract, via axons to control skeletal (voluntary) muscles. These stimuli are conveyed from upper motor neurons through the ventral horn of the spinal cord, and across synapses to be received by the sensory receptors of alpha motor neurons (large lower motor neurons) of the brainstem and spinal cord.

Gould’s research has shown that exposure of aversive stimuli results in a decrease in cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus of adult rats, tree shrews and marmoset monkeys. Gould and her colleagues have shown that social stress inhibits cell production in these three species in a series of studies. Furthermore, they have discovered that exposure of adult rats to the odors of natural predators, but not other novel odors, suppresses the proliferation of cells in the dentate gyrus. This effect was found to be dependent on adrenal steroids because the prevention of the stress-induced rise in glucocorticoids (by adrenalectomy and replacement with low-dose corticosterone in the drinking water) eliminated the inhibitory effect of fox odor on cell production.

Research using direct brain stimulation showed that electrical stimulation to the anterior midcingulate cortex elicits a response that mirrors the emotional experience of determination.Parvizi, J., Rangarajan, V., Shirer, W. R., Desai, N., & Greicius, M. D. (2013). The will to persevere induced by electrical stimulation of the human cingulate gyrus. Neuron, 80(6), 1359-1367.

The removed brain structures included the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the parahippocampal gyrus, now called the medial temporal lobe memory system. HM was one of the most studied memory cases to date and started the examination of neurological structures in relation to memory. Patients who suffered RA due to surgery are 'P.B.' and 'F.

Cathepsin B has been proposed as a potentially effective biomarker for a variety of cancers. Overexpression of cathepsin B is correlated with invasive and metastatic cancers. Cathepsin B is produced in muscle tissue during metabolism. It is capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier and is associated with neurogenesis, specifically in the mouse dentate gyrus.

Cingulotomy, where part of the anterior cingulate gyrus is destroyed, was pioneered in Great Britain in 1948 by Hugh Cairns, first Nuffield Professor of Surgery at the University of Oxford.GJ Fraenkel 1991 Hugh Cairns: first Nuffield Professor of Surgery, University of Oxford. Oxford University Press: 207-9.CWM Whitty and JE Duffield 1952 Anterior cingulotomy.

The main areas of paleocortex are the olfactory bulb, olfactory tubercle and piriform cortex. Archicortex is a type of cortical tissue that consists of four laminae (layers of neuronal cell bodies). The main areas of archicortex are the hippocampus and dentate gyrus. Periallocortex is a transitional form between neocortex and either paleo- or archi-cortex.

Arc immunohistochemical staining of the rat (Rattus norvegicus) dentate gyrus. Image shows Arc protein levels at one hour following inhibitory avoidance training and immediate, systemic injection of 3 mg/kg corticosterone. Activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein is a plasticity protein that in humans is encoded by the ARC gene. It was first characterized in 1995.

Pearson Benjamin Cummings: San Francisco. A sensory homunculus represents a map of brain areas dedicated to sensory processing for different anatomical divisions of the body. The primary sensory cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus, and handles signals coming from the thalamus. The thalamus itself receives corresponding signals from the brain stem and spinal cord.

This neurogenesis contributes to the creation of adult- born granules cells (GC), cells also described by Eichenbaum in his own research on neurogenesis and its contributions to learning. The creation of these cells exhibited "enhanced excitability" in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the dorsal hippocampus, impacting the hippocampus and its contribution to the learning process.

Cerebral achromatopsia occurs after injury to the lingual or fusiform gyrus, the areas associated with hV4. These injuries include physical trauma, stroke, and tumour growth. One of the primary initiatives to locating the colour centre in the visual cortex is to discover the cause and a possible treatment of cerebral achromatopsia. Simulation of cerebral achromatopsia.

When subjects were shown emotional images, the amygdala and lingual gyrus both activated significantly more when compared to neutral-emotion images.Kehoe, E. G., Toomey, J. M., Balsters, J. H., & Bokde, A. L. (2012). Healthy aging is associated with increased neural processing of positive valence but attenuated processing of emotional arousal: an fMRI study. Neurobiol Aging.

In the area of schizophrenia, McCarley has studied brain abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia. McCarley and Martha Shenton published a classic paper in 1992 that described a relationship in a reduction in the volume of the left superior temporal gyrus and thought disorder in patients with schizophrenia.Shenton ME, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, et al.

Coronal section of a human brain. BA41(red) and BA42(green) are auditory cortex. BA22(yellow) is Brodmann area 22, HF(blue) is hippocampal formation and pSTG is posterior part of superior temporal gyrus. The auditory cortex is the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and many other vertebrates.

The femoral nerve innervates the quadriceps femoris, a fourth of which is the rectus femoris. When the rectus femoris receives the signal that has traveled all the way from the medial side of the precentral gyrus, it contracts, extending the knee and flexing the thigh at the hip.Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function, Saladin, 5th ed.

Similarly there is also a region of the brain known as the parahippocampal place area on the parahippocampal gyrus. As the name implies, this area is sensitive to environmental context, places. Damage to these areas of the brain can lead to very specific deficits. For example, damage to the FFA often leads to prosopagnosia, an inability to recognize faces.

The fusiform face area (FFA) is a part of the brain located in the fusiform gyrus with a debated purpose. Some researchers believe that the FFA is evolutionary purposed for face perception. Others believe that the FFA discriminates between any familiar stimuli. Psychologists debate whether the FFA is activated by faces for an evolutionary or expertise reason.

Perforant path–granule cells (PP-GC) in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in adult rats have been shown to experience fatigue at lower frequencies (0.05-0.2 Hz).Abrahamsson, T., Gustafsson, B., & Hanse, E. (2005). Synaptic fatigue at the naive perforant path-dentate granule cell synapse in the rat. The Journal of Physiology, 569(Pt 3), 737-750.

Other areas, such as the fusiform gyrus have inputs from higher brain areas and are considered to have top-down influence.Ramskov (2008), p. 81. The study of visual attention provides an example. If your attention is drawn to a flower in a field, it may be because the color or shape of the flower are visually salient.

Attitudes towards risk have attracted the interest of the field of neuroeconomics and behavioral economics. A 2009 study by Christopoulos et al. suggested that the activity of a specific brain area (right inferior frontal gyrus) correlates with risk aversion, with more risk averse participants (i.e. those having higher risk premia) also having higher responses to safer options.

Broca's Area: Broca's area is located in the left hemisphere prefrontal cortex above the cingulate gyrus in the third frontal convolution. Broca's area was discovered by Paul Broca in 1865. This area handles speech production. Damage to this area would result in Broca aphasia which causes the patient to become unable to formulate coherent appropriate sentences.

Specifically, the GABAergic cells of the medial septum that act as theta pacemakers target dentate gyrus, CA3, and CA1 interneurons. Pacemaking MS interneurons express hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels which likely, at least partially, mediate their pacemaker properties. It is composed of GABAergic cells, glutamatergic cells, and cholinergic cells. Each cell-type carries out different functions.

As in the cortex, it is believed that reelin plays an important role in layering of hippocampal neurons through inhibition of migration. Reelin knockout mice lack a single, distinct pyramidal cell body layer due to excess migration. Unexpectedly, these mice have reduced migration into dentate gyrus. The mechanism of this is involve disruption in radial glial scaffolding.

At the thalamus, second order neurons synapse with third order neurons, which continue through the internal capsule to the primary sensory cortex of the post central gyrus where the tract terminates. Stereognosis determines whether or not this tract is properly functioning.Irving, John B. "Stereognosis." RES MEDICA: Journal of the Royal Medical Society 6.2 (1968): 23-27. Journals.ed.ac.uk.

Brodmann area 37, or BA37, is part of the temporal cortex in the human brain. It contains the fusiform gyrus which in turn contains the fusiform face area, an area important for the recognition of faces. This area is also known as occipitotemporal area 37 (H). It is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined temporal region of cerebral cortex.

The KNOB is also a suggested cortical substrate of the hand, as there have been anatomical asymmetries which have been linked to hand preference and skill, further suggesting the development of hands in the formation of the central sulcus seeing as the KNOB is the central portion of the central sulcus folded over the buried gyrus.

The angular gyrus is the part of the brain associated with complex language functions (i.e. reading, writing and interpretation of what is written). Lesion to this part of the brain shows symptoms of the Gerstmann syndrome: effects include finger agnosia, alexia (inability to read), acalculia (inability to use arithmetic operations), agraphia (inability to copy), and left-right confusion.

The combination of these three functions makes the cingulate gyrus highly influential in linking motivational outcomes to behavior (e.g. a certain action induced a positive emotional response, which results in learning). This role makes the cingulate cortex highly important in disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. It also plays a role in executive function and respiratory control.

A 2-D cortical motor homunculus A motor homunculus represents a map of brain areas dedicated to motor processing for different anatomical divisions of the body. The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus, and handles signals coming from the premotor area of the frontal lobes.Marieb, E., Hoehn, K. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 7th Ed. 2007.

If any part of the brain that controls eye movement becomes damaged, then OMA may develop. One of the potential causes is bifrontal hemorrhages. In this case, OMA is associated with bilateral lesions of the frontal eye fields (FEF), located in the caudal middle frontal gyrus. The FEF control voluntary eye movements, including saccades, smooth pursuit and vergence.

Hillis, A.E., & Caramazza, A. (2005). "Aphasia". In L. Nadel, Encyclopedia of cognitive science. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Wernicke's area is named after Carl Wernicke, who in 1874 proposed a connection between damage to the posterior area of the left superior temporal gyrus and aphasia, as he noted that not all aphasic patients had suffered damage to the prefrontal cortex.

The CA3 of the hippocampus plays an especially important role in the encoding and retrieval of spatial memories. The CA3 is innervated by two afferent paths known as the perforant path (PPCA3) and the dentate gyrus (DG)-mediated mossy fibers (MFs). The first path is regarded as the retrieval index path while the second is concerned with encoding.

German physician Karl Wernicke continued in the vein of Broca's research by studying language deficits unlike expressive aphasia. Wernicke noted that not every deficit was in speech production; some were linguistic. He found that damage to the left posterior, superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke's area) caused language comprehension deficits rather than speech production deficits, a syndrome known as receptive aphasia.

The neural correlates of hate have been investigated with an fMRI procedure. In this experiment, people had their brains scanned while viewing pictures of people they hated. The results showed increased activity in the middle frontal gyrus, right putamen, bilaterally in the premotor cortex, in the frontal pole, and bilaterally in the medial insular cortex of the human brain.

The left opercular part of the inferior frontal gyrus is a part of the articulatory network involved in motor syllable programs. The articulatory network also contains the premotor cortex, and the anterior insula. These areas are interrelated but have specific functions in speech comprehension and production. The articulatory network acts mostly when the vocal tract moves to produce syllables.

They are glutamatergic, exciting striatal neurons. The striatum is seen as having its own internal microcircuitry. The ventral striatum receives direct input from multiple regions in the cerebral cortex and limbic structures such as the amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus, as well as the entorhinal cortex and the inferior temporal gyrus. Its primary input is to the basal ganglia system.

The prefrontal cortex has been defined based on cytoarchitectonics by the presence of a cortical granular layer IV. It is not entirely clear who first used this criterion. Many of the early cytoarchitectonic researchers restricted the use of the term prefrontal to a much smaller region of cortex including the gyrus rectus and the gyrus rostralis (Campbell, 1905; G. E. Smith, 1907; Brodmann, 1909; von Economo and Koskinas, 1925). In 1935, however, Jacobsen used the term prefrontal to distinguish granular prefrontal areas from agranular motor and premotor areas. In terms of Brodmann areas, the prefrontal cortex traditionally includes areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24, 25, 32, 44, 45, 46, and 47, however, not all of these areas are strictly granular – 44 is dysgranular, caudal 11 and orbital 47 are agranular.

There is a significant correlation between degree of loss aversion and strength of activity in both the frontomedial cortex and the ventral striatum. This is shown by the slope of brain activity deactivation for increasing losses being significantly greater than the slope of activation for increasing gains in the appetitive system involving the ventral striatum in the network of reward- based behavioural learning. On the other hand, when anticipating loss, the central and basal nuclei of amygdala, right posterior insula extending into the supramarginal gyrus mediate the output to other structures involved in the expression of fear and anxiety, such as the right parietal operculum and supramarginal gyrus. Consistent with gain anticipation, the slope of the activation for increasing losses was significantly greater than the slope of the deactivation for increasing gains.

Viewing one's own facial reflection in the mirror causes neurological changes in the right inferior frontal gyrus, the right inferior occipital gyrus, the right inferior parietal lobe, and the right parietal area. These changes, which all occur in the right hemisphere, highlight the role of the right hemisphere in self-related cognition and processing and support the theory that the right hemisphere is the most likely substrate for the "self" in the brain. When the right hemisphere is damaged in any way, the patient will most likely lose the ability to recognize one's face - the most common feature of self-recognition. When paired with mirror agnosia or impaired facial processing, damage in any of these areas of the right hemisphere of the brain can lead to difficulties in self-recognition.

Accumulative converging evidence indicates that the AVS is involved in recognizing auditory objects. At the level of the primary auditory cortex, recordings from monkeys showed higher percentage of neurons selective for learned melodic sequences in area R than area A1, and a study in humans demonstrated more selectivity for heard syllables in the anterior Heschl's gyrus (area hR) than posterior Heschl's gyrus (area hA1). In downstream associative auditory fields, studies from both monkeys and humans reported that the border between the anterior and posterior auditory fields (Figure 1-area PC in the monkey and mSTG in the human) processes pitch attributes that are necessary for the recognition of auditory objects. The anterior auditory fields of monkeys were also demonstrated with selectivity for con-specific vocalizations with intra-cortical recordings.

Studies of resting state activity have utilized a number of indicators of resting state activity, including regional homogeneity (ReHO), amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (ALFF), fractional amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (fALFF), arterial spin labeling (ASL), and positron emission tomography measures of regional cerebral blood flow or metabolism. Studies using ALFF and fALFF have reported elevations in ACC activity, with the former primarily reporting more ventral findings, and the latter more dorsal findings. A conjunction analysis of ALFF and CBF studies converged on the left insula, with previously untreated people having increased insula activity. Elevated caudate CBF was also reported A meta analysis combining multiple indicators of resting activity reported elevated anterior cingulate, striatal, and thalamic activity and reduced left insula, post-central gyrus and fusiform gyrus activity.

In mid June 2006 Olympus paid US-registered Axes America the sum of $3 million in "basic fees", and agreed to pay a "completion fee of 1 percent of the acquisition price in addition to the basic fee for advisory work relating to acquisitions." One year later, the agreed rate of "completion fee" to Axes was increased to 5 percent, payable in a mixture of cash, share options and warrants; it disbursed a further $2 million. When the Gyrus acquisition was announced, Olympus paid over $12 million, being the cash portion of the agreed "completion fee". In September 2008, to top up the cash part of the advisors' success fee, Gyrus issued ¥176.98 million of preferred stock to the AXAM against the advice of company auditors, according to Nikkei Business Daily.

The VPM contains synapses between second and third order neurons from the anterior (ventral) trigeminothalamic tract and posterior (dorsal) trigeminothalamic tract. These neurons convey sensory information from the face and oral cavity. Third order neurons in the trigeminothalamic systems project to the postcentral gyrus. The VPM also receives taste afferent information from the solitary tract and projects to the cortical gustatory area.

While the neurons for touch sensations ascend ipsilaterally through the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway to the thalamus; neurons for pain and temperature ascend contralaterally to the thalamus through the anterolateral system. When both sensory pathways reach the integrating center that is the thalamus, they make their final ascent to the somatosensory areas in the postcentral gyrus of the cerebral cortex.

The development of the rhinencephalon varies among species. In humans it is rudimentary. A small area where the frontal lobe meets the temporal lobe and the area of cortex on the uncus of the parahippocampal gyrus (both belonging to the olfactory cortex) have a different structure (so called "allocortex") than most of the telencephalon and are phylogenetically older (so called paleocortex).

This study found several areas of the brain that function differently. The amygdala (associated with processing negative emotions such as fear) was more activated in dysthymia patients. The study also observed increased activity in the insula (which is associated with sad emotions). Finally, there was increased activity in the cingulate gyrus (which serves as the bridge between attention and emotion).

Brodmann area 5 is a subdivision of the parietal cortex, part of the cortex in the human brain. BA5 is part of the superior parietal lobule and part of the postcentral gyrus. It is situated immediately posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex. It is bounded cytoarchitecturally by Brodmann area 2, Brodmann area 7, Brodmann area 4, and Brodmann area 31.

Brodmann area 47, or BA47, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. Curving from the lateral surface of the frontal lobe into the ventral (orbital) frontal cortex. It is below areas BA10 and BA45, and beside BA11. This cytoarchitectonic region most closely corresponds to the gyral region the orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus, although these regions are not equivalent.

It does however appear that the PPA is associated with visual processing of buildings and places, as patients who have experienced damage to the parahippocampal area demonstrate topographic disorientation, in other words, unable to navigate familiar and unfamiliar surroundings (Habib & Sirigu, 1987). Outside of visual processing, the parahippocampal gyrus is involved in both spatial memory and spatial navigation (Squire & Zola-Morgan, 1991).

The fusiform face area is located within the inferior temporal cortex in the fusiform gyrus. Similar to the PPA, the FFA exhibits higher neural activation when visually processing faces more so than places or buildings (Kanwisher et al., 1997). However, the fusiform area also shows activation for other stimuli and can be trained to specialize in the visual processing of objects of expertise.

Brodmann area 30, also known as agranular retrolimbic area 30, is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined retrosplenial region of the cerebral cortex. In the human it is located in the isthmus of cingulate gyrus. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded internally by the granular retrolimbic area 29, dorsally by the ventral posterior cingulate area 23 and ventrolaterally by the ectorhinal area 36 (Brodmann-1909).

The spinothalamic tract (part of the anterolateral system or the ventrolateral system) is a sensory pathway to the thalamus. From the ventral posterolateral nucleus in the thalamus, sensory information is relayed upward to the somatosensory cortex of the postcentral gyrus. The spinothalamic tract consists of two adjacent pathways: anterior and lateral. The anterior spinothalamic tract carries information about crude touch.

This sensation may progress along a limb or to adjacent cutaneous body areas, reflecting abnormal neuronal firing in the postcentral gyrus where an epileptic discharge is propagated. These episodes in which patients are consciously aware during a seizure have been useful for identifying problems associated with the somatosensory cortex. Patients can describe the nature of the seizure and how they feel during it.

Goodson-Wickes has served as director of two FTSE 250 companies: Nestor Healthcare Group Plc (1993–1999) and Gyrus Group Plc (1997–2007) and other companies. He is currently the chief executive of consultancy company Medarc Ltd and the chairman of the board of directors Thomas Greg and Sons Ltd, security printers operating in North and South America, India, China and the Philippines.

Together, these two pathways are collectively termed the mesocorticolimbic projection. The VTA also sends dopaminergic projections to the amygdala, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, and olfactory bulb. Mesocorticolimbic neurons play a central role in reward and other aspects of motivation. Accumulating literature shows that dopamine also plays a crucial role in aversive learning through its effects on a number of brain regions.

Another possible area of damage leading to IA is the submarginal gyrus, which is located in the parietal lobe of the brain. Overall, IA is an autonomous syndrome, linked to damage in the left hemisphere involving semantic memory disorders rather than a defect in motor control. Several severe injuries or diseases can cause IA in a wide range of patients.

31 (2): 217-238 Research conducted with the use of neuroimaging have found patients with schizophrenia have structural abnormalities in their superior temporal gyrus.Kasai K, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF, Hirayasu Y, Lee C-U, Ciszewski AA, et al. Progressive decrease of left superior temporal gyrus gray matter volume in patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003a;160:156–64.

It has been found that grapheme–color synesthetes have more grey matter in their brain. There is evidence of an increased grey matter volume in the left caudal intraparietal sulcus (IPS). There was also found to be an increased grey matter volume in the right fusiform gyrus. These results are consistent with another study on the brain functioning of grapheme–color synesthetes.

Grapheme–color synesthetes tend to have an increased thickness, volume and surface area of the fusiform gyrus. Furthermore, the area of the brain where word, letter and color processing are located, V4a, is where the most significant difference in make-up was found. Though not certain, these differences are thought to be part of the reasoning for the presence of grapheme–color synesthesia.

Jürgen L. Müller. Kohlhammer Verlag: 2009 During his time in Regensburg, he implemented numerous research projects on forensically relevant disorders of personality (“Psychopathy”). As head of the interdisciplinary working group "Emotion processing and emotion regulation"Müller, J. L., Gänßbauer, S., Sommer, M., Weber, T., Döhnel, K., Hajak, G. (2007) Volumenminderung und reduzierte emotionale Aktivierbarkeit des rechten superioren temporalen Gyrus bei krimineller „Psychopathy“.

The model was based on more or less consistent observations of reduced activity in the mOFC, vlPFC, and dlPFC, as well as the more or less consistent observations of increased activity in the amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus, cerebellar vermis, anterior temporal cortex, sgACC, and ACC. This pattern of abnormal activity was suggested to contribute to disrupted cognitive and affective processes in bipolar disorder.

Upper motor neurons originate in the motor cortex located in the precentral gyrus. The cells that make up the primary motor cortex are Betz cells, which are a type of pyramidal cell. The axons of these cells descend from the cortex to form the corticospinal tract.Fitzpatrick, D. (2001) The Primary Motor Cortex: Upper Motor Neurons That Initiate Complex Voluntary Movements.

In the macaque the researchers Bonin and Bailey describe an area they term LC which is in agreement with Brodmann area 23. The LC area : covers the posterior part of the cingulate gyrus and extends into the cingulate sulcus where, on the inferior wall, it is continuous with the frontal cortex FDL.Gerhardt von Bonin, Percival Bailey, The Neocortex of Macaca Mulatta, 1947.

Perinatal stroke’s severity determines its prognosis. 61% of infants who experienced a perinatal stroke are also diagnosed with cerebral palsy. While, infants with greater stroke severities and involvement of structures such as the precentral gyrus and Wernicke’s area have a critical prognosis. Infants who survived a perinatal stroke may develop disabilities like cerebral palsy, sensory dysfunctions, ADHD, and visual or hearing difficulties.

In the human brain, the entorhinal cortex appears as a longitudinal elevation anterior to the parahippocampal gyrus, with a corresponding internal furrow, the external rhinal sulcus (or rhinal fissure), separating it from the inferiolateral surface of the hemisphere close to the lamina terminalis. It is analogous to the collateral fissure found further caudally in the inferior part of the temporal lobe.

The microvasculature of the subgranular zone, located in dentate gyrus of hippocampus, plays an important role in neurogenesis. As precursor cells develop in the subgranular zone, they form clusters. These clusters usually contain dozens of cells. The clusters are made up of endothelial cells and neuronal precursor cells that have the ability to differentiate into either neurons or glia cells.

The cingulate sulcus is a sulcus (brain fold) on the cingulate cortex in the medial wall of the cerebral cortex. The frontal and parietal lobes are separated from the cingulate gyrus by the cingulate sulcus. It terminates as the marginal sulcus of the cingulate sulcus. It sends a ramus to separate the paracentral lobule from the frontal gyri, the paracentral sulcus.

It is also important for the basic neuronal mechanisms for phonological short-term memory. Without the Spt, language acquisition is impaired. The information then moves onto the articulatory network, which is divided into two separate parts. The articulatory network 1, which processes motor syllable programs, is located in the left posterior inferior temporal gyrus and Brodmann's area 44 (pIFG-BA44).

In this study, people who would see colours upon hearing words were studied to see if the colour reaction could be traced to a specific cortical area. fMRI results showed that the left fusiform gyrus, an area consistent with V4, was activated when the subjects spoke. They also found a simultaneous activation of V4α. There was little activity in areas V1 and V2.

Lesions to these two areas produces impairments in the processing of action related words and action related concepts. # Bilateral superior temporal Cortex: this area is strongly activated in response to words related to sounds. Lesions to this area produce impairment in sound word processing. # Left Inferior Parietal Cortex: especially near the supramarginal gyrus, this area is activated by spatial language.

The lingual gyrus of the occipital lobe lies between the calcarine sulcus and the posterior part of the collateral sulcus; behind, it reaches the occipital pole; in front, it is continued on to the tentorial surface of the temporal lobe, and joins the parahippocampal gyrus.Mendoza. John E.. and Anne L. Foundas. Clinical Neuroanatomy: A Neurobehavioral Approach. New York: Springer. 2008. Print.

Subjects with aphasia were tested with a variety of aphasia tests while undergoing fMRI to determine which areas were affected. Repetition of stimuli led to modulation in the lingual gyrus in subjects not afflicted, while those with aphasia showed significantly less modulation.Heath, S., McMahon, K. L., Nickels, L., Angwin, A., Macdonald, A. D., van Hees, S., . . . Copland, D. A. (2012).

Neural mechanisms underlying the facilitation of naming in aphasia using a semantic task: an fMRI study. BMC Neurosci, 13(1), 98. doi: 10.1186/1471-2202-13-98 Similarly, the region is activated by non-verbal, logic-based conditions. Subjects tasked with attributing intentions to characters in comic strips showed activation in the gyrus when comparing physical logic with and without characters.

Control samples show the activation is not linked to the problem solving itself, rather the recollection. This suggests a potential link between the lingual gyrus and hippocampal regions in the brain.Cho, S., Metcalfe, A. W. S., Young, C. B., Ryali, S., Geary, D. C., & Menon, V. (2012). Hippocampal-Prefrontal Engagement and Dynamic Causal Interactions in the Maturation of Children's Fact Retrieval. [Article].

The subcallosal cingulate gyrus CG25 which consists of BA25 as well as parts of BA24 and BA32 has been implicated as playing an important role in major depression and has been the target of deep brain stimulation to treat the disorder. One study found that BA25 is metabolically overactive in treatment-resistant depression.Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant Depression neuron.org, March 3, 2005.

These fibers start from the ventral part of entorhinal cortex (EC) and contain commissural (EC◀▶Hippocampus) and Perforant path (excitatory EC▶CA1, and inhibitory EC◀▶CA2) fibers. They travel along the septotemporal axis of the hippocampus. Perforant path fibers, as the name suggests, perforate subiculum before going to the hippocampus (CA fields) and dentate gyrus.

The dentate gyrus is significantly involved in cell proliferation, a process modulated by various internal factors including neuropeptide Y. Reduction or elimination of NPY released by interneurons decreased cell growth in this brain area. NPY affects neurogenesis by interacting with ERK kinase signaling pathways. Additionally, NPY acting on and stimulating Y1 receptors present on progenitor cell membranes in order to increase cell proliferation.

Because the face seems to function as an important identifying feature in memory, it can also be difficult for people with this condition to keep track of information about people, and socialize normally with others. Prosopagnosia has also been associated with other disorders that are associated with nearby brain areas: left hemianopsia (loss of vision from left side of space, associated with damage to the right occipital lobe), achromatopsia (a deficit in color perception often associated with unilateral or bilateral lesions in the temporo-occipital junction) and topographical disorientation (a loss of environmental familiarity and difficulties in using landmarks, associated with lesions in the posterior part of the parahippocampal gyrus and anterior part of the lingual gyrus of the right hemisphere). The opposite of prosopagnosia is the skill of superior face recognition ability. People with this ability are called "super recognizers".

The results of the study indicate that performance is significantly worse on free recall of the list of nouns when sleep deprived (an average of 2.8 ± 2 words) compared to having a normal night of sleep (4.7 ± 4 words). In terms of brain regions activated, the left prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and temporal lobes were found to be activated during the task in the rested state, and discrete regions of the prefrontal cortex were even more activated during the task in the sleep deprived state. As well, the bilateral parietal lobe, left middle frontal gyrus, and right inferior frontal gyrus were found to be activated for those sleep deprived. The implication of these findings are that the brain can initially compensate for the effects of sleep deprivation while maintaining partially intact performance, which declines with an increasing time-on-task.

Dyslexic students learn language differently from other students – specifically, it has been posited that dyslexics compensate for lack of activity while reading in the angular gyrus (responsible for signifiers in language and residing in the back of the brain) with much activity in the inferior frontal gyrus (responsible for speech and residing in the front of the brain). Research shows, therefore, that dyslexic students tend to also have trouble with balance and coordination. In keeping with brain research that shows that language remediation relies on stimulating connections between brain networks, and specifically between the two hemispheres of the brain, The Kildonan School requires all lower school students to train in horseback riding and all upper school students to learn to ski. These two sports are balance sports, and so require students to make neural connections between both hemispheres of the brain.

Many now believe stress to be the most significant factor for the onset of depression, aside from genetics. As discussed above, hippocampal cells are sensitive to stress which can lead to decreased neurogenesis. This area is being considered more frequently when examining the causes and treatments of depression. Studies have shown that removing the adrenal gland in rats caused increased neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus.

Epilepsy of the mesial temporal lobe is associated with HHV-6 infection. Within this region of the brain exists three structures: the amygdala, hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) is the most common form of chronic epilepsy and its underlying mechanism is not fully understood. Researchers consistently report having found HHV-6 DNA in tissues that were removed from patients with MTLE.

Somatosensory mapping involves measuring electrical responses on the surface of the brain as the result of the stimulation of peripheral nerves, such as mechanoreceptors that respond to pressure on the skin, and stimulating the brain directly to map sensory areas. Sensation has been tested in patients through the stimulation of the postcentral gyrus, with a drop in amplitude of sensory responses occurring towards the central sulcus.

A study by Ozawa et al. (2000) found that, when participants heard sentences that they rated as humorous, the Broca's area and the middle frontal gyrus were activated. Additionally, Wernicke's area and the transverse temporal gyri were activated, but these areas also were also found to be active in control (non-humorous) conditions.Ozawa, F., Matsuo, K., Kato, C., Nakai, T., Isoda, H., Takehara, Y., et al. (2000).

These networks include visual and emotional processing systems as well. Emotional face processing research has demonstrated that there are some of the other functions at work. While looking at faces displaying emotions (especially those with fear facial expressions) compared to neutral faces there is increased activity in the right fusiform gyrus. This increased activity also correlates with increased amygdala activity in the same situations.

Parietal lobe gives the ability to focus our attention on different stimuli at the same time, PET scans show high activity in the parietal lobe when participates being studied were asked to focus their attention at two separate areas of attention. Parietal lobe also assists with verbal short term memory and damage to the supramarginal gyrus cause short term memory loss.Cowan, Nelson. (2005). Working Memory Capacity.

In contrast, when subjects are distracted during the memory-encoding process, only the right prefrontal cortex and left parahippocampal gyrus are activated. These regions are associated with "a sense of knowing" or familiarity. Given that the areas involved in familiarity are also involved in recollection, this conforms to a single-process theory of recognition, at least insofar as the encoding of memories is concerned.

The FFA is located in the ventral stream on the ventral surface of the temporal lobe on the lateral side of the fusiform gyrus. It is lateral to the parahippocampal place area. It displays some lateralization, usually being larger in the right hemisphere. The FFA was discovered and continues to be investigated in humans using positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies.

These regions are connected by white matter fiber tracts that make possible the transmission of information between regions. The white matter fiber bunches were recognized to be important for language production after suggesting that it is possible to make a connection between multiple language centers. The three classical language areas that are involved in language production and processing are Broca’s and Wernicke's areas, and the angular gyrus.

Brodmann area 7 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined parietal region of cerebral cortex in Guenon primates. It occupies most of the parietal lobe excluding the postcentral gyrus and superior parietal lobule. This layer is distinguished by a lack of large ganglion cells in cortical layer V, slightly larger layer III pyramidal cells, and a multiform layer VI that is sharply bounded by white matter tracts.

Mossy fibers in the hippocampus project from the dentate gyrus to CA3. The pathway consists of varicose granule cell axons that terminate on the dendrites of hilar mossy cells and pyramidal cells in CA3. They form three morphologically different synaptic terminals, which include large mossy terminals, filopodial extensions within the mossy terminals, and small en passant synaptic varicosities. Each of these synapse types is functionally distinct.

With its medial boundary corresponding approximately to the rhinal sulcus it is located primarily in the fusiform gyrus. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded laterally and caudally by the inferior temporal area 20, medially by the area 35 and rostrally by the temporopolar area 38 (H) (Brodmann-1909). Its function is part of the formation/consolidation and retrieval of declarative/hippocampal memory amongst others for faces.

There are several possible physiological explanations for parts of the OBE. OBE-like experiences have been induced by stimulation of the brain. OBE-like experience has also been induced through stimulation of the posterior part of the right superior temporal gyrus in a patient.De Ridder D, Van Laere K, Dupont P, Menovsky T, Van de Heyning P. Visualizing out-of-body experience in the brain.

The CA1 is the region within the hippocampus between the subiculum, the innermost area of the hippocampal formation, and region CA2. The CA1 is separated from the dentate gyrus by the hippocampal sulcus. Cells within the CA1 are mostly pyramidal cells, similar to those in CA3. The CA1 completes the circuit by feeding back to the deep layers, mainly layer V, of the entorhinal cortex.

The cingulate gyrus plays a key role in the limbic system's emotion formation and processing. The cingulate cortex is separated into an anterior and a posterior region, which corresponds to areas 24, 32, 33 (anterior) and 23 (posterior) of the Brodmann areas. The anterior region receives information mainly from the mamillary bodies while the posterior cingulate receives information from the subiculum via the Papez circuit.

Similar effects did not appear in patients who were treated with chemotherapy. In all of these examples, the patients were treated with extremely high doses that were below the threshold for necrosis. Since cognitive functioning and memory are closely associated with the cerebral white volume of the prefrontal/frontal lobe and cingulate gyrus, defects in neurogenesis may play a critical role in neurocognitive problems in irradiated patients.

The limen insulae forms the junction point between anterior and posterior stem of the lateral sulcus. It is the lateral most limit of the anterior perforated substance and the starting point of the insular cortex. The limen insulae translates as the threshold to the insula, and is the point at which the insular cortex is continuous with cortex over the amygdala and superior temporal gyrus.

BMP4 helps in the patterning of the developing head though inducing apoptosis of the neural crest cells; this is done in the hindbrain.Graham et al., 1994 In adult, BMP4 is important for the neurogenesis (i.e., the generation of new neurons) that occurs throughout life in two neurogenic niches of the brain, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the subventricular zone (SVZ) adjacent to lateral ventricles.

The human brain. Note the location of the hippocampus, hippocampal gyrus, and amygdala. There have been a good number of recent studies which test implicit processes in subjects with mental disorders and abnormalities. Many of these studies have focused on amnesiac patients because the disorder deals primarily with consciousness and the ability to recognize familiar stimuli by retrieval of things that have been previously learned.

He substituted word suffixes ("winder" for "winding") and transposed his letters within the words ("Precy" for Percy). The boy showed no difficulty in reading multidigit numbers and correctly solving problems such as (a + x)(a - x) = (a2 \- x2). This led Morgan to conclude the etiology of reading disability to be congenital and attributed it to defective development of the left angular gyrus of the brain.

Human hypothalamus (shown in red) Kisspeptin is most notably expressed in the hypothalamus, but is also found in other areas of the brain including the hippocampal dentate gyrus. The hippocampus is known to integrate information on a person's spatial environment and memory. KISS1 is known to be expressed in the hippocampus. However, the levels of KISS1 mRNA expressed are decidedly lower than in the hypothalamus and amygdala.

The parahippocampal gyrus (or hippocampal gyrusReuter P.: Der Grobe Reuter Springer Universalworterbuch Medizin, Pharmakologie Und Zahnmedizin: Englisch- deutsch (Band 2), Birkhäuser, 2005, , p. 648 here online) is a grey matter cortical region of the brain that surrounds the hippocampus and is part of the limbic system. The region plays an important role in memory encoding and retrieval. It has been involved in some cases of hippocampal sclerosis.

Hippocampus The temporal lobe and particularly the hippocampus play an important role in memory processing. Declarative memory (memories which can be consciously recalled) is formed in the area of the hippocampus called the dentate gyrus. Temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with memory disorders and loss of memory. Animal models and clinical studies show that memory loss correlates with temporal lobe neuronal loss in temporal lobe epilepsy.

In TLE, there is loss of neurons in region CA1 and CA3 of the hippocampus.de Lanerolle N. C. and Noebels J. L. (ed.) Jasper's basic mechanisms of the epilepsies: histopathology of human epilepsy. Oxford University Press 2012 chapter 30 . There is also damage to mossy cells and inhibitory interneurons in the hilar region of the hippocampus (region IV) and to the granule cells of the dentate gyrus.

Mossy fibers are the axons of granule cells. They project into the hilus of the dentate gyrus and stratum lucidum in the CA3 region giving inputs to both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. In the TLE brain, where granule cells are damaged or lost, axons, the mossy fibres, 'sprout' in order to reconnect to other granule cell dendrites. This is an example of synaptic reorganization.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia are common causes of decline of brain functions that occur with age. AD is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that worsens over time. The disease process is associated with plaques and tangles in the brain. Vascular dementia may be caused by ischemic or hemorrhagic infarcts affecting multiple brain areas, including the anterior cerebral artery territory, the parietal lobes, or the cingulate gyrus.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia are common causes of decline of brain functions that occur with age. AD is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that worsens over time. The disease process is associated with plaques and tangles in the brain. Vascular dementia can be caused by ischemic or hemorrhagic infarcts affecting multiple brain areas, including the anterior cerebral artery territory, the parietal lobes, or the cingulate gyrus.

Contrary to Wernicke's explanations, Kussmaul believed auditory verbal agnosia was the result of major destruction to the first left temporal gyrus. Kussmaul also posited about the origins of alexia (acquired dyslexia) also known as word blindness. He believed that word blindness was the result of lesions to the left angular and supramarginal gyri. Heinrich Lissauer shared his ideas about agnosia after Wernicke and Kussmaul.

Memory is required in order to process and integrate both melodic and rhythmic aspects of music. Studies suggest that there is a rich interconnection between the right temporal gyrus and frontal cortical areas for working memory in music appreciation.Gaab, N., Gaser, C., Zaehle, T., Jancke, L., Schlaug, G. (2003). Functional anatomy of pitch memory-an fMRI study with sparse temoral sampling. NeuroLmage. 19:1417-1426.

In humans, the pSTG was shown to project to the parietal lobe (sylvian parietal-temporal junction-inferior parietal lobule; Spt-IPL), and from there to dorsolateral prefrontal and premotor cortices (Figure 1, bottom right-blue arrows), and the aSTG was shown to project to the anterior temporal lobe (middle temporal gyrus-temporal pole; MTG-TP) and from there to the IFG (Figure 1 bottom right-red arrows).

Visual area V4 is not tuned for complex objects such as faces, as areas in the inferotemporal cortex are. The firing properties of V4 were first described by Semir Zeki in the late 1970s, who also named the area. Before that, V4 was known by its anatomical description, the prelunate gyrus. Originally, Zeki argued that the purpose of V4 was to process color information.

The fusiform face area (FFA) is associated with facial recognition. It is generally located on the fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe, but its precise location varies between individuals. The FFA has been found to show a degree of lateralization, or what side of the brain the activity is likely to be found. Typically, it is larger in the right hemisphere of the brain.

The person may be able to see certain colours. However, there are many cases where there is no recovery. Finally, a person with hemiachromatopsia see half of their field of vision in colour, and the other half in grey. The visual hemifield contralateral to a lesion in the lingual or fusiform gyrus is the one that appears grey, while the ipsilateral visual hemifield appears in colour.

Hamzei used a verb generation task that caused widespread activation in the inferior frontal gyrus and the premotor cortex. The action observation task led to a small activation area within the larger activation area. Therefore, Hamzei noticed the overlap between areas. Aziz-Zadeh used a less extensive frontal activation task which allowed for areas activated by reading and by action observation to be clearly distinguished.

When subjects were tasked with pairing abstract nouns with either visual imagery or sentence generation, many areas in the occipital lobe – namely the lingual gyrus – showed task-selective memory effects. This effect was primarily linked to visual imagery, as there were no significant effects associated with sentence generation.Leshikar, E. D., Duarte, A., & Hertzog, C. (2012). Task-Selective Memory Effects for Successfully Implemented Encoding Strategies. [Article].

These axons arise from layer 2 of the entorhinal cortex (EC), and terminate in the dentate gyrus and CA3. There is also a distinct pathway from layer 3 of the EC directly to CA1, often referred to as the temporoammonic or TA-CA1 pathway. Granule cells of the DG send their axons (called "mossy fibers") to CA3. Pyramidal cells of CA3 send their axons to CA1.

Cortical homunculus Touch-position information from the body is sent to the ventral posterolateral nucleus (VPL) of the thalamus. Touch-position information from the face is sent to the ventral posteromedial nucleus (VPM) of the thalamus. From the VPL and VPM, information is projected to the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) in the parietal lobe. The representation of sensory information in the postcentral gyrus is organized somatotopically.

Brodmann area 4 refers to the primary motor cortex of the human brain. It is located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe. Brodmann area 4 is part of the precentral gyrus. The borders of this area are: the precentral sulcus in front (anteriorly), the medial longitudinal fissure at the top (medially), the central sulcus in back (posteriorly), and the lateral sulcus along the bottom (laterally).

In the brain, the perforant path or perforant pathway provides a connectional route from the entorhinal cortex to all fields of the hippocampal formation, including the dentate gyrus, all CA fields (including CA1), and the subiculum. Though it arises mainly from entorhinal layers II and III, the perforant path comprises a smaller component that originates in deep layers V and VI. There is a major dichotomy with respect to the laminar origin and related terminal distribution: neurons in layer II (and possibly layer VI) project to the dentate gyrus and CA3, whereas layer III (and possibly layer V) cells project to CA1 and the subiculum via the temporoammonic pathway. In addition to playing a role in spatial memory learning generally, the temporoammonic branch (TA-CA1) of the perforant path mediates spatial memory consolidation. The temporoammonic pathway has also been implicated in stress-based animal models of depression.

Cognitive neuroscientists Isabel Gauthier and Michael Tarr are two of the major proponents of the view that face recognition involves expert discrimination of similar objects (See the Perceptual Expertise Network). Other scientists, in particular Nancy Kanwisher and her colleagues, argue that face recognition involves processes that are face-specific and that are not recruited by expert discriminations in other object classes (see the domain specificity). Studies by Gauthier have shown that an area of the brain known as the fusiform gyrus (sometimes called the fusiform face area because it is active during face recognition) is also active when study participants are asked to discriminate between different types of birds and cars, and even when participants become expert at distinguishing computer generated nonsense shapes known as greebles. This suggests that the fusiform gyrus may have a general role in the recognition of similar visual objects.

According to a study by McKenna and Vertes, around 8–12% of cells of the MnR were retrogradely double-labeled after paired injections in the Medial septum CA1 region, Medial Septum CA3 region, Medial Septum Dentate Gyrus of the dorsal hippocampus, the lateral Medial Septum Dentate Gyrus, and the Medial Septum ventral hippocampus. These cells of the MnR that send collateral projections to the Medial Septum and hippocampus may serve a unique role in modulation of desynchronization of hippocampus EEG. Also, the MnR has significantly more single- and double-labeled cells after paired injections to the various Medial Septum and hippocampus regions than in DnR which demonstrate that MnR has more stronger projections to the Medial Septum and hippocampus than the DnR. MnR fibers are course and large with spherical varicosities. Neurotoxic 5-HT-releasing agents selectively destroy DnR projection fibers without affecting the dense coarse fibers from the MnR.

The OFC receives projections from multiple sensory modalities. The primary olfactory cortex, gustatory cortex, secondary somatosensory cortex, superior and inferior temporal gyrus(conveying visual information) all project to the OFC. Evidence for auditory inputs is weak, although some neurons respond to auditory stimuli, indicating an indirect projection may exist. The OFC also receives input from the medial dorsal nucleus, insular cortex, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, hypothalamus, and amygdala.

Iconic memory's role in change detection has been related to activation in the middle occipital gyrus (MOG). MOG activation was found to persist for approximately 2000ms suggesting a possibility that iconic memory has a longer duration than what was currently thought. Iconic memory is also influenced by genetics and proteins produced in the brain. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a part of the neurotrophin family of nerve growth factors.

The anterior nuclei receive afferents from the mammillary bodies via the mammillothalamic tract and from the subiculum via the fornix. In turn, they project to the cingulate gyrus. The anterior nuclei of the thalamus display functions pertaining to memory. Persons displaying lesions in the anterior thalamus, preventing input from the pathway involving the hippocampus, mammillary bodies and the MTT, display forms of amnesia, supporting the anterior thalamus's involvement in episodic memory.

Amygdala size has been correlated with cognitive styles with regard to political thinking. A study found that "greater liberalism was associated with increased gray matter volume in the anterior cingulate cortex, whereas greater conservatism was associated with increased volume of the right amygdala." These findings suggest that the volume of the amygdala and anterior cingulate gyrus may be associated with an individual's ability to tolerate uncertainty and conflict.

Social deprivation in early childhood development can also cause neurocognitive deficits in the brain. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans reveal drastic reductions in areas such as the prefrontal cortex, temporal lobe, amygdala, hippocampus, and orbitofrontal gyrus of socially deprived children. These areas are associated with higher order cognitive processing such as memory, emotion, thinking, and rationalization.Chugani, H.T.; Behen, M.E.; Muzik, O.; Juhasz, C.; Nagy, F.; Chugani, D. C. (2001).

They also noticed that when participants envisioned a future event, a set of regions including the bilateral posterior cingulate, bilateral parahippocampal gyrus, and left occipital cortex, which are associated with remembering previously encountered visual-spatial contexts is also activated. Such findings suggests that participants tend to envision future scenarios in well known visual-spatial contexts, with similar patterns of neural activation coinciding with remembering the past and imagining the future.

Generation of written language is thought to be closely related to speech generation, relying on Broca's area for early processing and on the inferior frontal gyrus for semantic processing. However, writing differs in two major ways. First, instead of relating the thought to sounds, the brain must relate the thought to symbols or letters, and second, the motor cortex activates a different set of muscles to write, than when speaking.

Area 27 of Brodmann-1909 is a cytoarchitecturally defined cortical area that is a rostral part of the parahippocampal gyrus of the guenon (Brodmann-1909). It is commonly regarded as a synonym of presubiculum (Crosby-62). The dorsal part of the presubiculum is more commonly known as the postsubiculum and is of interest because it contains head direction cells, which are responsive to the facing direction of the head.

In a study by Zhou et al., the researchers performed fMRI studies on PKD patients, and analyzed the differences between the amplitude low frequency fluctuations (ALFF) of the patients. They found that the left postcentral gyrus and the bilateral putamen had increased ALFF in PKD patients. The researchers concluded that the hyperactivity in these regions suggested that there is a dysfunction in the basal ganglia-thalamo- cortical circuit in PKD.

Several types of hippocampal and entorhinal neurons are capable of generating theta-frequency membrane potential oscillations when stimulated. Typically these are sodium-dependent voltage-sensitive oscillations in membrane potential at near-action potential voltages (Alonso & Llinás, 1989). Specifically, it appears that in neurons of the CA1 and dentate gyrus, these oscillations result from an interplay of dendritic excitation via a persistent sodium current (INaP) with perisomatic inhibition (Buzsáki, 2002).

Landmark agnosia is marked by the inability to recognize salient environmental stimuli such as landmarks. This is usually due to lesions in the lingual gyrus. Patients are able to draw detailed maps and visualize places familiar to them before the illness. They can distinguish between classes of buildings, such as house or skyscraper, but are unable to identify specific buildings, such as their own house or famous landmarks.

At the front edge of the occipital lobe are several occipital gyri, which are separated by lateral occipital sulcus. The occipital aspects along the inside face of each hemisphere are divided by the calcarine sulcus. Above the medial, Y-shaped sulcus lies the cuneus, and the area below the sulcus is the lingual gyrus. Damage to the primary visual areas of the occipital lobe can cause partial or complete blindness.

This area is also known as middle temporal area 21. It is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined temporal region of cerebral cortex. In the human it corresponds approximately to the middle temporal gyrus. It is bounded rostrally by the temporopolar area 38 (H), ventrally by the inferior temporal area 20, caudally by the occipitotemporal area 37 (H), and dorsally by the superior temporal area 22 (Brodmann-1909).

Further, several fMRI studies have reported prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity during study predictive of subsequent memory, as well as activity in fusiform gyrus. Taken together, these findings from complementary cognitive neuroscience methods suggest the neural events at encoding that lead to successful later memory are diffuse in the brain and unfold on multiple time scales. The Dm effect seen in ERPs likely represents a subset of these encoding processes.

Although infants are born with a properly formed brain, they are still far away from full development. The glial cells, which play a vital role in proper brain function (e.g. insulating nerve cells with myelin), keep growing to divide and multiply after birth. However, to have a fully developed eyewitness memory, the development of gray matter, white matter, the dentate gyrus and density of synapses are highly necessary.

Fibers of the posterior column, which transmit sensory and proprioceptive information, are located behind the pyramids on the medulla oblongata. The medullary pyramids contain motor fibers that are known as the corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts. The corticospinal tracts are on the anterior surface of the pyramids. These tracts transport motor signals that originated in the precentral gyrus and travelled through the internal capsule to the medulla oblongata and pyramids.

An fMRI test of this hypothesis showed that at longer intervals, the processing penalty for an incorrect prediction is related to heightened activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus and Broca's area.Gold, B., Balota, D., Jones, S., Powell, D., Smith, C., & Andersen, A. (2006). Dissociation of Automatic and Strategic Lexical-Semantics: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Evidence for Differing Roles of Multiple Frontotemporal Regions. Journal of Neuroscience, 26 (24), 6523-6532.

The Hippocampus Book: Oxford University Press. The connections of the dentate gyrus and entorhinal cortex are also more sophisticated in humans. In rats and cats, a very large reciprocal connection exists between the entorhinal cortex and the olfactory system. In primates this connection is absent and there are highly differentiated connections between the multimodal parasensory and paralimbic cortices and the EC which are not as evident in rats and cats.

A study was done by Beauvois and Dérouesné on a 64-year-old man. The individual is described as right-handed, a retiree, and having formerly been an agricultural machinery representative. The individual had had surgery for a left parieto- occipital angioma. Scans showed a lesion at the left angular gyrus, the posterior part of the second temporal convolution, the inferior longitudinal fasciculus, the geniculostriate fibres and tapetum.

The frontal cortex includes the premotor cortex, and the primary motor cortex – cortical parts of the motor cortex. The front part of the frontal lobe is covered by the prefrontal cortex. There are four principal gyri in the frontal lobe. The precentral gyrus, is directly anterior to the central sulcus, running parallel to it and contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts.

When this structure isn't working properly or when having to make very quick judgements, empathy becomes severely limited. Research has shown that disrupting the neurons in the right supramarginal gyrus causes humans to project emotions on others, inhibiting the ability to be empathetic. In addition, this disruption also causes people to be more egocentric, mainly because they are not able to perceive the emotions of those around them.

As a result of the relationship between dendritic architecture and long-term potentiation (LTP), ERβ can enhance LTP and lead to an increase in synaptic strength. Furthermore, 17βE2 promotes neurogenesis in developing hippocampal neurons and neurons in the subventricular zone and dentate gyrus of the adult human brain. Specifically, ERβ increases the proliferation of progenitor cells to create new neurons and can be increased later in life through 17βE2 treatment.

Mice that do not express CUL4B in epiblast tissue demonstrate normal brain morphology but decrease number of parvalbumin (PV)-positive GABAergic interneurons - particularly in the dentate gyrus. In these mice, certain dendritic features of hippocampal neurons were also affected by Cul4b loss, which may explain the observed increases in epileptic susceptibility and spatial learning defects. These phenotypes resembled features seen in patients with X-linked intellectual disability (see below).

These SuM neurons will co- release glutamate and GABA, but these inputs will not fully excite the granule cells. Although it will not cause an action potential alone, SuM neurons can have excitatory impact on granule cells with the help of perforant path inputs. The perforant pathway are fibers that connect the entorhinal cortex with the hippocampus. This pathway accounts for the major inputs to the hippocampus and dentate gyrus.

Woodford copied later letters to the company's auditors, and threatened to resign if he did not receive satisfactory responses about the 2008 Gyrus acquisition costs, and the goodwill impairment of around $600 million made that year for the other acquisitions. On 1 April 2011, Woodford was promoted to the post of president and chief operating officer, replacing Kikukawa and becoming the first ever non-Japanese chairman of Olympus.

Complementing this, afferent nerve fibres have been found that project to early visual areas such as the lingual gyrus from late in the dorsal (action) and ventral (perception) visual streams, as well as from the auditory association cortex. Feedback projections have also been observed in the opossum directly from the auditory association cortex to V1. This last observation currently highlights a point of controversy within the neuroscientific community. Sadato et al.

Primary auditory neurons carry action potentials from the cochlea into the transmission pathway shown in the adjacent image. Multiple relay stations act as integration and processing centers. The signals reach the first level of cortical processing at the primary auditory cortex (A1), in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe. Most areas up to and including A1 are tonotopically mapped (that is, frequencies are kept in an ordered arrangement).

The insular cortex lies deep within the lateral sulcus. The lateral sulcus has a number of side branches. Two of the most prominent and most regularly found are the ascending (also called vertical) ramus and the horizontal ramus of the lateral fissure, which subdivide the inferior frontal gyrus. The lateral sulcus also contains the transverse temporal gyri, which are part of the primary and below the surface auditory cortex.

This ERP has probably two generators, one in the right prefrontal lobe, and the other in the primary auditory regions - the transverse temporal gyrus and the superior temporal gyrusGarrido, M. I., Friston, K. J., Kiebel, S. J., Stephan, K. E., Baldeweg, T., & Kilner, J. M. (2008). The functional anatomy of the MMN: a DCM study of the roving paradigm. Neuroimage, 42(2), 936-944.Heilbron, M., & Chait, M. (2018).

Located in the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal place area (PPA) was coined by Nancy Kanwisher and Russell Epstein after an fMRI study showed that the PPA responds optimally to scenes presented containing a spatial layout, minimally to single objects and not at all to faces.Epstien, R., & Kanwisher, N. (1998). A cortical representation of the local visual environment. Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Amherst Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Most studies involving neuroimaging investigations of language production in bilinguals employ tasks that require single word processing—predominantly in the form of word generation (fluency) tasks. Fluency tasks show substantial activation of the left dorsolateral frontal cortex. Phonemic verbal fluency (initial letter fluency) activates the left inferior frontal gyrus, and the posterior frontal operculum (Ba 44). Semantic fluency, however, engages discrete activation of anterior frontal regions (Brodmann areas 45 and 46).

Studies, with human patients and with experimental animals, suggest that knowledge stored as explicit memory is first acquired through processing in one or more of the three polymodal association cortices (prefrontal, limbic, and parieto- occipital-temporal) to form visual, auditory and somatic information. From there, the information is then conveyed in series to the parahippocampal and perirhinal cortices, then onwards to the EC, dentate gyrus, hippocampus, subiculum and then finally back to the EC. From the EC, the information is sent back to the parahippocampal and perirhinal cortex, and finally back to the polymodal association areas of neocortex. The EC has dual functions in processing information for explicit memory storage: First, it is the main input to the hippocampus. The EC projects to the dentate gyrus via the perforant pathway and by this means provides the critical input pathway in this area of the brain, linking the association cortices to the hippocampus.

British-born Michael Woodford was an Olympus veteran of 30 years, and previously executive managing director of Olympus Medical Systems Europa. As European Director in 2008, Woodford had noticed the "strange goings-on at the company" such as the Gyrus acquisition, which should have been within his scope but was instead handled from Tokyo. (Woodford had set out to resign over the matter but stayed with Olympus after being reassured on the acquisition and being promoted to oversee Olympus' European businesses and appointed to the main Olympus board). However, on 30 July 2011, the matter surfaced again, when Woodford's attention as President was drawn by German colleagues to an article in Facta that alleged Olympus had made undisclosed payments for a series of acquisitions some of which were outside its "core" camera and endoscope business, most notably a sum of $687 million apparently paid to advisers as part of the Gyrus acquisition.

The lingual gyrus is the hypothetical location of V4 in macaque monkeys. In humans, this area is called hV4. The fusiform gyrus is the hypothetical location of V4α, a secondary area for colour processing. Anatomical and physiological studies have established that the colour centre begins in V1 and sends signals to extrastriate areas V2 and V4 for further processing. V4 in particular is an area of interest because of the strength of the colour receptive fields in its neurons. V4 was initially identified in macaque monkey visual cortex experiments. Originally, it was proposed that colour was selectively processed in V4. However, this hypothesis was later rejected in favour of another hypothesis which suggested that V4 and other areas around V4 work together to process colour in the form of multiple colour selective regions. After identification of V4 as the colour-selective region in macaque monkeys, scientists began searching for a homologous structure in the human cortex.

Hippocampal lesioning led to a considerable loss of cells in pyramidal cells (CA1-CA3) as well as granule cells in the dentate gyrus. Ibotenic acid lesioning also causes some damage to axons along the perforant pathway. Typically when lesioning is done with other chemicals the subject can not relearn a task. However, due to Ibotenic acid's reactivity with glutamate receptors such as the NMDA receptor, Ibotenic acid lesioning does allow the subject to relearn tasks.

Gray matter correlates of fluid, crystallized, and spatial intelligence: testing the P-FIT model. Intelligence, 37, 124–135. [doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.07.007] Although finding some differences between the P-FIT theory and their results, the authors conclude that their findings support the P-FIT theory. The identified inconsistencies include voxel clusters in the frontal eye fields, the inferior and middle temporal gyrus, areas which are involved in planning complex movements, high- level visual processing, respectively.

This model was studied to understand the neurological basis of its mental impairment. It was found that it exhibited inhibition in the dentate gyrus, and that GABAA antagonists were able to resolve some of this impairment. These mice were found to experience a delay in development, exhibit unusual behaviors similar to human retardation, and eventually encounter astrocytic hypertrophy and other forms of neurodegeneration. They also contained abnormally large neural synapses and other structural changes.

The motor control for speech production in right handed people depends mostly upon areas in the left cerebral hemisphere. These areas include the bilateral supplementary motor area, the left posterior inferior frontal gyrus, the left insula, the left primary motor cortex and temporal cortex. There are also subcortical areas involved such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum. The cerebellum aids the sequencing of speech syllables into fast, smooth and rhythmically organized words and longer utterances.

The possibility of learning new L2 prosodic distinction was further explored in a training study on Mandarin tones (Sereno and Wang, 2007). English L2 listeners’ perception and production of Mandarin tones improved after perceptual training, and this was observed both behaviorally and cortically: L2 listeners’ accuracy of tone perception and production improved, and increased activity of language areas in the left hemisphere (superior temporal gyrus) and neighboring effects on relevant neural areas were observed.

The fusiform face area is located in the lateral fusiform gyrus. It is thought that this area is involved in holistic processing of faces and it is sensitive to the presence of facial parts as well as the configuration of these parts. The fusiform face area is also necessary for successful face detection and identification. This is supported by fMRI activation and studies on prosopagnosia, which involves lesions in the fusiform face area.

The OFA is located in the inferior occipital gyrus. Similar to the FFA, this area is also active during successful face detection and identification, a finding that is supported by fMRI activation. The OFA is involved and necessary in the analysis of facial parts but not in the spacing or configuration of facial parts. This suggests that the OFA may be involved in a facial processing step that occurs prior to the FFA processing.

Some neuroscientists contend that both the left inferior frontal cortex (Brodmann area 47) and the occipitotemporal junction are implicated in facial memory. The right inferior temporal/fusiform gyrus responds selectively to faces but not to non-faces. The right temporal pole is activated during the discrimination of familiar faces and scenes from unfamiliar ones. Right asymmetry in the mid temporal lobe for faces has also been shown using 133-Xenon measured cerebral blood flow (CBF).

Therefore, the term "neural progenitor" is used instead of "stem cell" to describe limited regeneration ability in the adult brain stem cell. Neural stem cells (NSC) reside in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the adult human brain and the dentate gyrus of the adult mammalian hippocampus. Newly formed neurons from these regions participate in learning, memory, olfaction and mood modulation. It has not been definitively determined whether or not these stem cells are multipotents.

The angular gyrus is an important element in processing concrete and abstract concepts. It also has a role in verbal working memory during retrieval for verbal information and in visual memory for when turning written language into spoken language. The left AG is activated in semantic processing requiring concept retrieval and conceptual integration. Moreover, the left AG is activated during problems of multiplication and addition requiring retrieval of arithmetic factors in verbal memory.

Brodmann area 31, also known as dorsal posterior cingulate area 31, is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined cingulate region of the cerebral cortex. In the human it occupies portions of the posterior cingulate gyrus and medial aspect of the parietal lobe. Approximate boundaries are the cingulate sulcus dorsally and the parieto-occipital sulcus caudally. It partially surrounds the subparietal sulcus, the ventral continuation of the cingulate sulcus in the parietal lobe.

Pars orbitalis is not based on cytoarchitectonic distinctions, and rather is defined according to gross anatomical landmarks. Despite a clear distinction, these two terms are often used liberally in peer-reviewed research journals. BA47 is also known as orbital area 47. In the human, on the orbital surface it surrounds the caudal portion of the orbital sulcus (H) from which it extends laterally into the orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus (H).

Thus, it is bounded caudally by the inferior precentral sulcus (H) and rostrally by the anterior ascending limb of lateral sulcus (H). It surrounds the diagonal sulcus (H). In the depth of the lateral sulcus it borders on the insula. Cytoarchitectonically it is bounded caudally and dorsally by the agranular frontal area 6, dorsally by the granular frontal area 9 and rostrally by the triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann area 45 BA 45).

Harvey had reported that Einstein had no parietal operculum in either hemisphere, but this finding has been disputed. Photographs of the brain show an enlarged Sylvian fissure. In 1999, further analysis by a team at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario revealed that his parietal operculum region in the inferior frontal gyrus in the frontal lobe of the brain was vacant. Also absent was part of a bordering region called the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure).

The axons that make up the pathway emerge from the basal portions of the granule cells and pass through the hilus (or polymorphic cell layer) of the dentate gyrus before entering the stratum lucidum of CA3. Granule cell synapses tend to be glutamatergic (i.e. excitatory), though immunohistological data has indicated that some synapses contain neuropeptidergic elements including opiate peptides such as dynorphin and enkephalin. There is also evidence for co-localization of both GABAergic (i.e.

Patients suffering from Alzheimer's have shorter granule cell dendrites. Furthermore, the dendrites were less branched and had fewer spines than those in patients not suffering with Alzheimer's. However, granule cell dendrites are not an essential component of senile plaques and these plaques have no direct effect on granule cells in the dentate gyrus. The specific neurofibrillary changes of dentate granule cells occur in patients suffering from Alzheimer's, Lewy body variant and progressive supranuclear palsy.

This was determined by examining the effects of applying an electric stimulus to the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) in normal and GADD45b knockout mice. In normal mice application of electrical stimulation to the DG increased neurogenesis by increasing BDNF. However, in GADD45b deficient mice the electrical stimulus had less of an effect. Further examination revealed that around 1.4% of CpG islands in DG neurons are actively methylated and demethylated upon electric shock.

The most recognized initial sites of neuropoiesis ending with neurons in adults are the subventricular zone (SVZ), the thin layer of cells just beneath the surface of the lateral ventricles of the brain, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Neural precursor cells in the human SVZ are known to yield offspring which can then produce glial cells or even migrate and form new neurons in specific areas such as the mammalian olfactory bulb.

The spatial attention vs. control comparison further revealed increased activity in auditory cortex, increases which were contralateral to the side of audiospatial attention, which may reflect top- down biasing of early sensory areas as has been seen with visual attention. Wu et al. additionally observed that audiospatial attention was associated with increased activation in areas thought to process visual information, namely the cuneus and lingual gyrus, despite participants having completed the task with eyes closed.

In other research, Fiez and her colleagues used mixed methods, including electrical brain simulation, to elaborate on the long debated visual word form hypothesis. They found that stimulating and surgically removing the left midfusiform gyrus of a patient made the patient unable to recognize words or letters; these and other findings indicate the involvement of this area as part of a visual word form system specialized for representing orthography in the brain.

The septal area (medial olfactory area) is an area in the lower, posterior part of the medial surface of the frontal lobe, and refers to the nearby septum pellucidum. The septal nuclei are located in this area. The septal nuclei are composed of medium-size neurons which are classified into dorsal, ventral, medial, and caudal groups. The septal nuclei receive reciprocal connections from the olfactory bulb, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain, habenula, cingulate gyrus, and thalamus.

Facial identification exclusively produced increased bilateral activation in the fusiform gyrus, highlighting the dissociation between faces and other object processing. Similar results have also been reported for activation of the parahippocampal place area (PPA) in response to stimuli depicting places and spatial layouts; and in the extrastriate body area (EBA) in response to human body parts. Studies of patients with brain damage have revealed pure agnosic disorders that selectively impair recognition of specific object categories.

The CCK tetrapeptide fragment CCK-4 (Trp-Met-Asp-Phe-NH2) reliably causes anxiety and panic attacks (panicogenic effect) when administered to humans and is commonly used in scientific research for this purpose of in order to test new anxiolytic drugs. Positron emission tomography visualization of regional cerebral blood flow in patients undergoing CCK-4 induced panic attacks show changes in the anterior cingulate gyrus, the claustrum-insular-amygdala region, and cerebellar vermis.

Brodmann area 20, or BA20, is part of the temporal cortex in the human brain. The region encompasses most of the ventral temporal cortex, a region believed to play a part in high-level visual processing and recognition memory. This area is also known as inferior temporal area 20, and it refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined temporal region of cerebral cortex. In the human it corresponds approximately to the inferior temporal gyrus.

Wernicke's area is traditionally viewed as being located in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus (STG), usually in the left cerebral hemisphere. This area encircles the auditory cortex on the lateral sulcus, the part of the brain where the temporal lobe and parietal lobe meet. This area is neuroanatomically described as the posterior part of Brodmann area 22. However, there is an absence of consistent definitions as to the location.

596: 17-29 Several cortical brain regions are associated with attention and vigilance. These include the right frontal, inferior parietal, prefrontal, superior temporal cortices and cingulate gyrus. In the frontal lobe, fMRI and TCD data indicate that brain activation increases during vigilance tasks with greater activation in the right hemisphere. Lesion and split brain studies indicate better right-brain performance on vigilance tasks, indicating an important role for the right frontal cortex in vigilance tasks.

Broca's area is important to procedural memory, for, "Broca's area is involved in the expressive aspects of spoken and written language (production of sentences constrained by the rules of grammar and syntax)." Broca's area corresponds to parts of the inferior frontal gyrus, presumably Brodmann's area 44 and 45. Procedural memory is affected by Broca's aphasia. Agrammatism is apparent in Broca's aphasia patients, where a lack of fluency and omission of morphology and function words occur.

Haynes, Driver, and Rees proposed this theory in 2005, stating that visibility derives from the feed forward and feedback interactions between the V1 and fusiform gyrus. In their experiment, they required subjects to attend actively to the target- thus, as Macknik and Martinez-Conde point out, it is possible that their results were confounded by the attentional aspect of the trials, and that the results may not accurately reflect the effects of visual masking.

Granule cell dispersion is a type of developmental migration and a pathological change found in the TLE brain which was first described in 1990. The granule cells of the dentate gyrus are tightly packed forming a uniform, laminated layer with no monosynaptic connections. This structure provides a filter for the excitability of neurons. In TLE, granule cells are lost, the structure is no longer closely packed and there are changes in the orientation of dendrites.

The cingulate cortex includes the entire cingulate gyrus, which lies immediately above the corpus callosum, and the continuation of this in the cingulate sulcus. The cingulate cortex is usually considered part of the limbic lobe. It receives inputs from the thalamus and the neocortex, and projects to the entorhinal cortex via the cingulum. It is an integral part of the limbic system, which is involved with emotion formation and processing, learning, and memory.

The auditory dorsal stream connects the auditory cortex with the parietal lobe, which in turn connects with inferior frontal gyrus. In both humans and non-human primates, the auditory dorsal stream is responsible for sound localization, and is accordingly known as the auditory 'where' pathway. In humans, this pathway (especially in the left hemisphere) is also responsible for speech production, speech repetition, lip-reading, and phonological working memory and long-term memory.

The tentorial notch is located between the tentorial edges and communicates the supratentorial and infratentorial spaces. This area can be divided into three spaces: anterior, middle (lateral to), and posterior to the brainstem. The middle incisural space is close to the midbrain and the upper pons at the level of the pontomesencephalic sulcus. Medial temporal lobe structures such as the uncus, the parahippocampal gyrus and the hippocampal formation, are also intimately related to the incisura.

The occipital lobe becomes distinct at 18 weeks gestation, but the gyri are not clear until many weeks later. During development, the occipital lobe develops a lingual gyrus at 27 weeks of gestation. Secondary gyri develop by 30 weeks, and tertiary gyri develop during 40 to 42 weeks of gestation. The superior and inferior occipital gyri develop at the same time, usually shown somewhere between week 24 and 27 in brain development.

The V4 and V4α areas are separate entities, but because of their close proximity in the fusiform gyrus, these two areas are often collectively called the V4-complex. Research into the V4-complex discovered that different chromatic stimulations activated either the V4 or the V4α area, and some stimulation parameters activated both. For example, naturally coloured images activated V4α more powerfully than V4. Unnaturally coloured images activated both V4α and V4 equally.

Operculum of the inferior frontal gyrus. FCMS, sometimes called cortical pseudobulbar palsy, is characterized by lesions affected both sides of the operculum. These lesions typically damage the cranial nerves leading to both motor and sensory deficits. The cranial nerves that are impaired include the following; Cranial Nerve (CN) V (the trigeminal nerve), CN VII (the facial nerve), CN IX (the glossopharyngeal nerve), CN X (the vagus nerve), and CN XII (the hypoglossal nerve).

Rhodes research interests relate to neuronal plasticity. One interest includes understanding the role of voluntary exercise via wheel running in inducing the formation of new neurons in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. A major goal of this research would be to understand the biological organization, from gene and protein expressions, that regulate neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Rhodes was one of the developers of the Drinking in the Dark model in mice.

Similar to the dentate gyrus, NPY has been found to increase cellular proliferation and differentiation in the sub-ventricular zone by specifically activating Y1 receptors in the ERK1/2 pathway. Additionally, NPY was found in neuronal fibers that pass through the sub-ventricular zone and extend to other brain areas. A variety of other effects and physiological processes involving NPY in the sub-ventricular zone have been discovered, many of which involve neuron migration patterns.

Most of the fibers that distribute to the medial septum terminate selectively within the medial septum-vertical limb of the diagonal band nucleus (MS/DBv) and lateral aspects of lateral septum. Most of the pronounced projections to hippocampal formation (HF) distribute to the stratum lacunosum-molecular of Ammon’s horn and granule cell layer and adjacent inner molecular layer of the dentate gyrus (DG). Projections stemming from the MRN modulate dopaminergic activity within the forebrain.

In the occipital lobe, the lateral occipital sulcus, where present, divides the lateral, or middle occipital gyrus into a superior and an inferior part, which are then continuous in front with the parietal and temporal lobes. The anterior portion is often incomplete, but in some individuals it may encounter the superior temporal sulcus whilst the posterior portion originates from the middle of the curved lunate sulcus, or from a curved portion of the transverse occipital sulcus if absent.

Age-related neuro-pathologies such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, diabetes, hypertension and arteriosclerosis make it difficult to distinguish the normal patterns of aging. One of the important differences between normal aging and pathological aging is the location of neurofibrillary tangles. Neurofibrillary tangles are composed of paired helical filaments (PHF). In normal, non- demented aging, the number of tangles in each affected cell body is relatively low and restricted to the olfactory nucleus, parahippocampal gyrus, amygdala and entorhinal cortex.

Selegiline has an oral bioavailability of about 10%, which increases when ingested together with a fatty meal, as the molecule is fat soluble. Selegiline and its metabolites bind extensively to plasma proteins (at a rate of 94%). They cross the blood–brain barrier and enter the brain, where they most concentrated at the thalamus, basal ganglia, midbrain, and cingulate gyrus. Selegiline is mostly metabolized in the intestines and liver; it and its metabolites are excreted in the urine.

It is suggested that these G protein-coupled receptors redundantly activate phospholipase C in basolateral amygdala. One effect of the activation of phospholipase C is deactivation of KCNQ channels. Since KCNQ channels conduct M current that raises the threshold for action potential, deactivation of these channels leads to increased neuronal excitability and enhanced memory consolidation. D5 receptors may be required for long-term potentiation at the synapse between medial perforant path and dentate gyrus in murine hippocampal formation.

Disturbance of CREB function in the brain can contribute to the development and progression of Huntington's disease. Abnormalities of a protein that interacts with the KID domain of CREB, the CREB-binding protein, (CBP) is associated with Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome. There is some evidence to suggest that the under-functioning of CREB is associated with major depressive disorder. Depressed rats with an overexpression of CREB in the dentate gyrus behaved similarly to rats treated with antidepressants.

The plantaris muscle is innervated by the tibial nerve, a branch of the sciatic nerve in the sacral plexus. Signaling for contraction begins in the frontal lobe of the brain with the pre-central gyrus (primary motor cortex). Upper motor neurons are stimulated and send a signal through the internal capsule and down the corticospinal tract. Decussation of the lateral corticospinal tract occurs in the medullary pyramids, then the fibers continue down the contralateral side of the spinal cord.

Exceptions to this include the prefrontal gyrus, where the parietal area sends an equal amount of fibers to many motor areas. This interaction is vital because the activity in the facial muscles is due to voluntary control of the direct and indirect pathways that are corticobulbar pathways. Facial muscles often respond to emotional influences by these pathways also. Most of our emotions are expressed more intensely on the left side than the right side of the face.

However, there are some studies that include increased activation in one side over the other. For instance McCarthy (1997) has shown that the right fusiform gyrus is more important for facial processing in complex situations. Gorno- Tempini and Price have shown that the fusiform gyri are preferentially responsive to faces, whereas the parahippocampal/lingual gyri are responsive to buildings. It is important to note that while certain areas respond selectively to faces, facial processing involves many neural networks.

Consider the conceptual differences in recognizing written words compared to recognizing human faces. These are two qualitatively different tasks and as such it is not surprising that they involve additional, distinct regions of the brain. Recognizing words, for example, involves the visual word form area, a region in the left fusiform gyrus, which is believed to specialized in recognizing written words. Similarly, the fusiform face area, located in the right hemisphere, is linked specifically to the recognition of faces.

At a macroscopic level, AD is characterized by loss of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex and certain subcortical regions. This results in gross atrophy of the affected regions, including degeneration in the temporal lobe and parietal lobe, and parts of the frontal cortex and cingulate gyrus. Both amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are clearly visible by microscopy in AD brains. Plaques are dense, mostly insoluble deposits of protein and cellular material outside and around neurons.

Inferior frontal gyrus; a major part of the inferior frontal cortex Speech production is process by which a thought in the brain is converted into an understandable auditory form. This is a multistage mechanism that involves many different areas of the brain. The first stage is planning, where the brain constructs words and sentences that turn the thought into an understandable form. This occurs primarily in the inferior frontal cortex, specifically in an area known as Broca's area.

Children who do not have autism show activation in these areas when performing face processing tasks for their own faces and those of others. Children with autism, however, only show activation in these areas when recognizing their own faces. The activation in the inferior frontal gyrus is less in children with autism than in those who do not have autism.Uddin, L. Q., Davies, M. S., Scott, A. A., Zaidel, E., Bookheimer, S. Y., Iacoboni, M., et al. (2008).

Faces are an important part of one's social life. To be able to recognize, respond and act towards a person requires unconscious memory encoding and retrieval processes. Facial stimuli are processed in the fusiform gyrus (occipito-temporal brain area) and this processing is an implicit function representing a typical form of implicit memory. REM sleep has been seen to be more beneficial to implicit visuospatial memory processes, rather than slow-wave sleep which is crucial for explicit memory consolidation.

Despite the extensive cortical damage she suffered, patient P.S. exhibited a normal right fusiform face area when compared to age matched controls using a standard fMRI localizer. She was unimpaired with basic-level and within-class object discrimination and recognition tasks. Results like these demonstrate that face information can still be processed in the right FFA despite the absence of the right OFA, thus suggesting the presence of alternate cortical routes between the early visual cortex and fusiform gyrus.

Research on depression indicates that one of the major causal factors of depression, stress, also influences neurogenesis. This connection led researches to postulate that depression could be the result of changes in levels of neurogenesis in the adult brain, specifically in the dentate gyrus. Studies indicate that stress affects neurogenesis by increasing Glucocorticoids and decreasing neurotransmitters such as serotonin. These effects were further verified by inducing stress in lab animals, which resulted in decreased levels of neurogenesis.

A PET study looking into the neural correlates of musical semantic and episodic memory found distinct activation patterns. Semantic musical memory involves the sense of familiarity of songs. The semantic memory for music condition resulted in bilateral activation in the medial and orbital frontal cortex, as well as activation in the left angular gyrus and the left anterior region of the middle temporal gyri. These patterns support the functional asymmetry favouring the left hemisphere for semantic memory.

The entorhinal cortex also projects directly to CA3, suggesting that the mossy fiber pathway may be functionally similar to the perforant pathway although microcircuits within the dentate gyrus give the mossy fiber pathway a more modulatory role. Projections to the dentate hilus are excitatory by nature and oppose the inhibitory effects of interneurons on hilar mossy cells. The result is an excitatory feedforward loop on mossy cells as a result of activation by the entorhinal cortex.

Both epilepsy and depression show a disrupted production of adult-born hippocampal granule cells. Epilepsy is associated with increased production - but aberrant integration - of new cells early in the disease and decreased production late in the disease. Aberrant integration of adult-generated cells during the development of epilepsy may impair the ability of the dentate gyrus to prevent excess excitatory activity from reaching hippocampal pyramidal cells, thereby promoting seizures. Long- lasting epileptic seizure stimulate dentate granule cell neurogenesis.

Results from a 2008 study by Hedden et al. support the previous findings by showing how East Asians require more attention than Americans for individually processing objects. Brain regions more focused on attention, such as areas in the parietal and prefrontal lobes as well as the inferior parietal lobule and precentral gyrus, were found to be highly active in East Asian subjects compared to American subjects, during individual object processing. A visual perception study conducted by Gutchess et al.

Echopraxia is a typical symptom of Tourette syndrome but causes are not well elucidated. Frontal lobe animation One theoretical cause subject to ongoing debate surrounds the role of the mirror neuron system (MNS), a group of neurons in the inferior frontal gyrus (F5 region) of the brain that may influence imitative behaviors, but no widely accepted neural or computational models have been put forward to describe how mirror neuron activity supports cognitive functions such as imitation.

For example, individuals with a lesion in the Visual area V4 often do not perceive color and dream in black-and-white; those with a lesion in the Visual area V5/MT do not perceive motion and do not dream of motion; subjects with a lesion to fusiform gyrus are impaired in face perception and also do not dream of faces. Compare that to lesions of the cerebellum or frontal cortex that have little effect on sensory experience.

Diagram of hippocampal regions in a rat brain. Hippocampus anatomy The stratum lucidum is located within the CA3 region of the hippocampus distally to the dentate gyrus and proximally to the CA2 region. For further information on the regions, see Hippocampus anatomy. It is composed of a densely packed bundle of mossy fibers (unmyelinated) and spiny and aspiny interneurons that lie immediately above the CA3 pyramidal cell layer in the hippocampus, and immediately below the stratum radiatum.

A neuroimaging study of Danish speakers found less activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus, left premotor cortex (BA 4, 6), and left posterior temporal cortex (BA 21, 22) when processing CIs like (a) than when processing grammatical clausal comparatives like (b). Christensen has suggested this shows CIs are easy to process but as they are nonsensical, processing is "shallow". Low LIFG activation levels also suggest that people do not perceive CIs as being semantically anomalous.; .

Significantly altered blood flow in the brain was found, most notably in the frontal cortex and cerebellum. The most significant difference of blood flow was found in the inferior frontal gyrus. Authors report resting metabolism in this area is associated with performance on short term memory tasks. While post-treatment studies suggest significant negative side effects of chemotherapy on cognition, other studies have indicated that there may be baseline vulnerability factors which could contribute to cognitive impairment development.

When directing gaze specifically towards the eye area, the anterior, right side of the superior temporal sulcus is activated, indicating facilitation of gaze direction encoding in this region when eye contact is present Calder, A. J., Lawrence, A. D., Keane, J., Scott, S. K., Owen, A. M., Christoffels, I., & Young, A. W. (2002) Reading the mind from eye gaze. Neuropsychologia, 40(8) 1129-1138.. Like the fusiform gyrus, this effect can also be masked in this area .

These cells populate the hippocampus early in development and can be morphologically distinguished from one another in the embryo by 4 months. Granular cells populate the hippocampus slightly after pyramidal cell migration. These cells have farther distance to travel and follow along the pyramidal cells before entering the hilus; this is represented in the figure as the continuation of migration with the green arrows. Granular cell precursors that will populate the dentate gyrus proliferate locally in the hilus.

While it is not well-shown here, the lips and hands are enlarged on a proper homunculus, since a larger number of neurons in the cerebral cortex are devoted to processing information from these areas. The positions of Brodmann areas 3, 1, and 2 are - from the nadir of the central sulcus toward the apex of the postcentral gyrus - 3a, 3b, 1, and 2, respectively. These areas contain cells that project to the secondary somatosensory cortex.

Addis et al. conducted an fMRI study to examine neural regions mediating construction and elaboration of past and future events. The elaboration phase, unlike the construction phase, has overlap in the cortical areas comprising the autobiographical memory retrieval network. In this study, it was also found that the left hippocampus and the right middle occipital gyrus were significantly activated during past and future event construction, while the right hippocampus was significantly deactivated during past event construction.

The cingulum is described from various brain images as a C shaped structure within the brain that wraps around the frontal lobe to the temporal lobe right above the corpus callosum. It is located beneath the cingulate gyrus within the medial surface of the brain therefore encircling the entire brain. There are two primary parts of the cingulate cortex: the posterior cingulate cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex. The anterior is linked to emotion, especially apathy and depression.

The male and female brains show some differences in internal structure. One difference is the proportions of white matter relative to grey matter. Structural brain differences usually correspond to sexually dimorphic attributes that bring about functional brain differences. On average, female brains have a larger ratio of grey matter to the white matter than males (particularly in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and superior temporal gyrus), even when sex-differences in the total intracranial volume are taken into consideration.

The anatomy of the hippocampus is largely conserved across mammals, and the role of these areas in declarative memory are conserved across species as well. The organization and neural pathways of the hippocampus are very similar in humans and other mammal species. In humans and other mammals, a cross-section of the hippocampus shows the dentate gyrus as well as the dense cell layers of the CA fields. The intrinsic connectivity of these areas are also conserved.

The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at age six during a transatlantic crossing by studying a book about boats. Brain activity in young and older children can be used to predict future reading skill. Cross model mapping between the orthographic and phonologic areas in the brain are critical in reading. Thus, the amount of activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus while performing reading tasks can be used to predict later reading ability and advancement.

Associative visual agnosias are generally attributed to anterior left temporal lobe infarction (at the left inferior temporal gyrus), caused by ischemic stroke, head injury, cardiac arrest, brain tumour, brain hemorrhage, or demyelination. Environmental toxins and pathogens have also been implicated, such as, carbon monoxide poisoning or herpes encephalitis and infrequent developmental occurrences have been documented. The separate streams of the visual processing system. The ventral "what" stream is in purple and the dorsal "where" stream is in green.

Amplitude and kinetics of the electrical signal vary as a function of position within the dendrite and signal frequency. The major trigger for CA3 discharge is the afferent input from the dentate gyrus granule cells, from which mossy fiber terminals create very complex synapses on the proximal part of the CA3 apical dendrite in the stratum lucidum. Here they contact very complex dendritic spines. Glutamate release from single terminals evokes a large non-NMDA mediated EPSP.

The dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway (DCML) (also known as the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway, PCML) is a sensory pathway of the central nervous system that conveys sensations of fine touch, vibration, two-point discrimination, and proprioception (position) from the skin and joints. It transmits information from the body to the primary somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe of the brain.O'Sullivan, S. B., & Schmitz, T. J. (2007). Physical Rehabilitation (5th Edition ed.).

Hyperactivity in the core or distributed face areas (without lesions) may be connected to causation. Functional imaging studies in humans have identified an area in the fusiform gyrus which is selectively activated by stimulation when exposed to faces called the fusiform face area (FFA). Another area known to be activated by face stimuli is the superior temporal sulcus (STS). This region is particularly active when having to process facial expressions, especially the expressive features related to the eyes.

The first order neurons (from the trigeminal ganglion) enter the pons and synapse in the principal (chief sensory) nucleus or spinal trigeminal nucleus. Axons of the second order neurons cross the midline and terminate in the ventral posteromedial nucleus of the contralateral thalamus (as opposed to the ventral posterolateral nucleus, as in the dorsal column medial lemniscus (DCML) system). The third order neuron in the thalamus then connects to the sensory cortex of the postcentral gyrus.

One edge of the "U," – CA4, is embedded into the backward-facing, flexed dentate gyrus. The hippocampus is described as having an anterior and posterior part (in primates) or a ventral and dorsal part in other animals. Both parts are of similar composition but belong to different neural circuits.Moser and Moser, 1998 In the rat, the two hippocampi resemble a pair of bananas, joined at the stems by the commissure of fornix (also called the hippocampal commissure).

He noted that individuals with receptive aphasia did not possess the ability to understand speech or repeat words. He believed that receptive aphasia was due to lesions of the posterior third of the left superior temporal gyrus. Due to these lesions, Wernicke believed that individuals with receptive aphasia had a limited deafness for certain sounds and frequencies in speech. After Wernicke, came Kussmaul in 1877 who attempted to explain why auditory verbal agnosia, also known as word deafness, occurs.

Functional connectomes can be distilled into constituent intrinsic brain networks that are present during sleep, at rest, and during tasks. These brain networks can also reliably be mapped onto cognitive systems. The default mode network, for example, is composed of regions such as the medial prefontal cortex, angular gyrus, temporoparietal junction, and the hippocampus, to name a few. One study has shown that Extraversion and Agreeableness are positively correlated with overall neural activity in the default mode network.

An example of vision in a person with cerebral achromatopsia. Cerebral achromatopsia is a medical disorder characterized by the inability to perceive color and to achieve satisfactory visual acuity in high light levels. Congenital achromatopsia is characterized the same way, however it is genetic, while Cerebral Achromatopsia occurs as a result of damage to certain parts of the brain. One part of the brain that is particularly integral to color discrimination is the inferior temporal gyrus.

Patients with schizophrenia may have some gray matter volume loss in both hemispheres of the brain. The most significant losses are typically in the left thalamus and right caudate, and this loss extends into the cerebrum, parahippocampal gyrus, and the hippocampus. There are increases in the temporal and parietal lobes, along with the anterior cerebellum. When patients with schizophrenia are compared to healthy participants, there is a decrease in gray matter volume in prefrontal and temporal regions.

"Gerstmann syndrome and similar posterior parietal symptom combinations (like acalculia) are usually the result of focal cerebrovascular disease in a posterior branch of the left middle cerebral artery or a broader zone infarct, usually involving the angular gyrus or subjacent white matter (Brodmann area 39). In rare cases, traumatic brain injury of an expanding neoplasm in this same region can cause all or elements (acalculia is one of four elements) of the symptoms of this syndrome".

The classical Wernicke-Geschwind model of language Carl Wernicke created an early neurological model of language, that later was revived by Norman Geschwind. The model is known as the Wernicke–Geschwind model. # For listening to and understanding spoken words, the sounds of the words are sent through the auditory pathways to area 41, which is the primary auditory cortex (Heschl's gyrus). From there, they continue to Wernicke's area, where the meaning of the words is extracted.

In her early studies, she laid the groundwork for understanding the relationship between stress and adult neurogenesis. Specifically, she and Dr. Heather A. Cameron reported on adrenal steroid control of adult neurogenesis in rat dentate gyrus. Additionally, her work has provided evidence of neurogenesis in the adult primate neocortex. Gould and the researchers reported new neurons in adult marmoset monkeys are added to three neocortical association areas important in cognitive function: the prefrontal, inferior temporal and posterior parietal cortex.

Many have surmised that this linkage is based on the location of sounds. However, there are numerous distortions of sound when reflected off different media, which makes this thinking unlikely. The auditory cortex forms groupings based on fundamentals; in music, for example, this would include harmony, timing, and pitch. The primary auditory cortex lies in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe and extends into the lateral sulcus and the transverse temporal gyri (also called Heschl's gyri).

More specifically, automated circuits are favoured over cerebral pathways for naming words. Language switching is another task in which brain activation is high in Broca's area and the supramarginal gyrus. This was originally observed by Poetzl, (1925, 1930) and Leischner, (1943)—all of whom reported that patients with supramarginal lesions were defective in switching languages. Areas of the brain associated with phonological working memory have been shown to have greater activation in bilinguals proficient in both languages using fMRI.

Both males and females have consistent active working memory networks composed of both middle frontal gyri, the left cingulate gyrus, the right precuneus, the left inferior and superior parietal lobes, the right claustrum, and the left middle temporal gyrus. Although the same brain networks are used for working memory, specific regions are sex-specific. Sex differences were evident in other networks, as women also tend to have higher activity in the prefrontal and limbic regions, such as the anterior cingulate, bilateral amygdala, and right hippocampus, while men tend to have a distributed network spread out among the cerebellum, portions of the superior parietal lobe, the left insula, and bilateral thalamus. A 2017 review from the perspective of large-scale brain networks hypothesized that women's higher susceptibility to stress-prone diseases such as posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder, in which the salience network is theorized to be overactive and to interfere with the executive control network, may be due in part, along with societal exposure to stressors and the coping strategies that are available to women, to underlying sex-based brain differences.

Sound is then processed in Heschl's gyrus and associated with meaning in Wernicke's area. As for theories of speech perception, there are a motor and an auditory theory. The motor theory is based upon the premise that speech sounds are encoded in the acoustic signal rather than enciphered in it. The auditory theory puts greater emphasis on the sensory and filtering mechanisms of the listener and suggests that speech knowledge is a minor role that’s only used in hard perceptual conditions.

The discipline of linguistics dedicated to studying the neurological aspects of language is called neurolinguistics. Early work in neurolinguistics involved the study of language in people with brain lesions, to see how lesions in specific areas affect language and speech. In this way, neuroscientists in the 19th century discovered that two areas in the brain are crucially implicated in language processing. The first area is Wernicke's area, which is in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere.

Dysfunctions in distinguishing differences in sizes and shapes of objects can have many causes, including brain injury, stroke, epilepsy, and oxygen deprivation. Lesions on the brain that develop as a result of injury or illness impair object recognition. Regions that specifically lead to deficits in object recognition when a lesion is present include the right lateral fusiform gyrus and the ventrolateral occipito-temporal cortex. These areas are crucial to the processing of shape and contour information, which is the basis for object recognition.

The pronator teres is innervated by the median nerve. To stimulate the pronator teres, a signal begins in the precentral gyrus in the brain and goes down through the internal capsule. It continues down the corticospinal tracts through the capsule, midbrain, and pons where it arrives at the medullar pyramids. Once at the pyramids, the corticospinal tracts decussate and the signal goes down the lateral corticospinal tract until it reaches the ventral horns of C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1.

It is almost as though familiarity is a qualitative characteristic just as is colour or loudness. The remember- know paradigm with epilepsy patients to distinguish whether a stimulus (picture of a face) was familiar. Patients that were found to have right temporal lobe epilepsy showed relatively lower face recognition response than those with left temporal lobe epilepsy due to damage of secondary sensory regions (including fusiform gyrus) in the brain's right hemisphere, which is responsible for perception and encoding (esp. face memory).

The differentiation of speech production into only two large sections of the brain (i.e. Broca's and Wernicke's areas), that was accepted long before the advent of medical imaging techniques, is now considered outdated. Broca's Area was first suggested to play a role in speech function by the French neurologist and anthropologist Paul Broca in 1861. The basis for this discovery was the analysis of speech problems resulting from injuries to this region of the brain, located in the inferior frontal gyrus.

Current understanding of the localization of OR in the brain is still unclear. In one study using fMRI and SCR, researchers found novel visual stimuli associated with SCR responses typical of an OR also corresponded to activation in the hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. These regions are also believed to be largely responsible for emotion, decision making, and memory. Increases in cerebellar and extrastriate cortex were also recorded, which are significantly implicated in visual perception and processing.

It has been suggested that number-forms are a result of "cross-activation" between regions of the parietal lobe that are involved in numerical cognition and angular gyrus for spatial cognition (; ). Since the areas that process numerical and spatial representations are close to each other, this may contribute to the increased cross-activation. Compared to non-synesthetes, synesthetes display larger P3b amplitudes for month cues, but similar N1 and P3b responses for arrow (<\- or ->) and word (left or right) cues. ().

Christie's early research focused on heterosynaptic plasticity in the hippocampal formation."NMDA-dependent heterosynaptic long-term depression in the dentate gyrus of anaesthetized rats." Synapse (1992) 10(10):1-6 During the course of this work, he discovered that prior synaptic activity could impact the capacity for synapses to subsequently show activity-dependent forms of plasticity, a phenomenon that he originally called "priming" but that has since been termed "metaplasticity". His Ph.D. work generated 9 publications on synaptic plasticity with Abraham.

Kapur (2003) proposed that a hyperdopaminergic state, at a "brain" level of description, leads to an aberrant assignment of salience to the elements of one's experience, at a "mind" level. These aberrant salience attributions have been associated with altered activities in the mesolimbic system, including the striatum, the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the parahippocampal gyrus. Dopamine mediates the conversion of the neural representation of an external stimulus from a neutral bit of information into an attractive or aversive entity, i.e. a salient event.

In this case, these individuals preferred the football team they most identified. During wishful thinking tasks, differential activity was found in three areas of the brain: dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, the parietal lobe, and the fusiform gyrus in the occipital lobe. Differential activity in the occipital and parietal areas suggests a mode of selective attention to the cues presented; therefore, supporting a lower-level cognitive processing or attention bias. However, differential activity in the prefrontal cortex also suggests higher-cognitive processing.

It has been believed for some time that inputs from different sensory organs are processed in different areas in the brain, relating to systems neuroscience. Using functional neuroimaging, it can be seen that sensory-specific cortices are activated by different inputs. For example, regions in the occipital cortex are tied to vision and those on the superior temporal gyrus are recipients of auditory inputs. There exist studies suggesting deeper multisensory convergences than those at the sensory-specific cortices, which were listed earlier.

In the developing cerebral cortex, which resides in the dorsal telencephalon, the SVZ and VZ are transient tissues that do not exist in the adult. However, the SVZ of the ventral telencephalon persists throughout life. The adult SVZ is composed of four distinct layers of variable thickness and cell density as well as cellular composition. Along with the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the SVZ is one of two places where neurogenesis has been found to occur in the adult mammalian brain.

McGill Journal of Medicine, 9(2), 165–172. She was able to demonstrate two different memory systems- episodic memory and procedural memory. Milner discovered from H.M. and other case studies that "bilateral medial temporal- lobe resection in man results in a persistent impairment of recent memory whenever the removal is carried far enough posteriorly to damage portions of the anterior hippocampus and hippocampal gyrus." She showed that in patients with this syndrome the ability to learn certain motor skills remained normal.

However, at E.10, DNMT3a expression increases significantly from E13.5 and well into adulthood. In the postnatal forebrain, DNMT3a is expressed in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the hippocampal dentate gyrus, the primary locations for adult neurogenesis. The loss of DNMT3a in post natal neural progenitor cells leads to the down-regulation of neuronic genes such as Dlx2, Neurog2, and Sp8; but upregulation of genes involved in astroglial and oligodendroglial differentiation, indicating a role in the cell-fate switch from neurogenesis to gliogenesis.

Prosopagnosia is a condition marked by an inability to recognize faces. When those with prosopagnosia view faces, the fusiform gyrus (a facial recognition area of the brain) activates differently to how it would in someone without the condition. Additionally, non-facial object recognition areas (such as the ventral occipitotemporal extrastriate cortex) are activated when viewing faces, suggesting that faces and objects are processed similarly. Individuals with prosopagnosia can be unaffected or even benefit from face inversion in facial recognition tasks.

Eventually, the cingulate gyrus becomes atrophied towards the anterior, due to long-term depression (LTD) and long-term potentiation (LTP) from the abnormally strong signals transversely across the brain. This, combined with a relative deficit in GABAergic input to Wernicke's area, shifts the balance of bilateral communication across the corpus callosum posteriorly. Through this mechanism, hemispherical communication becomes highly shifted towards the left/dominant posterior. As such, spontaneous language from Broca's can propagate through the limbic system to the tertiary auditory cortex.

However, the correlation between the insula's varying states of activation and positive or negative emotions in this context is unknown. The emotional view of art can be contrasted with perception related to object recognition when pragmatically viewing art. The right fusiform gyrus has been revealed to show activation to visual stimuli such as faces and representational art. This holds importance in the field because as Ramachandran also speculated, object recognition and the search for meaning can evoke a pleasant emotional response.

Each subregion contains a specific population of neurons which have distinct molecular expression and physiological properties. As a result, these regions are vulnerable to various pathogenic mechanisms. Although both AD and the normal aging process affect the hippocampus, studies showed that these two processes can be distinguished by two anatomical patterns of hippocampal dysfunctions. Postmortem studies suggest that the entorhinal cortex (EC) and the subiculum are the hippocampal subregions most affected by AD, whereas the dentate gyrus is relatively preserved in most cases.

Guided by the pattern that distinguishes age-related hippocampal dysfunction from AD, scientists from Columbia University Medical Center collected the dentate gyrus (DG) from postmortem human brains. These DG were free from any detectable brain pathology. These experimental subjects from which the DG was taken ranged from 33 to 88 years of age. Scientist also harvested the EC from each brain and generated gene expression profiles with Affymetrix microarray chips, where each microarray was customized to each individual's brain area.

There is evidence that new neurons are produced in the dentate gyrus of the adult mammalian hippocampus, the brain region important for learning, motivation, memory, and emotion. A study reported that newly made cells in the adult mouse hippocampus can display passive membrane properties, action potentials and synaptic inputs similar to the ones found in mature dentate granule cells. These findings suggested that these newly made cells can mature into more practical and useful neurons in the adult mammalian brain.

Intense remediation with an auditory language processing program has been accompanied by functional changes in left temporo-parietal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus. However, the extent to which these results generalize to spoken and written language is debated. The relationships between meeting the educational needs of children with language difficulties and the findings of neuroscience studies are not yet established. One concrete avenue for progress is to use neuroscientific methods to address questions that are significant to practice in learning environments.

Brodmann area 39 appears to play a role in body image because electrical stimulation of the (right) angular gyrus induces an 'out-of-body' experience. Damage to Brodmann area 39 may result in dyslexia or in semantic aphasia. Albert Einstein had less neurones (relative to glial cells) in this area than normal. Area 39 was regarded by Alexander Luria as a part of the parietal-temporal-occipital area, which includes Brodmann area 40, Brodmann area 19, and Brodmann area 37.

Some identify it with the unimodal auditory association in the superior temporal gyrus anterior to the primary auditory cortex (the anterior part of BA 22). This is the site most consistently implicated in auditory word recognition by functional brain imaging experiments. Others include also adjacent parts of the heteromodal cortex in BA 39 and BA40 in the parietal lobe. Despite the overwhelming notion of a specifically defined "Wernicke's Area," the most careful current research suggests that it is not a unified concept.

The granule cells in the dentate gyrus are distinguished by their late time of formation during brain development. In rats, approximately 85% of the granule cells are generated after birth. In humans, it is estimated that granule cells begin to be generated during gestation weeks 10.5 to 11, and continue being generated during the second and third trimesters, after birth and all the way into adulthood. The germinal sources of granule cells and their migration pathways have been studied during rat brain development.

The posterior cingulate cortex lies behind the anterior cingulate cortex, forming a part of the posteromedial cortex, along with the retrosplenial cortex (Brodmann areas 29 and 30) and precuneus (located posterior and superior to the PCC). The PCC, together with the retrosplenial cortex, forms the retrosplenial gyrus. The posterior cingulate cortex is bordered by the following brain regions: the marginal ramus of the cingulate sulcus (superiorly), the corpus callosum (inferiorly), the parieto-occipital sulcus (posteriorly), and Brodmann area 24 (anteriorly).

One study focusing on echoic sensory changes suggested that when a sound is presented to a subject, it is enough to shape an echoic memory trace that can be compared to a physically different sound. Change-related cortical responses were detected in the superior temporal gyrus using EEG Inui, K., Urakawa, T., Yamashiro, K., Otsuru, N., Takeshima, Y., Nishihara, M., & ... Kakigi, R. (2010). Echoic memory of a single pure tone indexed by change-related brain activity. BMC Neuroscience, 11135-144. .

Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid in the human body. In the brain, it modulates the ability of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex to process memories. Although the exact molecular mechanism of how glucocorticoids influence memory formation is unknown, the presence of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex tell us these structures are some of its many targets. It has been demonstrated that cortisone, a glucocorticoid, impaired blood flow in the right parahippocampal gyrus, left visual cortex and cerebellum.

Bastian localized the auditory word center to the posterior MTG (middle temporal gyrus). Other opponents to the Wernicke-Lichtheim model were Sigmund Freud and Carl Freund. Freud (1891) suspected that the auditory deficits in aphasic patients was due to a secondary lesion to cochlea. This assertion was confirmed by Freund (1895), who reported two auditory agnosia patients with cochlear damage (although in a later autopsy, Freund reported also the presence of a tumor in the left STG in one of these patients).

This gene encodes the D2 subtype of the dopamine receptor, which is coupled to Gi subtype of G protein-coupled receptor. This G protein-coupled receptor inhibits adenylyl cyclase activity. In mice, regulation of D2R surface expression by the neuronal calcium sensor-1 (NCS-1) in the dentate gyrus is involved in exploration, synaptic plasticity and memory formation. Studies have shown potential roles for D2R in retrieval of fear memories in the prelimbic cortex and in discrimination learning in the nucleus accumbens.

251 A study has suggested that the empathy deficits associated with the autism spectrum may be due to significant comorbidity between alexithymia and autism spectrum conditions rather than a result of social impairment. One study found that, relative to typically developing children, high-functioning autistic children showed reduced mirror neuron activity in the brain's inferior frontal gyrus (pars opercularis) while imitating and observing emotional expressions. EEG evidence revealed that there was significantly greater mu suppression in the sensorimotor cortex of autistic individuals.

Different criterion was used to identify extinction in their patient samples, which lead to inconsistencies in the critical lesion sites reported across studies. Recent studies have used measures such as ERPs and fMRI and it is believed that the parietal lobe mediates the internal representation of both body and space. They found that in their sample, a cortical lesion was almost always found in the right parietal angula gyrus region. Patients typically showed damage to the inferior parietal areas of the brain.

The hippocampus is important in memory formation and recall and therefore instrumental in determining the novelty of various stimuli. Research suggests the hippocampus is involved in generating the underlying motivation to explore for the purpose of learning. The parahippocampal gyrus (PHG), the area of grey matter surrounding the hippocampus, has recently been implicated in the process of curiosity. This finding suggests that the PHG may be involved in the amplification of curiosity more so than the primary induction of curiosity.

The neural layout and pathways within the hippocampal formation are very similar in all mammals. The hippocampus, including the dentate gyrus, has the shape of a curved tube, which has been compared to a seahorse, and a ram's horn (Cornu Ammonis). Its abbreviation CA is used in naming the hippocampal subfields CA1, CA2, CA3, and CA4. It can be distinguished as an area where the cortex narrows into a single layer of densely packed pyramidal neurons, which curl into a tight U shape.

In mammals with a small brain there is no folding and the cortex is smooth. A fold or ridge in the cortex is termed a gyrus (plural gyri) and a groove is termed a sulcus (plural sulci). These surface convolutions appear during fetal development and continue to mature after birth through the process of gyrification. In the human brain the majority of the cerebral cortex is not visible from the outside, but buried in the sulci, and the insular cortex is completely hidden.

In the same way, there exists a tonotopic map in the primary auditory cortex and a somatotopic map in the primary sensory cortex. This last topographic map of the body onto the posterior central gyrus has been illustrated as a deformed human representation, the somatosensory homunculus, where the size of different body parts reflects the relative density of their innervation. Areas with much sensory innervation, such as the fingertips and the lips, require more cortical area to process finer sensation.

Functional imaging experiments suggest that the left anterior supramarginal gyrus (aSMG) of the human inferior parietal lobule exhibits an evolved specialization related to tool use. It is not currently known if this functional specialization is unique to humans as complementary experiments have only been performed with macaque monkeys and not apes. The habitual use of tools by chimpanzees makes the uniqueness of the human aSMG an open question as its function may have evolved prior to the split from our last common ancestor.

It has been found by neuroscientists that the cerebral neocortex accounts for roughly 76% of the human brains total volume. The neocortex is predominately associated with high order brain functions such as motor control, sensory perception and cognition. The neocortex can be divided into two sections; the proisocortex and the true isocortex. The Proisocortex is transitional between both the true isocotex and periallocortex, it can be found mainly in the cingulate gyrus, insula and the subcallosal areas of the brain.

A former Paine Webber banker attested that Nakagawa and Sagawa were handlers for Olympus, and they made use of Bermuda-based funds valued at "hundreds of millions of dollars" to manage its balance sheet using Japanese accounting loopholes. Axes America, having negotiated the success fee for Gyrus in a combination of cash and stock, then transferred the stock component to AXAM Investments, an affiliate registered in the Cayman Islands. In 2010, the stock was sold back to Olympus for $620 million.

This area is thought to be a semantic processor on the basis of lesion, perfusion, and imaging data. # Inferior Parietal Cortex: angular and adjacent to supramarginal gyrus in inferior parietal cortex is thought to be most strongly activated during semantic processing of cross-modal spatial and temporal configurations. # Inferior and middle temporal cortex: a general semantic binding site between words and their meaning in left or bilateral medial/inferior temporal cortex. # Anterior temporal cortex: thought to be involved in semantic dementia.

Aziz-Zadeh found that although both action observation and reading phrases about actions caused activity in premotor and prefrontal regions in the vicinity of Broca's area, the activated regions largely did not overlap. Activations for reading phrases were anterior and medial to activations for action observation. Aziz-Zadeh's research contradicts that of Hamzei who stressed the overlap of language and action observation activations in the inferior frontal gyrus. However, the difference in results most likely was due to the difference in language tasks.

An area in the fusiform gyrus of the temporal lobe that has been strongly associated with a role in facial recognition. However, this area is not exclusive to faces; recognition of other objects of expertise are also processed in this area. The extrastriate body cortex (EBA) was found to be activated by photographs, silhouettes, or stick drawings of human bodies. The parahippocampal place area (PPA) of the limbic cortex has been found to be activated by the sight of scenes and backgrounds.

Due to the uniqueness of every patient's cortex, it is difficult to standardize procedures involving direct implantation. There are many common physical features between brains, but an individual gyrus or sulcus (neuroanatomy) can be different when compared. This leads to difficulties because it causes each procedure to be unique, thus taking longer to perform. In addition, the nature of a microelectrode array intended effect is limited due to the stated variance's presented in association with individual cortex uniqueness i.e. differences.

The classic diagram implies a single primary sensory map of the body, when there are multiple primary maps. At least four separate, anatomically distinct sensory homunculi have been identified in the postcentral gyrus. They represent combinations of input from surface and deep receptors and rapidly and slowly adapting peripheral receptors; smooth objects will activate certain cells, and rough objects will activate other cells. Information from all four maps in SI is sent to the secondary sensory cortex (SII) in the parietal lobe.

A number form is a mental map of numbers that automatically and involuntarily appear whenever someone who experiences number-forms synesthesia thinks of numbers. These numbers might appear in different locations and the mapping changes and varies between individuals. Number forms were first documented and named in 1881 by Francis Galton in "The Visions of Sane Persons". It is suggested that this might be caused by “cross activation” of the neural pathway that connects the parietal lobes and angular gyrus.

Brodmann areas 41 and 42 are parts of the primary auditory cortex. Brodmann area 41 is also known as the anterior transverse temporal area 41 (H). It is a cytoarchitectonic division of the cerebral cortex occupying the anterior transverse temporal gyrus (H) in the bank of the lateral sulcus on the dorsal surface of the temporal lobe. Brodmann area 41 is bounded medially by the parainsular area 52 (H) and laterally by the posterior transverse temporal area 42 (H) (Brodmann-1909).

It is located bilaterally, roughly at the upper sides of the temporal lobes – in humans, curving down and onto the medial surface, on the superior temporal plane, within the lateral sulcus and comprising parts of the transverse temporal gyri, and the superior temporal gyrus, including the planum polare and planum temporale (roughly Brodmann areas 41 and 42, and partially 22).Cf. Pickles, James O. (2012). An Introduction to the Physiology of Hearing (4th ed.). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 215–217.

Damage to the body above the pyramidal decussation will cause contralateral motor deficits. For example, if there is a lesion at the pre-central gyrus in the right cerebral cortex, then the left side of the body will be affected. Whereas damage below the pyramidal decussation will result in ipsilateral motor deficits. For example, spinal cord damage on the left side of the lateral corticospinal tract at the thoracic level can cause motor deficits to the left side of the body.

EEG has several limitations. Most important is its poor spatial resolution. EEG is most sensitive to a particular set of post-synaptic potentials: those generated in superficial layers of the cortex, on the crests of gyri directly abutting the skull and radial to the skull. Dendrites, which are deeper in the cortex, inside sulci, in midline or deep structures (such as the cingulate gyrus or hippocampus), or producing currents that are tangential to the skull, have far less contribution to the EEG signal.

The posterior insula projects predominantly to the dorsal aspect of the lateral and to the central amygdaloid nuclei. In contrast, the anterior insula projects to the anterior amygdaloid area as well as the medial, the cortical, the accessory basal magnocellular, the medial basal, and the lateral amygdaloid nuclei. The posterior part of the insula is formed by a long gyrus. The posterior insula connects reciprocally with the secondary somatosensory cortex and receives input from spinothalamically activated ventral posterior inferior thalamic nuclei.

Recent research indicates that the insular cortex is involved in auditory perception. Responses to sound stimuli were obtained using intracranial EEG recordings acquired from patients with epilepsy. The posterior part of the insula showed auditory responses that resemble those observed in Heschl’s gyrus, whereas the anterior part responded to the emotional contents of the auditory stimuli. Direct recordings from the posterior part of the insula showed responses to unexpected sounds within regular auditory streams, a process known as auditory deviance detection.

They found that when Americans were asked to make more relative judgments and when East Asians to make absolute judgments, both stimulated similar areas of the brain. When either cultures' nonpreferred judgment was provoked the result was the same for both groups. “The frontal and parietal lobes, specifically the left inferior parietal lobe and the right precentral gyrus were more stimulated than when culturally preferred judgments were made.” Thus, a person's societal culture determines how activated this neural network becomes when making visual perceptions.

Gerstmann syndrome is a neuropsychiatric disorder that is characterized by a constellation of symptoms that suggests the presence of a lesion usually near the junction of the temporal and parietal lobes at or near the angular gyrus. Gerstmann syndrome is typically associated with damage to the inferior parietal lobule of the dominant hemisphere. It is classically considered a left-hemisphere disorder, although right-hemisphere damage has also been associated with components of the syndrome. It is named after Jewish Austrian- born American neurologist Josef Gerstmann.

There is a link between aggression and emotion perception difficulties for people with this dual diagnosis. Data from magnetic resonance imaging and functional magnetic resonance imaging has shown that a smaller volume of the fusiform gyrus is linked to greater impairments in face perception. There is a positive correlation between self-face recognition and other-face recognition difficulties in individuals with schizophrenia. The degree of schizotypy has also been shown to correlate with self-face difficulties, unusual perception difficulties, and other face recognition difficulties.

A common thought is that understanding of the differences between the self and others are impaired. However, the exact biological mechanism of self-understanding in autistic children is currently unknown. It has been found that there are significant differences in brain activation in self and other situations in autistic children when compared to children who do not have autism. In adults who do not have autism, during self-recognition tasks, the inferior frontal gyrus and the inferior parietal lobule in the right hemisphere are activated.

Phonemic paraphasia and anomia (impaired word retrieval) are the results of phonological retrieval impairment. Another lesion that involves impairment in language production and processing is the “apraxia of speech”, a difficulty synchronizing articulators essential for speech production. This lesion is located in the superior pre- central gyrus of the insula and is more likely to occur to patients with Broca’s aphasia. Dominant ventral anterior (VA) nucleus, another type of lesion, is the result of word-finding and semantic paraphasia’s difficulties engaging in language processing.

This research revealed that inferior parietal and right angular gyrus activation were correlated with LRD performance in both men and women. Women also demonstrated increased prefrontal activation, but did not exhibit greater bilateral activation. Additionally, no correlation was found between LRD accuracy and brain activation, or between brain activation and reaction time, for either sex. These results indicate that there are sex differences in the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying LRD performance; however, findings did not suggest that women are more prone to LRC than men.

REM sleep is known for its visual experiences, which may often include detailed depictions of the human countenance. A recognition task was used to gauge familiarity with a previously shown sequence of faces after a subsequent period of REM sleep. It was seen that the fusiform gyrus was active during training, the REM sleep period, and the recognition task as well. It is hypothesized that brain mechanisms during REM sleep, as well as pure repetition priming, can account for the implicit recognition of the previously shown faces.

They observed grey and white matter in the brain and found that the processing of function morphemes occurs in the left temporoparietal junction (TPJ). They also discovered that if the adult had received damage to their post-superior temporal gyrus (P-STG), then they would have problems producing functional morphemes in the future. Lee et.al. concluded that functional morphemes are required for producing lexically complex words and sentences, and that damage to the P-STG can result in adults having issues with these processes.

As a rule, EEG signals are generated by synchronized synaptic input to the dendrites of neurons arranged in a layer. The hippocampus contains multiple layers of very densely packed neurons—the dentate gyrus and the CA3/CA1/subicular layer—and therefore has the potential to generate strong EEG signals. Basic EEG theory says that when a layer of neurons generates an EEG signal, the signal always phase-reverses at some level. Thus, theta waves recorded from sites above and below a generating layer have opposite signs.

Drawing of Purkinje cells (A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, 1899. Instituto Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain. The name granule cell has been used for a number of different types of neuron whose only common feature is that they all have very small cell bodies. Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the superficial layer of the dorsal cochlear nucleus, the olfactory bulb, and the cerebral cortex.

The north, south and west sides followed the usual pattern for a Roman camp of straight ditches and ramparts. However, on the eastern side the defences bulge out around a circular structure with a diameter of . The sand and gravel subsoil had been dug out to a depth of and the area surrounded with a timber stockade.The Times, First-century 'rodeo' in Roman fort 12 December 1970 This ring, the only known "gyrus" in the Roman Empire, may have been used for training horses.

A study examining brain activity during engagement in joint attentional tasks was able to suggest some brain areas potentially associated with joint attention. Greater activity in the ventromedial frontal cortex, the left superior frontal gyrus (BA10), cingulate cortex, and caudate nuclei were observed when individuals were engaging in joint attentional activities. Many of these brain regions have been implicated in related mental activities. The ventromedial frontal cortex has been demonstrated to be related to theory of mind type task involving the assignment of mental states to others.

Early interest in the relationship between brain function and social cognition includes the case of Phineas Gage, whose behaviour was reported to have changed after an accident damaged one or both of his frontal lobes. More recent neuropsychological studies have shown that brain injuries disrupt social cognitive processes. For example, damage to the frontal lobes can affect emotional responses to social stimuli and performance on theory of mind tasks. In the temporal lobe, damage to the fusiform gyrus can lead to the inability to recognize faces.

"Sexual desire and love not only show differences but also recruit a striking common set of brain areas that mediate somatosensory integration, reward expectation, and social cognition" Neuroimaging studies show that love and sexual desire share common chemical reactions in the brain. Both love and lust show neural activation in regions such as the cortical area (eg., middle gyrus, superior temporal guys, temporo-parietal junction, and occipital-temporal cortices) and the subcortical brain areas (eg., striatum, thalamus, hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex, and ventral segmental area).

The superior frontal gyrus, medial frontal areas, intraparietal sulcus, and superior parietal cortex, areas involved in sophisticated mental activity, show equal activity in REM sleep as in wakefulness. The amygdala is also active during REM sleep and may participate in generating the PGO waves, and experimental suppression of the amygdala results in less REM sleep.Larry D. Sanford & Richard J. Ross, "Amygdalar regulation of REM sleep"; in Mallick et al. (2011). The amygdala may also cardiac function in lieu of the less active insular cortex.

Wernicke localized the perception of spoken words to the posterior half of the left STG (superior temporal gyrus). Wernicke also distinguished between patients with auditory agnosia(which he labels as receptive aphasia) with patients who cannot detect sound at any frequency (which he labels as cortical deafness). In 1877, Kussamul was the first to report auditory agnosia in a patient with intact hearing, speaking, and reading-writing abilities. This case-study led Kussamul to propose of distinction between the word perception deficit and Wernicke's sensory aphasia.

This patient, in addition to word deafness, was impaired at recognizing environmental sounds and melodies. Based on this case study, as well as other aphasic patients, Lichtheim proposed that the language reception center receives afferents from upstream auditory and visual word recognition centers, and that damage to these regions results in word deafness or word blindness (i.e., alexia), respectively. Because the lesion of Lichtheim's auditory agnosia patient was sub-cortical deep to the posterior STG (superior temporal gyrus), Lichtheim renamed auditory agnosia as "sub-cortical speech deafness".

Furthermore, Page and colleagues identified HAP1 mRNA in the following forebrain limbic nuclei: the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, dentate gyrus, septal nuclei, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and hypothalamus. They also identified HAP1 in numerous areas of the cortex, including the anterior cingulate cortex and the limbic cortex. The subcellular location of HAP1 closely resembles that of Htt. Gutekunst and colleagues used immunogold labeling to identify subcellular localization of both HAP1 and , and identified a close similarity of the distribution of the two proteins.

The regions of the frontal lobe responsible for motor skill include the primary motor cortex, the supplemental motor area, and the premotor cortex. The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus and is often visualized as the motor homunculus. By stimulating certain areas of the motor strip and observing where it had an effect, Penfield and Rassmussen were able to map out the motor homunculus. Areas on the body that have complex movements, such as the hands, have a bigger representation on the motor homunculus.

The plan to use the gastrocnemius in running, jumping, knee and plantar flexing is created in the precentral gyrus in the cerebrum of the brain. Once a plan is produced, the signal is sent to and down an upper motor neuron. The signal is passed through the internal capsule and decussates, or crosses, in the medulla oblongata, specifically in the lateral corticospinal tract. The signal continues down through the anterior horn of the spinal cord where the upper motor neuron synapses with the lower motor neuron.

The neurons of the primary auditory cortex can be considered to have receptive fields covering a range of auditory frequencies and have selective responses to harmonic pitches. Neurons integrating information from the two ears have receptive fields covering a particular region of auditory space. The primary auditory cortex is surrounded by secondary auditory cortex, and interconnects with it. These secondary areas interconnect with further processing areas in the superior temporal gyrus, in the dorsal bank of the superior temporal sulcus, and in the frontal lobe.

A retrograde tracing experiment on macaque monkeys revealed that the ventral anterior nucleus (VA) and the ventral lateral nucleus (VL) of the thalamus are connected with motor areas of the cingulate sulcus. The retrosplenial region (Brodmann's area 26, 29 and 30) of cingulate gyrus can be divided into three parts: i.e., retrosplenial granular cortex A, retrosplenial granular cortex B and retrosplenial dysgranular cortex. The hippocampal formation sends dense projections to retrosplenial granular cortex A and B and fewer projections to the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex.

Axons from the EC that originate in layer III are the origin of the direct perforant pathway and form synapses on the very distal apical dendrites of CA1 neurons. Conversely, axons originating from layer II are the origin of the indirect pathway, and information reaches CA1 via the trisynaptic circuit. In the initial part of this pathway, the axons project through the perforant pathway to the granule cells of the dentate gyrus (first synapse). From then, the information follows via the mossy fibres to CA3 (second synapse).

Training can lead to changes in activity and brain structures involved in pre-attentive processing. Professional musicians, in particular, show larger ERP (Event-related potential) responses to deviations in auditory stimuli and have possibly related structural differences in their brains (Heschl's gyrus, corpus callosum, and pyramidal tracts). This plasticity of pre-attentive processing has also been shown in perception. Using EEG (electroencephalography) methods in pre-attentive colour perception, a study observed how easy it was for bilinguals to adapt to the linguistic constructs of a different culture.

The most significant acquisition was the British medical equipment maker Gyrus Group, acquired in 2008 at a cost of $2 billion – the equivalent of almost 5 times turnover and 27 times EBITDA. In the same year, Olympus also paid out ¥73.5 billion ($965 million) when it acquired three "small venture firms" – Altis, Humalabo, and NewsChef. By contrast, in 2009 Olympus sold the profitable diagnostics unit it had built up over 40 years to Beckman Coulter for $1 billion – approximately two times turnover – to free up capital.

Archives of Neurology and Psychology 44, 398–408Mayer, E. et al. (1999). A pure case of Gerstmann syndrome with a subangular lesion. Brain 122, 1107–1120 Studies of patients with lesions to the parietal lobe have demonstrated that lesions to the angular gyrus tend to lead to greater impairments in memorized mathematical facts, such as multiplication tables, with relatively unimpaired subtraction abilities. Conversely, patients with lesions in the region of the intraparietal sulcus tend to have greater deficits in subtraction, with preserved multiplication abilities.

The fact that the brain can create new neurons even into adulthood was rediscovered by Elizabeth Gould in 1999, leading it to be one of the hottest fields in neuroscience. Adult neurogenesis has recently been proven to occur in the dentate gyrus, olfactory bulb and striatum through the measurement of Carbon-14—the levels of which changed during nuclear bomb testing throughout the 20th century—in postmortem human brains.Leonie Welberg, "A striatal supply of new neurons", Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15, 203 (05 March 2014).

Recent data, obtained in a new model of mouse lacking the BTG1 gene, indicate that BTG1 is essential for the proliferation and expansion of stem cells in the adult neurogenic niches, i.e. the dentate gyrus and sub ventricular zone (see for review). In particular, BTG1 keeps adult neural stem cells in quiescence, preserving the neural stem cells pool from depletion. In the absence of BTG1, the stem and progenitor cells initially hyper proliferate and then in the longer period lose the ability to proliferate and expand.

The precentral sulcus is a part of the human brain that lies parallel to, and in front of, the central sulcus. (A sulcus is one of the prominent grooves on the surface of the human brain.) The precentral sulcus divides the inferior, middle and superior frontal gyri from the precentral gyrus. In most brains, the precentral sulcus is divided into two parts: the inferior precentral sulcus and the superior precentral sulcus. However, the precentral sulcus may sometimes be divided into three parts or form one continuous sulcus.

The essential role of the Broca's area in speech production has been questioned since it can be destroyed while leaving language nearly intact. In one case of a computer engineer, a slow-growing glioma tumor was removed. The tumor and the surgery destroyed the left inferior and middle frontal gyrus, the head of the caudate nucleus, the anterior limb of the internal capsule, and the anterior insula. However, there were minimal language problems three months after removal and the individual returned to his professional work.

Natural images used include pictures of a seaside cafe and harbor, performers on a stage, and dense foliage. In 2008 IBM applied for a patent on how to extract mental images of human faces from the human brain. It uses a feedback loop based on brain measurements of the fusiform gyrus area in the brain which activates proportionate with degree of facial recognition.IBM Patent Application: Retrieving mental images of faces from the human brain In 2011, a team led by Shinji Nishimoto used only brain recordings to partially reconstruct what volunteers were seeing.

CRMP1 mRNA is mainly expressed in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. Among the five members of the CRMP family, CRMP-2 is the most highly expressed in the adult brain, especially in post-mitotic neurons of the olfactory system, cerebellum, and hippocampus. CRMP-3 mRNA is only expressed in the granular layer of the cerebellum, inferior olive, and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. CRMP-4 is the least expressed protein of CRMP family and its expression is restricted to the olfactory bulb, hippocampus, and the internal granule layer (IGL) of the cerebellum.

Lastly, CRMP-5 is expressed not only in post-mitotic neurons of the olfactory bulb, olfactory epithelium, and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, but also in peripheral nerve axons and sensory neurons. Other families of CRMP also appear in peripheral tissues. Expression of CRMPs-1, -4, and -5 in the adult testis is detected only in the cell spermatid stage and CRMP-2 mRNA is found in lung tissue of the fetal mouse and adult human. The expression of CRMPs also can be found in the death or survival signaling of postmitotic neurons.

Patients with inferior frontal lobe damage produce less and less intense facial expression when presented with emotional stimuli, and they also have problems reading fear and disgust in other people. People with left inferior frontal lobe damage produced less facial expression and could not analyze emotional situations as well as those with right frontal lobe damage especially with fear and disgust. The left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) plays an important role in anger while the right IFG plays a larger role in disgust. Patients with dorsolateral frontal cortex lesions have difficulty discerning propositional attitude.

In rats, pyramidal and stellate cells in layer II of entorhinal cortex project through the subiculum of the hippocampus, giving rise to the name "perforant pathway". These glutamatergic fibers form a laminar pattern and terminate in the dentate gyrus and cornu ammonis 3 (CA3) region of the hippocampus. Fibers arising in the lateral portions of the entorhinal cortex show enkephalin immunoreactivity, whereas medial portions appear to contain cholecystokinin. Additionally, pyramidal cells in layer III of the entorhinal cortex send topographic projections along the perforant pathway which branch into the subiculum and CA1.

A coronal section of the brain confirmed an infarct, tissue death due to lack of oxygen, in the left superior frontal gyrus with the main lesion in the subcortical white matter. Fiber bundles are also present in the subcortical white matter connecting the prefrontal area with the nucleus of the thalamus. The researchers believed that utilization behavior could also be a result of the disordering of these fibers. The researchers established that a network exists between the frontal cortical and some subcortical lesions, especially the thalamus, and a white matter lesion may disconnect this network.

Subdivisions of the hippocampus in a rat brain. Information is projected through a path which begins with the dentate gyrus (DG), then to area CA3, CA1, and finally to the subiculum. The ability to encode and retrieve past experiences relies on the circuitry of the medial temporal lobe, a brain structure that includes the hippocampus and other para- hippocampal cortical areas. The organization of these brain areas is largely conserved across mammalian species as are the major pathways that information travels between the medial temporal lobe and the neocortex.

Each lobe is associated with one or two specialised functions though there is some functional overlap between them. The surface of the brain is folded into ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci), many of which are named, usually according to their position, such as the frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe or the central sulcus separating the central regions of the hemispheres. There are many small variations in the secondary and tertiary folds. The outer part of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, made up of grey matter arranged in layers.

When considering the prognosis for individuals with aphasia it is necessary to consider internal factors, patient specific factors, and external factors as these factors are considered most critical to post-stroke recovery. Internal factors are factors related to the stroke such as aphasia severity, lesion site and lesion size . Individuals with milder forms of aphasia, lesions that insignificantly impact language function and smaller lesions tend to have a higher degree of aphasia recovery. Lesions in the superior temporal gyrus (STG) produce a more persistent global aphasia, which is associated with poor aphasia recovery.

Nociception (physiological pain) signals nerve-damage or damage to tissue. The three types of pain receptors are cutaneous (skin), somatic (joints and bones), and visceral (body organs). It was previously believed that pain was simply the overloading of pressure receptors, but research in the first half of the 20th century indicated that pain is a distinct phenomenon that intertwines with all of the other senses, including touch. Pain was once considered an entirely subjective experience, but recent studies show that pain is registered in the anterior cingulate gyrus of the brain.

Cortical convolution has increased the folding of the brain’s surface over the course of human evolution. It has been hypothesized that the high degree of cortical convolution may be a neurological substrate that supports some of the human brain's most distinctive cognitive abilities. Consequently, individual intelligence within the human species might be modulated by the degree of cortical convolution. An analysis published in 2019 found the contours of 677 kids' brain had a genetic correlation of almost 1 between IQ and surface area of the supramarginal gyrus on the left side of the brain.

In the case of auditory agnosia, lesions are present in the superior temporal gyrus bilaterally or in the posterior temporal lobe of the language- dominant (typically left) hemisphere. In addition to verbal and nonverbal auditory agnosia, there are cases of auditory apperceptive agnosia where patients are unable to recognize music in the absence of sensory, intellectual, and verbal impairments. In these cases there may be a melodic or a memory basis established in the brain and damage to those areas lead to music agnosia. Agnosia occurs because of failure to re-encode melodic information properly.

However, the ce group and the cc group did not differ significantly. There was a similar activation of all groups found in left hemisphere components such as inferior/middle occipital gyri, inferior temporal/fusiform gyri, inferior/middle frontal gyri, and inferior parietal lobule. In the right hemisphere of the brain, activation was shown in the middle occipital gyrus, inferior Parietal lobules and middle frontal gyri. The findings concluded that Chinese components used to process the reading of English and Higher proficiency with increased involvement of Chinese component and reduced association of English components.

A dopaminergic pathway runs from the ventral tegmental area, ascends through the lateral hypothalamus, various basal forebrain areas (nucleus basalis, stria terminalis, shell of nucleus accumbens) and terminates in the amygdala, anterior cingulate gyrus and frontal cortex. Damage to the dopaminergic pathway results in a loss of dreaming. Furthermore, chemical stimulation of the pathway (with L-DOPA for example) increases the frequency and vividness of dreams without affecting REM sleep. The mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways are considered the seeking areas or the motivational command centers of the brain.

This disorder is often associated with brain lesions in the dominant (usually left) hemisphere including the angular and supramarginal gyri (Brodmann area 39 and 40 respectively) near the temporal and parietal lobe junction. There is significant debate in the scientific literature as to whether Gerstmann syndrome truly represents a unified, theoretically motivated syndrome. Thus its diagnostic utility has been questioned by neurologists and neuropsychologists alike. The angular gyrus is generally involved in translating visual patterns of letters and words into meaningful information, such as is done while reading.

The functional anatomy of humor: Segregating cognitive and affective components. Nature Neuroscience, 4(3), 237-8. Induction of laughter through direct brain stimulation has been reported in a number of studies, and includes areas such as ACC, globus pallidus, floor of the third ventricle, and most recently left superior frontal gyrus – though these results are hard to draw inferences from (may be inhibitory, may be artefacts, etc.) Because the nature of laughter is so complex—involving facial muscles, respiratory actions, etc.--a control center has been hypothesized in the upper pons.

All the forms of psychosurgery in use today (or used in recent years) target the limbic system, which involves structures such as the amygdala, hippocampus, certain thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei, prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex, and cingulate gyrus -- all connected by fibre pathways and thought to play a part in the regulation of emotion.Clinical resource and audit group 1996 Neurosurgery for mental disorder. Edinburgh: Scottish Office There is no international consensus on the best target site. Anterior cingulotomy was first used by Hugh Cairns in the UK, and developed in the US by H.T. Ballantine jnr.

Newer research has found that they coincide with the left superior temporal gyrus, suggesting that they are better attributed to speech misrepresentations. It is assumed through research that the neural pathways involved in normal speech perception and production, which are lateralized to the left temporal lobe, also underlie auditory hallucinations. Auditory hallucinations correspond with spontaneous neural activity of the left temporal lobe, and the subsequent primary auditory cortex. The perception of auditory hallucinations corresponds to the experience of actual external hearing, despite the absence of physical acoustic output.

Activity in the mid- cingulate gyrus, the inferior parietal lobe, and the superior frontal lobe are all associated with knowing for both positive and negative items. These regions are said to be involved in the retrieval of both semantic and episodic information. It has been suggested that the encoding of items which people forget details for or items which are forgotten as a whole are associated with these regions. This forgetting has to do with retrieval-related processes being active at the same time as encoding-related processes.

Thus, the process of retrieval may come at the expense of encoding vivid details of the item. In addition, disproportionate activity along the cingulate gyrus, within the parietal lobe, and in the prefrontal cortex is associated with the encoding of "known" positive items. This increased activity may cause the trade-off between retrieval-related processes and encoding-related processes to occur more significantly for positive items. This supports the idea that when people are in a positive mood, they have a more holistic, general thought process and disregard details.

Contextual effects occur as a result of the degree of similarity between the encoding context and the retrieval context of an emotional dimension. The main findings are that the current mood we are in affects what is attended, encoded and ultimately retrieved, as reflected in two similar but subtly different effects: the mood congruence effect and mood-state dependent retrieval. Positive encoding contexts have been connected to activity in the right fusiform gyrus. Negative encoding contexts have been correlated to activity in the right amygdala (Lewis & Critchley, 2003).

Mediation and yoga have been found to reduce stress, which is major element in the cause of Alzheimer’s disease. Stress has a negative impact on a patient’s genes such as producing inflammation in the brain, a key component of Alzheimer’s Disease. Simple twelve minute meditation each day reduces levels of stress in patients and extends the flow of blood to key areas of the brain responsible for memory performance. Yoga also stimulates the Anterior Cingulate Gyrus, a key area in the brain which manages memory recall, stress, emotive and cognitive stability.

The most adult stem cells in the brain are found in the subventricular zone at the lateral walls of the lateral ventricle. Another region where neurogenesis takes place in the adult brain is the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus. While the exact mechanism that maintains functional NSCs in these regions is still unknown, NSCs have shown an ability to restore neurons and glia in response to certain pathological conditions. However, so far, this regeneration by NSCs is insufficient to restore the full function and structure of an injured brain.

Prosopagnosia can be caused by lesions in various parts of the inferior occipital areas (occipital face area), fusiform gyrus (fusiform face area), and the anterior temporal cortex. Positron emission tomography (PET) and fMRI scans have shown that, in individuals without prosopagnosia, these areas are activated specifically in response to face stimuli. The inferior occipital areas are mainly involved in the early stages of face perception and the anterior temporal structures integrate specific information about the face, voice, and name of a familiar person. Acquired prosopagnosia can develop as the result of several neurologically damaging causes.

The paleopallium is pushed to the ventral surface of the brain, where it becomes the olfactory lobes, while the archipallium becomes rolled over at the medial dorsal edge to form the hippocampus. In placental mammals, a corpus callosum also develops, further connecting the two hemispheres. The complex convolutions of the cerebral surface (see gyrus, gyrification) are also found only in higher mammals. Although some large mammals (such as elephants) have particularly large cerebra, dolphins are the only species (other than humans) to have cerebra accounting for as much as 2 percent of their body weight.

In the human this area is known as ventral anterior cingulate area 24, and it refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined cingulate cortex region of cerebral cortex (area cingularis anterior ventralis). It occupies most of the anterior cingulate gyrus in an arc around the genu of the corpus callosum. Its outer border corresponds approximately to the cingulate sulcus. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded internally by the pregenual area 33, externally by the dorsal anterior cingulate area 32, and caudally by the ventral posterior cingulate area 23 and the dorsal posterior cingulate area 31.

In the guenon this area is referred to as area 24 of Brodmann-1905. It includes portions of the cingulate gyrus and the frontal lobe. The cortex is thin; it lacks the internal granular layer (IV) so that the densely distributed, plump pyramidal cells of sublayer 3b of the external pyramidal layer (III) merge with similar cells of the internal pyramidal layer (V); the multiform layer (VI) is very thin (Brodmann-1905). Note that Brodmann later divided this area into two areas, area 24 of Brodmann-1909 and area 25 of Brodmann-1909 (Brodmann-1909).

Younger infants (6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-step sequence. Researchers have suggested that these age differences are probably due to the fact that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed at the age of 6-months. In fact, the term 'infantile amnesia' refers to the phenomenon of accelerated forgetting during infancy. Importantly, infantile amnesia is not unique to humans, and preclinical research (using rodent models) provides insight into the precise neurobiology of this phenomenon.

At least one study demonstrated a high degree of connectivity between the three subregions of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). By stimulating one region of the IFG and measuring the response in distinct regions, these researchers were able to demonstrate the existence of numerous pathways between the pars triangularis and pars opercularis. Also, stimulation of one region of the pars triangularis elicited a response in distinct regions of the pars triangularis, illustrating the presence of networks within the subgyral region. Additionally, The pars triangularis was implicated in semantic processing of language.

It is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined precentral region of cerebral cortex. In the human brain, it is located on the portions of the precentral gyrus that are not occupied by Brodmann area 4; furthermore, BA6 extends onto the caudal portions of the superior frontal and middle frontal gyri. It extends from the cingulate sulcus on the medial aspect of the hemisphere to the lateral sulcus on the lateral aspect. It is bounded rostrally by the granular frontal region and caudally by the gigantopyramidal area 4 (Brodmann, 1909).

There are other complications as well: the hippocampal layers are strongly curved, and theta-modulated inputs impinge on them from multiple pathways, with varying phase relationships. The outcome of all these factors is that the phase and amplitude of theta oscillations change in a very complex way as a function of position within the hippocampus. The largest theta waves, however, are generally recorded from the vicinity of the fissure that separates the CA1 molecular layer from the dentate gyrus molecular layer. In rats, these signals frequently exceed 1 millivolt in amplitude.

In the human subcentral area 43, a sub area of the cytoarchitecture is defined in the postcentral region of the cerebral cortex. It occupies the postcentral gyrus, which is between the ventrolateral extreme of the central sulcus and the depth of the lateral sulcus, at the insula. Its rostral and caudal borders are approximated by the anterior subcentral sulcus and the posterior subcentral sulcus, respectively. Cytoarchitecturally, it is bounded rostrally, by the agranular frontal area 6, and caudally, for the most part, by the caudal postcentral area 2 and the supramarginal area 40.

They also suggest the existence of connections between the early visual cortex and the fusiform face area (FFA) that bypass the OFA. However, the OFA remains an essential part of the face perception network and represents face parts prior to further processing of more complex facial features in higher face-selective cortical regions. The OFA is frequently found within the right hemisphere, located on the lateral surface of the occipital lobe either in or around the inferior occipital gyrus (IOG). The location of the OFA varies spatially between people.

As it was activated in the familiar memory condition of episodic memory, this activation may be explained by the successful recall of the melody. When it comes to memory for pitch, there appears to be a dynamic and distributed brain network subserves pitch memory processes. Gaab, Gaser, Zaehle, Jancke and Schlaug (2003) examined the functional anatomy of pitch memory using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). An analysis of performance scores in a pitch memory task resulted in a significant correlation between good task performance and the supramarginal gyrus (SMG) as well as the dorsolateral cerebellum.

As well as finding superior pitch resolution in the right secondary auditory cortex, specific areas found to be involved were the planum temporale (PT) in the secondary auditory cortex, and the primary auditory cortex in the medial section of Heschl's gyrus (HG). Many neuroimaging studies have found evidence of the importance of right secondary auditory regions in aspects of musical pitch processing, such as melody. Many of these studies such as one by Patterson, Uppenkamp, Johnsrude and Griffiths (2002) also find evidence of a hierarchy of pitch processing. Patterson et al.

Brain structure within musicians and non-musicians is distinctly different. Gaser and Schlaug (2003) compared brain structures of professional musicians with non-musicians and discovered gray matter volume differences in motor, auditory and visual-spatial brain regions. Specifically, positive correlations were discovered between musician status (professional, amateur and non- musician) and gray matter volume in the primary motor and somatosensory areas, premotor areas, anterior superior parietal areas and in the inferior temporal gyrus bilaterally. This strong association between musician status and gray matter differences supports the notion that musicians' brains show use- dependent structural changes.

The primary gustatory cortex is a brain structure responsible for the perception of taste. It consists of two substructures: the anterior insula on the insular lobe and the frontal operculum on the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe. Because of its composition the primary gustatory cortex is sometimes referred to in literature as the AI/FO(Anterior Insula/Frontal Operculum). By using extracellular unit recording techniques, scientists have elucidated that neurons in the AI/FO respond to sweetness, saltiness, bitterness, and sourness, and they code the intensity of the taste stimulus.

The dentate gyrus receives excitatory projections from neurons in layer II of the entorhinal cortex as well as input from surrounding neuroglia. The unmyelinated granule cell axons of the mossy fiber pathway express both GABA receptors and glutamate receptors along their membranes that allow them to be modulated by both excitatory and inhibitory input from nearby glial cells. Axons from the entorhinal cortex synapse primarily on the dendritic spines of outer layer dentate granule cells. The entorhinal cortex passes sensory information from neocortical structures to the hippocampal formation.

Granule cells in different brain regions are both functionally and anatomically diverse: the only thing they have in common is smallness. For instance, olfactory bulb granule cells are GABAergic and axonless, while granule cells in the dentate gyrus have glutamatergic projection axons. These two populations of granule cells are also the only major neuronal populations that undergo adult neurogenesis, while cerebellar and cortical granule cells do not. Granule cells (save for those of the olfactory bulb) have a structure typical of a neuron consisting of dendrites, a soma (cell body) and an axon.

Anatomy of the hippocampal formation, including the entorhinal cortex (EC), the dentate gyrus (DG) and the different hippocampal subfields (CA1 and CA3). Inset shows the wiring between these different areas. Sensory information received by place cells can be categorized as either metric or contextual information, where metric information corresponds to where place cells should fire and contextual input corresponds to whether or not a place field should fire in a certain environment. Metric sensory information is any kind of spatial input that might indicate a distance between two points.

The frontal lobe is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned in front of the parietal lobe and above and in front of the temporal lobe.It was first discovered by Sir Niks Dhangar. It is separated from the parietal lobe by a space between tissues called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by a deep fold called the lateral sulcus also called the Sylvian fissure. The precentral gyrus, forming the posterior border of the frontal lobe, contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts.

The right parietal lobe is associated with sensory integration and perception whereas the left parietal lobe is believed to function at a more conceptual level involving speech, reading and writing. The central sulcus divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe which is located superior to the occipital lobe and posterior to the frontal lobe. The primary somatosensory cortex- the main processing center for tactile sensations- is positioned posterior to the central sulcus, on the post-central gyrus. The somatosensory system is also associated with the perception of temperature, taste, vision, proprioception and kinesthesia.

A 2016 study published by Riva, Triscoli, Lamm, Carnaghi, and Silani found that egocentric bias tends to be experienced in a much greater degree by adolescents and older adults than by young and middle aged adults. They examined the emotional effect of visuo-tactile stimulation on pairs of participants from a population of 114 female of varying ages. The varying degree of egocentric bias with age was attributed to the developmental cycle of the right supramarginal gyrus (rSMG) of the parietal lobe, which finishes developing at the end of adolescence and decays early.

Dissociated roles of the inferior frontal gyrus and superior temporal sulcus in audiovisual processing: top-down and bottom-up mismatch detection. PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0122580. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122580 An area of the right posterior superior temporal sulcus was characterized by a recent study by a stronger response to audiovisual stimuli compared to that of auditory or visual stimuli alone.Watson R, Latinus M, Charest I, Crabbe F, Belin P. People-selectivity, audiovisual integration and heteromodality in the superior temporal sulcus. Cortex. 2014;50(100):125–136. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.07.

The clinical significance of perivascular spaces comes primarily from their tendency to dilate. The importance of dilation is hypothesized to be based on changes in shape rather than size. Enlarged spaces have been observed most commonly in the basal ganglia, specifically on the lenticulostriate arteries. They have also been observed along the paramedial mesencephalothalamic artery and the substantia nigra in the mesencephalon, the brain region below the insula, the dentate nucleus in the cerebellum, and the corpus callosum, as well as the brain region directly above it, the cingulate gyrus.

Furthermore, greater activation was associated with greater amounts of eye contact and better social functioning. Scientists believe the inferior frontal gyrus is one of the main neural correlates with the mirror neuron system in humans and is often related to deficits associated with autism. These findings suggest that the mirror neuron system may not be non-functional in individuals with autism, but simply abnormal in its development. This information is significant to the present discussion because mu waves may be integrating different areas of mirror neuron activity in the brain.

Nerve fibres in the corticospinal tract originate from pyramidal cells in layer V of the cerebral cortex. Fibres arise from the primary motor cortex (about 30%), supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex (together also about 30%), and the somatosensory cortex, parietal lobe, and cingulate gyrus supplies the rest. The cells have their bodies in the cerebral cortex, and the axons form the bulk of the pyramidal tracts. The nerve axons travel from the cortex through the posterior limb of internal capsule, through the cerebral peduncle and into the brainstem and anterior medulla oblongata.

The existence of stem cells in the adult brain has been postulated following the discovery that the process of neurogenesis, the birth of new neurons, continues into adulthood in rats. The presence of stem cells in the mature primate brain was first reported in 1967. It has since been shown that new neurons are generated in adult mice, songbirds and primates, including humans. Normally, adult neurogenesis is restricted to two areas of the brain – the subventricular zone, which lines the lateral ventricles, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation.

Diagram labeling planum temporale in green. The planum temporale is the cortical area just posterior to the auditory cortex (Heschl's gyrus) within the Sylvian fissure. It is a triangular region which forms the heart of Wernicke's area, one of the most important functional areas for language.The Brain From Top To Bottom Original studies on this area found that the planum temporale was one of the most asymmetric regions in the brain, with this area being up to ten times larger in the left cerebral hemisphere than the right.

Hippocampus (brain) The MTL memory system includes the hippocampal formation (CA fields, dentate gyrus, subicular complex), perirhinal, entorhinal, and parahippocampal cortices. It is known to be important for the storage and processing of declarative memory, which allows for factual recall. It is also known to communicate with the neocortex in the establishment and maintenance of long-term memories, although its known functions are independent of long-term memory. Nondeclarative memory, on the other hand, which allows for the performance of different skills and habits, is not part of the MTL memory system.

The distribution of the lesions could be linked to the clinical evolution Post-mortem autopsy reveal that gray matter demyelination occurs in the motor cortex, cingulate gyrus, cerebellum, thalamus and spinal cord. Cortical lesions have been observed specially in people with SPMS but they also appear in RRMS and clinically isolated syndrome. They are more frequent in men than in women and they can partly explain cognitive deficits. Regarding two parameters of the cortical lesions, fractional anisotropy (FA) is lower and mean diffusivity (MD) is higher in patients than in controls.

Meanwhile, phosphorylation of PI3K by SRC activates RhoA which leads to activation of cofilin-P and disruption of filamentous actin. When the WAVE-1 gene was disrupted in mice, it resulted in cognitive defects such as losses in learning and memory implicating the WAVE-1 branch of the Rac pathway. Using an in vivo dentate gyrus LTP model, it was shown that LTP induction is associated with an increase in F-actin in the dendritic spines, and this is a long lasting change. It was shown that NMDA receptor activation is required for this effect.

Regions of the brain associated with phobias Beneath the lateral fissure in the cerebral cortex, the insula, or insular cortex, of the brain has been identified as part of the limbic system, along with cingulated gyrus, hippocampus, corpus callosum and other nearby cortices. This system has been found to play a role in emotion processing and the insula, in particular, may contribute through its role in maintaining autonomic functions. Studies by Critchley et al. indicate the insula as being involved in the experience of emotion by detecting and interpreting threatening stimuli.

Extraverts have more blood flow in the anterior cingulate gyrus, temporal lobes, and posterior thalamus, which are involved in sensory and emotional experience. This study and other research indicate that introversion-extraversion is related to individual differences in brain function. A study on regional brain volume found a positive correlation between introversion and grey matter volume in the right prefrontal cortex and right temporoparietal junction, as well as a positive correlation between introversion and total white matter volume.Forsman, L. J., de Manzano, Ö., Karabanov, A., Madison, G., & Ullén, F. (2012).

The corticobulbar tract originates in the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe, just superior to the lateral fissure and rostral to the central sulcus in the precentral gyrus (Brodmann area 4). The tract descends through the corona radiata and genu of the internal capsule with a few fibers in the posterior limb of the internal capsule, as it passes from the cortex down to the midbrain. In the midbrain, the internal capsule becomes the cerebral peduncles. The white matter is located in the ventral portion of the cerebral peduncles, called the crus cerebri.

Although little is known about the biological basis of autism, studies have revealed structural abnormalities in specific brain regions. Regions identified in the "social" brain include the amygdala, superior temporal sulcus, fusiform gyrus area and orbitofrontal cortex. Further abnormalities have been observed in the caudate nucleus, believed to be involved in restrictive behaviors, as well as in a significant increase in the amount of cortical grey matter and atypical connectivity between brain regions. There is a mistaken belief that some vaccinations, such as the MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) vaccine, may cause autism.

When the brain recognizes that the body is walking uphill, it makes neural adaptations that send more activity to muscles required for uphill walking. The rate of neural adaptation is affected by the area of the brain and by the similarity between sizes and shapes of previous stimuli. Adaptations in the inferior temporal gyrus are very dependent on previous stimuli being of similar size, and somewhat dependent on previous stimuli being of a similar shape. Adaptations in the Prefrontal Cortex are less dependent on previous stimuli being of similar size and shape.

It is suggested that while the premotor area engages in the mental operation, the precuneus aids monitoring the success of that operation in terms of internally represented visual images. The precuneus' role in mental imagery has been suggested to extend to that of modeling other people's views. It is activated when a person takes a third-person versus first-person visual point of view. Together with the superior frontal gyrus and orbitofrontal cortex, the precuneus is activated when people make judgments that requires understanding whether to act out of empathy and forgiveness.

Regarding the underlying neural structures, Corkin (2002) argues that Molaison's ability to acquire the floor plan is due to partly intact structures of his spatial processing network (e.g., the posterior part of his parahippocampal gyrus). In addition to his topographical memory, Molaison showed some learning in a picture memorization- recognition task, as well as in a famous faces recognition test, but in the latter only when he was provided with a phonemic cue. Molaison's positive performance in the picture recognition task might be due to spared parts of his ventral perirhinal cortex.

While many of the connections in non-human primates may be present in humans, they are less well documented. Studies have shown strong reciprocal connections to medial temporal lobe memory structures, such as the entorhinal cortex and the parahippocampal gyrus, the latter being involved in associative learning and episodic memory. In humans, the PCC is also connected to areas involved in emotion and social behavior, attention (the lateral intraparietal cortex and precuneus), learning and motivation (the anterior and lateral thalamic nucleus, caudate nucleus, orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex).

Seizure input from the EC to the dentate gyrus is filtered for both ictal and normal activity patterns, while CA3 cells impose an inter-ictal profile, reinforcing abnormal activity. Hyperventilation leads to a marked surface negative direct current shift due to depolarization of the apical dendritic trees of the cortical pyramidal cells. This shift is likely to represent the increased excitability of the cortical neuronal networks and may explain the resultant potential epileptogenicity. Certain anti-epileptic drugs have the opposing effect of reducing surface negativity in normal controls.

Auditory agnosia is a form of agnosia that manifests itself primarily in the inability to recognize or differentiate between sounds. It is not a defect of the ear or "hearing", but rather a neurological inability of the brain to process sound meaning. It is caused by bilateral damage to the anterior superior temporal gyrus, which is part of the auditory pathway responsible for sound recognition, the auditory "what" pathway. Persons with auditory agnosia can physically hear the sounds and describe them using unrelated terms, but are unable to recognize them.

In using these methods to create a complete map and track the axons of a mouse muscle, it is necessary to collect tens of thousands of images and compile them into stacks to create a complete schematic. It is then possible to trace each motor axon and its synaptic contacts to construct a complete connectome of the muscle. More examples of neurons examined using the Brainbow technique in transgenic mice are located in the motor nerve innervating ear muscles, axon tracts in the brainstem, and the hippocampal dentate gyrus.

The first-order neurons are sensory neurons located in the dorsal root ganglia, that send their afferent fibers through the two dorsal columns – the gracile fasciculus, or gracile tract, and the cuneate fasciculus, or cuneate tract. The first-order axons make contact with second- order neurons of the dorsal column nuclei (the gracile nucleus and the cuneate nucleus) in the lower medulla. The second-order neurons send their axons to the thalamus. The third-order neurons are in the ventral nuclear group in the thalamus and fibres from these ascend to the postcentral gyrus.

After transection of the brain stem just above the pons, the threshold is lowered and less bladder filling is required to trigger it, whereas after transection at the top of the midbrain, the threshold for the reflex is essentially normal. There is another facilitatory area in the posterior hypothalamus. In humans with lesions in the superior frontal gyrus, the desire to urinate is reduced and there is also difficulty in stopping micturition once it has commenced. However, stimulation experiments in animals indicate that other cortical areas also affect the process.

The lateral corticospinal tract is responsible for the motor pathway of the pronator quadratus. This tract begins in the precentral gyrus of the motor cortex where a signal is transmitted from the upper motor nerve through the progression tracts of the internal capsule and through the cerebral peduncles of the midbrain. It decussates in the medulla and travels down the lateral corticospinal tract in the lateral column of the spinal cord. It then decussates in the spinal cord and synapses at the anterior horn to the lower motor neurons of the skeletal muscles.

The pathway of recall associated with the retrieval of sound memories is the auditory system. Within the auditory system is the auditory cortex, which can be broken down into the primary auditory cortex and the belt areas. The primary auditory cortex is the main region of the brain that processes sound and is located on the superior temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe where it receives point-to-point input from the medial geniculate nucleus. From this, the primary auditory complex had a topographic map of the cochlea.

Older adults showed more activity in the medial prefrontal cortex and along the cingulate gyrus than young adults. Because these regions often are associated with self-referential processing, these results suggest that older adults' mnemonic boost for positive information may stem from an increased tendency to process this information in relation to themselves. It has been proposed that this "positivity shift" may occur because older adults put more emphasis on emotion regulation goals than do young adults, with older adults having a greater motivation to derive emotional meaning from life and to maintain positive affect.

Some researchers believe that the use of somatic markers (i.e., afferent feedback) would be a very inefficient method of influencing behavior. Damasio's notion of the as-if experience dependent feedback route, whereby bodily responses are re- represented utilizing the somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus), also proposes an inefficient method of affecting explicit behavior. Rolls (1999) stated that; "it would be very inefficient and noisy to place in the execution route a peripheral response, and transducers to attempt to measure that peripheral response, itself a notoriously difficult procedure" (p. 73).

A decrease of RbAp48 in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus in the brain is suspected to be a main cause of memory loss in normal aging. An age related decrease in RbAp48 is observed in the DG from human post-mortem tissue and also in mice. Furthermore, a gene knockin of a dominant negative form of RbAp48 of causes memory deficits in young mice similar to that observed in older mice. Finally lentiviral gene transfer to increase the expression of RbAp48 in the brain reverses memory deficits in older mice.

Neuro-pathological and structural neuroimaging studies in patients with major depressive disorder have indicated abnormalities within the subgenual anterior cingulate gyrus and volume reductions within the hippocampus, ventral striatal regions and amygdala. Similarly, anxiety has been commonly associated with individuals being able to perceive threat when in fact none is present, and orient more quickly to threatening cues than other cues. Anxiety has been associated with an enhanced orienting toward threat,Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Matthews, A. (1988). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders.

When electrodes are hooked up to deaf native signers, similar syntactic anomalies associated with an event-related potential were recorded across both left and right hemisphere. This shows that syntactic processing for American Sign Language (ASL) is not lateralized to the left hemisphere. When communicating in their respective languages, similar brain regions are activated for both deaf and hearing subjects with a few exceptions. During the processing of auditory stimuli for spoken languages there is detectable activity within Broca's Area, Wernicke's Area, the angular gyrus, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and superior temporal sulcus.

It contains two main interlocking parts: the hippocampus proper (also called Ammon's horn)Pearce, 2001 and the dentate gyrus. In Alzheimer's disease (and other forms of dementia), the hippocampus is one of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage; short-term memory loss and disorientation are included among the early symptoms. Damage to the hippocampus can also result from oxygen starvation (hypoxia), encephalitis, or medial temporal lobe epilepsy. People with extensive, bilateral hippocampal damage may experience anterograde amnesia: the inability to form and retain new memories.

The anterior perforated substance is a bilateral irregularly quadrilateral area in front of the optic tract and behind the olfactory trigone, from which it is separated by the fissure prima; medially and in front, it is continuous with the subcallosal gyrus; it is bounded laterally by the lateral stria of the olfactory tract and is continued into the uncus. Its gray substance is confluent above with that of the corpus striatum, and is perforated anteriorly by numerous small blood vessels that supply such areas as the internal capsule.

There are slow spindles in the range of 11 – 13 Hz that are associated with increased activity in the superior frontal gyrus, and fast spindles in the range of 13 – 15 Hz that are associated with recruitment of sensorimotor processing cortical regions, as well as recruitment of the mesial frontal cortex and hippocampus. There is no clear answer as to what these sleep spindles mean, but ongoing research hopes to illuminate their function. K-complexes are single long delta waves that last for only a second. They are also unique to NREM sleep.

Neurogenesis in the hippocampus usually decreases after exposure to radiation and usually leads to a cognitive decline in patients undergoing radiation therapy. As discussed above, the decrease in neurogenesis is heavily influenced by changes in the microenvironment of the hippocampus upon exposure to radiation. Specifically, disruption of the cluster/vessel association in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus and cytokines released by activated microglia as part of the inflammatory response do impair neurogenesis in the irradiated hippocampus. Thus several studies have used this knowledge to reverse the reduction in neurogenesis in the irradiated hippocampus.

In one study, indomethacin treatment was given to the irradiated rat during and after irradiation treatment. It was found that the indomethacin treatment caused a 35% decrease in the number of activated microglia per dentate gyrus in comparison to microglia activation in irradiated rats without indomethacin treatment. This decrease in microglia activation reduces the amount of cytokines and stress-hormone release, thus reducing the effect of the inflammatory response. When the number of precursor cells adopting a neuronal fate was quantified, it was determined that the ratio of neurons to glia cells increased.

The authors state that these results are related to deficits in long range coordination of neural activity, as described for contour detection. Another experiment using EEG and structural MRI to examine facial processing abnormalities in schizophrenia found decreased N170 component responses, and this was correlated with decreased gray matter volumes in the fusiform gyrus. There is evidence that the fusiform face area is a visual cortical region that may be specialized for detecting faces. The authors of this study conclude that their data support a specific face processing deficit in schizophrenia.

Increases in thalamic and ACC grey matter was reported in the medication free and medicated populations respectively. A meta analysis performed using "activation likelihood estimate" reported reductions in the paracingulate cortex, dACC and amygdala. Using statistical parametric mapping, one meta analysis replicated previous findings of reduced grey matter in the ACC, medial prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, hippocampus and thalamus; however reductions in the OFC and ventromedial prefrontal cortex grey matter were also reported. Two studies on depression from the ENIGMA consortium have been published, one on cortical thickness, and the other on subcortical volume.

The archicortex is most prevalent in the olfactory cortex and the hippocampus, which are responsible for processing smells and forming memories, respectively. Because olfaction is considered to be the phylogenetically oldest sensory modality, and the limbic system, of which the hippocampus is a part, is one of the oldest systems in the brain, it is likely that the archicortex was one of the first types of tissue to develop in primitive nervous systems. Archicortical precursor cells are also present in the dentate gyrus of the developing mammalian embryo.

The scans also showed an enhanced temporal activation during narrative levels tests indicating this approach activates situation and spatial processing. In general, neuroimaging studies have found that reading involves three overlapping neural systems: networks active in visual, orthography-phonology (Angular gyrus), and semantic functions (Anterior temporal lobe with Broca's and Wernicke's area). However, these neural networks are not discrete, meaning these areas have several other functions as well. The Broca's area involved in executive functions helps the reader to vary depth of reading comprehension and textual engagement in accordance with reading goals.

In the same year, Charles Bell finished work on what would later become known as the Bell-Magendie law, which compared functional differences between dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord. In 1822, Karl Friedrich Burdach distinguished between the lateral and medial geniculate bodies, as well as named the cingulate gyrus. In 1824, F. Magendie studied and produced the first evidence of the cerebellum's role in equilibration to complete the Bell-Magendie law. In 1838, Theodor Schwann began studying white and grey matter in the brain, and discovered the myelin sheath.

The first and most widely researched area concerns memory, particularly spatial memory. Spatial memory was found to have many sub-regions in the hippocampus, such as the dentate gyrus (DG) in the dorsal hippocampus, the left hippocampus, and the parahippocampal region. The dorsal hippocampus was found to be an important component for the generation of new neurons, called adult- born granules (GC), in adolescence and adulthood. These new neurons contribute to pattern separation in spatial memory, increasing the firing in cell networks, and overall causing stronger memory formations.

Broca's and Wernicke's areas. The classical or Wernicke-Geschwind model of the language system in the brain focuses on Broca's area in the inferior prefrontal cortex, and Wernicke's area in the posterior superior temporal gyrus on the dominant hemisphere of the brain (typically the left hemisphere for language). In this model, a linguistic auditory signal is first sent from the auditory cortex to Wernicke's area. The lexicon is accessed in Wernicke's area, and these words are sent via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area, where morphology, syntax, and instructions for articulation are generated.

One explanation for this local bias is that people with autism do not have the normal global precedence when looking at objects and scenes. Alternatively, autism could bring about limitations in the complexity of information that can be manipulated in short- term visual memory during graphic planning. The difficulties that individuals with ASD often have in regards to facial recognition has prompted further questions. Some research has shown that the fusiform gyrus in ASD individuals acts differently from in non-ASD individuals which may explain the aforementioned troubles regarding facial recognition.

In the early 1990s, Yamaichi Securities was Olympus' main broker, but went bankrupt after accumulating ¥260 billion in tobashi investment losses. In 1998, Nomura succeeded as Olympus' main broker. Prompted by the Yamaichi collapse, new "mark to market" accounting rules were made mandatory in 1999, from which time companies were obliged to disclose losses on their securities investments in a timely manner. Thomson Reuters reported that a fee of US$687 million, equal to 31 percent of the Gyrus acquisition price, was paid to a middle-man, whereas this is usually 1–2 percent.

Default mode network connectivity. This image shows main regions of the default mode network (yellow) and connectivity between the regions color-coded by structural traversing direction (xyz → rgb). In neuroscience, the default mode network (DMN), also default network, or default state network, is a large-scale brain network primarily composed of the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex/precuneus and angular gyrus. It is best known for being active when a person is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at wakeful rest, such as during daydreaming and mind-wandering.

Cingulate herniation can be caused when one hemisphere swells and pushes the cingulate gyrus by the falx cerebri. This does not put as much pressure on the brainstem as the other types of herniation, but it may interfere with blood vessels in the frontal lobes that are close to the site of injury (anterior cerebral artery), or it may progress to central herniation. Interference with the blood supply can cause dangerous increases in ICP that can lead to more dangerous forms of herniation. Symptoms for cingulate herniation are not well defined.

After this comes a pair of ill-defined areas called the presubiculum and parasubiculum, then a transition to the cortex proper (mostly the entorhinal area of the cortex). Most anatomists use the term "hippocampus proper" to refer to the four CA fields, and hippocampal formation to refer to the hippocampus proper plus dentate gyrus and subiculum. The major signaling pathways flow through the hippocampus and combine to form a loop. Most external input comes from the adjoining entorhinal cortex, via the axons of the so-called perforant path.

Gyrification in the human brain Gyrification is the process of forming the characteristic folds of the cerebral cortex. The peak of such a fold is called a gyrus (plural: gyri), and its trough is called a sulcus (plural: sulci). The neurons of the cerebral cortex reside in a thin layer of gray matter, only 2–4 mm thick, at the surface of the brain. Much of the interior volume is occupied by white matter, which consists of long axonal projections to and from the cortical neurons residing near the surface.

While playing these games, children with DMDD report more agitation and negative emotional arousal than their typically-developing peers. Furthermore, youths with DMDD showed markedly greater activity in the medial frontal gyrus and anterior cingulate cortex compared to other youths. These brain regions are important because they are involved in evaluating and processing negative emotions, monitoring one's own emotional state, and selecting an effective response when upset, angry, or frustrated. Altogether, these findings suggest that youths with DMDD are more strongly influenced by negative events than other youths.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans of the brains of subjects exposed to thirty-five hours of sleep deprivation indicate that sleep deprivation is related to increases in prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe activation during tasks that combine verbal learning and arithmetic. This is particularly apparent in the right hemisphere. In non sleep-deprived individuals involved in verbal learning and arithmetic tasks the anterior cingulate cortex and the right prefrontal cortex are active. Following sleep deprivation there is increased activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus and the bilateral parietal lobes.

Broca's area, or the Broca area (, also , ), is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the brain with functions linked to speech production. Language processing has been linked to Broca's area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments in two patients. They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus (pars triangularis) (BA45) of the brain. Since then, the approximate region he identified has become known as Broca's area, and the deficit in language production as Broca's aphasia, also called expressive aphasia.

The Royal Society. 335, 55–62 These results can be linked with her studies of brain-damaged patients with lesions in the occipital and temporal lobes. Patients revealed that there was an impairment of face processing but no difficulty recognizing everyday objects, a disorder also known as prosopagnosia. Later research by Nancy Kanwisher using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), found specifically that the region of the inferior temporal cortex, known as the fusiform gyrus, was significantly more active when subjects viewed, recognized and categorized faces in comparison to other regions of the brain.

Sowell et al., reported that the first 6 decades of an individual's life were correlated with the most rapid decreases in grey matter density, and this occurred over dorsal, frontal, and parietal lobes on both interhemispheric and lateral brain surfaces. It is also worth noting that areas such as the cingulate gyrus, and occipital cortex surrounding the calcarine sulcus appear exempt from this decrease in grey matter density over time. Age effects on grey matter density in the posterior temporal cortex appear more predominantly in the left versus right hemisphere, and were confined to posterior language cortices.

Early neuroanatomists, including Santiago Ramón y Cajal, considered the nervous system fixed and incapable of regeneration. The first evidence of adult mammalian neurogenesis in the cerebral cortex was presented by Joseph Altman in 1962, followed by a demonstration of adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in 1963. In 1969, Joseph Altman discovered and named the rostral migratory stream as the source of adult generated granule cell neurons in the olfactory bulb. Up until the 1980s, the scientific community ignored these findings despite use of the most direct method of demonstrating cell proliferation in the early studies, i.e.

It directly acts on the paraventricular nucleus to decrease CRH release and down regulate norepinephrine functioning in the locus coeruleus. Because CRH is being repressed, the decrease in neurogenesis that is associated with elevated levels of it is also being reversed. This allows for the production of more brain cells, in particular at the 5-HT1a receptor in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus which has been shown to improve symptoms of depression. It normally takes neurons approximately three to six weeks to mature, which is approximately the same amount of time it takes for SSRIs to take effect.

The analysis of brain lesions and the correlation between lesion locations and behavioral deficits were the most important sources of knowledge about the cerebral mechanisms underlying speech production for many years. The seminal lesion studies of Paul Broca indicated that the production of speech relies on the functional integrity of the left inferior frontal gyrus. More recently, the results of noninvasive neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), provide growing evidence that complex human skills are not primarily located in highly specialized brain areas (e.g., Broca's area) but are organized in networks connecting several different areas of both hemispheres instead.

People with a lesion in this area of the brain develop receptive aphasia, a condition in which there is a major impairment of language comprehension, while speech retains a natural-sounding rhythm and a relatively normal sentence structure. The second area is Broca's area, in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere. People with a lesion to this area develop expressive aphasia, meaning that they know what they want to say, they just cannot get it out. They are typically able to understand what is being said to them, but unable to speak fluently.

The corticospinal tract carries movements from the brain, through the spinal cord, to the torso and limbs. The cranial nerves carry movements related to the eyes, mouth and face. Gross movement – such as locomotion and the movement of arms and legs – is generated in the motor cortex, divided into three parts: the primary motor cortex, found in the precentral gyrus and has sections dedicated to the movement of different body parts. These movements are supported and regulated by two other areas, lying anterior to the primary motor cortex: the premotor area and the supplementary motor area.

It is believed that in these cases the seizures cause a functional disruption that is capable of interfering with the processing of objects. Regions that specifically lead to deficits in object recognition when a lesion is present include the right lateral fusiform gyrus and the ventrolateral or ventromedial occipito-temporal cortex. These structures have all been identified as being crucial to the processing of shape and contour information, which is the basis for object recognition. Although people with damage to these structures are not able to properly recognize objects, they are still capable of discerning the movement of objects.

It has been shown that there are no grounds on which to assume the existence of distinct cerebral organization of separate languages in the bilingual brain. That is to say, the cerebral regions that are engaged for both languages are the same. Although neurologists have a basic understanding of the underlying neural components and mechanisms of bilingual language, further research is necessary in order to fully understand or conclude any other findings. Anterior CingulateNeuroimaging techniques such as fMRIs have shown that at least four brain areas are involved in bilingual switching: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and supramarginal gyrus.

Studies have been conducted that show an interaction between brain circuits that respond to baby-stimuli, such as infant cries, and testosterone and oxytocin pathways. It has been found that when acute amounts of testosterone and oxytocin are administered to nulliparous women exposed to infant cries, they cause decreased responses in the amygdala and increased insula and inferior frontal gyrus responses. The alterations in responses within those brain regions have been seen to induce maternal behaviors. As such, there is speculation that increasing the availability of testosterone and oxytocin alters the maternal brain to induce a non-aversive response to infant cries.

But by the age of seven months the child is able to recognize an angry or fearful facial expression, perhaps because of the threat-salient nature of the emotion. Face perceptions are very complex, as the recognition of facial expressions involves extensive and diverse areas in the brain. Sometimes, damaged parts of the brain can cause specific impairments in understanding faces, called prosopagnosia. Brain imaging studies typically show a great deal of activity in an area of the temporal lobe known as the fusiform gyrus, an area also known to cause prosopagnosia when damaged (particularly when damage occurs on both sides).

Neural misfiring in the fusiform face area, in the fusiform gyrus (orange), might be a cause of the Cotard delusion. In the cerebrum, organic lesions in the parietal lobe might cause the Cotard delusion. The underlying neurophysiology and psychopathology of Cotard syndrome might be related to problems of delusional misidentification. Neurologically, Cotard's delusion (negation of the Self) is thought to be related to Capgras delusion (people replaced by impostors); each type of delusion is thought to result from neural misfiring in the fusiform face area of the brain, which recognizes faces, and in the amygdalae, which associate emotions to a recognized face.

The brain regions associated with theory of mind include the superior temporal gyrus (STS), the temporoparietal junction (TPJ), the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), the precuneus, and the amygdala. The reduced activity in the MPFC of individuals with schizophrenia is associated with the Theory of mind deficit and may explain impairments in social function among people with schizophrenia. Increased neural activity in MPFC is related to better perspective-taking, emotion management, and increased social functioning. Disrupted brain activities in areas related to theory of mind may increase social stress or disinterest in social interaction, and contribute to the social dysfunction associated with schizophrenia.

In the adult brain, the endocannabinoid system facilitates the neurogenesis of hippocampal granule cells. In the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, multipotent neural progenitors (NP) give rise to daughter cells that, over the course of several weeks, mature into granule cells whose axons project to and synapse onto dendrites on the CA3 region. NPs in the hippocampus have been shown to possess fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and express CB1 and utilize 2-AG. Intriguingly, CB1 activation by endogenous or exogenous cannabinoids promote NP proliferation and differentiation; this activation is absent in CB1 knockouts and abolished in the presence of antagonist.

There is a broadly representation of the different body parts in the primary motor cortex in an arrangement called a motor homunculus (Latin: little person). The leg area is located close to the midline, in interior sections of the motor area folding into the medial longitudinal fissure. The lateral, convex side of the primary motor cortex is arranged from top to bottom in areas that correspond to the buttocks, torso, shoulder, elbow, wrist, fingers, thumb, eyelids, lips, and jaw. The arm and hand motor area is the largest, and occupies the part of precentral gyrus between the leg and face area.

The parahippocampal place area (PPA) is located in the posterior parahippocampal gyrus, which itself is contained in the medial temporal lobe with close proximity to the hippocampus. Its name comes from the increased neural response in the PPA when viewing places, like buildings, houses, and other structures, and when viewing environmental scenes, both indoors and outdoors (Epstein & Kanwisher, 1998). This is not to say that the PPA does not show activation when presented with other visual stimuli – when presented with familiar objects that are neither buildings nor faces, like chairs, there is also some activation within the PPA (Ishai et al., 2000).

Congenital amusia, otherwise known as tone deafness, is a term for lifelong musical problems which are not attributable to mental retardation, lack of exposure to music or deafness, or brain damage after birth. Amusic brains have been found in fMRI studies to have less white matter and thicker cortex than controls in the right inferior frontal cortex. These differences suggest abnormal neuronal development in the auditory cortex and inferior frontal gyrus, two areas which are important in musical-pitch processing. Studies on those with amusia suggest different processes are involved in speech tonality and musical tonality.

Issues in the BA10 areas have been implicated as a possible neurological correlate for autism spectrum disorder which is often characterized by deficits in joint attention. Further research involving eye tracking methods of joint attention found similar neural correlates. Researchers saw increased activation in the right amygdala, the right fusiform gyrus, anterior and dorsal anterior cingulate cortices, striatum, ventral tegmental area, and posterior parietal cortices when participants were engaging in joint attention based on the eye tracking. Neurophysiological studies in primates Recent studies have investigated the neural basis of gaze following and joint attention in rhesus monkeys.

By deactivating these interneurons, Losonczy showed that fear memories could be suppressed and contextual fear conditioning could thus be prevented. This discovery is significant to research into the mechanism psychiatric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder. In 2015, Losonczy and his PhD student Nathan Danielson discovered the role of neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus in memory formation and pattern separation. To perform this study, Losonczy used two-photon microscopy and calcium imaging to image newborn granule cells in the mouse hippocampus and compare them with mature neurons as the mice traveled through subtly different contexts.

The entorhinal cortex (EC) is a structure in the brain located in the medial temporal lobe. The EC is composed of six distinct layers. The superficial (outer) layers, which includes layers I through III, are mainly input layers that receive signals from other parts of the EC. The deep (inner) layers, layers IV to VI, are output layers, and send signals to different parts of the EC and the brain. Layers II and III project to the CA3 area of the hippocampal formation (via the perforant path) and to the granule cells of the dentate gyrus, respectively.

Recent evidence points out that neuronal progenitor cells are sensitive to radiation. Studies on low-LET radiation show that radiation stops not only the generation of neuronal progenitor cells, but also their differentiation into neurons and other neural cells. NCRP Report No. 153 notes that cells in the SGZ of the dentate gyrus undergo dose-dependent apoptosis above 2 Gy of X-ray irradiation, and the production of new neurons in young adult male mice is significantly reduced by relatively low (>2 Gy) doses of X rays. NCRP Report No. 153 also notes that: “These changes are observed to be dose dependent.

Gerstmann studied patients whose deficits were in the body schema and thus lacked the ability to recognize, identify or name the fingers on either hand, a phenomenon known as finger agnosia. This particular ailment, known as Gerstmann syndrome, is often seen in patients with a lesion on their left angular gyrus, which is known to be frequently anatomically correlated with autotopagnosia. Until the 1980s, there had been no scientifically accredited cases of autotopagnosia, rather agnosias that have been secondary to other neurological deficits such as dementia. In fact the term autotopagnosia does not appear until Pick's studies in 1908 and 1922.

The list of such archaeological finds is extensive and includes horse skeletons, multiple parts of horse tack or harnesses, outstanding decorated cavalry parade helmets & face masks that can be seen at NMS Edinburgh, and intriguingly the prospect of a gyrus, or training ring. During these phases of occupation, the population of the fort varied considerably, the permanent garrison level was probably around 1000 - this number though would be complemented by the trades, manufacturers, craftsmen and families associated with the camp during the different phases of occupation. It has been estimated that the number could have risen to anywhere between 2000–5000.

The corticolimbic brain regions affected include the olfactory bulb, piriform cortex, perirhinal cortex, entorhinal cortex, and the hippocampal dentate gyrus. It was found that a heavy two-day drinking binge caused extensive neurodegeneration in the entorhinal cortex with resultant learning deficits in rats. It is unclear how the frequency and length of these binge drinking sessions impacts brain damage in humans. Humans who drank at least 100 drinks (male) or 80 drinks (female) per month (concentrated to 21 occasions or less per month) throughout a three-year period had impaired decision making skills compared to non-binge drinkers.

Brodmann area 40 (BA40) is part of the parietal cortex in the human brain. The inferior part of BA40 is in the area of the supramarginal gyrus, which lies at the posterior end of the lateral fissure, in the inferior lateral part of the parietal lobe. It is bounded approximately by the intraparietal sulcus, the inferior postcentral sulcus, the posterior subcentral sulcus and the lateral sulcus. It is bounded caudally by the angular area 39 (H), rostrally and dorsally by the caudal postcentral area 2, and ventrally by the subcentral area 43 and the superior temporal area 22 (Brodmann-1909).

Those diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease often display this lack of awareness and insist that nothing is wrong with them. Anosognosia may occur as part of receptive aphasia, a language disorder that causes poor comprehension of speech and the production of fluent but incomprehensible sentences. A patient with receptive aphasia cannot correct his own phonetics errors and shows "anger and disappointment with the person with whom s/he is speaking because that person fails to understand her/him". This may be a result of brain damage to the posterior portion of the superior temporal gyrus, believed to contain representations of word sounds.

Wernicke's area (; ), also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of the two parts of the cerebral cortex that are linked to speech, the other being Broca's area. It is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language, in contrast to Broca's area, which is involved in the production of language. It is traditionally thought to reside in Brodmann area 22, which is located in the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere in about 95% of right-handed individuals and 60% of left-handed individuals. Damage caused to Wernicke's area results in receptive, fluent aphasia.

Wernicke's area is named after Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist and psychiatrist who, in 1874, hypothesized a link between the left posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus and the reflexive mimicking of words and their syllables that associated the sensory and motor images of spoken words. He did this on the basis of the location of brain injuries that caused aphasia. Receptive aphasia in which such abilities are preserved is also known as Wernicke's aphasia. In this condition there is a major impairment of language comprehension, while speech retains a natural- sounding rhythm and a relatively normal syntax.

Brodmann areas 3, 1, and 2 make up the primary somatosensory cortex of the human brain (or S1). Because Brodmann sliced the brain somewhat obliquely, he encountered area 1 first; however, from anterior to posterior, the Brodmann designations are 3, 1, and 2, respectively. Brodmann area (BA) 3 is subdivided into areas 3a and 3b. Where BA 1 occupies the apex of the postcentral gyrus, the rostral border of BA 3a is in the nadir of the Central sulcus, and is caudally followed by BA 3b, then BA 1, with BA 2 following and ending in the nadir of the postcentral sulcus.

Lesions affecting the primary somatosensory cortex produce characteristic symptoms including: agraphesthesia, astereognosia, hemihypesthesia, and loss of vibration, proprioception and fine touch (because the third-order neuron of the medial-lemniscal pathway cannot synapse in the cortex). It can also produce hemineglect, if it affects the non-dominant hemisphere. Destruction of brodmann area 3, 1, and 2 results in contralateral hemihypesthesia and astereognosis. It could also reduce nociception, thermoception, and crude touch, but, since information from the spinothalamic tract is interpreted mainly by other areas of the brain (see insular cortex and cingulate gyrus), it is not as relevant as the other symptoms.

The superior temporal gyrus (STG) is important for language comprehension, but studies also suggest that it plays a functional role in the cocktail party effect. A magnetoencephalography study was conducted on participants that were exposed to five differing listening conditions each with a different level of background noise. It was discovered that the STG has a strong connection with the attended speech stream in a cocktail party setting. When the attended speech stream wasn’t disrupted by background noise a bilateral connection was displayed, but as more background noise was introduced the connection became left-hemisphere-dependent.

People with dyslexia have been commonly associated with working memory deficits, along with reduced activity in the pre-frontal and parietal cortex. Observed differences in the neural pattern of people with dyslexia, namely decreased activation in the left and posterior midfrontal gyrus (LMG, PMG) and superior parietial regions of the brain further supports the view that deficits in working memory contribute to dyslexia. LMG and PMG are commonly associated with working memory processes such as memory updating and temporal order memory. Behavioral experiments in dyslexia have largely been supportive of the mediating role assumed by working memory between neurological abnormalities and dyslexic behavior.

Pain, temperature, touch, and pressure information are carried to the central nervous system via the anterolateral system (spinothalamic tracts, spinoreticular tract, spinomesencefalic tract), with pain and temperature information transferred via lateral spinothalamic tracts to the primary sensory cortex, located in the postcentral gyrus in the parietal lobe, where sensory information is represented somatotropically, forming the sensory homunculus. In phantom limb syndrome, there is sensory input indicating pain from a part of the body that is no longer existent. This phenomenon is still not fully understood, but it is hypothesized that it is caused by activation of the somatosensory cortex.

According to recent research, there is no neural evidence of statistical language learning in children with autism spectrum disorders. When exposed to a continuous stream of artificial speech, neurotypical children displayed less cortical activity in the dorsolateral frontal cortices (specifically the middle frontal gyrus) as cues for word boundaries increased. However activity in these networks remained unchanged in autistic children, regardless of the verbal cues provided. This evidence, highlighting the importance of proper Frontal Lobe brain function is in support of the "Executive Functions" Theory, used to explain some of the biologically related causes of Autistic language deficits.

A T2-weighted brain MRI revealed an infarction in the right medial temporooccipital lobe including the parahippocampal gyrus (complement of the FFA). A 52-year-old woman suffered from a lifelong history of seeing faces morph into dragon-like faces and reported hallucinating similar faces several times a day. Initially she would recognise the actual faces but after a while they would become black, grew long pointy ears and a protruding snout, displayed reptile-like skin and had large protruding eyes in bright colours. She would see these faces coming towards her several times in a day from objects like electric sockets.

MRI scans of patients with depression have revealed a number of differences in brain structure compared to those who are not depressed. Meta- analyses of neuroimaging studies in major depression reported that, compared to controls, depressed patients had increased volume of the lateral ventricles and adrenal gland and smaller volumes of the basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, and frontal lobe (including the orbitofrontal cortex and gyrus rectus). see also MRI database at www.depressiondatabase.org Hyperintensities have been associated with patients with a late age of onset, and have led to the development of the theory of vascular depression.

Others classify them as hippocampal, cortical, and WM lesions, and finally, others give seven areas: intracortical, mixed white matter-gray matter, juxtacortical, deep gray matter, periventricular white matter, deep white matter, and infratentorial lesions. The distribution of the lesions could be linked to the clinical evolution Post-mortem authopsy reveal that gray matter demyelination occurs in the motor cortex, cingulate gyrus, cerebellum, thalamus and spinal cord. Cortical lesions have been observed specially in people with SPMS but they also appear in RRMS and clinically isolated syndrome. They are more frequent in men than in women and they can partly explain cognitive deficits.

Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post- autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia. Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias, and more rarely, vascular micro- malformations, and microgyrus—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus. The previously cited studies and others suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.

Levels of the protein in cycling neural progenitor cells affects whether they differentiate into neurons or remain as progenitors. Expression profile is highest in the hippocampus during development and remains highly expressed in the adult dentate gyrus and olfactory bulb, regions where adult neurogenesis is present. DISC1 has also been shown to regulate tempo of neuronal integration into the brain and guidance of positioning of new neurons. Due to localization of the protein found at the synapse, DISC1 is also likely to play a key role in postsynaptic density, however this novel role is not yet fully understood.

Place cell responses are shown by pyramidal cells in the hippocampus and by granule cells in the dentate gyrus. Other cells in smaller proportion are inhibitory interneurons, and these often show place-related variations in their firing rate that are much weaker. There is little, if any, spatial topography in the representation; in general, cells lying next to each other in the hippocampus have uncorrelated spatial firing patterns. Place cells are typically almost silent when a rat is moving around outside the place field but reach sustained rates as high as 40 Hz when the rat is near the center.

From Phineas Gage to H.M. and Clive Wearing, individual people with mental issues traceable to physical damage have inspired new discoveries in this area.Richard F. Thompson & Stuart M. Zola, "Biological Psychology", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 1: History of Psychology. Modern neuropsychology could be said to originate in the 1870s, when in France Paul Broca traced production of speech to the left frontal gyrus, thereby also demonstrating hemispheric lateralization of brain function. Soon after, Carl Wernicke identified a related area necessary for the understanding of speech.Luria, "The Working Brain" (1973), pp. 20–22.

The specific organization of the association networks is debated with evidence for interactions, hierarchical relationships, and competition between networks. In humans, association networks are particularly important to language function. In the past it was theorized that language abilities are localized in Broca's area in areas of the left inferior frontal gyrus, BA44 and BA45, for language expression and in Wernicke's area BA22, for language reception. However, the processes of language expression and reception have been shown to occur in areas other than just those structures around the lateral sulcus, including the frontal lobe, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and pons.

Nobre, Coull, Walsh and Frith (2003) identified using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that the intraparietal sulcus located in the superior parietal cortex was activated specifically to feature search and the binding of individual perceptual features as opposed to conjunction search. Conversely, the authors further identify that for conjunction search, the superior parietal lobe and the right angular gyrus elicit bilaterally during fMRI experiments. Visual search primarily activates areas of the parietal lobe. In contrast, Leonards, Sunaert, Vam Hecke and Orban (2000) identified that significant activation is seen during fMRI experiments in the superior frontal sulcus primarily for conjunction search.

The default mode network includes hubs in the prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate, with other prominent regions of the network in the medial temporal lobe and angular gyrus. The default mode network is usually active during mind-wandering and thinking about social situations. In contrast, during specific tasks probed in cognitive science (for example, simple attention tasks), the default network is often deactivated. Research has shown that regions in the default mode network (including medial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate) show greater activity when depressed participants ruminate (that is, when they engage in repetitive self-focused thinking) than when typical, healthy participants ruminate.

CFO Innovation Asia. Retrieved 24 October 2011 Woodford alleged that his removal was linked to several prior acquisitions he questioned, particularly the US$2.2 billion deal in 2008 to acquire British medical equipment maker Gyrus Group. Thomson Reuters reported that US$687 million was paid to a middle-man as a success fee – a sum equal to 31% of the purchase price, and which ranks as the highest ever M&A; fee. According to the Daily Telegraph, some of the sums paid out relating to the acquisition of a technology company ITX were also under examination.

The mechanism underlying mania is unknown, but the neurocognitive profile of mania is highly consistent with dysfunction in the right prefrontal cortex, a common finding in neuroimaging studies. Various lines of evidence from post-mortem studies and the putative mechanisms of anti-manic agents point to abnormalities in GSK-3, dopamine, Protein kinase C and Inositol monophosphatase. Meta analysis of neuroimaging studies demonstrate increased thalamic activity, and bilaterally reduced inferior frontal gyrus activation. Activity in the amygdala and other subcortical structures such as the ventral striatum tend to be increased, although results are inconsistent and likely dependent upon task characteristics such as valence.

Olympus paid over a further $50 million, nominally as cash settlement for warrants. Regulatory disclosures in the UK show that the preferred stock was allotted on 30 September by Tsuyoshi Kikukawa, Hisashi Mori and Akihiro Nambu (the latter being head of investor relations for Olympus). The identity of the beneficiary – Axam Investments – was only made publicly known more than 18 months later. Three days after the preferred stock was allotted and without the benefit of professional advice, a "supplemental agreement" was signed by Olympus officers that gave AXAM power of veto over "any important decision in the Gyrus business".

Encoding as a procedure begins when septal GABAergic inhibition is at minimum, freeing basket cells to act within CA3, and during brief dis-inhibition periods, other cells receive input: a proximal entorhinal input toward pyramidal cells and a coincident dentate gyrus input toward interneurons. On the other hand, retrieval as a procedure begins when septal GABAergic inhibition is at maximum, occluding basket cell activity and enabling pyramidal cells to signal. During this period, Oriens- Lacunosum Moleculare (O-LM) cells disambiguate memory for retrieval. CA3 is significant as it is allows auto-associative processes through a recurrent, collateral system.

Development of explicit memory depends on a later developing memory system in the brain that reaches maturity between 8 and 10 months of age. Explicit memory depends heavily on structures in the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and the parahippocampal cortex. Much of the brain system is formed before birth, however the dentate gyrus within the hippocampal formation has about 70% of the number of cells in adults. Rapid myelination of axons within the central nervous system occurs during first year of life which can dramatically increase the efficiency and speed of transmission in neurons.

Clinically, education is negatively correlated with dementia severity, but positively correlated with grey matter atrophy, intracranial volume, and overall global cognition. Neurologically, education is correlated to greater functional connectivity between fronto-parietal regions and greater cortical thickness in the left inferior temporal gyrus. In addition to the level of education, it has been shown that bilingualism enhances attention and cognitive control in both children and older adults and delays the onset of dementia. It allows the brain to better tolerate the underlying pathologies and can be considered as a protective factor contributing positively to the cognitive reserve.

However, when presented with phonemic sounds of longer duration, such as vowels, the participants did not favor any particular ear. Due to the contralateral nature of the auditory system, the right ear is connected to Wernicke's area, located within the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus in the left cerebral hemisphere. Sounds entering the auditory cortex are treated differently depending on whether or not they register as speech. When people listen to speech, according to the strong and weak speech mode hypotheses, they, respectively, engage perceptual mechanisms unique to speech or engage their knowledge of language as a whole.

It consists of descending fibers that arise from cells in the motor area of the ipsilateral cerebral hemisphere. The impulse travels from these upper motor neurons (located in the pre-central gyrus of the brain) through the anterior column. In contrast to the fibers for the lateral corticospinal tract, the fibers for the anterior corticospinal tract do not decussate at the level of the medulla oblongata, although they do cross over in the spinal level they innervate. They then synapse at the anterior horn with the lower motor neuron which then synapses with the target muscle at the motor end plate.

Alzheimer's disease is characterised by loss of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex and certain subcortical regions. This loss results in gross atrophy of the affected regions, including degeneration in the temporal lobe and parietal lobe, and parts of the frontal cortex and cingulate gyrus. Degeneration is also present in brainstem nuclei like the locus coeruleus. Studies using MRI and PET have documented reductions in the size of specific brain regions in people with AD as they progressed from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer's disease, and in comparison with similar images from healthy older adults.

In a 2015 study, dopamine was proposed to play a key role in face recognition task and was considered to be related to neural activity in fusiform gyrus. By studying the correlation between the binding potential (BP) of dopamine D1 receptor by PET and blood-oxygen-level- dependent (BOLD) in fMRI scan during a face recognition task, higher availability of D1 receptor was shown to be associated with higher BOLD level. This study showed that this association with D1 BP is only significant for FFG, not other brain regions. The researchers also showed the possibility that higher availability of dopamine D1 receptor may underlie better performance in face recognition task.

The physical motion of the hand is controlled by the primary motor cortex, also located in the frontal lobe, and the right cerebellum. Writing creatively and generating ideas, on the other hand, is controlled by the limbic system, specifically involving the activity of the hippocampus, which is important in the retrieval of long-term memories. Words and ideas are cognized and understood by the temporal lobes, and these temporal lobes are connected to the limbic system. Image of the hippocampal gyrus Although hypergraphia cannot be isolated to one specific part of the brain, some areas are known to have more of an effect than others.

Giacomini vein At the beginning of his scientific career, he conducted clinical trials with the physiologist Angelo Mosso that led to the first recording of human brain pulsations. His early research includes studies on nerve abnormalities of the hand and the venous circulation of the lower limbs and blood of the upper limbs. The so-called vertebrae Giacomini (from the fifth to the eighth thoracic vertebra) are a dorsal limit of the heart. Since 1882, followed an in-depth study of brain morphology: describing the limbic lobe, a part of the hippocampal gyrus door today the name of band of Giacomini; deduced a complete work on the cerebral convolutions (1882).

Neural data provide correlates of CP and of learning. Differences between event-related potentials recorded from the brain have been found to be correlated with differences in the perceived category of the stimulus viewed by the subject. Neural imaging studies have shown that these effects are localized and even lateralized to certain brain regions in subjects who have successfully learned the category, and are absent in subjects who have not. Categorical perception is identified with the left prefrontal cortex with this showing such perception for speech units while this is not by posterior areas earlier in their processing such as areas in the left superior temporal gyrus.

Previous studies have reported that lucid dreaming is more common among adolescents than adults. A 2015 study by Julian Mutz and Amir-Homayoun Javadi showed that people who had practiced meditation for a long time tended to have more lucid dreams. The authors claimed that “Lucid dreaming is a hybrid state of consciousness with features of both waking and dreaming” in a review they published in Neuroscience of Consciousness in 2017. Mutz and Javadi found that during lucid dreaming, there is an increase in activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the bilateral frontopolar prefrontal cortex, the precuneus, the inferior parietal lobules, and the supramarginal gyrus.

Functional testing of movement during cortical stimulation includes looking for active movement and inhibition of movement. When the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe is stimulated, specific muscles in the body will contract based on the location of the brain that receives the electric signal. Stimulation on one side of the brain will cause a contraction on the contralateral, or opposite, side of the body. More recent studies using CSM have shown that the motor cortex is more complex than the arrangement pictured traditional homunculus, and that motor responses occur in the frontal lobe further away from the narrow strip next to the central sulcus.

Patient J.P., who suffered a stroke in the left medial/temporal gyrus, resulting in auditory verbal agnosia – the inability to comprehend spoken words, but maintaining the ability to read and write, and with no effects to hearing ability. J.P. showed normal perceptual priming, but his conceptual priming ability for spoken words was, expectedly, impaired. Another patient, N.G., who suffered from prosopanomia (the inability to retrieve proper names) following damage to his left temporal lobe, was unable to spontaneously provide names of persons or cities, but was able to successfully complete a word-fragment completion exercise following priming with these names. This demonstrated intact perceptual priming abilities.

Gestational age was positively correlated with volumes of the temporal and fusiform gyri and sensorimotor cortex bilaterally, left inferior parietal lobule, brain stem, and various white matter tracts, as well as specific positive associations with the cerebellum and thalamus. Several structural brain alterations have been linked back to cognitive and behavioural outcome measures. For example, total brain tissue volume explained between 20 and 40% of the IQ and educational outcome differences between extremely preterm born adolescents and control adolescents. In another study, a 25% quartile decrease in white matter values in middle temporal gyrus was associated with a 60% increase in the risk of cognitive impairment.

Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices or the (b) midline diencephalic region, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain.

Hatched area: stratum lacunosum-moleculare (LM). CA1, subregion of the hippocampus without mossy fibers; FI, fimbria hippocampi; FD, fascia dentata; OL and ML, outer and middle molecular layers of the fascia dentata; SG, supragranular layer; GC, granular cells. In the hippocampus, the mossy fiber pathway consists of unmyelinated axons projecting from granule cells in the dentate gyrus that terminate on modulatory hilar mossy cells and in Cornu Ammonis area 3 (CA3), a region involved in encoding short-term memory. These axons were first described as mossy fibers by Santiago Ramón y Cajal as they displayed varicosities along their lengths that gave them a mossy appearance.

Shorter neural pathways are found within grey matter in the brain, whereas longer projections, made up of myelinated axons, constitute white matter. In the hippocampus there are neural pathways involved in its circuitry including the perforant pathway, that provides a connectional route from the entorhinal cortex to all fields of the hippocampal formation, including the dentate gyrus, all CA fields (including CA1), and the subiculum. Descending motor pathways of the pyramidal tracts travel from the cerebral cortex to the brainstem or lower spinal cord. Ascending sensory tracts in the dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway (DCML) carry information from the periphery to the cortex of the brain.

The threshold of performance deficit following exposure to HZE nuclei depends on both the physical characteristics of the particles, such as linear energy transfer (LET), and the animal age at exposure. A performance deficit has been shown to occur at doses that are similar to the ones that will occur on a Mars mission (<0.5 Gy). The neurocognitive deficits with the dopaminergic nervous system are similar to aging and appear to be unique to space radiation. Second, exposure to HZE disrupts neurogenesis in mice at low doses (<1 Gy), showing a significant dose-related reduction of new neurons and oligodendrocytes in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus.

The Brodmann area 32, also known in the human brain as the dorsal anterior cingulate area 32, refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined cingulate cortex. In the human it forms an outer arc around the anterior cingulate gyrus. The cingulate sulcus defines approximately its inner boundary and the superior rostral sulcus (H) its ventral boundary; rostrally it extends almost to the margin of the frontal lobe. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded internally by the ventral anterior cingulate area 24, externally by medial margins of the agranular frontal area 6, intermediate frontal area 8, granular frontal area 9, frontopolar area 10, and prefrontal area 11-1909. (Brodmann19-09).

Different artistic styles may also be processed differently by the brain. In a study between filtered forms of abstract and representation art, the bilateral occipital gyri, left cingulate sulcus, and bilateral fusiform gyrus showed increased activation with increased preference when viewing art. However, activation in the bilateral occipital gyri may be caused by the large processing requirements placed on the visual system when viewing high levels of visual detail in artwork such as representational paintings. Several areas of the brain have been shown to respond particularly to forms representational art perhaps due to the brain's ability to make object associations and other functions relating to attention and memory.

To further distinguish age-related memory loss from Alzheimer's disease (AD), a subregion of the hippocampal formation called the dentate gyrus (DG) was further studied, since it is thought to be targeted by aging. Human postmortem tissue was collected from both DG and entorhinal cortex (EC). Entorhinal cortex is a neighboring subregion unaffected by aging and known to be implicated in age-related memory loss. After normalizing the expression of EC, 17 genes were manifested due to age-related changes in the DG. Mice were used as the experimental subjects to test whether the decline of RbAp48 was also related to age-related memory loss.

Research suggests that physical pain and psychological pain may share some underlying neurological mechanisms. Brain regions that were consistently found to be implicated in both types of pain are the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex (some subregions more than others), and may extend to other regions as well. Brain regions that were also found to be involved in psychological pain include the insular cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, thalamus, parahippocampal gyrus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Some advocate that, because similar brain regions are involved in both physical pain and psychological pain, we should see pain as a continuum that ranges from purely physical to purely psychological.

Even though subjects can't confuse an auditory image as a perceived sound some people may experience very vivid auditory images. The difference in vividness from person to person can be an important neuronal correlation of sensory processes and higher-order cognition. The Bucknell Auditory Imagery Score assesses the vividness of a person's auditory imagery and was shown to correlate directly with the neuronal activity of the superior temporal gyrus as well as the prefrontal cortex. Musical training does not produce an improvement in the vividness of auditory images however data showing if vividness can be improved or a circuit dedicated to vividness has shown to be inconclusive.

Henry Gustav Molaison, formerly known as patient H.M., was an amnesiac patient following the surgery of his hippocampus, hippocampal gyrus, and amygdala in order to relieve the symptoms of his epilepsy. Due to his surgery, Molaison developed anterograde amnesia which made him forgetful of recently occurring events. His amnesia made it so that he had severe difficulties remembering events that happened as little as a half hour ago in his life. Although Molaison was unable to learn consciously, he still had almost normal abilities when it came to his sensorimotor skills indicating that he may have held on to some remnants of his unconscious (implicit) previous experiences.

Shaw, T.H., Warm, J.S., Finomore, V., Tripp, L., Matthews, G., Weiler, E. & Parasuraman, R. (2009) Effects of sensory modality on cerebral blood flow velocity during vigilance, Neuroscience Letters 461, 207-211 Activity in the LC noradrenergic system is associated with the alert waking state in animals through the release of noradrenaline. Chemically blocking the release of noradrenaline induces drowsiness and lapses in attention associated with a vigilance decrement. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex exhibits a higher level of activation than other significantly active areas, indicating a key role in vigilance. The cingulate gyrus differs from other brain regions associated with vigilance in that it exhibits less activation during vigilance tasks.

Using Posner's Spatial Cueing Task, Alivesatos and Milner (1989; see ) found that participants with frontal lobe damage demonstrated a comparably smaller attentional benefit from the valid cues than control participants or participants with temporal lobe damage. Voluntary orienting of frontal lobe patients appear to be impaired. The right lateral frontal lobe region was also found to be associated with left-sided visual neglect in an investigation carried out by Husain & Kennard. A region of overlap was found in the location of lesions in four of five patients with left-sided visual neglect, specifically the dorsal aspect of the inferior frontal gyrus and the underlying white matter.

The parietal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The parietal lobe is positioned above the temporal lobe and behind the frontal lobe and central sulcus. The parietal lobe integrates sensory information among various modalities, including spatial sense and navigation (proprioception), the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch in the somatosensory cortex which is just posterior to the central sulcus in the postcentral gyrus, and the dorsal stream of the visual system. The major sensory inputs from the skin (touch, temperature, and pain receptors), relay through the thalamus to the parietal lobe.

Animation. Parietal lobe (red) of left cerebral hemisphere. The parietal lobe is defined by three anatomical boundaries: The central sulcus separates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe; the parieto-occipital sulcus separates the parietal and occipital lobes; the lateral sulcus (sylvian fissure) is the most lateral boundary, separating it from the temporal lobe; and the longitudinal fissure divides the two hemispheres. Within each hemisphere, the somatosensory cortex represents the skin area on the contralateral surface of the body. Immediately posterior to the central sulcus, and the most anterior part of the parietal lobe, is the postcentral gyrus (Brodmann area 3), the primary somatosensory cortical area.

Broca's hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly deduced in the 1870s the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Richard Caton presented his findings in 1875 about electrical phenomena of the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys. In 1878, Hermann Munk found in dogs and monkeys that vision was localized in the occipital cortical area, and Harvey Cushing found in 1909 that the sense of touch was localized in the postcentral gyrus.

Levetiracetam is an anti-epileptic drug than can be used to treat partial and generalized seizures. Levetiracetam inhibits P/Q channel-mediated glutamate release and decreases the excitatory post synaptic currents of both AMPA and NMDA receptors in the hippocampus, specifically the dentate gyrus, which is known to propagate seizure activities. The inhibition of glutamate release results in an anti-epileptic response in patients because it decreases the excitatory postsynaptic current. There are many different types of calcium channels, so to prove that the P/Q type calcium channels are directly involved, a P/Q type voltage gated calcium channel inhibitor, omega-agatoxin TK, was used to block the channel.

Auditory agnosia (with the exception of non-verbal auditory agnosia and amusia) is strongly dependent on damage to both hemispheres. The order of hemispheric damage is irrelevant to manifestation of symptoms, and years could take between the damage of the first hemisphere and the second hemisphere (after which the symptoms suddenly emerge). A study that compared lesion locations, reported that in all cases with bilateral hemispheric damage, at least in one side the lesion included Heschl's gyrus or its underlying white matter. A rare insight into the etiology of this disorder was reported in a study of an auditory agnosia patient with damage to the brainstem, instead of cortex.

The direct pathway within the basal ganglia receives excitatory input from the cortex, thalamus, and other brain regions. In the direct pathway, medium spiny neurons project to the internal division of the globus pallidus (GPi) or the substantia nigra pars reticula (SNpr or SNr). These nuclei project to the deep layer of the superior colliculus and control fast eye movements (saccades), and also project to the ventral thalamus, which in turn projects to upper motor neurons in the primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus). The SNr and GPi outputs are both tonically active inhibitory nuclei and are thus constantly inhibiting the thalamus (and thus motor cortex).

After this, the 3rd order neuron fibers traverse the internal capsule and the corona radiata, ultimately synapsing in the post central gyrus (somatosensory cortex). The location of this synapse is dependent upon the somatotopic organisation of the somatosensory cortex, it can be estimated according to the position on the 'somatosensory homunculus' The posterolateral tract consists of fine fibers which do not receive their myelin sheaths until toward the close of fetal life. In addition it contains great numbers of fine non- myelinated fibers derived mostly from the dorsal roots but partly endogenous in origin. These fibers are intimately related to the substantia gelatinosa which is probably their terminal nucleus.

Over forty types of epilepsy are recognized and these are divided into two main groups: focal seizures and generalized seizures. Focal seizures account for approximately sixty percent of all adult cases. Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the single most common form of focal seizure. The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) recognizes two main types of temporal lobe epilepsy: mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE), arising in the hippocampus, the parahippocampal gyrus and the amygdala which are located in the inner (medial) aspect of the temporal lobe and lateral temporal lobe epilepsy (LTLE), the rarer type, arising in the neocortex at the outer (lateral) surface of the temporal lobe.

The ACC has been suggested to have possible links with Social Anxiety, along with the amygdala part of the brain, but this research is still in its early stages. A more recent study, by the Wake Forest Baptist Medical Centre, confirms the relationship between the ACC and anxiety regulation, by revealing mindfulness practice as a mediator for anxiety precisely through the ACC. The adjacent subcallosal cingulate gyrus has been implicated in major depression and research indicates that deep-brain stimulation of the region could act to alleviate depressive symptoms. Although people suffering from depression had smaller subgenual ACCs, their ACCs were more active when adjusted for size.

The posterior cingulate cortex (Brodmann's area 23) sends projections to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 9), anterior prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 10), orbitofrontal cortex (Brodmanns’ area 11), the parahippocampal gyrus, posterior part of the inferior parietal lobule, the presubiculum, the superior temporal sulcus and the retrosplenial region. The retrosplenial cortex and caudal part of the cingulate cortex are connected with rostral prefrontal cortex via cingulate fascicule in macaque monkeys Ventral posterior cingulate cortex was found to be reciprocally connected with the caudal part of the posterior parietal lobe in rhesus monkeys. Also the medial posterior parietal cortex is connected with posterior ventral bank of the cingulate sulcus.

In accordance with this model, words are perceived via a specialized word reception center (Wernicke's area) that is located in the left temporoparietal junction. This region then projects to a word production center (Broca's area) that is located in the left inferior frontal gyrus. Because almost all language input was thought to funnel via Wernicke's area and all language output to funnel via Broca's area, it became extremely difficult to identify the basic properties of each region. This lack of clear definition for the contribution of Wernicke's and Broca's regions to human language rendered it extremely difficult to identify their homologues in other primates.

Upon recovery, L.H. was unable to recognize or discriminate between faces, or even recognize faces that were familiar to him before the accident. L.H. and other patients with prosopagnosia are often able to live relatively normal and productive lives despite their deficit. L.H. was still able to recognize common objects, subtle differences in shapes, and even age, sex, and “likeability” of faces. However, they use non-facial cues, such as height, hair color, and voice to differentiate between people. Non-invasive brain imaging revealed that L.H.’s prosopagnosia was a result of damage to the right temporal lobe, which contains the inferior temporal gyrus.

Results showed that some participants created false memories, reporting the verbal misinformation conflicting with the photographs. During the original event phase, increased activity in left fusiform gyrus and right temporal/occipital cortex was found which may have reflected the attention to visual detail, associated with later accurate memory for the critical item(s) and thus resulted in resistance to the effects of later misinformation. Retrieval of true memories was associated with greater reactivation of sensory-specific cortices, for example, the occipital cortex for vision. Electroencephalography research on this issue also suggests that the retrieval of false memories is associated with reduced attention and recollection related processing relative to true memories.

The crura (posterior pillars) of the fornix are prolonged backward from the body. They are flattened bands, and, at their commencement, are intimately connected with the under surface of the corpus callosum. Diverging from one another, each curves around the posterior end of the thalamus, and passes downward and forward into the temporal horn of lateral ventricle. Here, it lies along the concavity of the hippocampus, on the surface of which some of its fibers are spread out to form the alveus, while the remainder is continued as a narrow white band, the fimbria of hippocampus, which is prolonged into the uncus of the parahippocampal gyrus.

Additionally, research on human participants is being conducted as well. While single-cell recording is not conducted on humans, this research uses neuroimaging methods such as fMRI, PET, EEG/ERP to collect information on what brain areas become active when executing biological motion perception tasks, such as viewing point light walker stimuli. Areas uncovered from this type of research are the dorsal visual pathway, extrastriate body area, fusiform gyrus, superior temporal sulcus, and premotor cortex. The dorsal visual pathway (sometimes referred to as the “where” pathway), as contrasted with the ventral visual pathway (“what” pathway), has been shown to play a significant role in the perception of motion cues.

It is not clear if this is a cause or a result of autism, or if a third factor is causing both (confounding). Lower connectivity between brain regions was found across the default network in people who have experienced long term trauma, such as childhood abuse or neglect, and is associated with dysfunctional attachment patterns. Among people experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder, lower activation was found in the posterior cingulate gyrus compared to controls, and severe PTSD was characterized by lower connectivity within the DMN.Dr. Ruth Lanius, Brain Mapping conference, London, November 2010 Hyperconnectivity of the default network has been linked to rumination in first-episode depression and chronic pain.

A semantic hub represents a focal point in the brain where all semantic information pertaining to a specific word is integrated. For example, the color, shape, size, smell, and sound associated with the word “cat” would be integrated at the same semantic hub. Some candidate regions for semantic hubs include: # Inferior Frontal Cortex: the anterior part of Broca's area and adjacent tissue in the left Inferior Frontal Cortex including Brodmann's areas 44, 45, and 47 are activated for semantic processing and functional changes. # Superior Temporal Cortex: contains Wernicke's area which controls the classic posterior language area in and adjacent to the superior temporal gyrus and sulcus.

Manic episodes appear to be associated with decreased activation of the right vPFC whereas depressive episodes are associated with decreased activation of the left vPFC. People with bipolar disorder who are in a euthymic mood state show decreased activity in the lingual gyrus compared to people without bipolar disorder. In contrast, they demonstrate decreased activity in the inferior frontal cortex during manic episodes compared to people without the disorder. Similar studies examining the differences in brain activity between people with bipolar disorder and those without did not find a consistent area in the brain that was more or less active when comparing these two groups.

Behavioral inhibition is important in rats and other animals in halting whatever they are currently doing in order to reassess a situation in response to a threat or anything else that may require their attention. Rats with lesioned hippocampi show less behavioral inhibition when exposed to threats, such as cat odor. The disruption of normal cell proliferation and development of the dentate gyrus in developing rats also impairs their freezing response, which is an example of behavior inhibition, when exposed to an unfamiliar adult male rat. This impairment in behavioral inhibition also ties into the process of learning and memory, as repressing wrong answers or behaviors requires the ability to inhibit that response.

Denny then began to exploring the idea of memory traces, cells in the brain where memories are stored, and tried to tag these memory traces in the dentate gyrus and CA3 regions of the hippocampus. She was able to develop a genetic tool that enabled her to fluorescently tag neurons that were activated in specific memories. Since her tool enabled long term labelling of memory associated neurons, she is able to observe memory traces overtime and reported that memory traces become more faint over time even though learned behaviors persist. Her findings highlights the possibility that these memory traces are being redistributed to areas other than the hippocampus for even longer-term storage.

In the adult nervous system, reelin plays an eminent role at the two most active neurogenesis sites, the subventricular zone and the dentate gyrus. In some species, the neuroblasts from the subventricular zone migrate in chains in the rostral migratory stream (RMS) to reach the olfactory bulb, where reelin dissociates them into individual cells that are able to migrate further individually. They change their mode of migration from tangential to radial, and begin using the radial glia fibers as their guides. There are studies showing that along the RMS itself the two receptors, ApoER2 and VLDLR, and their intracellular adapter DAB1 function independently of Reelin, most likely by the influence of a newly proposed ligand, thrombospondin-1.

In the adult dentate gyrus, reelin provides guidance cues for new neurons that are constantly arriving to the granule cell layer from subgranular zone, keeping the layer compact. Reelin also plays an important role in the adult brain by modulating cortical pyramidal neuron dendritic spine expression density, the branching of dendrites, and the expression of long-term potentiation as its secretion is continued diffusely by the GABAergic cortical interneurons those origin is traced to the medial ganglionic eminence. In the adult organism the non-neural expression is much less widespread, but goes up sharply when some organs are injured. The exact function of reelin upregulation following an injury is still being researched.

The neural substrates of face perception in infants are likely similar to those of adults, but the limits of imaging technology that are feasible for use with infants currently prevent very specific localization of function as well as specific information from subcortical areas like the amygdala, which is active in the perception of facial expression in adults. In a study on healthy adults, it was shown that faces are likely to be processed, in part, via a retinotectal (subcortical) pathway. However, there is activity near the fusiform gyrus, as well as in occipital areas. when infants are exposed to faces, and it varies depending on factors including facial expression and eye gaze direction.

The study of prosopagnosia (an impairment in recognizing faces which is usually caused by brain injury) has been particularly helpful in understanding how normal face perception might work. Individuals with prosopagnosia may differ in their abilities to understand faces, and it has been the investigation of these differences which has suggested that several stage theories might be correct. Face perception is an ability that involves many areas of the brain; however, some areas have been shown to be particularly important. Brain imaging studies typically show a great deal of activity in an area of the temporal lobe known as the fusiform gyrus, an area also known to cause prosopagnosia when damaged (particularly when damage occurs on both sides).

Platel (2005) defined musical semantic memory as memory for pieces without memory for the temporal or spatial elements; and musical episodic memory as memory for pieces and the context in which they were learned. It was found that two distinct patterns of neural activations existed when comparing semantic and episodic components of musical memory. Controlling for processes of early auditory analysis, working memory and mental imagery, Platel found that retrieval of semantic musical memory involved activation in the right inferior and middle frontal gyri, the superior and inferior right temporal gyri, the right anterior cingulate gyrus and parietal lobe region. There was also some activation in the middle and inferior frontal gyri in the left hemisphere.

Training of simple reflexes in Aplysia has shown a strengthening between sensory and motor neurons responsible for those reflexes; on a cellular level, for short-term memory (and thus, early LTP) potentiation leads to an increase in presynaptic neurotransmitter by means of modifications of proteins through cAMP-dependent PKA and PKC. The long-term process requires new protein synthesis and CAMP-mediated gene expression, and results in the growth of new synaptic connections. These findings have led to the question whether there is a similar process in mammals. Input to the hippocampus comes from the neurons of the entorhinal cortex by means of the perforant pathway, which synapses on the granule cells of the dentate gyrus.

Moving away from the ependymal layer of the SVZ the neural cells become more and more differentiatedIn the adult CNS, neuroepithelial cells arise in several different areas of the brain: the subventricular zone (SVZ), the olfactory bulb and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. These cells do not appear in any of the peripheral nervous system. Often categorized as neural stem cells, neuroepithelial cells give rise to only a few varieties of neural cells, making them multipotent - a definite distinction from the pluripotent stem cells found in embryonic development. Neuroepithelial cells undergo mitosis generating more neuroepithelial cells, radial glial cells or progenitor cells, the latter two differentiating into either neurons or glial cells.

It has been shown that the axons of granule cells from the dentate gyrus synapse with hilar mossy cells and GABAergic interneurons including basket cells before reaching pyramidal cells in the CA3 region, providing input from the entorhinal cortex through the perforant pathway. Hilar mossy cell activation is thought to be necessary for the proper function of these inhibitory basket cells on CA3 pyramidal cells, although evidence has shown that sodium channel receptors can regulate basket cell function as well. The three synaptic terminals types - mossy terminals, filopodial extensions, and en passant synaptic varicosities - differ in synaptic output. Large mossy terminals synapse with 11-15 different CA3 pyramidal cells and 7-12 mossy cells.

The SVZ is a known site of neurogenesis and self-renewing neurons in the adult brain, serving as such due to the interacting cell types, extracellular molecules, and localized epigenetic regulation promoting such cellular proliferation. Along with the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, the subventricular zone serves as a source of neural stem cells (NSCs) in the process of adult neurogenesis. It harbors the largest population of proliferating cells in the adult brain of rodents, monkeys and humans. In 2010, it was shown that the balance between neural stem cells and neural progenitor cells (NPCs) is maintained by an interaction between the epidermal growth factor receptor signaling pathway and the Notch signaling pathway.

PTPkappa mRNA is also observed in the adult mouse cerebellum. Using a β-galactosidase (β-gal) reporter gene inserted into the phosphatase domain of the murine PTPkappa (PTPRK) gene, Shen and colleagues determined the detailed expression pattern of endogenous PTPRK. β-gal activity was observed in many areas of the adult forebrain, including layers II and IV, and to a lesser extent in layer VI of the cortex. β-gal activity was also observed in apical dendrites of cortical pyramidal cells, the granule layer of the olfactory and accessory olfactory bulbs, the anterior hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, and in granule and pyramidal layers of the dentate gyrus and CA 1-3 regions of the hippocampus.

For example, the transcript for Emx1 is shown to be stronger in the ventricular zone (VZ) between E10.5 and E17.5. However, around birth and immediately thereafter, the Emx1 transcript is absent from the marginal zone (MZ), only becoming stronger in cortical layers V and VI as well as subset subplate (SP) neurons. In cortical layers V and VI as well as the SP neurons, Emx1 might take part in development of early functional circuitry, as well as in defining specific cellular identities. The distribution of Emx1 is so ubiquitous in the developing brain that in mid- and late-gestation embryos, as well as postnatal mice, it is found in cerebral cortex, olfactory bulbs, dentate gyrus and hippocampus.

He also noticed that in the more than 25 patients he examined with aphasia, they all had lesions to the left frontal lobe but there was no damage to the right hemisphere of the brain. From this he concluded that the function of speech was probably localized in the inferior frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere of the brain, an area now known as Broca's area. Karl Wernicke subsequently reported patients with damage further back in the temporal lobe who could speak but were unable to understand what was said to them, providing evidence for two potentially interconnected language centres. These clinical descriptions were integrated into a theory of language organisation by Lichtheim.

This finding has led some scientists, notably V. S. Ramachandran and colleagues, to view autism as disordered understanding of other individuals' intentions and goals due to problems with the mirror neuron system. This deficiency would explain the difficulty people with autism have in communicating with and understanding others. While most studies of the mirror neuron system and mu waves in people with autism have focused on simple motor tasks, some scientists speculate that these tests can be expanded to show that problems with the mirror neuron system underlie overarching cognitive and social deficits. fMRI activation magnitudes in the inferior frontal gyrus increase with age in people with autism, but not in typically developing individuals.

Anterior cingulate gyrus, or ACC, had found increased activated when viewing conflicting stimulus Brain imaging techniques including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) have shown that there are two main areas in the brain that are involved in the processing of the Stroop task. They are the anterior cingulate cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. More specifically, while both are activated when resolving conflicts and catching errors, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex assists in memory and other executive functions, while the anterior cingulate cortex is used to select an appropriate response and allocate attentional resources. The posterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex creates the appropriate rules for the brain to accomplish the current goal.

The hippocampus is a brain region which has many interconnected subregions, with each region having its own distinct neuron populations playing an important role in encoding memory. Many studies showed that Alzheimer's disease (AD) ameliorates memory by first acting on the entorhinal cortex (EC) which is the region providing the main input conduit from the external sensors to the hippocampus. Scientists initially identified memory loss associated with aging as an early manifestation of Alzheimer's; however, more recent evidence suggests that a distinct process affects the dentate gyrus (DG), which is a subregion of the hippocampus, and causes memory deterioration. The hippocampal formation is made up of many interconnected subregions and plays a vital role in retaining memory.

Sensory feelings, especially pain, are stimuli that can elicit a large response and cause neurological changes in the body. Pain also causes a behavioral change in the body, which is proportional to the intensity of the pain. The feeling is recorded by sensory receptors on the skin and travels to the central nervous system, where it is integrated and a decision on how to respond is made; if it is decided that a response must be made, a signal is sent back down to a muscle, which behaves appropriately according to the stimulus. The postcentral gyrus is the location of the primary somatosensory area, the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch.

There are about 3.6 times as many neurons in the cerebellum as in the neocortex, a ratio that is conserved across many different mammalian species. The unusual surface appearance of the cerebellum conceals the fact that most of its volume is made up of a very tightly folded layer of gray matter: the cerebellar cortex. Each ridge or gyrus in this layer is called a folium. It is estimated that, if the human cerebellar cortex were completely unfolded, it would give rise to a layer of neural tissue about 1 meter long and averaging 5 centimeters wide—a total surface area of about 500 square cm, packed within a volume of dimensions 6 cm × 5 cm × 10 cm.

In these niches new neurons are continuously generated from stem cells. In fact it has been shown that in the dentate gyrus BMP4 maintains neural stem cells in quiescence, thus preventing the depletion of the pool of stem cells. In the SVZ , BMP-mediated signaling via Smad4 is required to initiate neurogenesis from adult neural stem cells and suppress the alternative fate of oligodendrogliogenesis. Moreover, it has been shown that in the SVZ BMP4 has a prodifferentiative effect, since it rescues a defect of terminal differentiation in SVZ neurospheres where the gene Tis21/BTG2 - required for terminal differentiation - has been deleted. Tis21 is a positive regulator of BMP4 expression in the SVZ.

As expected, a single pulse of electrical stimulation to fibers of the perforant pathway caused excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) in cells of the dentate gyrus. What Lømo unexpectedly observed was that the postsynaptic cells' response to these single-pulse stimuli could be enhanced for a long period of time if he first delivered a high-frequency train of stimuli to the presynaptic fibers. When such a train of stimuli was applied, subsequent single-pulse stimuli elicited stronger, prolonged EPSPs in the postsynaptic cell population. This phenomenon, whereby a high-frequency stimulus could produce a long-lived enhancement in the postsynaptic cells' response to subsequent single-pulse stimuli, was initially called "long-lasting potentiation".

Studies have shown that after having about 90% of their dentate gyrus cells destroyed, rats had extreme difficulty in maneuvering through a maze they had previously negotiated. When being tested a number of times to see whether they could learn a maze, the results showed that the rats did not improve at all, indicating that their working memories were severely impaired. Rats had trouble with place strategies because they could not consolidate learned information about a maze into their working memory, and, thus, could not remember it when maneuvering through the same maze in a later trial. Every time a rat entered the maze, the rat behaved as if it was seeing the maze for the first time.

The absence of specific markers for neurons and glia and continued skepticism surrounding the novel concept of adult neurogenesis limited further development of the research. In the mid 1970s and the early 1980s, Michael Kaplan and his colleagues reexamined the initial observations using the electron microscope and added substantial confidence that neurogenesis could occur in the adult brain. Combining electron microscopy and tritiated thymidine labeling, they showed that labeled cells in the rat dentate gyrus have ultrastructural characteristics of neurons, such as dendrites and synapses. Although they were able to demonstrate this in repeatable studies in primate cortex, most researchers at the time did not consider this to be evidence of significant neurogenesis in adult mammals.

Brain activation studies using PET to study language have found that people with dyslexia have a deficit in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in reading, which includes the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and middle and ventral temporal cortex. A neural basis for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short term memory components have been proposed. Wernicke's and Broca's areas are being recast in terms of localized components of phonological input and output. Some classical regions, such as the arcuate fasciculus, are having their "classical" roles questioned, while other regions, such as the basal temporal language zone, are growing progressively in terms of their recognized importance.

From these results it appears that the schizophrenia and SPD are two different disorders. A study of the volume of the gray and white matter in the anterior cingulate gyrus in people with schizophrenia and their healthy first and second degree relatives revealed no significant difference in the volume of the white matter in the people with schizophrenia and their healthy relatives. Nonetheless a significant difference in the volume of gray matter was detected, people with schizophrenia had smaller volume of gray matter than their second degree relatives, but not relative to their first degree relatives. Both the person with schizophrenia and their first degree healthy relatives have smaller gray matter volume than the second degree healthy relatives.

A study was done involving an experimental and a control group to have them learn to navigate a 3D maze. The blood flow in the parahippocampal gyrus increased in conjunction with the individual's performance through the 3D maze. Participants were then trained in the maze for 4 hours and later, during the various sleep cycles of NREM sleep, REM sleep and wakefulness, they were scanned twelve times using a PET scan during the night. The PET scan demonstrated a higher blood flow in the hippocampus during SWS/NREM sleep due to the training from the previous day while the control group exhibited no increased blood flow and they had not received the training the prior day.

Over the past few decades there have been vast amounts of research into face recognition, specifying that faces endure specialized processing within a region called the fusiform face area (FFA) located in the mid fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe. Debates are ongoing whether both faces and objects are detected and processed in different systems and whether both have category specific regions for recognition and identification. Much research to date focuses on the accuracy of the detection and the time taken to detect the face in a complex visual search array. When faces are displayed in isolation, upright faces are processed faster and more accurately than inverted faces, but this effect was observed in non-face objects as well.

In some cases, as with the retina-midbrain system, activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain, and apparently exist solely to guide development. In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories.

The Telegraph said it has seen documents indicating a "Mr Sagawa" was a director of Axam Investments and Axes America that received a $687 million advisory fee for the Gyrus acquisition. The Financial Times said its principals were former Nomura employees. The link to the scam caused Nomura shares to fall, though the bank denied involvement, claiming it was "based on speculation and not on fact". Akio Nakagawa and Hajime Sagawa, both of whom started their careers at Nomura Securities and were also colleagues at Drexel Burnham Lambert and PaineWebber, were behind Axes, according to Reuters. Nakagawa, who was once head of equities at PaineWebber in Japan in the early 1990s, had long-standing relationship with Olympus.

The findings in humans have been largely concordant with animal studies. Such animal studies find that heavy and regular binge drinking causes neurodegeneration in corticolimbic brain regions areas that are involved in learning and spatial memory, such as the olfactory bulb, piriform cortex, perirhinal cortex, entorhinal cortex, and the hippocampal dentate gyrus. A study in rats found that a heavy two-day drinking binge caused extensive neurodegeneration in the entorhinal cortex with resultant learning deficits. While brain damage from binge drinking is known to occur as a result of binge drinking patterns, it is unclear how long drinking sessions last and how regular binge drinking is done to cause brain damage in humans.

Perception is often defined as one's conscious experience, and thereby combines inputs from all relevant senses and prior knowledge. Perception is also defined and studied in terms of feature extraction, which is several hundred milliseconds away from conscious experience. Notwithstanding the existence of Gestalt psychology schools that advocate a holistic approach to the operation of the brain, the physiological processes underlying the formation of percepts and conscious experience have been vastly understudied. Nevertheless, burgeoning neuroscience research continues to enrich our understanding of the many details of the brain, including neural structures implicated in multisensory integration such as the superior colliculus (SC) and various cortical structures such as the superior temporal gyrus (GT) and visual and auditory association areas.

Primary auditory cortex (A1) Superior temporal cortex (STG/STS/PT) Audio visual cross modal interactions are known to occur in the auditory association cortex which lies directly inferior to the Sylvian fissure in the temporal lobe. Plasticity was observed in the superior temporal gyrus (STG) by Petitto et al. (2000). Here, it was found that the STG was more active during stimulation in native deaf signers compared to hearing non signers. Concurrently, further research has revealed differences in the activation of the Planum temporale (PT) in response to non linguistic lip movements between the hearing and deaf; as well as progressively increasing activation of the auditory association cortex as previously deaf participants gain hearing experience via a cochlear implant.

An examiner placed objects such as a tissue box, toothpaste and a toothbrush in front of the patient and before any instruction the patient brushed his teeth and picked up the tissue in a manner as if to blow his nose. When asked why he did these actions, he had no reason other than that he wanted to use the objects. Later, the patient was placed in front of a paper and pen and he immediately started to write correct letters and sentences without being told to do so because he felt compelled to write. The results showed that a lesion in the subcortical white matter of the superior frontal gyrus was the cause of utilization behavior in the patient.

The meta-analysis found larger volumes in females were most pronounced in areas in the right hemisphere related to language in addition to several limbic structures such as the right insular cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus. Amber Ruigrok's 2013 meta-analysis also found greater grey matter density in the average male left amygdala, hippocampus, insula, pallidum, putamen, claustrum and right cerebellum. The meta-analysis also found greater grey matter density in the average female left frontal pole. According to the neuroscience journal review series Progress in Brain Research, it has been found that males have larger and longer planum temporale and Sylvian fissure while females have significantly larger proportionate volumes to total brain volume in the superior temporal cortex, Broca's area, the hippocampus and the caudate.

Yaoda Xu, then a post doctoral fellow with Nancy Kanwisher, replicated the car and bird expertise study using an improved fMRI design that was less susceptible to attentional accounts. The activity found by Gauthier when participants viewed non-face objects was not as strong as when participants were viewing faces, however this could be because we have much more expertise for faces than for most other objects. Furthermore, not all findings of this research have been successfully replicated, for example, other research groups using different study designs have found that the fusiform gyrus is specific to faces and other nearby regions deal with non-face objects. However, these failures to replicate are difficult to interpret, because studies vary on too many aspects of the method.

The mechanism and etiology of this phenomenon remain controversial, especially as it is impossible to rule out prior subclinical epileptic activity which could be responsible for a failure to consolidate those seemingly forgotten memories. A recent imaging study that aimed to provide insight into the neural basis of these autobiographical memory deficits revealed that patients had significantly reduced activation in the right medial temporal lobes (and more specifically the right posterior parahippocampal cortex) and effective connectivity analysis indicated that there was reduced connectivity between this right parahippocampal region and the right middle temporal gyrus, which has been linked to semantic memory. As well as these autobiographical memory deficits, patients have problems with personal semantic information (e.g., names of friends, jobs etc.), particularly for mid-life events.

Gray's Anatomy, figure 759: the sensory tract, showing the pathway (blue) up the spinal cord, through the somatosensory thalamus, to S1 (Brodmann areas 3, 1, and 2), S2, and BA7 Gray's Anatomy, figure 717: detail showing path adjacent to the insular cortex (marked insula in this figure), adjacent to S1, S2, and BA7 The postcentral gyrus includes the primary somatosensory cortex (Brodmann areas 3, 2 and 1) collectively referred to as S1. BA3 receives the densest projections from the thalamus. BA3a is involved with the sense of relative position of neighboring body parts and amount of effort being used during movement. BA3b is responsible for distributing somatosensory information, it projects texture information to BA1 and shape and size information to BA2.

In mice, the RbAp48 protein is key component in histone acetylation, transcriptional regulation and in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase element-binding protein CREB1 path way. Since histone acetylation and the cAMP-PKA-CREB1 pathway are extremely important for normal hippocampal function and aging in mice, scientists further investigate RbAp48 to test whether its modulation was the cause of age-related memory losses in animals, especially mice. By studying wild-type mice, Scientists discovered that RbAp48 was expressed at a much higher level in the hippocampus, particularly in the dentate gyrus (DG). This finding was consistent with what they found in mice tissue because RbAp48 protein was less abundant in the DG of adult mice, as compared to a lower expression level in adult.

The primary somatosensory cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus, and is part of the somatosensory system. It was initially defined from surface stimulation studies of Wilder Penfield, and parallel surface potential studies of Bard, Woolsey, and Marshall. Although initially defined to be roughly the same as Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2, more recent work by Kaas has suggested that for homogeny with other sensory fields only area 3 should be referred to as "primary somatosensory cortex", as it receives the bulk of the thalamocortical projections from the sensory input fields. At the primary somatosensory cortex, tactile representation is orderly arranged (in an inverted fashion) from the toe (at the top of the cerebral hemisphere) to mouth (at the bottom).

Two cortical processing streams exist: a ventral one which maps sound onto meaning, and a dorsal one, that maps sound onto motor representations. The dorsal stream projects from the posterior Sylvian fissure at the temporoparietal junction, onto frontal motor areas, and is not normally involved in speech perception. Carl Wernicke identified a pathway between the left posterior superior temporal sulcus (a cerebral cortex region sometimes called the Wernicke's area) as a centre of the sound "images" of speech and its syllables that connected through the arcuate fasciculus with part of the inferior frontal gyrus (sometimes called the Broca's area) responsible for their articulation. This pathway is now broadly identified as the dorsal speech pathway, one of the two pathways (together with the ventral pathway) that process speech.