It was a crazy over-performance—a real-life case of Asterix and a Gaulish village against the Roman Empire.
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Gérard Depardieu (pictured), France's best-known modern actor, is hefty enough to play Obelix, France's best-known overweight cartoon Gaulish warrior, on the screen.
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Invisibly, as before, she presented the cascading jokes and puns of the indomitable Gaulish villagers as if they had been minted in English; many readers, to her delight, supposed they had been.
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This shift towards fantasies of a pure French (even Gaulish) identity being threatened has been made more prominent by recent attacks, as terrorists have fueled a deep sense of insecurity and distrust within the French population.
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Jean-Paul Savignac is a translator of Latin, Greek, and Gaulish. He has written three papers on the Gaulish language. He has also written a French- Gaulish dictionary.
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It may be related to the Old Irish carpat and the Gaulish carbad for carriage or cart, and is probably related to the Gaulish karros.
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The name Arduinna derives from the Gaulish arduo- meaning height.Delamarre, Xavier & Lambert, P. Y. (2003). Dictionnaire de la Langue Gauloise (Dictionary of the Gaulish Language). 2nd edition.
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Other authors with a focus on or touching on the topic old European hydronomy are listed below. Xavier Delamarre is a French linguist whose standard work is Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (2nd revised and augmented edition Paris, 2003), with the subtitle "Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental". This is in fact the most comprehensive publication on Gaulish words. Slightly more than 800 terms appear in alphabetical order derived from Gaulish-Greek, Gaulish-Etruscan and Gaulish-Latin or solely Gaulish inscriptions, printed classical languages, coins and some terms of Celtic substrate in Occitan.
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Gaulish is paraphyletically grouped with Celtiberian, Lepontic, and Galatian as Continental Celtic. The Lepontic language and the Galatian language are sometimes considered to be dialects of Gaulish. The exact time of the final extinction of Gaulish is unknown, but it is estimated to have been around or shortly after the middle of the 1st millennium. Gaulish may have survived in some regions as the mid to late 6th century in France.
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Eska 1998) has tended to consider it simply as an early outlying form of Gaulish and closely akin to other, later attestations of Gaulish in Italy (Cisalpine Gaulish), some scholars (notably Lejeune 1971) continue to view it as a distinct Continental Celtic language.Koch 2006; 1142. Within this latter view, the earlier inscriptions found within a 50 km radius of Lugano are considered Lepontic, while the later ones, to the immediate south of this area, are considered Cisalpine Gaulish. Lepontic was assimilated first by Gaulish, with the settlement of Gaulish tribes north of the River Po, and then by Latin, after the Roman Republic gained control over Gallia Cisalpina during the late 2nd and 1st century BC.
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The distance between small chapels on this path is equal to one or more leagues, or at a precise fraction of a Gaulish league, where a Gaulish league equals .
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The Nitiobroges (Gaulish: "the indigenous") were a Gaulish tribe, dwelling around their capital Aginnum (modern-day Agen) on the middle Garonne river, where they settled during the 4th century BCE.
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In the Auvergne (province), chants are sung around bonfires remembering a Celtic god. There are also modern attempts to revive the polytheistic religion of the Gauls. Auvergne is also a hotpot for the Gaulish revival movement, being the location of numerous important Gaulish sites and the home of the legendary Gaulish warrior, Vercingetorix.
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There is some debate whether the Lepontic language should be considered as a Gaulish dialect or an independent branch within Continental Celtic. Apart from Lepontic, the "Cisalpine Gaulish language" proper would be the Gaulish language as spoken by the Gauls invading northern Italy in the 4th century BC. This is a dialect of the larger Gaulish language, with some known phonetic features distinguishing it from Transalpine dialects, such as -nn- replacing -nd- and s(s) replacing -χs-.
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The meaning of the name Arecomici is unclear. The Gaulish suffix are- meant 'forward', but the translation of the second element, comici, is unknown. The name Volcae stems from Gaulish uolcos ('hawk').
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This conquest upset the ascendancy of the Gaulish Arverni peoples.
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The Cisalpine Celtic languages of northern Italy include the Lepontic language and the Cisalpine Gaulish language. Transalpine Celtic refers to Celtic languages on the other side of the Alps (from Rome) such as Transalpine Gaulish.
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The collection of pharmacological recipes by Marcellus of Bordeaux (late 4th- or early 5th-century) contains several Gaulish words, mainly plant names, and seems to indicate that the language remained in use for at least some purposes such as traditional medicine and magic.Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p. 192. Sulpicius Severus (363–425), also from Gallia Aquitania, takes note of Gaulish-Latin bilingualism, with Gaulish as the first language. Other mentions of people who speak "in the Gallic manner" (gallice) or similar may refer to speaking Latin with a regional Gaulish accent.
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276 on the view that Gaulish was the native language of Iulius Ausonius. Adams is inclined to believe that he simply spoke Latin with a Gaulish accent. See also Mullen, Southern Gaul and the Mediterranean, p. 269 (note 19).
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The name Rosmerta is Gaulish, and is analysed as ro-smert-a. Smert means "provider" or "carer" and is also found in other Gaulish names such as Ad-smerio, Smertu-litani, Smerius (Σμερο), Smertae, Smertus, and others. Ro- is a modifier meaning "very", "great", or "most" as found in Ro-bili ("most-good") or Ro-cabalus ("great horse"). The -a ending is the typical Gaulish feminine singular nominative.
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Badb also appears to be closely related to the Gaulish goddess Catubodua, or Bodua.
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The Gaulish language likely survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including oui, the word for "yes"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence,Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
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It is clear from the subject matter of the records that the language was in use at all levels of society. Other sources also contribute to knowledge of Gaulish: Greek and Latin authors mention Gaulish words, personal and tribal names,C. Iulius Caesar, "Commentarii de Bello Gallico" and toponyms. A short Gaulish-Latin vocabulary (about 20 entries headed De nominib[us] Gallicis) called "Endlicher's Glossary", is preserved in a 9th century manuscript (Öst.
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The name 'Catuvellauni' (Gaulish: Catu-uellauni 'war-chiefs, chiefs-of- war') stems from the Gaulish root catu- ('combat') attached to uellauni ('chiefs, commandants'). It is probably related to the name of the 'Catalauni', a Belgic tribe dwelling in the modern Champagne region during the Roman period.
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There is a small sub-class of Central Gaulish samian ware with a glossy black slip, though the dividing line between black terra sigillata and other fine black-gloss wares, which were also manufactured in the area, is sometimes hazy. When a vessel is a classic samian form and decorated in relief in the style of a known samian potter, but finished with black slip rather than a red one, it may be classed as black samian. Central Gaulish samian jar with 'cut-glass' decoration Though the Central Gaulish forms continued and built upon the South Gaulish traditions, the decoration of the principal decorated forms, Dr.30 and Dr.37, was distinctive.The basic study remains Stanfield & Simpson 1958 / 1990 New human and animal figure- types appeared, generally modelled with greater realism and sophistication than those of La Graufesenque and other South Gaulish centres. Figure-types and decorative details have been classified, and can often be linked to specific workshopsMany of the Central Gaulish types were first drawn and classified in Déchelette 1904.
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His tribe returns to Gaulish ways and the fight against Rome, while Vitalstatistix's tribe celebrate their victories.
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Gaulish characters, plus Julius Caesar and Cleopatra. This is a list of characters in the Asterix comics.
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Ballomar or Ballomarios (AD 140 - AD 170-180) was a leader of the Marcomanni during the Marcomannic Wars. The name "Ballomar" can be broken down into two Celtic elements, ballo- meaning "limb, member" (cf. Gaulish ballos Irish ball), and maro meaning "great" (cf. Gaulish maros, Welsh mawr, Irish mór).
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Some scholars view (e.g. Lejeune 1971, Koch 2008) Lepontic as a distinct Continental Celtic language. Other scholars (e.g. Evans 1992, Solinas 1995, Eska 1996, McCone 1996, Matasovic 2009) consider it as an early form of Cisalpine Gaulish (or Cisalpine Celtic) and thus a dialect of the Gaulish language.
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As noted above, among a pair of later scholiasts on Lucan's work, one identifies Teutates with Mercury and Esus with Mars. At times the Gaulish “Mercury" may have the characteristic of a warrior, while the Gaulish “Mars" may act as a god of protection or healing. Paul-Marie Duval argues that each tribe had its own toutatis; he further considers the Gaulish Mars the product of syncretism with the Celtic toutates, noting the great number of indigenous epithets under which Mars was worshipped.
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However, his association with the hunt has prompted some scholars to associate Arawn with the Gaulish god Cernunnos.
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The etymology is likely to indicate a Gaulish presence, but no evidence of this has been found yet.
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Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century that some people in this area could still speak Gaulish.
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At least 13 references to Gaulish speech and Gaulish writing can be found in Greek and Latin writers of antiquity. The word "Gaulish" (gallicum) as a language term is first explicitly used in the Appendix Vergiliana in a poem referring to Gaulish letters of the alphabet.Corinthiorum amator iste uerborum, iste iste rhetor, namque quatenus totus Thucydides, tyrannus Atticae febris: tau Gallicum, min et sphin ut male illisit, ita omnia ista uerba miscuit fratri. — Virgil, Catalepton II: "THAT lover of Corinthian words or obsolete, That--well, that spouter, for that all of Thucydides, a tyrant of Attic fever: that he wrongly fixed on the Gallic tau and min and spin, thus he mixed all those words for [his] brother".
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Map showing the different Gaulish tribes. The Petrocorii are located in the centre-west of what is now France. The Petrocorii (, ) were a Gaulish tribe located in the present-day Dordogne region of France, between the Dordogne and Isle rivers. Their capital was Vesunna, which is today the town of Périgueux.
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Palatinate. Map showing the distribution of inscriptions to Cissonius. Cissonius (also Cisonius, Cesonius) was an ancient Gaulish/Celtic god. After Visucius, Cissonius was the most common name of the Gaulish/Celtic Mercury; around seventeen inscriptions dedicated to him extend from France and Southern Germany into Switzerland.Nicole Jufer & Thierry Luginbühl. 2001.
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Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish played a role in shaping the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques, sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence,Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
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He collaborated on the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises. He is the author of an important book on the Gaulish language.
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The Gaulish root Nemus Brenno (forest of Brenno) is mentioned in a document of the cartulary of Buzay around 1179.
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Gaulish mori "sea" + tasgos (also tascos or taxos), "badger". See Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (Éditions Errance, 2003), pp. 229, 292–293, and D. Ellis Evans, Gaulish personal names: a study of some Continental Celtic formations (University of Michigan Press, 1967), p. 103. For further discussion, see Tasgetius: Name and badger lore.
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The Lemovices or Lemovici (Gaulish: "those who vanquish by the elm") were a Gallic tribe, dwelling in the modern Limousin region.
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The Caturiges (Gaulish: "kings of combat"; , ) were a Gallic tribe, dwelling in the Alpes Cottiae, around present-day Chorges and Embrun.
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The Segovellauni (Gaulish: "chiefs-of-victory") were a small Gallic tribe, dwelling in the modern Drôme département during the Roman period.
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Bannovices and Brannovii stem from Gaulish branos ('crow'). Bannovices means 'those who vanquish by the crow'. In Caesar (B. G. vii.
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While the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be counted among the Gaulish tribes, perhaps with Germanic elements.
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Anciently spoken in Switzerland and in Northern-Central Italy, from the Alps to Umbria.Morandi 2004, pp. 702–03, n. 277 According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day France – with the notable exception of Aquitaine – and in Italy,Peter Schrijver, "Gaulish", in Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, ed.
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702–703, n. 277 According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day France—with the notable exception of Aquitaine—and in Italy,Peter Schrijver, "Gaulish", in Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, ed. Glanville Price (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 192. which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula.
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Written Celtiberian ceases early in the reign of Augustus, if not before.Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p. 280. Several references to Gaulish in late antiquity may indicate that it continued to be spoken. Irenaeus, bishop of Lugdunum (present-day Lyon) from 177 AD, complains that he has to communicate with his parishioners in their "barbarous tongue", probably Gaulish.
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Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10. Much of historical linguistics scholarship postulates that Gaulish was indeed still spoken as late as the mid to late 6th century in France. Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul.
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The meaning of the name Coriosolites is uncertain. The first element is certainly the Gaulish word corios ('army'), but the interpretation of is unclear. It could stem from the Gaulish root sūli- ('[good] sight'; cf. Old Irish súil, 'sight', Brittonic Sulis), with corio-soli-tes as the 'troop-watchers' or 'those who watch over the troop'.
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The Dexiuates were a Gaulish tribe, dwelling in present-day Vaucluse (southeastern France), south of the Cavares and north of the Anatilii.
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The Gaulish language, and presumably its many dialects and closely allied sister languages, left a few hundred words in French and many more in nearby Romance languages, i.e. Franco-Provençal (Eastern France and Western Switzerland), Occitan (Southern France), Catalan, Romansch, Gallo-Italian (Northern Italy), and many of the regional languages of northern France and Belgium collectively known as langues d'oïl (e.g. Walloon, Norman, Gallo, Picard, Bourguignon, and Poitevin). What follows is a list of inherited French words, past and present, along with words in neighboring or related languages, all borrowed from the Gaulish language (or more precisely from a substrate of Gaulish).
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Geōgraphiká, 4:6:4; 4:1:3 as Ou̓okóntioi (Οὐοκόντιοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).Ptolemy. Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:10:8 and as Bocontii on the Tabula Peutingeriana.Tabula Peutingeriana, 2:1 The name Vocontii probably stems from Gaulish Uo-conti ('twenty', perhaps 'twenty-hundred'), after a Gaulish custom of including numbers in tribal names (see Tri-corii, Petru-corii, the 'three-', 'four-tribes').
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The peoples of Cisalpine Gaul, 391-192 BC. The Insubres or Insubri were a Lepontic population settled in Insubria, in what is now the Italian region of Lombardy. They were the founders of Mediolanum (Milan). Though completely Gaulish at the time of Roman conquest, they were the result of the fusion of pre-existing Ligurian and Celtic population (Golasecca culture) with Gaulish tribes.
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A distinctive ram-headed snake accompanies Gaulish gods in a number of representations, including the antlered god from the Gundestrup cauldron, Mercury, and Mars.
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The Morini (Gaulish: "sea folk, sailors") were a Belgic coastal tribe, dwelling in the modern Pas de Calais region, around present-day Boulogne-sur- Mer.
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Literally a "Gaul"; either a prisoner of war, as in the earliest forms of munus, or else a gladiator equipped with Gaulish arms and armour, who fought in what Romans would have recognised as a "Gaulish style". Probably a heavyweight, and heavily armoured, the Gallus seems to have been replaced by, or perhaps transformed into, the Murmillo, soon after Gaul's absorption as a Roman province.
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Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83. and well as in conjugation and word order. Recent work in computational simulation suggests that Gaulish played a role in gender shifts of words in Early French, whereby the gender would shift to match the gender of the corresponding Gaulish word with the same meaning.
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One of the finds in the ruins of Pompeii, destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in August AD 79, was a consignment of South Gaulish sigillata, still in its packing crate;Atkinson, D., 'A hoard of samian ware from Pompeii', Journal of Roman Studies 4 (1914), pp. 26–64 like all finds from the Vesuvian sites, this hoard of pottery is invaluable as dating evidence. South Gaulish plain forms, showing standardisation of size South Gaulish samian typically has a redder slip and deeper pink fabric than Italian sigillata. The best slips, vivid red and of an almost mirror-like brilliance, were achieved during the Claudian and early Neronian periods (Claudius, reg.
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Caesar held that they were "administrators" during rituals of human sacrifice, for which criminals were usually used, and that the method was through burning in a wicker man. Although he had first- hand experience of Gaulish people, and therefore likely with druids, Caesar's account has been widely criticized by modern historians as inaccurate. One issue raised by such historians as Fustel de Coulanges was that while Caesar described the druids as a significant power within Gaulish society, he did not mention them even once in his accounts of his Gaulish conquests. Nor did Aulus Hirtius, who continued Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars following Caesar's death.
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The Celts settled in Armorica toward the 8th century BCE. Some of early groups mentioned in the written records of the Greeks were the Redones and the Namnetes. They spoke dialects of the Gaulish languageCeltic Countries, "Gallo Language" 04 March 2014 and maintained important economic ties with the British Isles. "The Ruin and Conquest of Britain 400 A.D. - 600 A.D" 04 March 2014 Julius Caesar's invasion of Armorica in 56 BC led to a sort of Romanization of the population.Ancient Worlds "Armorica" 04 March 2014 Gaulish continued to be spoken in this region until the 6th century CE, "Gaulish Language" 04 March 2014 especially in less populated, rural areas.
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Where there was language replacement, in some cases, such as Italy, it took place in the early imperial stage, while in others, native languages only totally succumbed to Latin after the fall of the Empire, as was likely the case with Gaulish. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible was when Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century (c. 560-575) that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground.Hist. Franc.
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The name Paris is etymologically unrelated to the name of the French city of Paris, which derives its name from a Gaulish tribe called the Parisii.
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This is the basis of a suggestion according to which the Germanic name Theodoric was in origin a theonym borrowed from Gaulish into early Germanic religion.
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The Catuslougi (Gaulish: "troops of combat"; also Catuslugi, or Catoslugi) were a small Belgic coastal tribe, dwelling around modern-day Incheville (Normandy) during the Roman period.
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Larger human and animal figures could be used on the Dr.30 vessels, but while many of these have great charm, South Gaulish craftsmen never achieved, and perhaps never aspired to, the Classical naturalism of some of their Italian counterparts. South Gaulish bowl, Dr.37, from the late 1st century AD, with a stamp of the potter Mercato in the decoration In the last two decades of the 1st century, the Dragendorff 37, a deep, rounded vessel with a plain upright rim, overtook the 29 in popularity. This simple shape remained the standard Gaulish samian relief-decorated form, from all Gaulish manufacturing regions, for more than a century. Small relief-decorated beakers such as forms Déchelette 67 and Knorr 78 were also made in South Gaul, as were occasional 'one-off' or very ambitious mould-made vessels, such as large thin- walled flagons and flasks.
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The Leuci (Gaulish: "the bright ones, the lightning ones") were a Belgic tribe, dwelling in the southern part of the modern Lorraine region during the Roman era.
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The Caletes or Caleti (Gaulish: "the hard [stubborn, tough] ones"; or Calētī) were a Belgic or Gallic tribe living in Pays de Caux, in present-day Normandy.
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The Gaulish personal name Epomeduos is from ek'wo- medhu- ("horse + mead"), while aśvamedha is either from ek'wo-mad-dho- ("horse + drunk") or ek'wo-mey-dho- ("horse + strength").
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Dagobert or Taginbert is a male given name, possibly from Old Frankish Dag "day" and beraht "bright". Alternatively, it has been identified as Gaulish dago "good" berxto "bright".
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Dog meat has been consumed in the past by the Gauls. The evidence of dog consumption was found at Gaulish archaeological sites, where butchered dog bones were discovered.
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In the late empire, there was some settlement in Gaul by tribes speaking Germanic or Eastern Iranian languages, such as the Alans. Overview of the re-assembled tablet of the Coligny calendar, a lunisolar calendar created in the 2nd century with native Gaulish text The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible was when Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century (c. 560–575) that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground.Hist. Franc.
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Gaulish was an ancient Celtic language that was spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language spoken by the Celtic inhabitants of Gaul (modern-day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine). In a wider sense, it also comprises varieties of Celtic that were spoken across much of central Europe ("Noric"), parts of the Balkans, and Anatolia ("Galatian"), which are thought to have been closely related. The more divergent Lepontic of Northern Italy has also sometimes been subsumed under Gaulish.
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A scholium on the Pharsalia equates Dis Pater with Taranis, the Gaulish god of thunder. In southern Germany and the Balkans, Aericura was considered a consort of Dīs Pater.
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These lists of English words of Celtic origin include English words derived from Celtic origins. These are, for example, Common Brittonic, Gaulish, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, or other languages.
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Wallis, Bede, p. 52. His work provides significant examples of Gallo- Romance vocabulary, regional variations of the Latin language, and local survivals of Gaulish words.Adams, Regional Diversification, pp. 295ff.
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Coventina, either with attendants, or shown three times. The Celtic peoples of Gaul and Hispania under Roman rule fused Roman religious forms and modes of worship with indigenous traditions. In some cases, Gaulish deity names were used as epithets for Roman deities, as with Lenus Mars or Jupiter Poeninus. In other cases, Roman gods were given Gaulish female partners – for example, Mercury was paired with Rosmerta and Sirona was partnered with Apollo.
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The name Ambarri could mean 'on both sides of the Saône river', stemming from the Gaulish suffix amb- ('around') attached to the pre- Celtic name Arar, designating the Saône river. It has also been interpreted as a contraction of Ambi-barii ('the very-angry'), formed with the intensifying Gaulish suffix ambi- attached to bar(i)o- ('wrath, fury, passion'; cf. Old Irish barae 'fury, anger'). The cities of Ambérieu-en-Bugey, attested as Ambariacus ca.
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Thus, many Celts were displaced in Aquitania or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul. There was a strong cultural evolution in Gaul under the Roman Empire, the most obvious one being the replacement of the Gaulish language by Vulgar Latin. It has been argued the similarities between the Gaulish and Latin languages favoured the transition. Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries and Celtic culture was then gradually replaced by Gallo-Roman culture.
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Its name is derived from Roman-period Balbiniacum, "the place of Balbo or Balbinus or Balbinius"; or "of the dumb or silent man/men" (Gaulish: Irish Gaelic balbh = "dumb, silent").
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Historiae Adversus Paganos, 5:13:2 The name Allobroges means in Gaulish 'foreigner, exiled, those from another country', stemming from the root allo-, 'other', attached to the word brogi, 'country'.
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Catteddu 42. Gaulish ceramic and amphora shards from 1 AD were discovered in a ditch between the sites, and the remains of a Merovingian village were also found nearby.Catteddu 43.
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Tacitus's Agricola says that the tongue differed little from that of Gaul. Comparison with what is known of Gaulish confirms likewise.Pierre-Yves Lambert, La langue gauloise, éditions errance 1994. p. 17.
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The Gaulish name Tecto-sages means 'those who seek a dwelling' or 'those who seek possessions', composed of the root tecto- ('goods, property, possessions') attached to sag(i)- ('who is seeking').
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Gallo-Roman figures found in Ingelheim am Rhein The term "Gallo-Roman" describes the Romanized culture of Gaul under the rule of the Roman Empire. This was characterized by the Gaulish adoption or adaptation of Roman culture, language, morals and way of life in a uniquely Gaulish context.For a recent survey on the Romanization of Gaulish culture, see The well-studied meld of culturesModern interpretations are revising the earlier dichotomy of "Romanization" and "resistance", especially as viewed, under the increased influence of archaeology, through the material remains of patterns of everyday consumption, as in Woolf 1998:169–205, who emphasised the finds at Vesontio/Besançon. in Gaul gives historians a model against which to compare and contrast parallel developments of Romanization in other, less-studied Roman provinces.
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And, in fact, the alphabet of Lugano was used in the coinage of other Alpine tribes, such as the Salassi, Salluvii, and Cavares (Whatmough 1933, Lejeune 1971). While many of the later inscriptions clearly appear to be written in Cisalpine Gaulish, some, including all of the older ones, are said to be in an indigenous language distinct from Gaulish and known as Lepontic. Until the publication of Lejeune 1971, this Lepontic language was regarded as a pre-Celtic language, possibly related to Ligurian (Whatmough 1933, Pisani 1964). Following Lejeune 1971, the consensus view became that Lepontic should be classified as a Celtic language, albeit possibly as divergent as Celtiberian, and in any case quite distinct from Cisalpine Gaulish (Lejeune 1971, Kruta 1991, Stifter 2008).
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However, the tribal society of the Gauls did not change fast enough for the centralized Roman state, who would learn to counter them. The Gaulish tribal confederacies were then defeated by the Romans in battles such as Sentinum and Telamon during the 3rd century BC. In the early 3rd century BC, some Belgae (Germani cisrhenani) conquered the surrounding territories of the Somme in northern Gaul after battles supposedly against the Armoricani (Gauls) near Ribemont-sur-Ancre and Gournay-sur-Aronde, where sanctuaries were found. When Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca fought the Romans, he recruited several Gaulish mercenaries who fought on his side at Cannae. It was this Gaulish participation that caused Provence to be annexed in 122 BC by the Roman Republic.
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Sougères) Thury's is attested as Tauriacus in the high medieval Gesta of the Bishops of Auxerre (see below); Thuraco in 1369 (Pouillé); Thoriaco of the fourteenth century (Pouillé). Tauriacus originally referred to a field or property of one Taurus, possibly Taruos in Gaulish. The Gallo-Roman suffix -acus or -acum is of Gaulish origin and indicates a person's property. This suffix (fr) often evolved into -y in many French place names, in Thury's region and far beyond.
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Another, generally later, variation is composed of masculine names that can be either Gaulish or Latin, for example: Massy from Gaulish Mascius; Marcilly from Roman Marcellus; Fleury from Roman Florius; and Montigny from Roman Montanius. However, the latest -acum formations are combined with a Christian or a Germanic masculine name, such as Repentigny, from the Christian name Repentin(i)us. The most common -acum place-name in Normandy is Glatigny, of which more than 40 exist.
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Some of the Greek and Roman accounts mention various deities worshipped in Gaul; for instance Lucan noted the names of Teutates, Taranis and Esus,Lucan. Pharsalia. although Julius Caesar instead conflated the Celtic Gaulish deities with those of Roman religion, and did not mention their native Gaulish names. He declared that the most widely venerated god in Gaul was Mercury, the Roman god of trade, but that they also worshipped Apollo, Minerva, Mars and Jupiter.Caesar. Commentarii de Bello Gallico.
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The central and eastern Alps of Europe are rich in folklore traditions dating back to pre-Christian times, with surviving elements originating from Germanic, Gaulish (Gallo-Roman), Slavic (Carantanian) and Raetian culture.
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A map of Gaul in the 1st century BC, showing the relative positions of the Celtic tribes. The Segusiavi (Gaulish: 'the Victorious Ones') were a Gallic tribe around the modern city of Feurs.
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The Gaesatae (Greek Γαισάται) were a group of Gaulish warriors who lived in the Alps near the river Rhône and fought against the Roman Republic in the Battle of Telamon of 225 BC.
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The name of Jouanne probably goes back to the Gaulish form div-onna (divine-water). The evolution of Divonne is exactly the same as that of divrnus which engendered day in modern French.
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Julia Pacata was the daughter of Julius Indus, a 1st-century nobleman of the Gaulish Treveri who helped put down a Gaulish rebellion in 21 and led an auxiliary cavalry unit in the Roman army, the Ala Gallorum Indiana. She married Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus, the procurator of Roman Britain from 61 to his death in 65. She buried him in London, and his reconstructed tombstone, which was re-used in the medieval wall of London, is now in the British Museum.
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They are also called Ombrii in some Roman sources. Some Roman writers thought the Umbri to be of Celtic origin; wrote that they descended from an ancient Gaulish tribe. Plutarch wrote that the name might be a different way of writing the name of the Celto-Germanic tribe , which loosely means "King of the ." He also suggested that the , another Gaulish tribe, might be connected; their Celtic name Isombres could possibly mean "Lower Umbrians," or inhabitants of the country below Umbria.
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Later, Caesar himself encouraged the Sicambri to cross the Rhine into the territory of the Eburones, seeking to plunder the lands of the people whose fortress he had just taken.De Bello Gallico 6.35 These tribes who crossed the Rhine and became part of Roman Germania Inferior were themselves apparently heavily influenced by Gaulish culture, some using Gaulish personal names or Gaulish tribal names. Later, as the area became part of the Roman Empire some of these tribes from over the Rhine, including Sicambri and Ubii, were forced by Tiberius to settle among in the northeast of Gaul, and Romanised provinces with tribal names developed from the mergers of incoming groups, with people who had lived there before Caesar. This is a likely origin of both the Tungri the other tribal groups of Germania Inferior.
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Gaulish texts were first written in the Greek alphabet in southern France and in a variety of the Old Italic script in northern Italy. After the Roman conquest of those regions, writing shifted to the use of the Latin alphabet. During his conquest of Gaul, Caesar reported that the Helvetii were in possession of documents in the Greek script, and all Gaulish coins used the Greek script until about 50 BC.The European Iron Age by John Collis p.144 ff Gaulish in Western Europe was supplanted by Vulgar Latinfor the early development of Vulgar Latin (the conventional term for what could more adequately be named "spoken Latin") see Mohl, Introduction à la chronologie du latin vulgaire (1899) and Wagner, Introduction à la linguistique française, avec supplément bibliographique (1965), p.
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Image of Esus on the Gallo-Roman Pillar of the Boatmen, first century CE. Esus, Hesus, or Aisus was a Gaulish god known from two monumental statues and a line in Lucan's Bellum civile.
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The Vachères warrior, 1st century BC, a statue depicting a Romanized Gaulish warrior wearing mail and a Celtic torc around his neck, bearing a Celtic-style shield.Ashton, Kasey. "The Celts Themselves." University of North Carolina.
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The town is the home of "duffel fabric", a coarse woolen cloth used to make heavy outerwear and tote bags. The etymology of Duffel is from "dubro" and "locus", from the Gaulish dubrum, dubron – "water".
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This is now kept at a museum in Worms. Some people from Löllbach have also found Roman coins. About AD 450, the Romans had to withdraw their forces from the Rhine into the Gaulish backlands.
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Others have noted a similarity in Lugh's slaying of Balor to the slaying of Baldr by Loki. Lugh's mastery of all arts has led many to link him with the unnamed Gaulish god Julius Caesar identifies with Mercury, whom he describes as the "inventor of all the arts".Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 6:17 Caesar describes the Gaulish Mercury as the most revered deity in Gaul, overseeing journeys and business transactions. St. Mologa has been theorized to be a Christian continuation of the god Lugh.
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Several thousand wooden Gallo-Roman ex-votos, most of them anthropomorphic standing figures, also including images of limbs and internal organs, dated by associated coins to the first century, were recovered from the shrine at the mineral springs known as the Source des Roches ("Rock Spring"). An inscribed lead tablet found at the spring is a major source of information on the Gaulish language. A comparable cache of Gaulish ex-voto were recovered from a sanctuary at the sources of the Seine, sacred to Sequana.
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In the modern sense, Gaulish peoples are defined linguistically, as speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements. Julius Caesar, in his book, The Gallic Wars, comments: > All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the > Aquitani another, those who in their own language are called Celts, in our > Gauls, the third. All these differ from each other in language, customs and > laws.
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Gaius Julius Victor (4th century) was a Roman writer of rhetoric, possibly of Gaulish origin. His extant manual is of some importance as facilitating the textual criticism of Quintilian, whom he closely follows in many places.
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There are still a significant number of Celtic (Gaulish) names, as there are throughout France and western Europe. These names, partly mixed with Latin elements, follow the Late Latin phonetic changes that led to Langue d'oïl.
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Condeau is a town that lies near the river Huisne in Lower Normandy. The toponym "Condeau" is a diminutive of Condé, a neighboring town name as the confluence (Gaulish condate) of the Huisne and Corbionne rivers.
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The origins of annalistic compilation can be traced to the occasional recording of notes and events in blank spaces between the latercus, i.e. the 84-year Easter table adopted from Gaulish writer Sulpicius Severus (d. c. 423).
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At the same time, another Gaulish group of men, women, and children were migrating through Thrace. They had split off from Brennus' people in 279 BC, and had migrated into Thrace under their leaders Leonnorius and Lutarius.
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He was of Gaulish ancestry, born in Arelate (Arles). He received a refined education, first in Gallia Narbonensis and then in Rome, and at an early age began his lifelong travels through Greece, Italy and the East.
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The Gaulish army was also destroyed. Ferrex had been his mother Judon's favourite son, and she avenged his death by killing Porrex in his sleep. This led to a long civil war between five kings in Britain.
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The total area is 26.56 km² (10¼ square miles) which gives a population density of 664 inhabitants per km² (1720 per sq. mi.). Attractions are the many residential castles, a Gaulish farmhouse, and the Damvallei nature reserve.
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K. Stüber in Tristram (ed.), The Celtic Languages in Contact (2007), p. 85. The discovery of the text has substantially increased our knowledge of Gaulish grammar, due to its being one of the very few inscriptions containing fully formed sentences with finite verbal forms, and due to its "feminine" nature containing numerous forms of the first declension (a-stems) otherwise unattested. It is also important in terms of core vocabulary, among other things it is our only source for the Gaulish word for "daughter", duχtir, and as evidence for certain phonological developments of the language.
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The surprisingly close parallels between the early medieval Irish and Welsh laws where sexual unions are concerned,Charles-Edwards 1980 and the similarity between the most prestigious union described in them with the Gaulish marriage as described by Caesar,b.g. 6.19.1–3 indicate that the treatment of different sexual unions was quite similar over wide areas of western Europe from late prehistory well into the medieval period. We also know that, at least amongst the Gaulish and the early medieval Irish nobility, polygyny was a widespread practice.b.g. 1.53.4, 6.19.
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The Gotini (in Tacitus), who are generally equated to the Cotini in other sources, were a Gaulish tribe living during Roman times in the mountains approximately near the modern borders of the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia. The spelling "Gotini" is only known from one classical source, the De Origine et situ Germanorum of Tacitus.Tac. Ger. 43 Tacitus clearly distinguishes the Gotini from the similarly named Gotones, whom he discussed in the immediately following passage.Tac. Ger. 44 Tacitus described the Gotini as speaking a Gaulish language and working, to their degradation, in mining.
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The re-assembled tablet of the Coligny calendar According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day France, with the notable exception of Aquitaine, and in northern Italy.Peter Schrijver, "Gaulish", in Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, ed. Glanville Price (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 192. Inscriptions include short dedications, funerary monuments, proprietary statements, and expressions of human sentiments, but the Gauls also left some longer documents of a legal or magical-religious nature, the three longest being the Larzac tablet, the Chamalières tablet and the Lezoux dish.
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Astérix, the popular series of French comic books following the exploits of a village of "indomitable Gauls", satirizes this view by combining scenes set in classical antiquity with modern ethnic clichés of the French and other nations. Similarly, in Swiss national historiography of the 19th century, the Gaulish Helvetii were chosen as representing the ancestral Swiss population (compare Helvetia as national allegory), as the Helvetii had settled in both the French and the German- speaking parts of Switzerland, and their Gaulish language set them apart from Latin- and German-speaking populations in equal measure.
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The datives in -o may be either Gaulish or Latin. Use of the Greek alphabet, however, seems to suggest that when the tablet was inscribed, Roman influence was not yet overwhelming, and Gaulish probably was still in wide use. That the tablet does date to Roman Gaul is suggested by the final Ρ of ΝΑΝΤΑΡΩΡ: it was at first written as a Latin R, the additional stroke having been removed again as a scribal error. Mixing of Greek and Latin letters is also attested from a number of Gallo-Roman coins.
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The imperial cult, centred primarily on the numen of Augustus, came to play a prominent role in public religion in Gaul, most dramatically at the pan-Gaulish ceremony venerating Rome and Augustus at the Condate Altar near Lugdunum on 1 August. Generally Roman worship practices such as offerings of incense and animal sacrifice, dedicatory inscriptions, and naturalistic statuary depicting deities in anthropomorphic form were combined with specific Gaulish practices such as circumambulation around a temple. This gave rise to a characteristic Gallo-Roman fanum, identifiable in archaeology from its concentric shape.
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The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighboring provinces Belgica and Aquitania, particularly under Augustus. Place- and personal-name analysis and inscriptions suggest that the Gaulish Celtic language was spoken over most of what is now France.
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The conquest of Celtic Gaul began in 121 BCE and was complete with the Gallic Wars of the 50s BCE. Gaulish culture now quickly assimilated to Roman culture, giving rise to the hybrid Gallo- Roman culture of Late Antiquity.
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Prolix is expelled from the camp, swears to give up soothsaying, and is driven away by a thunderstorm. The Gaulish village is soon at peace, with the exception of Cacofonix, who still daydreams of himself as a famous singer.
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An alternative etymology would be from the appellative turra, of pre-Latin and possibly Gaulish origin and the root of many toponyms. Thury's hamlets (hameaux) include Colangette, Gémigny, Grangette, La Forêt, Le Boichet, Les Grands Moulins, Moulery, and Panny.
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Coins of the Osismii. Gallic people of modern Brittany : The Osismii were a Gaulish tribe on the western Armorican peninsula. They were first described as the Ostimioi by the Greek geographer and traveller Pytheas in the fourth century BC.
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Roman Inscriptions of Britain (RIB 611). Images of Belenus sometimes show him to be accompanied by a female, thought to be the Gaulish deity Belisama. Tertullian, writing in c. 200 AD, identifies Belenus as the national god of Noricum.
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Map of Gallic tribes The Eburovices', Aulerci Eburovices or Eburovici (Gaulish: "those who vanquish by the yew")' were a Gallic tribe, a branch of the Aulerci. They are mentioned by Julius Caesar (B. G. iii. 17) with the Lexovii.
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The assimilation to Brittonic appears to be the exact opposite to the situation in France, where the collapse of towns and the migration of large numbers of Latin-speakers into the countryside apparently caused the final extinction of Gaulish.
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One notable feature of Gaulish and Romano-Celtic sculpture is the frequent appearance of male and female deities in pairs, such as Rosmerta and ‘Mercury’, Nantosuelta and Sucellos, Sirona and Apollo Grannus, Borvo and Damona, or Mars Loucetius and Nemetona.
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The Celtic calendar is a compilation of pre-Christian Celtic systems of timekeeping, including the Gaulish Coligny calendar, used by Celtic countries to define the beginning and length of the day, the week, the month, the seasons, quarter days, and festivals.
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The Gaulish Celts inhabited the region corresponding to modern-day France, Switzerland, southern and western Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg and northern Italy. The Brythonic Celts, or Britons, inhabited most of the island of Great Britain and later migrated to Brittany.
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25-35 In the tradition of comparative mythologist Georges Dumézil, the name of 'Érimón' is ostensibly related to the name of a Gaulish god 'Ario-manus',Puhvel, Jaan. Mitra as an Indo-European Divinity. Etudes Mithraiques. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978.
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A map of Gaul in the 1st century BC, showing the location of the Allobroges tribe. The Allobroges (Gaulish: "foreigner, exiled"; ) were an Iron Age Gallic tribe, dwelling between the Rhône river and the Alps mountains during the Roman period.
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Small household articles, such as lamps, when made of bronze are usually Roman, and a peculiarly Roman class of personal ornaments is a large bronze brooch inlaid with coloured enamels, a technique which seems to have had a Gaulish origin.
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The name 'Catuvolcus' is most likely the Gaulish compound catu- uolcus ('war-falcon'), formed with the root catu- ('combat') attached to the word uolcos ('falcon, hawk'). The Eburonian name has an exact parallel in the Welsh cadwalch ('hero, champion, warrior').
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Irenaeus, Against Heresies I, preface; Pierre-Yves Lambert, La langue gauloise: description linguistique, commentaire d'inscriptions choisies (Editions Errance, 2003), p. 10. The jurist Ulpian (170–228) mentions the need to recognize Gaulish verbal contracts.Digest 31.1.11; Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10.
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Saucisson comes from the Latin ' meaning salted. It is sometimes called '. There are saucisson recipes dating from Roman times, and Gaulish recipes for dried pork. The word saucisson first appeared in France in 1546 in the Tiers Livre of Rabelais.
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Dijon : Eds. du CNRS, 1992. 42. The Gallo-Roman period is represented by remains of a cremation necropolis (1 AD) located on "le Johannot". Several vases and pieces of Gaulish currency were found at the edge of "la Voie romaine".
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Ambiani hemi stater. Stylized head. The Ambiani (Gaulish: "the people around [the two banks of the Somme]") were a Belgic coastal tribe, dwelling in modern Picardy during the La Tène and Roman periods. They are known for their gold coinage.
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The first major breakthrough in Celtic linguistics came with the publication of Archaeologia Britannica (1707) by the Welsh scholar Edward Lhuyd, who was the first to recognise that Gaulish, British and Irish belong to the same language family. He also published an English version of a study by Paul-Yves Pezron of Gaulish. In 1767 James Parsons published his study The Remains of Japhet, being historical enquiries into the affinity and origins of the European languages. He compared a 1000-word lexicon of Irish and Welsh and concluded that they were originally the same, then comparing the numerals in many other languages.
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The Chamalières tablet (French: Plomb de Chamalières) is a lead tablet, six by four centimeters, that was discovered in 1971 in Chamalières, France, at the Source des Roches excavation. The text is written in the Gaulish language, with cursive Latin letters. With 396 letters grouped in 47 words, it is the third-longest extant text in Gaulish (the curse tablet from L'Hospitalet-du- Larzac and the Coligny calendar being longer), giving it great importance in the study of this language. The magical subject matter of the text, which invokes the Celtic deity Maponos, suggests it should be considered a defixiones tablet.
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However, most of the Belgic tribal and personal names recorded are identifiably Gaulish, including those of the Germani cisrhenani, and this is indeed also true of the tribes immediately over the Rhine at this time, such as the Tencteri and Usipetes. Surviving inscriptions also indicate that Gaulish was spoken in at least part of Belgic territory.Inscriptions in Celtic language on instrumentum were discovered in Bavai and in Arras (cf. P-Y. Lambert, La langue gauloise, éditions errance 1994), on the contrary, never an inscription in a Germanic language dating back before the fall of the Roman Empire was excavated.
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Pompey sends a gifted actress, Latraviata, disguised as Panacea, Obelix's love interest and escorted by a Roman agent, Fastandfurious, to infiltrate the Gaulish village and retrieve Pompey's belongings. The real Panacea and her husband Tragicomix, upon learning that Asterix and Obelix's fathers have been imprisoned by Pompey, set out for the Gaulish village to alert their friends. On their way, they run into Latraviata and Fastandfurious, who have left the village with Pompey's sword and helmet, and the subterfuge is exposed. Asterix and Obelix catch up with them, and Fastandfurious is hit with a menhir, whose impact causes him to lose his memory.
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"This Roman knight", he said, "eats apluda and drinks flocces." All who were present looked at each other, first seriously and with an inquiring expression, wondering what the two words meant; thereupon, as if he might have said something in, I don't know, Gaulish or Etruscan, all of them burst out laughing.’ (based on Blom 2007: 183.) Freeman notes that although Gaulish was clearly still alive during Gellius' time, his testimony may not indicate that Etruscan was still alive because the phrase could indicate a meaning of the sort of "it's all Greek (incomprehensible) to me".Freeman. Survival of Etruscan. p.
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They do so by means of a magic potion, brewed by their druid Getafix (Panoramix in the French version), which temporarily gives the recipient superhuman strength. The protagonists, the title character Asterix and his friend Obelix, have various adventures. The "-ix" ending of both names (as well as all the other pseudo-Gaulish "-ix" names in the series) alludes to the "-rix" suffix (meaning "king") present in the names of many real Gaulish chieftains such as Vercingetorix, Orgetorix, and Dumnorix. In many of the stories, they travel to foreign countries, though other tales are set in and around their village.
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The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as "Desired Mountain" is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary.Lugduno – desiderato monte: dunum enim montem Lugduno: "mountain of yearning"; dunum of course is mountain. www.maryjones.us/ctexts/endlicher_glossary.html In contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lug[o]dunon, after the Celtic god Lugus ('Light', cognate with Old Irish Lugh, Modern Irish Lú), and dúnon (hill-fort). The Roman-era Theatre on the Fourvière Hill The Romans recognised that Lugdunum's strategic location at the convergence of two navigable rivers made it a natural communications hub.
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Gaulish verbs have present, future, perfect, and imperfect tenses; indicative, subjunctive, optative and imperative moods; and active and passive voices. Verbs show a number of innovations as well. The Indo-European s-aorist evolved into the Gaulish t-preterit, formed by merging an old 3rd personal singular imperfect ending -t- to a 3rd personal singular perfect ending -u or -e and subsequent affixation to all forms of the t-preterit tense. Similarly, the s-preterit is formed from the extension of -ss (originally from the third person singular) and the affixation of -it to the third person singular (to distinguish it as such).
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Jerome, commentary on the Letter to the Galatians; Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10. Much of historical linguistics scholarship postulates that Gaulish was indeed still spoken as late as the mid to late 6th century in France. Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul. The last reference to Galatian was made by Cyril of Scythopolis, claiming that an evil spirit had possessed a monk and rendered him able to speak only in Galatian,εἰ δὲ πάνυ ἐβιάζετο, Γαλατιστὶ ἐφθέγγετο.
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In some cases, Gaulish deity names were used as epithets for Roman deities, and vice versa, as with Lenus Mars or Jupiter Poeninus. In other cases, Roman gods were given Gaulish female partners – for example, Mercury was paired with Rosmerta and Sirona was partnered with Apollo. In at least one case – that of the equine goddess Epona – a native Celtic goddess was also adopted by Romans. The Jupiter Column was a distinctive type of religious monument from Roman Gaul and Germania, combining an equestrian Jupiter overcoming a giant (or sometimes Jupiter enthroned) with panels depicting many other deities.
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Due to Roman rule, Latin was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul, and as the language was learned by the common people it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which being attested on graffiti. This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan. The evolution of Latin in Gaul was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language, which did not go extinct until the late 6th century, long after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. The population remained 90% indigenous in origin, and instead of Roman settlers, the Romanizing class was the local native elite, whose children learned Latin in Roman schools; at the time of the collapse of the Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek.
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Terra sigillata bowl, produced in La Graufesenque, 50-85 A.D.,found in Tongeren Gallo-roman museum, Tongres South Gaulish Dragendorff 29, late 1st century AD Sigillata vessels, both plain and decorated, were manufactured at several centres in southern France, including Bram, Montans, La Graufesenque, Le Rozier and Banassac,see Tyers 1996, p. 106, fig.90 for a map of the Gaulish production sites from the late 1st century BC: of these, La Graufesenque, near Millau, was the principal producer and exporter. Although the establishment of sigillata potteries in Gaul may well have arisen initially to meet local demand and to undercut the prices of imported Italian goods, they became enormously successful in their own right, and by the later 1st century AD, South Gaulish samian was being exported not only to other provinces in the north-west of the Empire, but also to Italy and other regions of the Mediterranean, North Africa and even the eastern Empire.
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It is clear that the Belgic tribes of Gaul were culturally influenced by both Gaulish and Germanic neighbours, but the details, for example which languages they spoke, remain uncertain. It is also probable that the Eburones contained both Gallic and Germanic elements.
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She had a temple in the city that bore her name. Vesunna was worshipped especially by the Gaulish Celtic tribe known as the Petrocorii, whose name survives in that of the modern French city of Périgueux, located just north of her great temple.
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Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:8:6 and as Osismis in the Notitia Dignitatum (5th c. AD).Notitia Dignitatum. oc. 37, 17 The name Ostimioi stems from Gaulish ostimos ('ultimate, extreme'), as they dwelt on a headland in the western parts of the Armorican peninsula.
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Stater of the Remi, gold, 5.99g. The Remi (Gaulish: "the first ones, the princes") were a Belgic tribe, dwelling in the Aisne, Vesle and Suippe river valleys, corresponding to the modern Marne and Ardennes and parts of the modern Aisne and Meuse départements.
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The planet HD 8574 b is named Bélisama. The name was selected in the NameExoWorlds campaign by France, during the 100th anniversary of the IAU. Bélisama was the goddess of fire, notably of the hearth and of metallurgy and glasswork, in Gaulish mythology.
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Several references to Gaulish in late antiquity may indicate that it continued to be spoken. In the second century AD there was explicit recognition of its usage in some legal manners,Digest 31.1.11; Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10. soothsaying and pharmacology.
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Aubrac (town): the Domerie. By 1000 BC, the Celts had occupied the region. In the period of Roman Gaul, Gaulish tribes called Gabalians (Lozère) and Rutènians (Aveyron) occupied the area. Julius Caesar stated that the Gabalians were survivors of the Battle of Alesia.
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Marcus Antonius Gnipho (fl. 1st century BC) was a grammarianMcNelis, C. (2007) "Grammarians and rhetoricians" in Dominik, W. and Hall, J. (eds.) A companion to Roman rhetoric. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 285-296. and teacher of rhetoric of Gaulish origin who taught in ancient Rome.
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The Esuvii (Esubii, Sesuvii) were a Gaulish tribe mentioned by Caesar. They settled in what is now Normandy. They were presumably a confederation (comparable to the Helvetii) and included the sub-tribes of the Baiocasses and the Viducasses. The Baiocasses are probably eponymous with Bayeux.
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293, 297, 349. Suetonius offers four possible derivations, including the Gaulish galba meaning "fat."Other derivations from galbanum, a gum used in ancient medicine and chemical preparations; the medical treatment galbeum; and galbae, a type of insect: Suetonius, Galba 3, Bill Thayer's edition at LacusCurtius.
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The suffix is possibly the Gaulish -ates ('belonging to'), which appears in the names of many Gallic tribes across Europe (e.g., Atrebates, Nantuates, Caeracates). The origin of the first element Soti- is unknown. The city of Sos, attested as oppidum Sotiatum in the 1st c.
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RossPagan Celtic Britain, Anne Ross, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967 repeatedly associates Verbeia with the goddesses Brigid and Brigantia. Given that Brigid's cross is a prevalent swastika-like image in Ireland, there may be further links here between Verbeia, imported Gaulish cults, and the swastika image.
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Goibniu In Irish mythology, Goibniu (pronounced , modern spelling: Gaibhne) was the metalsmith of the Tuatha Dé Danann. He is believed to have been a smithing god and is also associated with hospitality. He is thus related to the Welsh Gofannon and the Gaulish Gobannus.
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The altar to Diana Abnoba at Badenweiler Abnoba is a name with theological and geographical meanings: It is the name of a Gaulish goddess who was worshiped in the Black Forest and surrounding areas. It is also the name of a mountain or mountain range.
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Epona was the Celtic horse goddess,Palmer, "Silvanus," p. 229. the sole deity with a Gaulish name whose cult can be documented in Rome. Exactly where the ceremonial struggle took place, or how, is unclear, but it implies a final procession to either site.
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The name comes from the Latin SpedonaHippolyte Cocheris, Dictionnaire des anciens noms des communes de Seine-et-Oise, 1874 and, according to Daniel Bricon,Épône racontée aux Épônois (cf. Bibliographie). has no link to Epona the Gaulish goddess of horses and protector of horseriders.
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Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 3:1:35 The name Caturiges ('kings of combat') stems from Gaulish catu ('combat, battle') attached to riges ('kings'). The city of Chorges, attested as Caturrigas in the 4th c. CE (Cadorgas in 1062, Chaorgias in 1338) is named after the tribe.
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Lezoux Plate (musée de la Céramique de Lezoux). The Lezoux plate is a ceramic plate discovered in 1970 at Lezoux (Puy-de-Dôme), which contains one of the longer texts in the Gaulish language (in a Gallo-Latin cursive script) which has yet been found.
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Icovellauna was a Celtic goddess worshiped in Gaul. Her places of worship included an octagonal temple at Le Sablon in Metz, originally built over a spring,Dyfed Lloyd Evans (2005). "Icovellauna: a Gaulish Goddess (Divine Pourer of the Waters) " from www.celtnet.org.uk , accessed 10 September 2006.
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Caesar says (Gallic War, 6.14) the Gaulish druids spent twenty years in studying and learned a great number of verses, but Irish literature tells us what the arch-poet, probably the counterpart of the Gaulish druid, actually did learn. "The manners and customs in which the men of the time lived and moved are depicted," writes Windisch, "...with a naive realism which leaves no room for doubt as to the former actuality of the scenes depicted. In matter of costume and weapons, eating and drinking, building and arrangement of the banqueting hall, manners observed at the feasts and much more, we find here the most valuable information." (Ir.
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Gaul was militarily conquered in 58–51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, except for the south-east which had already been conquered about one century earlier. Over the next six centuries, the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture. In the late Roman era, in addition to colonists from elsewhere in the Empire and Gaulish natives, Gallia also became home to some immigrant populations of Germanic and Scythian origin, such as the Alans. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture.
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Stone carving of the goddess Matrona Stone carving of the goddess Matrona In Celtic mythology, Dea Matrona ("divine mother goddess") was the goddess who gives her name to the river Marne (ancient MatrŏnaAncient authors referring to the river Marne as Matrona include Julius Caesar, Ammianus Marcellinus, Ausonius and Sidonius Apollinaris. ) in Gaul. The Gaulish theonym Mātr-on-ā signifies "great mother" and the goddess of the Marne has been interpreted to be a mother goddess.Cf. Many Gaulish religious images—including inexpensive terracotta statues mass-produced for use in household shrines—depict mother goddesses nursing babies or holding fruits, other foods, or small dogs in their laps.
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Some have gone further, considering Lepontic and Cisalpine Gaulish essentially one and the same (Eska 1998). However, an analysis of the geographic distribution of the inscriptions shows that the Cisalpine Gaulish inscriptions are later and from an area to the south of the earlier (Lepontic) inscriptions, with which they display significant differences as well as similarities. While the language is named after the tribe of the Lepontii, which occupied portions of ancient Rhaetia, specifically an Alpine area straddling modern Switzerland and Italy and bordering Cisalpine Gaul, the term is currently used by some Celticists (e.g. Eska 1998) to apply to all Celtic dialects of ancient Italy.
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Celtic languages at the beginning of the Imperial period include Gaulish, spoken in Gaul (Gallia, present-day France, Belgium, Switzerland and northwestern Italy); Celtiberian and Gallaecian, in parts of Hispania (Spain and Portugal); Brittonic in Britannia (Roman Britain), and Galatian, a branch of Celtic brought to Anatolia by the Gallic invasions of the 3rd century BC. The place name Galatia, a Roman province, derives from the Greek word for "Gauls" or "Celts", Galatai. Loanwords from Gaulish are recorded in Latin as early as the time of Ennius (ca. 239–169 BC), due to the presence of Celtic settlements on the Italian peninsula.Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p.
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In the Gaulish village, Getafix is depressed because he has run out of rock oil, which he requires to make the magic potion enabling the Gaulish resistance to Rome. The following day, Getafix is cheered by the arrival of Ekonomikrisis the Phoenician merchant but suffers a stroke upon hearing that he forgot to bring rock oil. When Chief Vitalstatistix tells Asterix and Obelix to fetch another druid to treat him, they discover Dubbelosix, who successfully revives Getafix with an alcoholic tonic. Asterix determines to go with Obelix and Dogmatix to obtain rock oil from Mesopotamia; Dubbelosix insists on coming, and they set off on Ekonomikrisis' ship.
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Falc'hun's early work included an edition of the writings of Jean-Marie Perrot. He created a particular Breton orthography (known as "university" orthography) which was intended to replace the spelling system known as "Peurunvan", used from 1911 to 1941. His spelling, which does not use "zh", also abandons the Breton "c'h" convention, introduced in the seventeenth century, and which is even used in the official French form of Falc'hun's own name. In 1951 Falc'hun developed his view that Breton developed from native Gaulish, arguing that the incoming Britons encountered a Gaulish-speaking rather than Latin-speaking population, and that the two variants of Celtic merged.
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Part IV. Irish Texts Society (Vol. XLI), Dublin. In Gaulish monuments and inscriptions, Mercury is very often accompanied by Rosmerta, whom Miranda Green interprets to be a goddess of fertility and prosperity. Green also notices that the Celtic Mercury frequently accompanies the Deae Matres (see below).
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In European languages other than English, terra sigillata, or a translation (e.g. terre sigillée), is always used for both Italian and Gaulish products.King 1983, p.253. See also the British MuseumThe meaning and etymology of 'samian ware' is a somewhat complex matter, fully addressed in King 1980.
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Two out of the sixty known Dacian plant names are considered of Celtic origin, e.g. propeditla ‘cinquefoil’ (cf. Gaulish pempedula, Cornish pympdelenn, Breton pempdelienn), and dyn ‘nettle’. Celtic nomenclature carries the same onomastic weight as that of the Celto-Germanic cults in the religion of Roman Dacia.
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The Deirgtine (Deirgthine, Dergtine, Dergthine) or Clanna Dergthened were the proto-historical ancestors of the historical Eóganachta dynasties of Munster. Their origins are unclear but they may have been of fairly recent Gaulish derivation.Byrne 2001 Some evidence exists for their having been active in Roman Britain.
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It is possible that Iberian had the semivowels (in words such as aiun or iunstir) and (only in loanwords such as diuiś from Gaulish). The fact that is lacking in native words casts doubt on whether semivowels really existed in Iberian outside of foreign borrowings and diphthongs.
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The town was earlier known as Catorissium, Cantourisa, Caturissium, and Chatrousse.Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, 1888 s.v. The name is of Gaulish origin;Juan Luis García Alonso, Continental Celtic Word Formation: The Onomastic Data, p. 42 and is perhaps related to the name of the Caturiges tribe.
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The word "dace" originated in the early fifteenth century from the Old French word "darz", which means to dart. This fish was so called for its movements. Another theory traces it to the Medieval Latin word "darsus" also meaning to dart, said to be of Gaulish origin.
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Map of the Gaulish tribes and regions of Gaul (58 BC) Pictones coinage, 5th-1st century BC. The Pictones were a Gallic tribe of the La Tène and Roman periods, dwelling south of the Loire river, in the modern départements of Vendée, Deux-Sèvres and Vienne.
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Munich 1994, 2nd ed., p. 332–334. The books are valuable for the many geographical and historical claims that can be retrieved from the work. Notable chapters describe Gaulish custom (VI, 13), their religion (VI, 17), and a comparison between Gauls and Germanic peoples (VI, 24).
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Brussels, Latomus Revue d'études latines. That suggestion has not been generally taken up. Although the name is Gaulish, dedicatory inscriptions to Epona are in Latin or, rarely, Greek. They were made not only by Celts, but also by Germans, Romans, and other inhabitants of the Roman Empire.
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He goes so far as to rebuild the entire Gaulish village when it was destroyed by Brutus who was trying to kidnap Caesar's son, whom Asterix returned safely to his family (Asterix and Son). The appearance of Caesar is based on portraits found on ancient Roman coins.
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Catuvellauni, Tasciovanus, "Hidden Faces" gold stater. Obv: stylized crescents and wreaths with hidden faces. Rev: Celtic warrior on horse right, carrying carnyx. The Catuvellauni (Gaulish: "war-chiefs") were a Celtic tribe or state of southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest, attested by inscriptions into the 4th century.
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An oppidum Mandubiorum is mentioned by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC),Caesar. Commentarii de Bello Gallico, 7:68:1 and the tribe is designated as Mandoubíōn (Μανδουβίων) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD).Strabo. Geōgraphiká, 4:2:3 The name Mandubii stems from Gaulish mandus ('poney').
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The origin of the town are Gaulish and Roman, though it is first mentioned in a document from 1148. It was conquered by the Republic of Venice in the 15th century, and remained to it until 1797. In that period it became a flourishing agricultural centre.
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Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83. and influences in conjugation and word order. Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by the gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish.
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354The archaeology of late Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 400–1200 AD Lloyd Robert Laing p.342 During his conquest of Gaul, Caesar reported that the Helvetii were in possession of documents in the Greek script, and all Gaulish coins used the Greek script until about 50 BC.
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A map of Gaul showing the relative position of the Lingones tribe. The Lingones (Gaulish: "the jumpers") were a Gallic tribe of the La Tène and Roman periods. They dwelled in the region surrounding the present-day city of Langres, between the provinces of Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Belgica.
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As Caesar reports that the leaders of the Gaulish factions are those with the greatest influence, whose opinion is most highly thought of,b.g. 6.11.3. it is quite likely that such differences in rank also had consequences in legal proceedings, much like in the Irish case.Kelly 1988, 7–10.
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Taranis also is expected of being a dormant comet. On 10 September 2099 it will pass from Earth. This minor planet was named after the Gaulish god of thunder Taranis from Celtic mythology. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 September 1993 ().
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Toorians (2013) argues on the contrary that the original Gaulish prefix ad- was changed to at- as the result of a hypercorrection by medieval copyists, who may have thought that the ad- form had emerged under the influence of the Old French phonology during the first millennium AD.
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Thompson, "The Conversion of the Spanish Suevi to Catholicism", 80-81.Arias, 21. It is sometimes assumed that "Galata" is a way to refer to a Greek from the East (i.e. Galatia). On the other hand, the term may mean that he was Celtic, either Gaulish or Galatian.
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In Gallo-Roman religion, Buxenus was an epithet of the Gaulish Mars, known from a single inscription found in Velleron in the Vaucluse.Nicole Jufer & Thierry Luginbühl (2001). Les dieux gaulois : répertoire des noms de divinités celtiques connus par l'épigraphie, les textes antiques et la toponymie. Paris: Editions Errance. .
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There was further occupation of the Roque de Viou also round 50 BC. The oppidium contained public buildings, roads, houses and shops a fanum(Gaulish temple).Van Hoests Calvisson Website Due its proximity to the Oppidum des Castel, non specialists often call both oppida, the Oppidum de Nages.
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The Franks were originally led by dukes (military leaders) and reguli (petty kings). The Salian Merovingians rose to dominance among the Franks and conquered most of Roman Gaul. They also conquered the Gaulish territory of the Visigothic Kingdom in 507. The sons of Clovis conquered the Burgundians and Alamanni.
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Late Gaulish helmets (c. 55 BC) with small horns and adorned with wheels, reminiscent of the combination of a horned helmet and a wheel on plate C of the Gundestrup cauldron (c. 100 BC), were found in Orange, France. Other Celtic helmets, especially from Eastern Europe, had bird crests.
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According to some proposals, the name may once have applied to a much smaller area, for example, the area near Overhespen and Neerhespen, both now in Linter. Toorians has proposed that such place-names might derive from villas owned by Roman era land owners with the Gaulish name Casibennos.
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Roman religious practices such as offerings of incense and animal sacrifice, dedicatory inscriptions, and naturalistic statuary depicting deities in anthropomorphic form were combined with specific Gaulish practices such as circumambulation around a temple. This gave rise to a characteristic Gallo-Roman fanum, identifiable in archaeology from its concentric shape.
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Oxford University Press, 1962. p.416 Several tribal groupings saw the Dagda as an ancestor and were named after him, such as the Uí Echach and the Dáirine. The Dagda has been likened to the Germanic god Odin, the Gaulish god Sucellos, and the Roman god Dīs Pater.
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A selection of pottery found in Roman Britain. The assemblage includes Black- burnished ware jars, a Rusticated Ware jar, a Central Gaulish Colour-Coated Ware beaker, Trier Black-slipped Ware with white trailed decoration, Nene Valley Colour Coated Ware, a coarse ware cheese press and other fine wares.
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This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. See the education section for more information. The Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton. According to the comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula, which is now Brittany.
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BCE) and its five main regions : Celtica, Belgica, Cisalpina, Narbonensis and Aquitania. In the pre-Roman era, Gaul (an area of Western Europe that encompassed all of what is known today as France, Belgium, part of Germany and Switzerland, and Northern Italy) was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Their ancestors were Celts who came from Central Europe in the 7th century BCE or earlier, and non-Celtic peoples including the Ligures, Aquitanians and Basques in Aquitaine. The Belgae, who lived in the northern and eastern areas, may have had Germanic admixture; many of these peoples had already spoken Gaulish by the time of the Roman conquest.
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He is dressed in a wig, false moustache and traditional Gaulish dress and led in chains through the forest as a prisoner, awaiting rescue by the Gauls. Sure enough, Asterix and Obelix free Minus and believe his flimsy cover story that he is a Gaul from Belgium. Once inside the Gaulish village, Minus goads Asterix into sharing the secret of the magic potion with him; he goes on to use the same tactic against Getafix in order to try the potion for himself. Before he has a chance to steal some of the potion to take back to the Roman camp, Minus' cover is accidentally blown during a traditional dance; Asterix pulls off Minus' moustache.
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Clifton, p. 67. Building on the work of Frazer, Murray, and others, some 20th and 21st century authors have attempted to identify links between Diana and more localized deities. R. Lowe Thompson, for example, in his 2013 book The History of the Devil, speculated that Diana may have been linked as an occasional "spouse" to the Gaulish horned god Cernunnos. Thompson suggested that Diana in her role as wild goddess of the hunt would have made a fitting consort for Cernunnos in Western Europe, and further noted the link between Diana as Proserpina with Pluto, the Greek god associated with the riches of the earth who served a similar role to the Gaulish Cernunnos.
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The Romans under Nero Claudius Drusus established a military outpost belonging to the Germania Superior Roman province close to a Gaulish village near the banks of the Rhine, at the current location of Strasbourg, and named it Argentoratum. Its name was first mentioned in 12 BC but "Argentorate" is the toponym of the Gaulish settlement that preceded it before being latinised, though it is not known by how long.Petit historique de Strasbourg From 90 AD the Legio VIII Augusta permanently stationed in Argentoratum.Le camp de la Legio VIII Augusta à Strasbourg The Roman camp of Argentoratum then included a cavalry section and covered an area of approximately , from approximately in Tiberian times.
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Archaeological remains in the area include a Neolithic site as well as a late Iron Age necropolis, perhaps belonging to a Gaulish fortress or protected camp. The city itself is mentioned for the first time in a 633 AD document. The Château de Creil is recorded from the 7th century.
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It stems from the Gaulish suffix nitio- ('from here, proper'), attached to brogi ('territory, region, frontier, march'). The name is attested on inscriptions written on a torc with the Greek alphabet, found in Mailly-le-Camp and dated to the mid-1st century BCE.Fages, Brieuc; Maurin, Louis. Inscriptions latines d'Aquitaines Nitiobroges.
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Latin plate above the crypt door The 26-meter-high monument is made of . It is composed of a support base with 3 columns topped by Corinthian capitals and a Gaulish helmet in whimsical form. The base houses a crypt with a cenotaph of Vercingetorix. Three plates adorn the building.
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The name of Berry, like that of its capital, Bourges, originated with the Gaulish tribe of the Bituriges, Compare: who settled in the area before the Roman armies of Julius Caesar conquered Gaul. The name of the tribe gave name to the region, often mentioned in Medieval Latin sources as: Bituria.
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With the battle lost, Caesar decides to leave for Rome. On his way he comes across the Gaulish and Belgian chiefs. Caesar proudly announces that he will lay down his life, but the chiefs only want to know who is the bravest. Caesar angrily declares them simply all crazy and leaves.
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It was interpreted as a religious site, including an octagonal shrine some 10 metres in diameter. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been its overall patron; dedications to other deities, probably including Diana, Mercury, and Mars with his Gaulish consort Rosmerta, were also found.Wedlake, 1982 Domesday Book recorded 24 households in 1086.
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The Ve arrondissement is the oldest arrondissement in Paris, and was first built by the Romans. The construction of the Roman town Lutetia dates back from the 1st century BC, which was built after the conquest of the Gaulish site, situated on the île de la Cité by the Romans.
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The name Moritasgus, shared by a 1st-century BC ruler of the Senones,Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 5.54. has been analyzed variously. It probably means "Great Badger" or "Sea Badger." The European badger produced a secretion used in Gaulish medicaments, hence a possible connection with a healing god.
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II, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927, p. 171 After the Roman conquest of Cisalpine Gaul and the widespread confiscations of Gallic territory, much of the Gaulish population was killed or expelled.Alfred S. Bradford, With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World, Praeger Publishers, 2001, p. 191Strabo, 5.1.
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Vercassivellaunus(?- 46 BC) was a Gaulish commander of the Arverni who led a relief force to assist Vercingetorix, who was besieged and low on supplies, in the Battle of Alesia. Caesar refers to him as a cousin of Vercingetorix. He encamped with his generals to the west of the battle.
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In an interview, Swiss folk metal band Eluveitie said that some of their songs are written in a reconstructed form of Gaulish. The band asks scientists for help in writing songs in the language. The name of the band comes from graffiti on a vessel from Mantua (c. 300 BC).
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869, Corsout in 1288) is named after the Gallic tribe. The ancient Corseul is generally identified with the settlement of Fanum Martis ('temple of Mars') mentioned on the Tabula Peutingeriana (5th c. AD). Due to the lack of early epigraphic record, however, the original Gaulish name of the town remains unknown.
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Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:7:11 The name Gabali stems from Gaulish ('forked branch of a tree > fork'). The city of Javols, attested as civitas Gabalum ca. 400 CE ('civitas of the Gabali', Javols in 1109), and the Gévaudan region, attested as Gabalicus pagus in the 1st c. CE (Gavuldanum 10th c.
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They are mentioned as Sengalaunoì (Σεγγαλαυνοὶ; var. σεταλλανοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).Ptolemy. Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:10:7 A regio... Segovellaunorum is also attested by Pliny (1st c. AD).Pliny. Naturalis Historia, 3:34 The name Segovellauni ('chiefs-of-victory') stems from Gaulish sego- ('victory') attached to uellaunos ('chief, commandant').
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The inscription is therefore probably early 1st century. The stone mentions Niger's brother, Dunomagius son of Toutannorix, clearly a Gaulish name. (Niger must have adopted a Roman name on becoming a Roman citizen). A regimental medicus (doctor) is recorded, M. Rubrius Zosimus from Ostia, the port of the city of Rome.
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Mufwene, Salikoko S. "Language birth and death." Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 33 (2004): 201-222. The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of the urban intellectual elite.
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The Catalauni (Gaulish "war-chiefs") were a Belgic tribe, dwelling in the modern Champagne region during the Roman period. The Catalauni probably belonged to the Remi tribe in the north, or to the Lingones in the south. The Catuvellauni, who migrated to southern Britain, are probably part of the same tribal group.
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A Celtic origin for the name Caburus has sometimes been disputed,D. Ellis Evans, Gaulish Personal Names: A Study of Some Continental Celtic Formations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), p. 319. but it may derive from cabo, "mouth."Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental, 2nd ed.
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During the Roman period, their centre was transferred from the hill-fort of Etrun to Nemetocennae (present-day Arras), on an important road junction. The name Nemetocennae possibly meant in Gaulish 'from the sacred wood, from the sanctuary'. It is later attested as Metacon by Ptolemy (ca. 170 AD), and as Nemetacum (ca.
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Asterix and the Normans is the ninth book in the Asterix comic book series, written by René Goscinny and drawn by Albert Uderzo. It was first published in serial form in Pilote magazine, issues 340–361, in 1966. It depicts a meeting between Asterix's Gaulish village and a shipfull of Normans (Vikings).
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Brutus had sought to kill the baby in order to become sole heir to Caesar's property and fortune, so Cleopatra had the boy sent to the Gaulish village for his protection. Caesar exiles Brutus to Upper Germania and promises to rebuild the village. The story ends with a banquet on Cleopatra's royal barge.
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This minor planet was named after the Gaulish goddess Abnoba from Celtic mythology. The goddess was worshipped in the Black Forest of southern Germany, and known as "Diana Abnoba" to the Roman troops stationed in this region. The official naming citation was authored by Lutz D. Schmadel based on his own research.
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The Romans managed to detach the Etruscan and Umbrian contingents by invading their homelands and then defeated the combined Samnite-Gaulish army at the battle of Sentinum. After suffering from a series of defeats and invasions, the Samnites were in 290 BC forced to accept an alliance on terms imposed by Rome.
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He and Finnbhennach fight. After a long and gruelling battle Donn killed his rival. Mortally wounded himself, he wandered around Ireland inspiring placenames before returning to Cooley to die. Julius Caesar, in his Gallic Wars, refers to a Gaulish ally called Valerius Donnotaurus, an interesting Celtic parallel to the Donn Tarbh of Cooley.
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The Romans called it Cisalpine Gaul ("Gaul this side of the Alps"). They spoke Gaulish dialects, part of the Celtic group of Indo-European languages. Tribal- based territories with some city-like centres. # The Ligurians, occupying the region known to the Romans (and still called today) as Liguria, southwest of the Gauls.
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Lodève (; ) is a commune in the Hérault département in the Occitanie region in southern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department. The derivation of the city's name is from Gaulish Luteva, composed of lut-, swamp, mud + suffix -eva. It might therefore translate as the muddy place or the swamp city.
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All instruction was communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes, Caesar reports,Caesar, Gallic Wars vi.14.3. the Gauls had a written language in which they used Greek characters. In this he probably draws on earlier writers; by the time of Caesar, Gaulish inscriptions had moved from the Greek script to the Latin script.
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P. Monaghan The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore New York: Facts On File, Inc, 2004. , p. 4. She is depicted in a seated posture, wearing a full robe and bearing trays or baskets of fruit, in depictions from Cannstatt and Sulzbach. Miranda Green calls Aericura a "Gaulish Hecuba",Green (2004), p. 124.
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De medicamentis 15.106, p. 121 in Niedermann; Gustav Must, “A Gaulish Incantation in Marcellus of Bordeaux,” Language 36 (1960) 193–197; Pierre-Yves Lambert, “Les formules de Marcellus de Bordeaux,” in La langue gauloise (Éditions Errance 2003), p.179, citing Léon Fleuriot, “Sur quelques textes gaulois,” Études celtiques 14 (1974) 57–66.
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The name of the village comes from the name of the lord of the place: Petrus de Chaoppa. The origin would be Catuoppus, Gaulish word meaning the eye of the fight.The common heritage of Vienna in 2 volumes - FLOHIC Edition - 2002 - ()Pierre Gauthier, places of Poitou names , Bonneton,1996, 232 p. (), p.
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Ariovistus was a native of the Suebi. He spoke Gaulish fluently.Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1.47 He had two wives,Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1.53 one of whom he had brought from home. The second, who was the sister of King Vocion of Noricum, he acquired in an arranged political marriage.
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A concurrent etymology is the root solitu- ('purchase/salary of mercenaries'; cf. Gaulish soldurio < 'body-guard, loyal, devoted'; Old Breton solt 'sou, solidus'), with curio-solit-es as 'those who purchase soldiers or mercenaries'. The city of Corseul, attested as civitas Coriosolitum ca. 400 AD ('civitas of the Curiosolites', Aecclesia Corsult ca.
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Van Andringa thus summarizes Hatt's conclusions: "Cissonius dériverait du gaulois cissum, voiture." ("Cissonius would be derived from the Gaulish cissum, carriage.") He was probably a god of trade and protector of travellers, since Mercury exercised similar functions in the Roman pantheon. In one inscription from Promontogno in Switzerland, Cissonus is identified with Matutinus.
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Naturalis Historia, 4:17 as Ambianoí (Ἀμβιανοί) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD),Ptolemy. Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:9:4 and as Ambianenses in the Notitia Dignitatum (5th c. AD).Notitia Dignitatum. or 6:36; oc 9:39 The name Ambiani stems from Gaulish ambi ('around, on both sides') attached to the suffix -ani.
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Votive Celtic wheels thought to correspond to the cult of Taranis. Thousands of such wheels have been found in sanctuaries in Gallia Belgica, dating from 50 BCE to 50 CE. National Archaeological Museum, France As a result of the scarcity of surviving materials bearing written Gaulish, it is surmised that the most of the Celtic writings were destroyed by the Romans, although a written form of Gaulish using Greek, Latin and North Italic alphabets was used (as evidenced by votive items bearing inscriptions in Gaulish and the Coligny calendar). Julius Caesar attests to the literacy of the Gauls, but also wrote that their priests, the druids, were forbidden to use writing to record certain verses of religious significance (Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 6.14) while also noting that the Helvetii had a written census (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.29). Rome introduced a more widespread habit of public inscriptions, and broke the power of the druids in the areas it conquered; in fact, most inscriptions to deities discovered in Gaul (modern France and Northern Italy), Britain and other formerly (or presently) Celtic-speaking areas post-date the Roman conquest.
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With the onset of historical records (Tacitus, 1st century), the area was generally called the border region between Celtic (Gaulish) and Germanic influence. Tribes located in the area include the Batavians, Belgae, Chatti, Hermunduri, Cheruscii, Salii, Sicambri, Tencteri and Usipetes or Usipii. Caesar took the course of the Rhine to be the boundary between Gauls and Germans (Germanic people) but also mentioned that a large part of the Belgae had ancestry from east of the Rhine and that one part were even known collectively as "Germani" (the so-called "Germani cisrhenani"). The Belgae were therefore considered Gaulish (the Usipetes Germanic etc.) because of their position with respect to the Rhine, and not in the modern linguistic sense of the terms.
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To the north, the baths and other rooms were heated by hypocausts. The materials used were pisé (clay and grit well mixed and rammed down to form a wall), cob (a similar mixture of earth of a buttery consistency or marl, chopped straw and perhaps gravel) and timber framing, typical materials of Normandy’s later building tradition. Lillebonne is on the site of the main town of the Caletes, the Gaulish tribe of the region. The Gallo-Roman town was established with the name ', under Caesar Augustus and is famous for its Roman theatre. According to a common use in Roman Gaul, the bona (Gaulish word for “foundation, town”) was dedicated to the Roman emperor, like Augustodunum (Autun), Augustonemetum (Clermont-Ferrand) or Augustodurum (Bayeux), etc.
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A decorated Arretine vase (Form Dragendorff 11) found at Neuss, Germany In archaeological usage, the term terra sigillata without further qualification normally denotes the Arretine ware of Italy, made at Arezzo, and Gaulish samian ware manufactured first in South Gaul, particularly at La Graufesenque, near Millau, and later at Lezoux and adjacent sites near Clermont-Ferrand, and at east Gaulish sites such as Trier, Sinzig and Rheinzabern. These high-quality tablewares were particularly popular and widespread in the Western Roman Empire from about 50 BC to the early 3rd century AD.King 1983, p.253 (definition) and pp. 183–186.Paul Roberts, 'Mass-production of Roman Finewares', in Ian Freestone & David Gaimster, Pottery in the Making: World Ceramic Traditions, London 1997, pp.
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Some East Gaulish producers made bowls and cups decorated only with rouletted or stamped decoration, and in the 3rd and 4th centuries, Argonne ware, decorated with all-over patterns of small stamps, was made in the area east of Rheims and quite widely traded.Tyers 1996, pp. 136–7. The stamps have been classified in Chenet 1941 and Hübener 1968 Argonne ware was essentially still a type of sigillata, and the most characteristic form is a small, sturdy Dr.37 bowl. Small, localised attempts to make conventional relief-decorated samian ware included a brief and unsuccessful venture at Colchester in Britain, apparently initiated by potters from the East Gaulish factories at Sinzig, a centre that was itself an offshoot of the Trier workshops.
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Evidence for what constituted criminal offences, and what was considered the appropriate punishment for them, is mostly lacking for late prehistoric Celtic laws. What little there is to be found, again mostly in Caesar's account of the Gaulish wars, seems again to fit reasonably well with what we could reconstruct as ‘general principles’ from early medieval Irish and Welsh law. Crimes mentioned in Caesar's account are murder,e.g. b.g. 6.13.5 theft and robbery,b.g. 6.16.5 as well as crimes specific to only some Gaulish societies, e.g. usurpation of kingship amongst the Helvetii.b.g. 1.4.1. The punishment considered most severe amongst the Gauls, according to Caesar, is to ban criminals from religious rites,b.g. 6.13.6–8. which probably is better understood as outlawing them.
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In the Vayrac commune is found the Gaulish oppidum of the Puy D'issolud (about 300 m above sea level). This site was officially recognised, in April 2001, by the French Ministry of Culture as the site of ancient Uxellodunum, the location of the last battle of Julius Caesar against the rebel Gauls in 51 B.C. post the Battle of Alesia. In addition to an impressive quantity of armaments (Gaulish and Roman arrows), the famous underground galleries have been discovered, made by the sappers of Caesar in order to divert the spring feeding the only source to which the Gauls could come too, to obtain their water supply. During the Second World War, a number of works of the Louvre Museum were hidden in a barn in Vayrac.
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Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul. The exact time of the final extinction of Gaulish is unknown, but it is estimated to have been in the late 5th or early 6th century AD, after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The language shift was uneven in its progress and shaped by sociological factors. Although there was a presence of retired veterans in colonies, these did not significantly alter the linguistic composition of Gaul's population, of which 90% was autochthonous; instead, the key Latinizing class was the coopted local elite, who sent their children to Roman schools and administered lands for Rome.
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Eventually, after it became the official religion of the Empire and paganism became suppressed, Christianity won out in the twilight days of the Western Roman Empire (while the Christianized Eastern Roman Empire lasted another thousand years, until the invasion of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453); a small but notable Jewish presence also became established. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible concerned the destruction by Christians of a pagan shrine in Auvergne "called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue".Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galatæ vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit.
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Comines-Warneton (, Picard: Comène-Warneuton, West Flemish: Koomn-Woastn) is a Belgian city and municipality in the Walloon province of Hainaut. On January 1, 2006, it had a total population of 17,562. Its total area is which gives a population density of . The name "Comines" is believed to have a Celtic, or Gaulish, origin.
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Mummolus invaded Italy and forced Zaban and Rodanus to return to their own duchies, while Amo had to abandon his booty while crossing the Alps. Guntram's kingdom was extended at the expense of the Lombard to include the cisalpine cities of Aosta and Susa. The Lombards thereafter ceased their Gaulish invasions.Hodgkin, V, p 223.
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Bronze statuette of Intarabus from Foy-Noville, now at the Musée archéologique d'Arlon. Intarabus was a Gaulish god in the pantheon of the Treveri and some neighbouring peoples. His name is known from nine inscriptions from a relatively compact area in what are now Belgium, Luxembourg, western Germany and eastern France.Nicole Jufer & Thierry Luginbühl (2001).
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In Gallo-Roman religion, Bricta or Brixta was a Gaulish goddess who was a consort of Luxovius, god of the waters of Luxeuil-les-Bains (in antiquity, Luxovium). Nicholson (1999) has suggested however that if "Bricta is a title incorporating Bríg, it may actually be a title assigned to Sirona rather than a separate goddess".
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Camulus or Camulos was a theonym for a deity of the Celts that the Romans equated with Mars in the interpretatio Romanum. Camulus was an important god of early Great Britain and Gaul, especially among the Belgae and the Remi, a Gaulish people living in the region that is now modern Grand Est around Reims.
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During the century from 250 to 150 BC, the area between the Rhine and the Meuse underwent a drastic restructuring as some crisis forced most signs of inhabitation into the heights of the Hunsrück. Following this crisis, population returned to the lowlands in the form of the Gaulish tribes known to us from classical texts.
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Tourism office. The toponomy is Gaulish, Rod-Onna ("flowing water") which became Rodumna, then Rouhanne and Roanne. The town was sited at a strategic point, the head of navigation on the Loire, below its narrow gorges. As a trans-shipping point, its importance declined with the collapse of long-distance trade after the fourth century.
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Viridomarus or Britomartus as translations vary, (died 222 BC) was a Gaulish military leader who led an army against an army of the Roman Republic at the Battle of Clastidium. The Romans won the battle, and in the process, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the Roman leader, earned the spolia opima by killing Viridomarus in single combat.
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University of Wales Press (Cardiff), 1967. . near Neath. The Welsh placename element llancognate with the English word lawn (meaning an open space, which was borrowed into Middle English from French, which borrowed it from Gaulish) referred to the sanctified community around early Christian settlements in Wales and its parish rather than merely the church itself (').
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There is no relationship between the English word condom and this town. The toponym Condom comes from the Gaulish words condate and magos combined into Condatomagos, which means "market or field, of the confluence". Condatómagos evolved into Condatóm and then into Conddóm. Condom was first recorded in Latin in the 10th century as ' or '.
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Towers protruded outwards from it. Reconstructed walls of Bibracte, a Gaulish oppidum, showing the construction technique known as murus gallicus. Oppida were large fortified settlements used during the Iron Age. The Oppidum of Manching (German: Oppidum von Manching) was a large Celtic proto-urban or city-like settlement at modern-day Manching (near Ingolstadt), Bavaria (Germany).
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Roymans, Nico, Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005, pp. 226–27 The frontier culture was influenced by the Romans, Germanic people, and Gauls. In the first centuries after Rome's conquest of Gaul, trade flourished. And Roman, Gaulish and Germanic material culture are found combined in the region.
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Galba as a Roman cognomen is associated with a branch of the gens Sulpicia. Although the most famous bearer is the Emperor Galba in the 1st century AD, a Servius Sulpicius Galba also served under Caesar in Gaul.Bellum Gallicum 3.1–6 and 7.90. Suetonius says that in Gaulish Galba means "fat"Suetonius, Galba 3, Bill Thayer's edition at LacusCurtius.
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Eastern mystery religions penetrated Gaul early on. These included the cults of Orpheus, Mithras, Cybele, and Isis. The imperial cult, centred primarily on the numen of Augustus, came to play a prominent role in public religion in Gaul, most dramatically at the pan-Gaulish ceremony venerating Rome and Augustus at the Condate Altar near Lugdunum annually on 1 August.
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16–17 Though these vessels were very competently made, they are heavy and somewhat coarse in form and finish compared with earlier Gaulish samian ware. From the end of the 2nd century, the export of sigillata from Central Gaul rapidly, perhaps even abruptly, ceased. Pottery production continued, but in the 3rd century, it reverted to being a local industry.
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Gergovia was a Gaulish town in modern Auvergne in the upper part of the basin of the Allier, near present-day Clermont-Ferrand and Gergovie. It was the capital of the Averni. It was the town of the Boii. The city of Gergovia had strong walls, and was located on a giant raised plateau surrounded by hills.
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Crixus was a Gallic gladiator also known as "the Undefeated Gaul" and Former Champion of Capua and military leader in the Third Servile War between the Roman Republic and rebel slaves. Born in Gaul, he was enslaved by the Romans under unknown circumstances and trained as a gladiator in Capua. His name means "one with curly hair" in Gaulish.
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The Potzberg area was already settled in prehistoric times, to which archaeological finds bear witness. There have never been any confirmed prehistoric finds within Theisbergstegen's current limits. However, potsherds and bones from prehistoric times have supposedly been found, although their origins, and even their current whereabouts, are now unknown. Also apparently found was a “Gaulish coin”, which has disappeared.
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Fear of Roman expansionism increasingly brought the Latin cities into alliance with the Volsci in a complete reversal of the situation during the 5th century BC. During the same time period Rome also fought wars against her neighbours in southern Etruria, the city-states of Caere, Tarquinii and Falerii, as well as fending off the occasional Gaulish incursion.
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Bituitus (fl. 2nd century BCE) was a king of the Arverni, a Gaulish tribe living in what is now the Auvergne region of France. The Arverni were a powerful opponent of the Roman Republic during the 3rd and 2nd centuries under the leadership of Luernios, the father of Bituitus. In 121 BCE," Bituitus" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.
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The Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton. According to the comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula, which is now Brittany. Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including The Adventures of Tintin, Spirou, Titeuf, Hägar the Horrible, Peanuts and Yakari. Some original media are created in Breton.
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Artio (Dea Artio in the Gallo-Roman religion) was a Celtic bear goddess. Evidence of her worship has notably been found at Bern. Her name is derived from the Gaulish word for "bear", artos.Adrian Room, Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites, McFarland, 2006, p. 57.
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58 online. which had well-established contact with the Helvii (see "The Helvii and Roman politics" above). The cultural and linguistic complexity of Mediterranean Gaul is asserted by Varro, who says Massilia is "trilingual, because they speak Greek, Latin, and Gaulish."Varro (the famous polymath, not Varro Atacinus) as quoted by Isidore of Seville, Origines 15.1.
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Montmaurin is a commune in the Haute-Garonne department of southwestern France. Montmaurin has one of the largest and most luxurious Gallo-Roman villas in France. It consisted of over 200 rooms, laid out around a string of three courtyards, and included among its architectural features a Gaulish temple, baths, interior gardens and mosaics which are still visible.
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In 52 BC, Vercingetorix was proclaimed head of the Gaulish coalition at Bibracte. A few decades after the Roman conquest of Gaul, Bibracte was abandoned in favour of Autun, 25 kilometres away. Once abandoned, Bibracte remained undisturbed and unexamined until discovered by modern archaeology. Jacques Gabriel Bulliot initiated the first excavations at the site between 1867 and 1895.
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The locks closest to the Seuil de Naurouze are the Océan Lock on the Atlantic ocean side and the Mediterranee Lock on the Mediterranean sea side. The Seuil has been known since Antiquity: Greek geographer Strabo called it the Gaulish isthmus, and the Roman road Via Aquitania, going from Narbonnes to Toulouse, went through the Seuil.
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However, other researchers see the Brittonic languages and Gaulish as forming part of a sub-group of the Celtic languages known as P-Celtic.Pierre- Yves Lambert, La langue gauloise, éditions errance 1994. p. 17. Continental languages are P-Celtic except for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic. These have had a definite influence on all the Romance languages.
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Sedullos (87 BC – 52 BC) was a Gaulish chief of the tribe of the Lemovices. He commanded the 10,000 Lemovices that formed part of the relief force led by the Arvernian Vercassivellaunos. This relief force was raised to assist Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia. His death and courage are mentioned by Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars.
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The name Vellavi stems from Gaulish vello- ('better') attached to the suffix -avus. The city of Le-Puy-en- Velay, attested as civitas Villavorum ca. 400 CE ('civitas of the Vellavi'), and the Velay region, attested as pagus Vellaicus in 845 ('pagus of the Vellavi', Velhac in the 13th c., Velai in 1335), are named after the Gallic tribe.
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Ambiorix (Gaulish "king of the surroundings", or "king-protector") was, together with Cativolcus, prince of the Eburones, leader of a Belgic tribe of north-eastern Gaul (Gallia Belgica), where modern Belgium is located. In the nineteenth century Ambiorix became a Belgian national hero because of his resistance against Julius Caesar, as written in Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico.
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A wide-range of objects were imported to Silchester from the Roman Empire, including an ivory razor handle, a handle from a Fusshenkelkruge and a Harpocrates figure from a Campanian brazier. Imported ceramics include Central Gaulish samian produced in Lezoux, Dressel 2-4 and 14 amphora, Rhineland white ware mortaria, Moselkeramik black slipped ware and Cologne colour coated ware.
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There was some areal (or genetic, see Italo-Celtic) similarity to Latin grammar, and the French historian Ferdinand Lot argued that it helped the rapid adoption of Vulgar Latin in Roman Gaul.La Gaule (1947); for the relevance of the question of the transition from Gaulish to Latin in French national identity, see also Nos ancêtres les Gaulois.
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Tarvos , or Saturn XXI, is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by John J. Kavelaars et al. on September 23, 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 4\. The name, given in August 2003, is after Tarvos, a deity depicted as a bull god carrying three cranes alongside its back from Gaulish mythology.
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Etymologically, the name of Bray comes from the Gaulish word braco, which became the Old French Bray, meaning marsh, swamp, or mud. The area appears to be so named as the soil distinguishes it from the neighbouring Pays de Caux; the sticky clay is quite different from the dry, firm chalk of the Pays de Caux.
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Gaulish society was dominated by the druid priestly class. The druids were not the only political force, however, and the early political system was complex. The fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the tribe, which itself consisted of one or more of what Caesar called "pagi". Each tribe had a council of elders, and initially a king.
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He also wrote the Gaulish Epistles (Epistulae gallicae) (1474) and the Campanian Epistles (Epistulae campanae) (1474) He compiled The Sayings and Deeds of King Alfonso (De dictis et factis Alphonsi regis). He became a kind of panegyrist to Alfons V of Aragon, to whom the work refers. He also wrote the chronicle Liber Rerum Gestarum Ferdinandi Regis (1438–1458).
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Written records of the Flemish region begin in Roman times. Julius Caesar left his Commentaries of the Gaulish War about his time in the region. Caesar described "Belgium" or "Gallia Belgica" as the northernmost of the three distinct parts of Gaul, and all definitions of Flanders are within this large Belgic area. The inhabitants were collectively called Belgae.
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And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatæ in the Gallic tongue. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French.Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds.
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Snaffle bit, c. AD 50–100 By the time of Julius Caesar's attempted invasion of Britain in 55 BC, the inhabitants of Britain included proficient horsemen. Caesar's forces were met by British horsemen and war chariots, the chariots outfighting the Gaulish horsemen who had accompanied him. Caesar later faced organised resistance led by Cassivellaunus, with over 4,000 war chariots.
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Historiae naturalis. XVI.249. Gaulish and British society held a group of magico-religious specialists known as the druids in high esteem. Their roles and responsibilities differed somewhat between the different accounts, but Caesar's, which was the "fullest" and "earliest original text" to describe the druids,Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain.
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An alien spaceship appears above the Gaulish village, causing nearly all of the people and animals to turn rigid. Only Asterix, Obelix, Getafix and Dogmatix are unaffected due to consumption of the magic potion. An alien named Toon emerges from the spherical spaceship. He is from the planet Tadsilweny and is accompanied by "superclone" security men.
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Breton is most closely related to Cornish, another Southwestern Brittonic language. Welsh and the extinct Cumbric, both Western Brittonic languages, are more distantly related. The other regional language of Brittany, Gallo, is a Romance language descended from Latin (not to be confused with Gaulish, a Celtic language). As a langue d'oïl, Gallo is a close relative of standard French.
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Some of the decoration relates to contemporary architectural ornament, with egg- and-tongue (ovolo) mouldings, acanthus and vine scrolls and the like. While the decoration of Arretine ware is often highly naturalistic in style, and is closely comparable with silver tableware of the same period, the designs on the Gaulish products, made by provincial artisans adopting Classical subjects, are intriguing for their expression of 'romanisation', the fusion of Classical and native cultural and artistic traditions. Many of the Gaulish manufacturing sites have been extensively excavated and studied. At La Graufesenque in southern Gaul, documentary evidence in the form of lists or tallies apparently fired with single kiln-loads, giving potters' names and numbers of pots have long been known, and they suggest very large loads of 25,000–30,000 vessels.
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Examples of these may be found in Hermet's own type- sequence, Hermet 1934, Pl.4—5 But the mass of South Gaulish samian found on Roman sites of the 1st century AD consists of plain dishes, bowls and cups, especially Dr.18 (a shallow dish) and Dr.27 (a little cup with a distinctive double curve to the profile), many of which bear potters' name-stamps, and the large decorated forms 29, 30 and 37. A local industry inspired by Arretine and South Gaulish imports grew up in the Iberian provinces in the 1st century AD. Terra sigillata hispanica developed its own distinctive forms and designs, and continued in production into the late Roman period, the 4th and 5th centuries AD. It was not exported to other regions.
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The iconography of Gaulish Mercury includes birds, particularly ravens and the cock, now the emblem of France; horses; the tree of life; dogs or wolves; a caduceus, or herald's staff topped with a pair of snakes; mistletoe; shoes (one of the dedications to the Lugoves was made by a shoemakers' guild; Lugus's Welsh counterpart Lleu (or Llew) Llaw Gyffes is described in the Welsh Triads as one of the "three golden shoemakers of the island of Britain"); and bags of money. He is often armed with a spear. He is frequently accompanied by his consort Rosmerta ("great provider"), who bears the ritual drink with which kingship was conferred (in Roman mythology). Unlike the Roman Mercury, who is typically a youth, Gaulish Mercury is occasionally also represented as an old man.
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Maponos surfaces in the Middle Welsh narrative, the Mabinogion, as Mabon, son of Modron (a similar character in Welsh literature is Mabon son of Mellt, who may in fact be the same as Mabon son of Modron), who is herself the continuation of Gaulish Matrona (“Matronly Spirit”). The theme of Maponos son of Matrona (literally, child of mother) and the development of names in the Mabinogi from Common Brythonic and Gaulish theonyms has been examined by Hamp (1999), Lambert (1979), and Meid (1991). Mabon apparently features in the tale of a newborn child taken from his mother at the age of three nights, and is explicitly named in the story of Culhwch ac Olwen. His name lives on in Arthurian romance in the guise of Mabon, Mabuz, and Mabonagrain.
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Fleuriot, Falc'hun, and Gvozdanovic likewise maintained a late survival in Armorica and language contact of some form with the ascendant Breton language; however, it has been noted that there is little uncontroversial evidence supporting a relatively late survival specifically in Brittany whereas there is uncontroversial evidence that supports the relatively late survival of Gaulish in the Swiss Alps and in regions in Central Gaul.Kerkhof, Peter Alexander (2018). "Language, law and loanwords in early medieval Gaul: language contact and studies in Gallo-Romance phonology". Page 50 Drawing from these data, which include the mapping of substrate vocabulary as evidence, Kerkhof argues that we may "tentatively" posit a survival of Gaulish speaking communities in the "at least into the sixth century" in pockets of mountainous regions of the Central Massif, the Jura, and the Swiss Alps.
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Eufydd fab Dôn is a minor figure in Welsh mythology, the son of the mother goddess Dôn and brother to the better-known figures of Gwydion, Amaethon, Gofannon and Arianrhod. He is generally believed to have derived from the Gaulish god Ogmios and is cognate to the Irish hero Oghma Grianainech.Rhys, John. "All around the Wrekin" Y Cymmrodor. vol. XXI. 1908.
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His name, like other Gaulish language names (Ambiorix, Orgetorix, Vercingetorix) contains a -rix suffix which is etymologically related to the Latin rex, Gaelic rí, Sanskrit rāja- and German Reich, indicating kingship or rule; it is probably an aristocratic suffix. Dumno- is etymologically related to the Gaelic domhan "world", indicating that the name may be translated as "king of the world".
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A total of 250 pits containing sacrificial deposits were recorded. Among the deposited goods were ceramic and bronze vessels, iron tools, jewelry, grinding stones, coins, and both animal and human remains. It is unclear whether the human remains represent a cemetery or evidence of human sacrifice. The site is of primary importance for Gaulish religion on the eve of the Roman conquest.
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72, 184. The Déisi Muman enjoyed a position in the later Eóganachta overkingdom suggesting of a special relationship. Byrne mentions it was noticed by Eoin MacNeill that a number of the early names in the Eóganachta pedigrees are found in oghams in the Déisi country of Waterford, among them Nia Segamain (NETASEGAMONAS), after the Gaulish war god Segomo.Byrne 2001, p.
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Flavius Rufinus ( – November 27, 395) was a 4th-century East Roman statesman of Gaulish extraction who served as Praetorian prefect of the East for the emperor Theodosius I, as well as for his son Arcadius, under whom Rufinus was the actual power behind the throne. He was the subject of the verse invective In Rufinum by the western court poet Claudian.
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Toul was known to the Romans as , and was the capital of the Gaulish tribe of the Leuci. In 550, King Theudebald convoked a synod at Toul. In 612, King Theudebert II of Austrasia was defeated by King Theuderic II of Burgundy near Toul. By the Treaty of Meerssen of 870, Toul became part of East Francia, the later Holy Roman Empire.
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Julian settles in Gaul where he successfully fights back rebelling Gaulish tribes. Constantius becomes jealous of his cousin's success and orders him to send his best troops to Byzantium, but the soldiers rebel and proclaim Julian their emperor. Soon thereafter, Helena falls dead, having been poisoned by Isa on order from Eusebia. Julian decides to seek revenge and claim the throne in Byzantium.
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Galatian is an extinct Celtic language once spoken by the Galatians in Galatia, in central Anatolia (part of modern Turkey) from the 3rd century BC up to at least the 4th century AD. Some sources suggest that it was still spoken in the 6th century. Galatian was contemporary with and perhaps closely related to the Gaulish language of Continental Europe.
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Others think they are Belgian, that is to say Germano-Celtic people different from the Gaulish- Celtic French. The ethnonym "Walloon" derives from a Germanic word meaning "foreign", cognate with the words "Welsh" and "Vlach". The name of Belgium, home country of the Walloon people, is cognate with the Celtic tribal names Belgae and (possibly) the Irish legendary Fir Bolg.
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In the mid 1st century BCE, Julius Caesar had identified Mercury as one of the main deities of Gaul.Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War vi. §17. In his Gallo-Roman form Mercury is frequently found with a Gaulish epithet. The trésor de Berthouville is one of only three known depositories securely associated with local religious cult in Gaul and Britannia.
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Hundreds of artifacts from the Paleolithic (Mousterian) and Mesolithic ages have been found in Lumeau. Several remains of early farmer settlements, tumuli, megalithes from the Neolithic age have been discovered and studied, with influence from both the Atlantic Bronze Age and urnfield culture. Strong expansion is correlated with La Tène culture. Lumeau has roots as a Gaulish village in the Carnutes territory.
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Julius Indus was a nobleman of the Gaulish Treveri tribe. In 21 AD he helped the Romans put down a rebellion of the Treveri and Aedui. He had a personal vendetta with one of the leaders in the revolt, Julius Florus. So, at the Ardennes forest when Indus had the chance to kill Florus, he did so with no hesitation.
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Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:7:6 The name Santones may be related to Gaulish sento ('pathway, country lane'). The city of Saintes, attested as urbs Santonorum in the 4th c. CE ('civitas of the Santones', Xainctes 11th c.) and the Saintonge region, attested as Santonica tellus in the 4th c. CE ('land of the Santones', Xanctunge in 1242), are named after the Gallic tribe.
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Claphamomnibus's ship lands at Gaul, and he reveals the secret weapon: female legionaries, whom the Gaulish men would refuse to fight for fear of being dishonored. Asterix, when he learns of this, is sent to warn the village women of the threat. Bravura suggests making peace, and goes to meet the female legionaries herself. However, she is refused, and Claphamomnibus insults her.
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306, note 57, finds the Lithuanian only "coincidentally similar," contra Delamarre following. and dùsas, "vapor"; and others meaning "fury" (Old Irish dás-, "to be in a fury"), particularly in a divine sense, as Greek thuia, "bacchante," and Latin furiae (the Furies). It is also possible, but less likely, that the word is a nominalization of the Gaulish prefix dus-, "bad" (cf. Greek dys-).
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In many areas, such Matronae were depicted in groups of three (or sometimes two) (see Matres and Matronae for the triads of mother goddesses well attested throughout northern Europe). The name of Welsh mythological figure Modron, mother of Mabon is derived from the same etymon. By analogy, Dea Matrona may conceivably have been considered the mother of the Gaulish Maponos.
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Supplément à l'Encyclopédie, Sinus GallicusMémoires pour l'histoire naturelle de la province de Languedoc These sources, especially Deroy and Mulon, Diderot and D'Alembert, reject the hypothesis according to which the name would be related to the city of Lyon, since it is too far from the gulf. A former name in classical Latin during Roman antiquity was sinus Gallicus (that is, "Gaulish gulf").
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258, note 2; pp. 131-4 in Macdonnel, A.A. (1897) "Vedic Mythology", Strassburg.; Haudre Haudry, Jean (1987) "Les Rbhus et les Alfes", Bulletin d’etudes Indiennes 5, pp.159-219 This root may also be found in the names of Celtic deities such as Albarinus, Albocelop. 303 Evans, Ellis 1(967) Gaulish Personal Names, Oxford: Clarendon Press; Whatmough op.cit: §82; Holder op.
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The Celts used sacred groves, called nemeton in Gaulish, for performing rituals, based on Celtic mythology. The deity involved was usually Nemetona – a Celtic goddess. Druids oversaw such rituals. Existence of such groves have been found in Germany, Switzerland, Czech Republic and Hungary in Central Europe, in many sites of ancient Gaul in France, as well as England and Northern Ireland.
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Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:9:6 and as Veromandi by Orosius (early 5th c. AD).Orosius. Historiae Adversus Paganos, 6:7,14, entry 2424. The name Viromandui can be interpreted as the Gaulish Uiro-mandui ('horse-men', or '[men] virile in owning ponies'), composed of uiros ('man') attached to mandus ('pony'). The city of Vermand, probably attested as Virmandensium castrum in the 9th c.
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It was on Leuke, in one version of his legend, that the hero Achilles, in a hilly tumulus, was buried (which is erroneously connected to the modern town of Kiliya, at the Danube delta). Accion ("ocean"), in the fourth century AD Gaulish Latin of Avienus' Ora maritima, was applied to great lakes.Mullerus in Cl. Ptolemaei Geographia, ed. Didot, p. 235.
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Lampridius says that a druidess made a prophecy in Gaulish to Alexander Severus (208–235).Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10. Jerome (331–420), who had first-hand knowledge, observes that the Gallic Treveri speak a language "more or less the same" as that of the Galatians.Jerome, commentary on the Letter to the Galatians; Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10.
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Marcus Antonius Gnipho, an orator and grammarian of Gaulish origin, was employed as Caesar's tutor.Suetonius, Lives of Eminent Grammarians 7 Caesar had two older sisters, known as Julia Major and Julia Minor. Little else is recorded of Caesar's childhood. Suetonius and Plutarch's biographies of him both begin abruptly in Caesar's teens; the opening paragraphs of both appear to be lost.
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Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company. The name Livet (first recorded as Lived in the 11th century), of Gaulish etymology, may mean a "place where yew-trees grow".François de Beaurepaire, Les noms des communes et anciennes paroisses de L'Eure, éditions Picard 1981. p. 136.Albert Dauzat and Charles Rostaing, Dictionnaire étymologique des noms de lieux en France, Librairie Guénégaud 1979. p. 406.
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These Romans also used other names to refer to tribes living in that area, including Verturiones, Taexali and Venicones.e.g. Ptolemy, Ammianus Marcellinus. But they may have heard these other names only second- or third-hand, from speakers of Brittonic or Gaulish languages, who may have used different names for the same group or groups.Caledonii is attested from a grave marker in Roman Britain.
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Even though Breton is spoken in Brittany continental Europe, and has been since at least the 6th century AD, it is not considered one of the languages as it is a Brittonic language, as are Cornish and Welsh. Whilst a Gaulish substratum in its Vannetais dialect has been mooted (Galliou and Jones 1991) other historical and linguistic evidence points otherwise.
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Hermeskeil is the seat of the Verbandsgemeinde ("collective municipality") Hermeskeil. The old locomotive depot, Bahnbetriebswerk Hermeskeil is now a museum housing German steam engines. The Flugausstellung aircraft museum displays more than 100 aircraft and is the largest private museum of that kind in Europe. A Gaulish burial of the 1st century AD was discovered in a field near Hermeskeil in 2009.
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Older, obsolete theories suggested a connection of the name Brenner with the ancient tribe of the Breuni or the Gaulish chieftain Brennus, but since the pass name appears for the first time only in the 14th century, a more recent etymology is far more likely.Alois Trenkwalder: Brenner. Bergdorf und Alpenpaß – Brennero. Storia di un paesino e di un valico internazionale.
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Naturalis Historia, 4:106 and as Belloúakoi (Βελλούακοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).Ptolemy. Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:9:4 The meaning of the name Bellovaci is unclear. The first element is probably the Gaulish bello ('strong, forceful, roar'), but the translation of the suffix -uaco is uncertain, perhaps 'curved' (compare with Lat. uaccilare), or related to the Irish fachain ('striving') and the Scott.
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The area of the future Dauphiné was inhabited by the Allobroges and other Gaulish tribes in ancient times. The region was conquered by the Romans before Gallia conquest by Julius Caesar. Vienne became a Roman colony and one of the most important cities of Gallia. After the end of the Western Roman Empire, the region suffered from invasions of Visigoths and Alans tribes.
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The prefix is most likely the Gaulish con-/com- ('with, together, as well'), and although the translation of the element -drus- is unknown, it is also generally regarded as Celtic. The Condroz region, attested as Pagus Condrustis on an inscription dated 150–160 AD,Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, VII:1073 and as pagus Condrustus in medieval documents, is named after the Germanic tribe.
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Syme, Augustan Aristocracy, p. 129 Once back in Rome, Dolabella is recorded as twice making excessively sycophantic proposals that Tiberius rejected. The first was in the year 21, following Gaius Silius' suppression of a rebellion of Gaulish debtors led by Julius Florus and the Aeduan Julius Sacrovir. Dolabella proposed that Tiberius return from Campania and enter Rome with an ovation for the victory.
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It has a relatively high proper motion, advancing across the celestial sphere at the rate of 0.298 arc seconds per annum. The star HD 8574 is named Bélénos. The name was selected in the NameExoWorlds campaign by France, during the 100th anniversary of the IAU. Bélénos was the god of light, of the Sun, and of health in Gaulish mythology.
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Early Scandinavian links with Gothic regions suggest it also could have come from Greek kaîsar, perhaps through Gothic Kaiser. The Scottish variant being Kerr and the Irish variant being Carr from the Celtic word ciar which was derived from O'Ciarain or O'Ceirin. The word car itself is an anglicized variation from the Gaulish word carros; a wheeled cart or chariot.
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Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p. 192. Sulpicius Severus, writing in the 5th century AD in Gallia Aquitania, noted bilingualism with Gaulish as the first language.Lambert, La langue gauloise, p. 10. The survival of the Galatian dialect in Anatolia akin to that spoken by the Treveri near Trier was attested by Jerome (331–420), who had first-hand knowledge.
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John Duncan Aoife ( ; ; also spelled Aífe, Aeife) is an Irish feminine given name. The name is probably derived from the Irish Gaelic aoibh, which means "beauty" or "radiance". It has been compared to the Gaulish name Esvios (Latinized Esuvius, feminine Esuvia), which may be related to the tribal name Esuvii and the theonym Esus.Ériu, Volumes 14-15 (1946), p. 5.
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It is possible to reconcile the two on the basis that, say, Palladius was acting at the urging of the Gaulish bishops but some uncertainty remains. Meanwhile, Professor Ian N. Wood Wood, Ian (1984), "The End of Roman Britain: Continental Evidence and Parallels" in "Gildas: New Approaches", Lapidge, Michael; Dumville, David N., eds., Woodbridge: Boydell. pp. 1–25;cf. Garcia op.cit. p.
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Rome was indeed captured by Brennus, a Gaulish chieftain, following the Battle of the Allia on 18 July 390 BC. Gabias and Porsenna are not mentioned in any Roman sources. The later is a namesake of Lars Porsena, a King of the Etruscan civilization who is believed to have fought against the recently founded Roman Republic in the decade of the 500s BC.
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The Temple of Valetudo, about 39 BC, in Glanum. Glanis was a Gaulish god associated with a healing spring at the town of Glanum in the Alpilles mountains of Provence in southern France. There are cisterns at the site of the springs where pilgrims may have bathed. Near one of them an altar to Glanis and the Glanicae was set up.
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Tasgetius, the Latinized form of Gaulish Tasgetios or Tasgiitios (d. 54 BC), was a ruler of the Carnutes, a Celtic polity whose territory corresponded roughly with the modern French departments of Eure-et-Loir, Loiret, and Loir- et-Cher. Julius Caesar says that as Roman proconsul he made Tasgetius king in reward for his support during the Gallic Wars.Julius Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 5.25.2.
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Jerome Carcopino thought that it came from a Celtic, specifically Gaulish, word for plough. David Daube argued that it represented a Hebrew or Aramaic rendition of the Greek , or "Alpha-Omega" (cf. Revelation 1:8) by early Christians. J. Gwyn Griffiths contended that it came, via Alexandria, from the attested Egyptian name Ḥr-Ḥp, which he took to mean "the face of Apis".
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It consisted of eight chapels or small temples surrounded by a wall. Deities worshipped at the site included Mars (presumably in lieu of Caturix) and Rosmerta as well as Mithras.Prümm "zur kaiserzeitlichen Religionslage in der Schweiz", Religionsgeschichliches Handbuch (1954), p. 766. Although the Gaulish language had mostly been ousted by Latin by the 3rd century, many Celtic toponyms have survived in Switzerland.
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The Phoceans founded important cities such as Massalia (Marseille) and Nikaia (Nice), bringing them into conflict with the neighboring Celts and Ligurians. Some Phocean great navigators, such as Pytheas, were born in Marseille. The Celts themselves often fought with Aquitanians and Germans, and a Gaulish war band led by Brennus invaded Rome c. 393 or 388 BC following the Battle of the Allia.
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The name comes from Cadomus, the Latin name for Caen, northern France. L Bertrand gave the orogeny its name in 1921, naming it after Cadomus the Gaulish name for Caen in Normandy.L Bertrand: Les anciennes mers de la France et leur depots. 1921 Flammarion, Paris not consulted for this He defined the end as being marked by Lower Palaeozoic red beds.
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Eight inscriptions to Sequana are known, all from the Sources of the Seine. The following are typical (CIL 13, 02858): :Au(gusto) sac(rum) d(eae) Sequan(ae) e[x] / moni[tu] and (CIL 13, 02862): :Aug(usto) sac(rum) / d(e)ae Seq(uanae) / Fl(avius) Flav(i)n(us) / pro sal(ute) / Fl(avi) Luna(ris) / nep(otis) sui / ex voto / v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito)/ San(tos) Mi(chaelle) Some inscriptions contain spelling errors that may give a clue to the pronunciation of Sequana in Gaulish (CIL 13, 02863): :Aug(usto) sac(rum) da(e?) / ro(!) / Seuan(ae) / pro(!) / C(aius) M[3] / v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito) As Gaulish is in the P-Celtic classification, q cannot represent the Indo-European kw.
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Vercingetorix, the Gaulish chieftain who tried to unite the various Gallic tribes of the land against Roman encroachment but was ultimately vanquished by Julius Caesar, is often revered as a "first national hero". In the famously popular French comic Asterix, the main characters are patriotic Gauls who fight against Roman invaders while in modern days the term Gaulois is used in French to distinguish the "native" French from French of immigrant origins. However, despite its occasional nativist usage, the Gaulish identity has also been embraced by French of non-native origins as well: notably, Napoleon III, whose family was ultimately of Corsican and Italian roots, identified France with Gaul and Vercingetorix, and declared that "New France, ancient France, Gaul are one and the same moral person." It has been noted that the French view of having Gallic origins has evolved over history.
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Julius Caesar has invaded Britain and succeeded in his conquest; but a single gaulish village in Kent remains independent. One member of the village, Anticlimax, is dispatched to Gaulish village to enlist the help of Getafix the druid in providing magic potion for the British rebels. It is decided that Asterix (Anticlimax's first cousin once removed) and Obelix should accompany him, to help transport a barrel of the potion; but while beating up a Roman galley in the English Channel, Obelix mentions the mission, which is reported to the Roman high command in Britain. In Britain, the barrel containing the potion is confiscated from a pub cellar owned by Dipsomaniax, along with all the barreled "warm beer" (bitter) and wine in Londinium, by the Romans, who set about tasting the barrels to find the right one.
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Archaeologists believe that Saint-Nazaire is built upon the remnants of Corbilo, an Armorican Gaulish city populated by the Namnetes tribe, which (according to the Greek navigator Pytheas) was the second-largest Gaulish city, after Massilia (now Marseille). Archeology suggests that the area has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic period, as evidenced by the presence of monuments like the tumulus of Dissignac, the dolmen located in the centre of the present-day city, and ancient bronzes found in the vicinity. According to the 15th-century chronicler Alain Bouchart, Brutus of Troy, the mythical ancestor of the Bretons, travelled to Saint-Nazaire to set foot upon the new homeland of his people. Historical accounts note that at the end of the Roman Empire, some Britons colonized the Loire estuary and later the peninsula containing Guérande.
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More conventionally, the Gaulish Mercury is usually shown accompanied by a ram and/or a rooster, and carrying a caduceus; his depiction at times is very classical. Lugh is said to have instituted the festival of Lughnasadh, celebrated on 1 August, in commemoration of his foster-mother Tailtiu.R. A. Stewart Macalister (ed/trans). 1941. Lebor Gabála Érenn: The Book of the Taking of Ireland.
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A club-wielding god identified as Ogmios is readily observed in Gaulish iconography. In Gaul, he was identified with the Roman Hercules. He was portrayed as an old man with swarthy skin and armed with a bow and club. He was also a god of eloquence, and in that aspect he was represented as drawing along a company of men whose ears were chained to his tongue.
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Meledunum began as a Gaulish town; Caesar noted Melun as "a town of the Senones, situated on an island in the Seine"; at the island there was a wooden bridge, which his men repaired.Gallic War vii. 58, 60. Roman Meledunum was a mutatio where fresh horses were kept available for official couriers on the Roman road south-southeast of Paris, where it forded the Seine.
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Panorama from lake Orta Carcegna is a small village located above the eastern shore of Lake Orta, at an altitude of 490m, in the Province of Novara, Piedmont, Italy. Administratively a frazione of the commune of Miasino, it has 260 inhabitants, called Carcegnesi. Its patron saint is Saint Peter, celebrated on 29 June. Archaeological excavations have brought to light Gaulish, Gallo-Roman and Etruscan remains.
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Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:7:9 and as Cadurci by Pliny (1st c. AD).Pliny. Naturalis Historia, 4:109 The etymology of the name Cadurci is uncertain. Pierre-Yves Lambert has proposed that it may be the contraction of the Gaulish name Catu- turci ('battle-boars'), formed with the root catu- ('combat, battle') attached to turcos ('wild boar'). The city of Cahors, attested as civitas Cadurcorum ca.
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"Le sang de Mérovée. 'Préhistoire' de la dynastie et du royaume mérovingiens". Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 92–94 pp. 999–1039. Gregory reports that Merovech was reputed by some to be a descendant of Chlodio who was an earlier Frankish king who had conquered Roman Gaulish areas first in the Silva Carbonaria, then in Tournai, Cambrai and as far south as the Somme.
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Clermont-Ferrand's first name was Augusta Nemetum. It was born on the central knoll where the cathedral is situated today, known then as Nemossos. It overlooked the capital of Gaulish Avernie. The fortified castle of Clarus Mons gave its name to the whole town in 848, to which the small episcopal town of Montferrand was attached in 1731, together taking the name of Clermont-Ferrand.
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The name Arganchy appears as Archenceium in 1198.Albert Dauzat and Charles Rostaing, Etymylogical Dictionary of place names in France, Larousse, Paris, 1963 The origin of the name is attributed to the anthroponym Argentius: Latin according to René LepelleyRené Lepelley, Etymological Dictionary of commune names in Normandy, Éditions Charles Corlet, Condé-sur-Noireau, 1996, , p. 50 or Gaulish according to Albert Dauzat and Charles Rostaing.
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The name Gaesatae means 'armed with javelins, lancers', stemming from Gaulish gaiso ('javelin'). It is cognate with Old Irish gaiscedach ('champion, armed person'), from gaisced ('weapons'), itself from gáe 'spear, javelin'.Dictionary of the Irish Language, Compact Edition, Royal Irish Academy, 1990, p. 352 It has been compared with the medieval Irish fianna, who were small war-bands of landless young men operating independently of any kingdom.
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Map with location of Cisalpine Gaul. The Vertamocorii were a Celtic people that lived in Cisalpine Gaul around Novara, in Eastern Piedmont (Italy). The Vertamocorii are reported by Pliny in the third book of Naturalis Historia, where they are said to be the founders of the city of Novara: and indicates their Gaulish origin (the Vocontii were a people of Gallia Narbonensis) and not Ligurian.
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They are first mentioned by the 1st century AD historian, Tacitus. Under the reign of the 2nd Roman Emperor, Tiberius, a faction of Treveri led by Julius Florus, and the Aedui, led by Julius Sacrovir, led a rebellion of Gaulish debtors against the Romans in 21 CE.Cornelius Tacitus (117 CE), Annales III:40-46. The Crupellarii, heavily armoured Gallic gladiators, fought against Roman legionaries.Britannia, Durolitum.co.
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In 1738, he proposed to transform the academy into a full university, without success. Loys de Bochat is best known for his major work, Mémoires critiques pour servir d'Eclaircissemens sur divers points de l'Histoire ancienne de la Suisse, which appeared in three volumes in 1747-1749. This work is dedicated to examining the early history of Switzerland, especially the Gaulish Helvetii, and their legacy in Swiss toponymy.
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The name Étaín () is alternately spelt as Edain, Aideen, Etaoin, Éadaoin, Aedín, or Adaon. It is derived from a diminutive form of Old Irish ét, "passion, jealousy".Koch, John T. (ed.), Celtic Culture, ABC-CLIO, 2006, p. 1675. She is sometimes known by the epithet Echraide ("horse rider"), suggesting links with horse deities and figures such as the Welsh Rhiannon and the Gaulish Epona.
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Soon Goneril and Regan and their husbands rebel and take the whole kingdom. After Leir has had all his attendants taken from him, he begins to regret his actions towards Cordelia and travels to Gaul. Cordelia receives him compassionately and restores his royal robes and retinue. Aganippus raises a Gaulish army for Leir, who returns to Britain, defeats his sons-in-law and regains the kingdom.
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They are mentioned as Tricasses by Pliny (1st c. AD),Pliny. Naturalis Historia, 4:107 and as Trikásioi (Τρικάσιοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).Ptolemy. Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:8:10 The meaning of the name Tricasses is unclear. The Gaulish suffix tri- certainly means 'three', but the translation of the element -casses is less certain, possibly 'hair, hairstyle', perhaps a particular warrior coiffure, or 'tin, bronze (helmet?)'.
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Eluveitie infuses traditional Celtic folk melodies with Gothenburg-styled melodic death metal. Eluveitie uses traditional folk instruments in their music, such as fiddles, tin whistles and flutes, bagpipes and hurdy-gurdies. The traditional folk tunes in their songs have been drawn from various sources, including traditional Irish reels. While many of their lyrics are in English, some are in the ancient extinct Gaulish language.
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A large copper statue of Vercingetorix, made in 1865 by stands at the western end of the plateau. The uncertainty surrounding Alesia's location is humorously parodied in the Asterix comic book Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield, in which, in this case because of Gaulish pride, characters repeatedly and vehemently deny that they know its location: "I don't know where Alesia is! No one knows where Alesia is!".
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Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition. Around 180, the Latin author Aulus Gellius mentions Etruscan alongside the Gaulish language in an anecdote.Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae. Extract: ‘ueluti Romae nobis praesentibus uetus celebratusque homo in causis, sed repentina et quasi tumultuaria doctrina praeditus, cum apud praefectum urbi uerba faceret et dicere uellet inopi quendam miseroque uictu uiuere et furfureum panem esitare uinumque eructum et feditum potare.
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When Ferrex returned with a large Gaulish army, Porrex attacked and Ferrex and the army were defeated. Some time after, his mother, Judon, avenged Porrex's murder of Ferrex and hacked him to pieces in his sleep. His death sparked a civil war which would not be resolved until the reign of Dunvallo Molmutius. His death shifted the dominant genealogical royal house of Brutus to another house, Cornwall.
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In the case of French, for example, Latin is the superstrate and Gaulish the substrate. Some linguists contend that Japanese (and Japonic languages in general) consists of an Altaic superstratum projected onto an Austronesian substratum.Benedict (1990), Lewin (1976), Matsumoto (1975), Miller (1967), Murayama (1976), Shibatani (1990). Some scholars also argue for the existence of Altaic superstrate influences on varieties of Chinese spoken in Northern China.
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From their personal and tribal names we know that the Germani cisrhenani were heavily influenced by the Gaulish language.See Neumann 1984. From other information, including the contemporary reports of Julius Caesar and Tacitus, we know that they were also heavily influenced by Germanic peoples on the east of the Rhine river. Whether the Germani cisrhenani in Belgium ever actually spoke a Germanic language is uncertain.
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Vernon is a surname, from a masculine name that is derived from the Gaul word vern for Alder tree (also springlike, flourishing, or full of life) and a Gaulish-Latin suffix indicating a location. Thus Vernon is a "place of alders". Variants include Vern, Vernard, Verne, Verna, Sberna, Sberno. Vernon was introduced into England as an aristocratic surname at the time of the Norman conquest.
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The Ludovisi Gaul, Roman copy after a Hellenistic original, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme. The Gauls (; , Galátai) were a group of Celtic peoples of Continental Europe in the Iron Age and the Roman period (roughly from the 5th century BC to the 5th century AD). The area they originally inhabited was known as Gaul. Their Gaulish language forms the main branch of the Continental Celtic languages.
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Gaulish culture developed from the Celtic cultures over the first millennium BC. The Urnfield culture (c. 1300 BC – c. 750 BC) represents the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European- speaking people. The spread of iron working led to the Hallstatt culture in the 8th century BC; the Proto-Celtic language is often thought to have been spoken around this time.
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7 Because of this, Falc'hun became a hate figure among Breton nationalists. According to his friend Françoise Morvan, he suffered numerous "telephone harassment campaigns".Françoise Morvan, Le Monde comme si - Nationalisme et dérive identitaire en Bretagne, Actes Sud, 2002, p 132. Léon Fleuriot has accepted Falc'hun's view that Breton was influenced by surviving local forms of Celtic, but rejects Falc'hun's argument that Vannetais is native Gaulish.
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Brem-sur-Mer is a commune in the Vendée département in the Pays de la Loire region in western France. It was created in 1974 by the merger of the former communes of Saint Martin-de-Brem and Saint Nicolas-de-Brem The commune is a beach resort on the Atlantic Ocean (sur-mer means "on-sea"); "Brem" is derived from the Gaulish "Bram".
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"world- traveller" or "world-charioteer", so that the inscription may mean approximately "to Gobannus, the world-traveller, dedicated by the people of Brennoduron in the Arura valley".Rudolf Fellmann: Die Zinktafel von Bern- Thormebodenwald und ihre Inschrift. In: Archäologie der Schweiz 14/4 (1991), S. 270-273. Since the inscription consists of four proper names, it cannot straightforwardly be considered in the Gaulish language.
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Researcher toponymist and Ph.D. graduate of the Sorbonne, Jérémie Delorme, has listed, photographed and described, about 3 000 place names in the commune. 90% come from Latin, 8% come from Gaulish, 1% from Germanic and 1% from pre- Latin languages. A third of the names refer to former occupants. Names ending in "ière" are pre 16th-century and names ending in "lhon" are pre 5th-century.
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Portrait labelled "" from the mid-8th century Saint Petersburg Bede, though perhaps intended as Gregory the Great. By the 4th century the Roman province of Britannia was converted to Christianity and had even produced its own heretic in Pelagius. Britain sent three bishops to the Synod of Arles in 314, and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters.
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At the temple in Metz, a spiral staircase led down to the water level, allowing worshipers to leave offerings in the spring and/or to take the waters. A statuette of a local Gaulish Mercury was among the ex-votos deposited at the shrine,Le Sablon › L'histoire › Période gallo-romaine. Includes a line drawing of Icovellauna's sacred well in Metz. Retrieved on 2010-02-27.
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The Mabinogion (Oxford 2007) pp. ix–x The word mabinogi itself is something of a puzzle, although clearly derived from the Welsh mab, which means "son, boy, young person".I Ousby ed, The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English (Cambridge 1995) p. 579 Eric P. Hamp of the earlier school traditions in mythology, found a suggestive connection with Maponos "the Divine Son", a Gaulish deity.
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A faction of Treveri, led by Julius Florus and allied with the Aeduan Julius Sacrovir, led a rebellion of Gaulish debtors against the Romans.Tacitus, Annales III:40-42. With two legions Silius defeated Sacrovir's rebel forces (numbering 40,000), twelve miles outside of Augustodunum.David F. Burg, A world history of tax rebellions: an encyclopedia of tax rebels, revolts, and riots from antiquity to the present (2004), pg.
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Nantes may have been the major Gaulish settlement of Corbilo, on the Loire estuary, which was mentioned by the Greek historians Strabo and Polybius. Its history from the seventh century to the Roman conquest in the first century BC is poorly documented, and there is no evidence of a city in the area before the reign of Tiberius in the first century AD. During the Gaulish period it was the capital of the Namnetes people, who were allied with the Veneti in a territory extending to the northern bank of the Loire. Rivals in the area included the Pictones, who controlled the area south of the Loire in the city of Ratiatum (present-day Rezé) until the end of the second century AD. Ratiatum, founded under Augustus, developed more quickly than Nantes and was a major port in the region. Nantes began to grow when Ratiatum collapsed after the Germanic invasions.
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Considered the most famous coins to be struck by king Philip II, the philippeioi continued to be highly influential even after they were no longer in circulation. Their design was widely mimicked or replicated by currencies outside of Greece, even long after the philippeioi themselves were no longer in circulation. The Gaulish gold staters, whose design closely mimicked that of the philippeioi, continued to be minted up until the end of the Gallic Wars three centuries later (BCE 51). In many cases, the design of the coins changed as it was appropriated by cultures outside of Greece; in some Gaulish imitations, Apollo's hair became large and stylized, while the chariot was often reduced to a single horse (sometimes sporting a humanoid head), with the remaining space occupied by Celtic symbols such as a sun cross, the head of a boar, or a depiction of the sun god Ogmios.
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Phoenice had been previously taken by Illyrians acting under Queen Teuta, in 230 BC, after a Gaulish garrison of 800 men surrendered to the larger Illyrian force. In reaction, the Epirote League sent in an army to retake Phoenice. They took up positions at a river outside of Phoenice. Meanwhile, 5,000 Illyrians under Scerdilaidas had advanced inland into Epirus from Southern Illyria and reached a pass just outside Antigoneia.
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In antiquity, during the Roman occupation, the city was named Segodunum. The roots being sego "strong"Segovia or Segobriga, the capital of Celtiberians, shares the same etymology. and dunum "hill", where Segodunum "high hill, stronghold" is at the origin of the Gaulish name of Rodez. (BnF no FRBNF37394724m) During the middle to the end of the Roman Empire, the city was called Civitas Rutenorum, the city of the Rutènes.
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The Gaulish Coligny calendar is the oldest known Celtic solar-lunar ritual calendar. It was discovered in Coligny, France, and is now on display in the Palais des Arts Gallo-Roman museum, Lyon. It dates from the end of the second century CE, when the Roman Empire imposed the use of the Julian Calendar in Roman Gaul. The calendar was originally a single huge plate, but it survives only in fragments.
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All of these are Insular Celtic languages, since Breton, the only living Celtic language spoken in continental Europe, is descended from the language of settlers from Britain. There are a number of extinct but attested continental Celtic languages, such as Celtiberian, Galatian and Gaulish. Beyond that there is no agreement on the subdivisions of the Celtic language family. They may be divided into P-Celtic and Q-Celtic.
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68 The name Catalauni most likely stems from Gaulish Catu-uellauni ('war-chiefs, chiefs- of-war', from catu- 'combat' attached to uellauni 'chief, commandants'). The name Catuvellauni, borne by a Celtic tribe of southern Britain, is probably related. The city of Châlons-sur-Marne, attested as Durocatelaunos in the 4th century (civitas Catalaunorum 'civitas of the Catalauni' in the early 5th c., Cathalaunum in 1185), is named after the Belgic tribe.
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Local pottery rarely attained the standards of the Gaulish industries; the Castor ware of the Nene Valley was able to withstand comparison with the imports. Most native pottery was unsophisticated and intended only for local markets. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north. The design of Hadrian's Wall especially catered to the need for customs inspections of merchants' goods.
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Galba is an ancient Roman cognomen borne by a branch of the patrician gens Sulpicia. The name is sometimes thought to be Celtic in origin, from a root related to Old Irish golb, "paunchy, fat."See Xavier Delamarre, entry on galba, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (Éditions Errance, 2003), p. 174, and D. Ellis Evans, Gaulish personal names: a study of some Continental Celtic formations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), pp.
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Julius Classicus was a Gaulish nobleman and military commander of the 1st century AD, belonging to the tribe of the Treviri. He served as a commander of the Roman auxiliaries. Along with Julius Tutor, another Treviran Roman auxiliary commander, and Julius Sabinus, who claimed descent from Gaius Julius Caesar, he joined the rebellion of Gaius Julius Civilis during the disorder of the Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD).
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In the 2nd century CE, a mithraeum was built there, and inscriptions testify to the common worship of Mithras and Narius Intarabus. In the second half of the 3rd century, the mithraeum was replaced with a traditional Gaulish-style temple, which now enclosed the sacred spring. From this it can be seen that the Mithraic cult was abandoned in favour of the older Celtic local deities.Helmut Birkhan: Kelten.
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The Gauls meanwhile take the Romans' fake potion back to the village, where it is proven useless and the ruse proven false. Convolvulus sees this and informs Platypus, who calls for an immediate attack, but Getafix make some genuine Magic Potion. Platypus summons reinforcements after Asterix and Obelix repel his garrison. After drinking the real Magic Potion, the Gaulish villagers defeat all four of the Roman garrisons that surround them.
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Ogmios (also known as Ogmius; ; ) was the Celtic deity of eloquence.OGMIOS- OGMA, Kernunnos Group of Web Page He looked like an older version of Heracles who would use his powers of persuasion to bind men to himself.Ogmios - A Gaulish and Irish God, also known as Ogma, Ogmia, Celtnet.org UK Most of the knowledge about Ogmios comes from comparisons between him and powerful deities and heroes in other ancient cultures.
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The name comes from Graua, a Gaulish word, that means "terrain with pebbles". The nature of the soil was particularly favorable for wine growing, which was exploited here from antiquity until the late 19th century phylloxera epidemic. The name was first mentioned in an act of donations from the Abbey of Saint-Denis in 862. The first master of Groslay was Odon or Éudes of Groslay in the late 11th century.
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It is unclear whether their language was non Indo-European (related to Iberian), Italic, or Celtic (related to Gaulish). Most likely, they spoke a Celto-Italic hybrid language. # The Messapii, who occupied the southern part of the Apulian peninsula, in SE Italy. Believed from inscriptions to be speakers of a tongue related to Illyrian (an Indo-European language), these were in perpetual conflict over territory with the Greeks of Tarentum.
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After hearing about the Celtic (or Gaulish) invasion of Etruria, the consul returned hastily to engage in battle. Atilius decided to engage the Gauls on his own. By being the first to engage in battle, he hoped to get the larger share of the credit of the victory. However, his plans went awry when the Roman cavalry encountered the more experienced Celtic cavalry and was cut to pieces.
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9.) were not limited to Latin or even Greek, but could also be created in "Punic, Gaulish or any other" language.Digest 32.11 pr.; Ramsey MacMullen, "Provincial Languages in the Roman Empire," American Journal of Philology 87.1 (1966), p. 2. Originally, a testator's fideicommissum placed the heir under a moral rather than legal obligation,Adolf Berg, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1980, 1991), pp. 470–471.
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Their harbour of the Morini was named Gesoriacum in the first century BC, corresponding to present-day Boulogne-sur-Mer. The suffix gesori- (or gesorici-) is of Pre-Celtic origin. The settlement is almost certainly the same as Portus Itius (Latin: 'channel harbour’) mentioned by Caesar. The site was mentioned as Bononia by 4 AD, a name formed with the Gaulish root bona- ('base, foundation') attached to the suffix -on.
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According to Caesar, their names were Commius, Viridomarus and Eporedorix. Sedullos, chief of the Lemovices, joined Vercassivellaunus with 10,000 of his own men and was killed at the battle. According to Caesar's "Commentarii de bello gallico", Vercassivellaunus was taken prisoner. It is speculated that he was subsequently strangled to death with the other Gaulish prisoners of war, following the parade in which Caesar celebrated his victory over the Gauls.
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Ruins of a noble house in Argenton The archaeological site is of prime interest as it shows how the town evolved from a Gaulish settlement into a Roman town. Substantial areas of the ruins have been excavated, including an amphitheatre, a Roman villa, a cemetery, a thermal spring. Unique finds have also been recovered, such as a circular altar pedestal. A local museum related to the site exists in Mersans.
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Goldsworthy (2003) 138 Although Roman cataphracts were not new, they were far more numerous in the late army, with most regiments stationed in the East.Goldsworthy (2000) 169 However, several of the regiments placed in the Eastern army had Gaulish names, indicating an ultimately Western origin.Elton (1996), p. 106 Archer units are denoted in the Notitia by the term equites sagittarii (mounted archers) and sagittarii (foot archers, from sagitta = "arrow").
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It has consistently been used as a royal emblem, though different cultures have interpreted its meaning in varying ways. Gaulish coins show the first Western designs which look similar to modern fleurs-de-lis.Michel Pastoureau, Heraldry: its origins and meaning p.99 In the East it was found on the gold helmet of a Scythian king uncovered at the Ak-Burun kurgan and conserved in Saint Petersburg's Hermitage Museum.
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In the 5th century, at the time of the Western Roman collapse, the vast majority (non-elite and predominantly rural) of the population remained Gaulish speakers, and acquired Latin as their native speech only after the demise of the Empire, as both they and the new Frankish ruling elite adopted the prestige language of their urban literate elite.Mufwene, Salikoko S. "Language birth and death." Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 33 (2004): 201-222.
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Under the pretext of cooking a last Gaulish soup, Getafix gives the jailer a list of ingredients and brews the potion when he acquires them. During the public execution, Rhetoric asks to go first. Full of magic potion, he resists all attempts at torture, and beats up Metric, throwing him in jail and making himself Chieftain of the Goths. The Gauls visit Metric in his prison, and give him magic potion.
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Mon pays est un pays chrétien et je commence à compter l'histoire de France à partir de l'accession d'un roi chrétien qui porte le nom des Francs. Cited in the biography by David Schœnbrun, 1965. However, the dismissal of "Gaulish prehistory" as irrelevant for French national identity has been far from universal. Pre-Roman Gaul has been evoked as a template for French independence especially during the Third French Republic.
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These, though, are merely fragments and potsherds, all dug up on the village's southeastern outskirts. Nevertheless, it would seem that these finds point to there having been a Linear Pottery culture settlement here. Assigned to late La Tène times is an ancient Celtic population – "Gaulish" in Roman eyes – who supplied Fürfeld with what is widely regarded as its finest prehistoric find, a necked vase. There have also been Frankish finds.
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The earlier spelling of the name Acheux was either Aceu or Acheu (from the charter of the foundation of the nearby abbey of Corbie). It comes from the Celtic Achad that meant "cultivated field". The town of Acheux is ancient. It certainly existed in Roman times, where a fort was established, comprising ditches and pallisades, to protect it from attacks by the Atrebates, a Gaulish tribe, after whom Arras is named.
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The Bruche takes its name from the Gaulish Buscu ou Bruscu, subsequently changed to Bruxu. The village next to Bourg comes from Brucke, changed to Brusche, from whence the name of the Bourg-Bruche. Beneath Le Hang, a dam has allowed a pond to form. Filled by the copious waters in the spring season, it was partially emptied by a floating of lost logs towards Schirmeck et Strasbourg before 1890.
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The best preserved dedication to Gobannus is found on the Bern zinc tablet, where his name is written ΓΟΒΑΝΟ (in the dative and in Greek letters). The tablet was found in the 1980s in Bern. It is inscribed with an apparently Gaulish inscription : ΔΟΒΝΟΡΗΔΟ ΓΟΒΑΝΟ ΒΡΕΝΟΔΩΡ ΝΑΝΤΑΡΩΡ Brenodor is probably a placename ( cf. Brennus); Nantaror may refer to the Aare valley (containing as first element nanto- "valley"; cf.
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Riom in the Armorial d'Auvergne by Guillaume Revel, 15th century. Until the French Revolution, Riom was the capital of the province of Auvergne, and the seat of the dukes of Auvergne. The city was of Gaulish origin, the Roman Ricomagus. In the intensely feudalized Auvergne of the 10th century, the town grew up around the collegiate Church of Saint Amabilis (Saint Amable), the local saint, who was the object of pilgrimages.
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Instead, they lived more as secular clergy serving a cathedral church, and it appears likely that the sees established at Rochester and London were organised along similar lines.Blair Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England pp. 132–133 The Gaulish and Italian churches were organised around cities and the territories controlled by those cities. Pastoral services were centralised, and churches were built in the larger villages of the cities' territorial rule.
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The first written records for the history of France appeared in the Iron Age. What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul. Greek writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the Gauls, the Aquitani, and the Belgae. The Gauls, the largest and best attested group, were Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish language.
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The first written records for the history of France appear in the Iron Age. What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul. Roman writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the Gauls, the Aquitani, and the Belgae. The Gauls, the largest and best attested group, were Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish language.
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5–8, has wounded Romans at Cannae stretch out their necks for the death blow by comrades: cf Cicero's death in Seneca's Suasoriae, 6.17. The Punic Wars of the late 3rd century BC – in particular the near-catastrophic defeat of Roman arms at Cannae – had long-lasting effects on the Republic, its citizen armies, and the development of the gladiatorial munera. In the aftermath of Cannae, Scipio Africanus crucified Roman deserters and had non- Roman deserters thrown to the beasts.. The Senate refused to ransom Hannibal's Roman captives: instead, they consulted the Sibylline books, then made drastic preparations: > In obedience to the Books of Destiny, some strange and unusual sacrifices > were made, human sacrifices amongst them. A Gaulish man and a Gaulish woman > and a Greek man and a Greek woman were buried alive under the Forum Boarium > ... They were lowered into a stone vault, which had on a previous occasion > also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman > feelings.
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According to the respected Greek historian Polybius (ca. 200–118 BC) the sack of Rome by a Gaulish warband took place in the same year as the Peace of Antalcidas which was concluded in 387/386 BC. But according to the Varronian Chronology the Gaulish Sack happened three or four years earlier, in 390 BC. The Varronian Chronology also claims that for five years, 375-371 BC, civil unrest and anarchy in Rome prevented any magistrates from being elected, and in four years, 333, 324, 309 and 301 BC, a dictator, rather than two consuls, was elected to govern Rome for an entire year (the normal maximum term for a dictator was six months). Historians now believe both the lengthy anarchy and the dictator years to be unhistorical. It is likely that Roman scholars who knew that the Gallic Sack and the Peace of Antalicidas were supposed to be synchronous discovered that their list of magistrates, due to errors in transmission, fell short.
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Veilly is a commune in the Côte-d'Or department in eastern France. Veilly is a remote farming village in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté with Celtic-Gaulish origins (named "vidu" in Gaulish meaning the forest). Veilly was part of the Duchy of Burgundy and enjoyed the status of "passive witness" of the Duchy's rich history. Then, since Burgundy was integrated in the Kingdom of France, Veilly started to play with its real strengths: (i) eating, (ii) drinking (iii) and growing a little red in the face. In this respect, its location is ideal: next to the wine-producing area (Hautes Côtes de Beaune), to the vast and deep forest of Le Morvan, and to rich farming and growing areas (L’Auxois). Veilly once loomed big in matters of Catholic faith as it had its own Saint, Cassien d’Autun, and its own miracle, the mysterious erection of the statute of Notre Dame de Consolation which was found under the ground.
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Pierre-Yves Lambert, former student of the École Normale Supérieure, is a French professor and linguist. He is a researcher at the CNRS and a lecturer at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in historical and philological sciences. He specializes in the history and etymology of Celtic languages as well as the study of Celtic literature. In particular, he worked on Old Irish, Old Breton and Old Welsh and on Gaulish inscriptions.
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The white marble statue, which may originally have been painted, depicts a wounded, slumped Gaulish or Galatian Celt, shown with remarkable realism and pathos, particularly as regards the face. A bleeding sword puncture is visible in his lower right chest. The warrior is represented with characteristic Celtic hairstyle and moustache with a Celtic torc around his neck. He sits on his shield while his sword, belt and curved trumpet lie beside him.
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Gallo-Roman Taranis Jupiter with wheel and thunderbolt, carrying torcs. Haute Marne The Gaulish Jupiter is often depicted with a thunderbolt in one hand and a distinctive solar wheel in the other. Scholars frequently identify this wheel/sky god with Taranis, who is mentioned by Lucan. The name Taranis may be cognate with those of Taran, a minor figure in Welsh mythology, and Turenn, the father of the 'three gods of Dana' in Irish mythology.
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Honorius called a second synod in May, this time including Gaulish and African bishops. In the meantime, the two rival popes were ordered to leave Rome. As Easter approached, however, Eulalius returned to the city and attempted to seize the Basilica of St. John Lateran in order to "preside at the paschal ceremonies". Imperial troops managed to repel him, and on Easter (March 30, 419) the ceremonies were led by Achilleus, Bishop of Spoleto.
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Aerial archaeology has revealed the existence of a large number of Gaulish farms, attesting to the agricultural wealth of the territory, which is traversed by the Roman road leading from Quimper to Rennes. Saint Judicaël founded a monastery in the area, at a place called Saint-Léry. The first historical mention of Mauron dates from 1152. In the eighteenth century, a fair was held here on 28 October each year, the feast of St Simon.
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Frank Anthony Carl Mantello, A. G. Rigg, Medieval Latin: an introduction and bibliographical guide, UA Press, 1996, p. 448.Charlton Thomas Lewis, An elementary Latin dictionary, Harper & Brothers, 1899, p. 505. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos.Xavier Delamarre, entry on caballos in Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (Éditions Errance, 2003), p. 96.
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Rouen, France, was founded by the Gaulish tribe of Veliocasses, who controlled a large area in the lower Seine valley, which today retains a trace of their name as the Vexin. The Gauls named the settlement RatumacosRatu- is not well explained; -macus, magus is a familiar toponymic suffix signifying "plain". and the Romans called it Rotomagus.As in Ammianus Marcellinus and the Notitia dignitatum; other variants: Ratomagos (Ptolemy, Geography), Ratomagos (Antonine Itinerary, Tabula Peutingeriana).
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It is known from a single inscription from Beaucroissant in the Isère: ::MERCVRIO ::AVG ARTAIO ::SACR ::SEX GEMINIVS ::CVPITVS ::EX VOTOCorpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XII: 2199. :"To the august Mercury Artaius, Sextus Geminius Cupitus (has dedicated this) sacred (stone) in fulfillment of a vow." In Gaulish, the word artos means ‘bear’, and artaios would have been a derivative (meaning something like ‘ursine’). Miranda Green considers Mercury Artaius to have been a bear-god.
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The influence of substrate languages may be seen in graffiti showing sound changes that matched changes that had earlier occurred in the indigenous languages, especially Gaulish. The Vulgar Latin in the North of Gaul evolved into the langues d'oïl and Franco- Provencal, while the dialects in the South evolved into the modern Occitan and Catalan tongues. Other languages held to be "Gallo-Romance" include the Gallo- Italic languages and the Rhaeto-Romance languages.
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Tacitus, Annales iii.41 Varro was the son of Gaius Visellius Varro, curule aedile. Although the name of his wife has not come down to us, he is known to be the father of Lucius Visellius Varro, consul in the year 24. During his tenure as governor of Germania Inferior, a faction of Treveri, led by Julius Florus and allied with the Aeduan Julius Sacrovir, led a rebellion of Gaulish debtors against the Romans.
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Both ' and ' reflect separate developments of the Latin ', the Romans' name for the Gaulish tribe in the area. (It is unrelated to the Welsh realm and county of Gwynedd, which developed from Latin '.) The historic realm was also known as Bro Erec (, "land of Gwereg") or Bro Waroch (from the gallicisation of the same name) or by numerous variant spellings, although it is unclear whether the namesake Gwereg was Waroch I or II.
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Late Roman African Red Slip dish, 4th century AD African red slip ware (ARS) was the final development of terra sigillata.Hayes 1972 and Hayes 1980 are the standard reference works: Hayes 1997, pp. 59–64 provides a succinct summary. While the products of the Italian and Gaulish red-gloss industries flourished and were exported from their places of manufacture for at most a century or two each, ARS production continued for more than 500 years.
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Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including oui, the word for "yes"), sound changes,Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
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The main character, Iannic Skolan (also Skolvan, Yscolan (in Gaulish), and a variety of spellings; "Skolan" meaning "the phantom"Bihan, p. 121.), is guilty of a variety of crimes (depending on the version)—in one version, he killed a priest, raped his three sisters and killed the offspring, and set fire to a church full of children. He returns from hell to ask his mother for forgiveness, in the company of his godfather.Laurent, p. 47.
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Several Celtic-speaking tribes inhabited the western Alps, most notably the Salassi of the Alpes Graiae (Val d'Aosta). They were finally subdued by Rome and their territory annexed in 15 BC. The Ligures occupied the coastal western Alps and the eponymous region of Liguria in NW Italy. Their language may have been either Celtic, related to Gaulish, or a non Indo-European tongue related to the Iberian languages spoken in pre-Roman Spain.
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The Rock of Cashel pictured in the Summer of 1986. Their origins, possibly Gaulish, are very obscure.O'Rahilly 1946 According to one of their own origin legends (Laud 610), they were descendants of Heber, eldest son of King Milesius from the north of Spain (modern-day Galicia). The proto- Eóganachta, from the time of Mug Nuadat to the time of Crimthann mac Fidaig and Conall Corc, are sometimes referred to as the Deirgtine in early sources.
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He explains to them that while he was locked up, he overheard Caesar's plans to send the Gaulish villagers to different parts of the Roman Empire. Their locations were etched into a white marble map, which Caesar smashed after showing to his soldiers. Thus, Getafix returns to the village, and Asterix, Obelix and Dogmatix set off to the first location to free their fellow villagers from the clutches of the Romans.Asterix & Obelix XXL at .
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Carte Géologique It lay just outside the southern edge of the mediaeval Boulonnais and some eighteen kilometres () south of the geological region of that name. The dunes were established as the sea level rose during the Quaternary and show signs of habitation during the Palaeolithic. They had therefore stabilized at something like their present form by 2000 BC. The dunes to the north-west of the town have revealed Iron Age, Gaulish material.
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Hans Clarin (14 September 1929 – 28 August 2005) was a German actor. He became a well-known voice actor of characters in children audio plays, particularly the kobold Pumuckl (including its TV and cinematic film adaptations), the German voice of René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo's diminutive Gaulish hero Asterix (in circa 30 German audioplay adaptations of the Asterix comic books, produced and published 1986-1992 under the Europa label), and the ghost Hui Buh.
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Mediterranean Gaul (southern France) had become trilingual (Greek, Latin, Gaulish) by the mid-1st century BC.Varro as quoted by Isidore of Seville, Origines 15.1.63, trilingues quod et graece loquantur et latine et gallice; Edgar C. Polomé, "The Linguistic Situation in the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II (De Gruyter, 1983), p. 527; Philip Freeman, Ireland and the Classical World (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), p. 15.
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In 390 BC a Gaulish war band defeated the Roman army at the Battle of Allia and then sacked Rome. The ancient writers report that in 389 BC the Etruscans, the Volsci, and the Aequi all raised armies in hope of exploiting this blow to Roman power. According to Livy and Plutarch, the Aequi gathered their army at Bolae. However, the Roman dictator, Marcus Furius Camillus, had just inflicted a severe defeat on the Volsci.
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Anextiomarus is a Celtic epithet of the sun-god Apollo recorded in a Romano- British inscription from South Shields, England. The form is a variant of Anextlomarus 'Great protector', a divine style or name attested in a fragmentary Gallo-Roman dedication from Le Mans, France. Anextlomarus is also attested as a Gaulish man's father's name at Langres, and a feminine divine form, Anextlomara, appears in two other Gallo-Roman dedications from Avenches, Switzerland.
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Prentice Hall Press, 1991. pp.326-327 He is mostly known from the tale in which he loses his arm or hand in battle, and thus his kingship, but regains it after being magically healed by Dian Cécht. Nuada is thought to have been a god and is related to the British and Gaulish god Nodens, who is associated with hunting and fishing. His Welsh equivalent is Nudd or Lludd Llaw Eraint.
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The Lingones, whose tribal center was at modern-day Langres, were a Gaulish tribe located in the area of the rivers Seine and Marne in what is now northeastern France. They were neighbors to the Celto-Germanic tribe of Treveri. Another tribe known as Lingones was located near the mouth of the Po River in northeastern Italy, and were known for agriculture, weaving and metalworking. There was a dedicated feast day to Moccus.
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In Antiquity, Romans were aware of the similarities between Greek and Latin, but did not study them systematically. They sometimes explained them mythologically, as the result of Rome being a Greek colony speaking a debased dialect. Even though grammarians of Antiquity had access to other languages around them (Oscan, Umbrian, Etruscan, Gaulish, Egyptian, Parthian…), they showed little interest in comparing, studying, or just documenting them. Comparison between languages really began after Antiquity.
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Asterix or The Adventures of Asterix ( or Astérix le Gaulois ; lit. "Asterix the Gaul") is a bande dessinée (French or Belgian French-language comic) series about Gaulish warriors, who have adventures and fight the Roman Republic during the era of Julius Caesar. The series first appeared in the Franco-Belgian comics magazine Pilote on 29 October 1959. It was written by René Goscinny and illustrated by Albert Uderzo until Goscinny's death in 1977.
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The ninth Asterix volume, when first released in 1967, sold 1.2 million copies in two days. Uderzo's first preliminary sketches portrayed Asterix as a huge and strong traditional Gaulish warrior. But Goscinny had a different picture in his mind, visualizing Asterix as a shrewd, compact warrior who would possess intelligence and wit more than raw strength. However, Uderzo felt that the downsized hero needed a strong but dim companion, to which Goscinny agreed.
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Asterix (; ) is a fictional character and the titular hero of the French comic book series Asterix. The series portrays him as a diminutive but fearless Gaulish warrior living in the time of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars. Asterix was created in 1959 by writer René Goscinny and illustrator Albert Uderzo. Since then, thirty-five books in the series have been released, with Uderzo taking over writing duties after the death of Goscinny in 1977.
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After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from their province of Britannia in 410, the inhabitants were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons. Before the Roman withdrawal, Britannia had been converted to Christianity and produced the ascetic Pelagius. Britain sent three bishops to the Council of Arles in 314, and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters.Frend "Roman Britain" Cross Goes North pp.
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One of the main characters of the fantasy novel series The Misplaced Legion (also known as The Videssos Cycle or The Legion Cycle) by Harry Turtledove is a Gaulish chief named Viridovix. While he comes from the same time period as the historical Viridovix, he is stated to be Lexovii rather than Unelli, and has other differences in his biography, making it likely that he is a composite character, loosely based on the historical figure.
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The ruminant digestive system The abomasum, also known as the maw,The Chambers Dictionary, Ninth Edition, Chambers Harrap Publishers, 2003 rennet-bag, or reed tripe, is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It secretes rennet, which is used in cheese creation. The word abomasum (ab- "away from" + omasum "intestine of an ox") is from New Latin and it was first used in English in 1706. It is possibly from the Gaulish language.
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The origin of the name Brix derives from the Gaulish suffix brut-.François de Beaurepaire, Les noms des communes et anciennes paroisses de la Manche, éditions Picard 1986. Brix is known primarily as being the assumed origin of the Bruce family, who emigrated to Britain in the Middle Ages, settling in northern England and then southern Scotland. The family became a royal house with the accession of Robert the Bruce in 1306.
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Writing in the next decade, Saint Jerome described Britain after 410 as a "province fertile of tyrants", suggesting the collapse of central authority and the rise of local leaders in response to repeated raids by Saxons and others. By 452, a Gaulish chronicler was able to state that some ten years previously "the Britons, which to this time had suffered from various disasters and misfortunes, are reduced by the power of the Saxons".
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Eppillus (Celtic: "little horse") was the name of a Roman client king of the Atrebates tribe of the British Iron Age. He appears to have ruled part of the territory that had previously been held by Commius, the Gaulish former ally of Julius Caesar who fled to Britain following the uprising of Vercingetorix, or possibly of his son. Eppillus isn't mentioned in any historical sources. Coins bearing his name also bear the inscription COMMI.
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Here we are told that he collected some of the martyr's blood from the ground where he had been killed. One version also says that Alban came to Germanus in a dream and revealed the story of his martyrdom to him. Germanus then had this written down in tituli, either in Britain, or as some have argued, back in Auxerre (the Gaulish town of which Germanus was the bishop). Some scholars Wood, Ian (2009).
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The site was excavated and then partially restored, between 1958 and 1974 by the French archaeologist Michel Py. Four stages of construction can be detected. The Volques first occupied the neighbouring Oppidum de Roque de Viou, then about 300 BCE moved into the larger Oppidum des Castel but abandoned it about 50 BCE moving into the Gallo-Roman settlement of Nemausis (Nimes). The oppidium contained public buildings, roads, houses and shops a fanum(Gaulish temple).
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She took the animal, as she was already accustomed to participate in Gaulish sacrificial rites. The Gaul then raised his sword and, instead of slaying the animal, beheaded Herippe. He then explained her treachery to Xanthus and let him go, telling him to leave all the gold for himself.Parthenius, Love Romances, 8; as his source, Parthenius cites Aristodemus of Nysa, who referred to the heroine as Euthymia, and to the Gaul as Cavaras.
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Brie-Comte-Robert is a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department in the Île-de- France region in north-central France. Brie-Comte-Robert is on the edge of the plain of Brie and was formerly the capital of the Brie française. "Brie" comes from the Gaulish briga, meaning "plateau". The "Comte Robert" was Robert I of Dreux who owned the town and was a brother of the King Louis VII.
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Alongside groves, certain springs were also viewed as sacred and used as places of worship in the Celtic world. Notable Gaulish examples include the sanctuary of Sequana at the source of the Seine in Burgundy and Chamalieres near to Clermont-Ferrand. At both of these sites, a large array of votive offerings have been uncovered, most of which are wooden carvings, although some of which are embossed pieces of metal.Cunliffe, Barry (1997).
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The Old Swiss Confederacy of the early modern period was often called Helvetia or Republica Helvetiorum ("Republic of the Helvetians") in learned humanist Latin. The Latin name is ultimately derived from the name of the Helvetii, the Gaulish tribe living on the Swiss plateau in the Roman era. The allegory Helvetia makes her appearance in 1672. The official Latin name Confoederatio Helvetica was introduced gradually after the formation of the federal state in 1848.
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Hardback: . Over 45,000 of the ancient British and Gaulish coins discovered in Britain have been recorded at the Oxford Celtic Coin Index. The Oxford Celtic Coin Index The Oxford Celtic Coin Index The Trinovantian tribal oppidum of Camulodunon (modern Colchester) was minting large numbers of coins in the first centuries BC and AD, which have been found across Southern Britain.Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester - Britain's first Roman town.
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Very little is known about the early centuries of Vermes. The village is first mentioned in 769 by the name of Verteme, supposedly derived from the Gaulish word vertima, meaning mountain top. It is again mentioned in 866 as Vertima and in 1308 as Vermunt. The village of Vermes has its origins in the Saint Paul monastery, which was built in the 7th century by monks of the order of Saint Columban of Luxeuil.
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The Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the passage of time. For instance, generals Marcus Antonius Primus and Gnaeus Julius Agricola were both born in Gaul, as were emperors Claudius and Caracalla. Emperor Antoninus Pius also came from a Gaulish family. In the decade following Valerian's capture by the Persians in 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire, which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself.
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A Gaulish people, the Medulli belonged to the group of mountain tribes controlling access to high Alps passes, along with the Centrones in Tarentaise Valley and the Salassi in Aosta Valley, especially for the trade of metals (tin, iron and copper). They were established in the middle valleys of the Maurienne, the higher parts being inhabited by the Graioceli. Their name came from Medu = "mead". They were integrated in the Province of Cottian Alps in 16 BCE.
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Like the Tungri, they were never mentioned by Caesar. Like the Condrusi (whom Caesar had mentioned, and who continued to exist under Roman rule), the Texuandri or Toxandrians were recognized as a distinct grouping for the administrative purpose of mustering troops. The etymology of this name is uncertain, but it has been proposed that it may be a translation of the original Gaulish name of the Eburones, referring to the yew tree (taxus in Latin)., pages 53–54.
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Because tradesmen favoured inland roads rather than Atlantic routes, Nantes never became a large city under Roman occupation. Although it lacked amenities such as a theatre or an amphitheatre, the city had sewers, public baths and a temple dedicated to Mars Mullo. After an attack by German tribes in 275, Nantes' inhabitants built a wall; this defense also became common in surrounding Gaulish towns. The wall in Nantes, enclosing , was one of the largest in Gaul.
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According to Francis John Byrne, there are certain inscriptional hints that both the Eóganachta and their Waterford Déisi vassals may have been of fairly recent Gaulish origins.Byrne 2001, p. 72. The ancestors of the Eóganachta are known as the Deirgtine and they are also believed to have been active in Roman Britain, one piece of evidence being the name of their capital Cashel, thought to be inspired by the Roman castella they observed on raids.Byrne 2001, pp.
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The name of Bédée would come from the Gaulish "Bedo" (= pit) or "betu" (= birch) and the suffix -iscum. The transcription of the name has changed: Bedesc in 1120, Bidisco in 1122 Bedensi in 1152, Bédec in 1187 and Bédiscum in 1330. It is from the 15th century that the name of Bédée appeared in its actual writing. It can be mentioned that there is a character named Bède the venerable, a monk living in England during the 8th century.
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A chariot drawn by horses. Approximate historical map of the spread of the spoke-wheeled chariot, 2000–500 BC. A chariot is a type of carriage driven by a charioteer, usually using horses to provide rapid motive power. Chariots were used by armies as transport or mobile archery platforms, for hunting or for racing, and as a conveniently fast way to travel for many ancient people. The word "chariot" comes from the Latin term carrus, a loanword from Gaulish.
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Repartition of Gaul ca. 54 BC Most French people identify with the ancient Gauls and are well aware that they were a people that spoke Celtic languages and lived Celtic ways of life. Nowadays, the popular nickname Gaulois, "Gaulish people", is very often used to mean 'stock French people' to make the difference with the descendants of foreigners in France. Walloons occasionally characterise themselves as "Celts", mainly in opposition to the "Teutonic" Flemish and "Latin" French identities.
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Veneti coins, 5th-1st century BC. Gallic people of modern Brittany: The Veneti (Gaulish: "the kin, the friendly ones") were a Gallic tribe who lived in Armorica (Brittany Peninsula, France). A seafaring people, they strongly influenced southwestern Brittonic culture by their trade. After they were defeated by Junius Brutus Albinus in a naval battle in 56 BCE, their maritime commerce eventually declined under the Roman Empire, but a prosperous agricultural life is indicated by archaeological evidence.
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From the "Palace of Mirrors" baths at Saint-Romain-en-Gal, across the river from modern Vienne, but part of ancient Vienne, comes a statue of the town's tutelary goddess. North-east of Vienne and north of Cularo (modern Grenoble), is a major healing sanctuary at the modern town of Aix-les-Bains. This was dedicated to a southern Gaulish healing god Borvo, and not to Apollo as might have been expected of such a Romanised people.
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It is crossed by the Langouyrou stream that joins the Allier in the north of the commune. The city is overlooked by hills: Margeride, Mount Milan (Beauregard), Bonjour Volcano. The name appears in the corpus of Gaulish toponymy. Mount Milan may have been an oppidum (as suggested by the findings of Roman medals, coins and weapons). It might have been the meeting area of the Gabali tributes that joined Vercingetorix’s army in their struggle against Caesar.
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In the account of Arculf, a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon pilgrim, mention is made of a chalice venerated as the one used in the Last Supper in a chapel near Jerusalem. This is the only mention of the veneration of such a relic in the Holy Land. De locis sanctis; the chapel was located between the basilica of Golgotha and the Martyrium. The relic is described as a two-handled silver chalice with the measure of a Gaulish pint.
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It was excavated in 1950–1951, The discovery of Gaulish-made samian ware and a distinctive coin, along with coarse-gritted and medieval pottery, have led archaeologists to believe that the fort was occupied by Roman soldiers sometime after their invasion of Britain in 43 AD under Vespasian. Such was not uncommon in other hill forts of the Iron Age, with Maiden Castle and Hod Hill, both in Dorset, later occupied by Romans as strategic military bases.
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An excuse, that Suetonius had lost some ships, was found to relieve him of command and replace him with Publius Petronius Turpilianus.Tacitus, Annals 14.38-39 Classicianus died in London in 65\. London was destroyed by Boudica only four years before, so Classicianus must have overseen considerable reconstruction. His funerary monument was erected by his wife Julia Pacata, daughter of Julius Indus, a nobleman of the Gaulish Treveri who became commander of the Ala Gallorum Indiana cavalry unit.
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Cingetorix (Gaulish "marching king" or "king of warriors") was one of the two chieftains struggling for the supremacy of the Treveri of Gaul. Caesar supported him over his more anti-Roman rival Indutiomarus. However Indutiomarus persuaded his people to join the revolt led by Ambiorix of the Eburones in 54 BC, declared Cingetorix a public enemy and confiscated his property. Cingetorix presented himself to Caesar's legate Titus Labienus, who defeated and killed Indutiomarus in a cavalry engagement.
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The Pictones benefited from Roman peace, notably through many urban constructions such as aqueducts and temples. A thick wall built in the 2nd century AD encircles the city of Lemonum and is one of the distinguishing architectural forms of Gaulish antiquity. However, the Pictones were not Romanized in depth. Lemonum quickly adopted Christianity in the first two centuries AD. The region was known for its timber resources and occasionally traded with the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul.
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Smertrius is one of the Gaulish gods depicted on the Pillar of the Boatmen, discovered in Paris. Here is depicted as a well-muscled bearded man confronting a snake which rears up in front of him. The god brandishes an object which has usually been interpreted as a club but which rather resembles a torch or firebrand. The normal interpretation of the god's attribute as a club has led to the identification, by modern scholars, of Smertrius and Hercules.
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Altar depicting a tricephalic god identified as Lugus, discovered in Reims. Gaulish Mercury is associated with triplism: sometimes he has three faces, sometimes three phalluses, which may explain the plural dedications. This also compares with Irish myth. In some versions of the story Lug was born as one of triplets, and his father, Cian ("Distance"), is often mentioned in the same breath as his brothers Cú ("Hound") and Cethen (meaning unknown), who nonetheless have no stories of their own.
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Polybius, Histories, 2.28 Atilius' death did not dismay his officers who continued the battle without him and won possession of the hill. However, the Roman victory was due to the Gaulish decision to face the battle both ways (according to historian Aryeh Nusbacher) and thus divide their energies. The surviving consul Lucius Aemilius Papus obtained sole credit for the victory, and was awarded a triumph. It is not known if Atilius was married or left any surviving issue.
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Taran son of Ainftech was a King of the Picts from 693 until 697,The four-year reign and the accession in 692 are chosen by according to the Pictish king- lists. His name is the same as that of the Gaulish thunder-god, Taranis. His father is just a name, which occurs in various forms, e.g., Entifidich in the Poppleton manuscript, Enfidaig, Amfredech, Anfudeg, and as Amfodech in the French king-list embedded in the Scalacronica.
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In literature, Dīs Pater's name was commonly used as a symbolic and poetic way of referring to death itself. Dīs Pater was sometimes identified with the Sabine god Soranus. Julius Caesar, in his Commentaries on the Gallic Wars (VI:18), states that the Gauls all claimed descent from Dīs Pater. This is an example of interpretatio Romana: what Caesar meant was that the Gauls all claimed descent from a Gaulish god that he equated with the Roman Dīs Pater.
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In 390 a Gaulish warband first defeated the Roman army at the Battle of the Allia and then sacked Rome. According to Livy the Latins and Hernici, after a hundred years of loyal friendship with Rome, used this opportunity to break their treaty with Rome in 389.Livy, 6.2.3–4; Plutarch, Camillus 33.1 (who does not mention the Hernici) In his narrative of the years that followed, Livy describes a steady deterioration of relations between Rome and the Latins.
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128 online; and Ronald Syme (discussed passim in this article). See also C.-J. Guyonvarc'h, “La langue gauloise dans le De bello gallico,” Revue du CRBC 6: La Bretagne linguistique (1990), discussed at L'Arbre Celtique, "Les personnages Celtes," Troucillus/Procillus. assume that the two names refer to a single man; although Troucillus is a problematic reading of the text, it is a well-established Celtic name,D. Ellis Evans, Gaulish Personal Names (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), p.
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On 14 May, the band announced a new album scheduled for release on 1 August 2014, titled Origins. Original artwork created by Chrigel Glanzmann was released as well, along with the theme of the album, which revolves mainly around Gaulish mythology. In early June, the band announced on their Facebook that they will be releasing their lead single for Origins, titled "King", on 13, the same month. Eluveitie released the official music video for the song on 3 July.
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Koch, pp. 1359–1361 Celticist John T. Koch suggests that Llefelys' name is a compound, with the first element being Lleu (the name is usually spelled Lleuelis in the Red Book and White Book) lending his name to the Llewellyn dynasty of Welsh princes.Koch, pp. 1164–1165. Lleu is a major figure in the last of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi and is counterpart to the Irish mythological figure Lugh and the Gaulish god Lugus.
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Gaulish coin from present-day Normandy featuring a wild boar trophy on the reverse; such coin issues have been linked iconographically to the boar-god of Euffigneix Moccus is a Celtic god who was identified with Mercury. He is the boar- or swine-god of the continental Celtic tribe of Lingones. Moccus was invoked as the protector of boar hunters and warriors. Boar meat was sacred among the ancient Celts, and features in accounts of feasts in Irish mythology.
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MacCulloch highlights the high status and prestige enjoyed by pigs or boars in Celtic cultures, including in religious and mythological contexts: Wild boar motif on a Gaulish coin from present-day Brittany Miranda Green considers the boar in Celtic religious contexts to represent both "war, because of their ferocity and indominability", and "prosperity, because pork was a favourite Celtic food and played an important part in feasting". Celtic warriors sported boar motifs on their helmets, standards, and carnyxes.
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It was not considered as the property of a nation. Before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as "Gaulish" (Gallicum in Latin) and French scholars as "British" or "English".MORIEUX The name "English Channel" has been widely used since the early 18th century, possibly originating from the designation in Dutch sea maps from the 16th century onwards. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as (with no reference to the word "English").
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They are mentioned as Bitourígōn te tō͂n Ou̓iouískōn (Βιτουρίγων τε τῶν Οὐιουίσκων) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD),Strabo. Geōgraphiká, 4:2:1 as Bituriges liberi cognomine Vivisci by Pliny (1st c. AD),Pliny. Naturalis Historia, 4:108 and as Bitoúrges oi̔ Ou̓ibískoi (Βιτούργες οἱ Οὐιβίσκοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).Ptolemy. Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:7:7 The name Bituriges means 'kings of the world', stemming from the Gaulish root bitu- ('world') attached to riges ('kings'; sing. rix).
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The site was first occupied by Ligurians, probably the Oxybii, in the 6th century BCE; they traded with Massallia (ancient Marseilles) and cultivated vines and olives (coll.) By the 3rd century BCE, the Celto-Ligurian town had taken shape. Its name, in Gaulish, means "a habitation on the riverbank". In 125 BCE, the Romans under Octavian annexed Provence and the undefended site of Glanate surrendered. In time, Glanate acquired the status of a Roman town. (coll.
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Cairn Capercaillie Claymore Trousers ; Bard:Collins English Dictionary 21st Century Edition Harper Collins (2001) The word's earliest appearance in English is in 15th century Scotland with the meaning "vagabond minstrel". The modern literary meaning, which began in the 17th century, is heavily influenced by the presence of the word in ancient Greek (bardos) and ancient Latin (bardus) writings (e.g. used by the poet Lucan, 1st century AD), which in turn took the word from the Gaulish language. ; Ben: From , mountain.
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In 329 Aemilius was again elected to the consulship alongside Gaius Plautius Decianus. There was great alarm at Rome at this time because of a report that the Gauls were marching southward. Accordingly, while Decianus proceeded against Privernum, which was continuing to resist the Romans, Lucius Aemilius began to levy a large army in order to oppose the Gauls. However, the report of the Gaulish invasion proved to be unfounded, so both consuls united their forces against Privernum.
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An iconic phrase summarizing this view is that of "our ancestors the Gauls" (nos ancêtres les Gaulois), associated with the history textbook for schools by Ernest Lavisse (1842–1922), who taught that "the Romans established themselves in small numbers; the Franks were not numerous either, Clovis having but a few thousand men with him. The basis of our population has thus remained Gaulish. The Gauls are our ancestors."Les Romains qui vinrent s'établir en Gaule étaient en petit nombre.
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Martin of Braga, a distinguished 6th century bishop, was a native of Pannonia. The Visigothic king Leovigild impounded the ships of Gaulish merchants in Galicia. At Lorenzana, the fine sarcophagus that received at a later date the mortal remains of count Osorio Gutiérrez,was probably an import from southern Gaul in the 7th century, Fletcher notes. And one of the coins in the Bordeaux hoard deposited about 700 was struck at a Galician mint, suggesting possible trade connections.
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François Falc'hun (20 April 1901 – 13 January 1991) was a controversial French linguist known for his theories about the origin of the Breton language. He was also an ordained Canon in the Catholic clergy. Falc'hun was professor at the Universities of Rennes and Brest. Contrary to the mainstream opinion of linguists, Falc'hun took the view that Breton was derived from the Gaulish form of Continental Celtic, rather than from the Brythonic Celtic that were introduced by British migrants.
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The toponym Dinia is known from the 1st century AD (Ptolemy, Pliny the elder). Various hypotheses have been advanced. According to Papon, the name is formed by the hydronym Din (Gaulish water), with the suffix -ia. According to other scholars, the name is derived from a Roman proper noun, Din(n)ius.Charles Rostaing, Essai sur la toponymie de la Provence (depuis les origines jusqu’aux invasions barbares), Laffite Reprints, Marseille, 1973 (1re édition 1950), p. 165–166.
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The English word car is believed to originate from Latin / "wheeled vehicle" or (via Old North French) Middle English carre "two- wheeled cart," both of which in turn derive from Gaulish karros "chariot." It originally referred to any wheeled horse-drawn vehicle, such as a cart, carriage, or wagon. "Motor car," attested from 1895, is the usual formal term in British English. "Autocar," a variant likewise attested from 1895 and literally meaning "self-propelled car," is now considered archaic.
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The Aegean coast suffered similar attacks a few years later. In 264, the Goths reached Galatia and Cappadocia, and Gothic pirates landed on Cyprus and Crete. In the process, the Goths seized enormous booty and took thousands into captivity. In 286 AD, Carausius, a Roman military commander of Gaulish origins, was appointed to command the Classis Britannica, and given the responsibility of eliminating Frankish and Saxon pirates who had been raiding the coasts of Armorica and Belgic Gaul.
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The Merovingian kingdoms at their height The Merovingian dynasty was the ruling family of the Franks from the middle of the 5th century until 751. They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern Gaul. By 509 they had united all the Franks and northern Gaulish Romans under their rule. They conquered most of Gaul, defeating the Visigoths (507) and the Burgundians (534), and also extended their rule into Raetia (537).
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The town's name derives from the Latin (civitas) Sagiensis "city of the Sagii", a Gaulish tribe that turned it into its capital city. The traditional spelling was Séez, which has been retained by the Church; the Diocese of Séez is headed by the Bishop of Séez. However, the spelling Sées was adopted for the town by the civil authorities following Napoleon's successful Italian campaign of 1796–7, one result of which was to bring another (Savoyan) Séez into France.
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In the aftermath of the Gallic Wars the Arverni soldiers were pardoned and its senate was restored to power. The Arverni and the majority of other Gaulish states were pulled into the Roman political hemisphere but retained full rights and home rule. According to Gregory of Tours and his book Historia Francorum ("History of the Franks") the Arverni senators were still active in the sixth century and were deeply involved in the politics of the nascent Frankish state.
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Language shift, also known as language transfer or language replacement or language assimilation, is the process whereby a speech community shifts to a different language, usually over an extended period of time. Often, languages that are perceived to be higher status stabilise or spread at the expense of other languages that are perceived by their own speakers to be lower-status. An example is the shift from Gaulish to Latin during the time of the Roman Empire.
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They spoke the now extinct British language, which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages. In 418 the Aquitanian province was given to the Goths in exchange for their support against the Vandals. Those same Goths had sacked Rome in 410 and established a capital in Toulouse. Gaulish soldiers The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all the barbarian raids, and Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control.
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The "Endymion sarcophagus", early third century, found in 1806 at Saint- Médard-d'Eyrans, in Roman Gallia Aquitania (Louvre) Model reconstructing the Pillar of the Boatmen in the Musée de Cluny, an example of synthesis between Celtic and Roman art Roman culture introduced a new phase of anthropomorphized sculpture to the Gaulish community,A. N. Newell, "Gallo-Roman Religious Sculpture" Greece & Rome 3.8 (February 1934:74–84) noted the esthetic mediocrity of early Gallo-Roman sculpture in representations of Gaulish deities. synthesized with Celtic traditions of refined metalworking, a rich body of urbane Gallo-Roman silver developed, which the upheavals of the third and fifth centuries motivated hiding away in hoards, which have protected some pieces of Gallo-Roman silver, from villas and temple sites, from the universal destruction of precious metalwork in circulation. The exhibition of Gallo- Roman silver highlighted specifically Gallo-Roman silver from the treasures found at Chaourse (Aisne), Mâcon (Saône et Loire), Graincourt-lès-Havrincourt (Pas de Calais),Notre-Dame d'Allençon (Maine-et-Loire), and Rethel (Ardennes, found in 1980).
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'If he was forced to, he spoke in Galatian' (Vita S. Euthymii 55; after Eugenio Luján, 'The Galatian Place Names in Ptolemy', in: Javier de Hoz, Eugenio R. Luján, Patrick Sims-Williams (eds.), New Approaches to Celtic Place-Names in Ptolemy's Geography, Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas 2005, 264). while the last reference to Gaulish in France was made by Gregory of Tours between 560 and 575, noting that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground.Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galatæ vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatæ in the Gallic tongue, After the long period of bilingualism, the emergent Gallo-Romance languages including French were shaped by Gaulish in a number of ways; in the case of French these include loanwords and calques (including oui, the word for "yes"), sound changes,Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae.
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The name is recorded from the High Middle Ages among the Normans of France and England (Yvo of Chartres, born c. 1040). The name's etymology may be either Germanic or Celtic, in either case deriving from a given name with a first element meaning "yew" (Gaulish Ivo-, Germanic Iwa-).Campbell, Mike Ivo (Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names) The name may have been spread by the cult of Saint Ivo (d. 1303), patron saint of Brittany.
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Epona, 3rd century CE, from Freyming (Moselle), France (Musée Lorrain, Nancy) The horse, an instrument of Indo- European expansion, plays a part in all the mythologies of the various Celtic cultures. The cult of the Gaulish horse goddess Epona was widespread. Adopted by the Roman cavalry, it spread throughout much of Europe, even to Rome itself. She seems to be the embodiment of "horse power" or horsemanship, which was likely perceived as a power vital for the success and protection of the tribe.
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Evidence of base-20 counting systems is also found in the languages of central and western Africa. Remnants of a Gaulish base-20 system also exist in French, as seen today in the names of the numbers from 60 through 99. For example, sixty- five is soixante-cinq (literally, "sixty [and] five"), while seventy-five is soixante-quinze (literally, "sixty [and] fifteen"). Furthermore, for any number between 80 and 99, the "tens-column" number is expressed as a multiple of twenty.
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The majority of pre-Christian wolf-related traditions in Eurasia were rooted in Hittite mythology, with wolves featuring prominently in Indo-European cultures, sometimes as deity figures.Mallory, J. P. & Adams, D. Q. (1997), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & Francis, pp. 647-648, The wolf was held in high esteem by the Dacians, whose name was derived from the Gaulish Daoi, meaning "wolf people". The wolf was viewed as the lord of all animals, and as the only effective power against evil.
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Map of Vindobona around 250 A.D. Vindobona (from Gaulish windo- "white" and bona "base/bottom") was a Roman military camp on the site of the modern city of Vienna in Austria. The settlement area took on a new name in the 13th century, being changed to Berghof, or now simply known as Alter Berghof (the Old Berghof).The Older Berghof in Vienna (German). Today, the site is more commonly associated with Hoher Markt and Wiener Neustädter Hof, a building in today's Sterngasse 3.
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The Noric language, or Eastern Celtic, is an unclassified Continental Celtic language. It is attested in only two fragmentary inscriptions from the Roman province of Noricum (one in Grafenstein, Austria, the other in Ptuj, Slovenia), which do not provide enough information for any conclusions about the nature of the language to be drawn. However, the language was probably similar to the other Celtic languages near to it, such as Gaulish. Due to its scant evidence it is unknown when it became extinct.
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300 AD) or Nemetaco (365), with the same root nemet- ('sacred wood' > 'sanctuary') attached to the Gaulish suffix -acos. Before 54 BC, an offshoot of the Gallic tribe probably settled in Britain. After the Roman invasion of Britain, three civitates were created in the late 1st c. BC: one of the Atrebates, with a capital in Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester); one of the Belgae with its capital at Venta (Winchester); and one of the Reg(i)ni, with a capital at Noviomagus (Chichester).
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In Augusta Suessionum were found a votive stele dedicated to the native goddess Camuloriga (Camloriga), and a statuette of the Roman god Mercury. The divine name Camuloriga stems from of the Gaulish term camulos, possibly translated as 'champion, servant' (denoting one who makes efforts) and attached to the suffix -riga- (< rigani 'queen'; compare with Old Irish rígain 'queen'). Rural sanctuaries have been identified at Fossoy, Grand-Rozoy, and Pasly. Archaeologists have not been able to identified which deities were worshipped there.
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Egeria's ability to make a long and expensive journey by herself, her numerous acquaintances and attentive guides in the places she visited, and her education indicate her middle or upper class wealthy background. In his letter to Egeria, Valerio mentioned the shores of the "Western sea" or "Ocean" from which Egeria was sprung, which suggests he was writing about a person travelling from the Roman Gallaecia, but Meister believes that her reference to the river Rhone supports his theory of Gaulish origin.
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In the 1st century BC, the Sequani tribe (the most "Gaulish of Gauls" according to historian Henri Martin), which was centered around Besançon, settled in Sundgau. From 70 BC, they waged perpetual warfare with their neighbours, the Aedui, calling upon German mercenaries, led by Ariovistus. When the conflict finished, the Germans settled into the region, and the Sequani, to remove them appealed to the Romans. Julius Caesar defeated Ariovistus in 58 BC near Cernay, and a long domination by the Romans commenced.
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Eastern Armorican, together with Gallo, forms the "zone armoricaine" of Langues d'oïl. As an oïl language or dialect it shares many common features with French in vocabulary, phonemes and daily expressions. It is also similar to the Gallo language (although Gallo has a stronger Celtic linguistic substrate that comes from Breton and not only from ancient Gaulish language). Angevin influenced the origin and development of Gallo in the Marches of Neustria (especially in the Breton March) beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries.
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The Vienna manuscript containing Endlicher's Glossary Endlicher's Glossary () is a glossary composed of eighteen lines of Gaulish words, mainly to do with regional placenames, translated into Latin. There are seven surviving copies of it, with the oldest dating to the 8th century. It is named after Stephan Endlicher who first described it in 1836. It is also known as the Vienna Glossary after the city where the first manuscript was discovered and is still held, in the Austrian National Library.
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He quickly defeats them, and makes his way through the Gaulish countryside to a hilltop by the sea. There, he meets up with Obelix, who tells him that Dogmatix is still nowhere to be found. They learn from the Roman agent that their fellow villagers have been kidnapped by the Romans. Asterix and Obelix then follow him to a dock, where he points out two barges far off in the distance, and mentions that their friends are probably being held prisoner aboard them.
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Linguistic map of Italy in the sixth century BC. Gallic tribes (in dark blue) had already colonised the region of Piedmont. By 400 BC, they had overrun much of the rest of the Po plain in the North, and Gaulish dialects had displaced Lepontic, Raetic, Etruscan and N. Picene in that region. Raetic survived in the Alps. Note the tiny area occupied by the original Latins The Italian peninsula at this time was a patchwork of different ethnic groups, languages and cultures.
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Lleu Llaw Gyffes (, sometimes misspelled Llew Llaw Gyffes) is a hero of Welsh mythology. He appears most prominently in the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi, the tale of Math fab Mathonwy, which tells the tale of his birth, his marriage, his death, his resurrection and his accession to the throne of Gwynedd. He is a warrior and magician, invariably associated with his uncle Gwydion. He is widely understood to be the Welsh equivalent of the Irish Lugh and the Gaulish Lugus.
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It is the focus of cooperative European archaeological efforts, a training ground for young archaeologists, and a centre for interpreting Gaulish culture for a popular audience. Important international excavations have been undertaken at Mont Beuvray by teams from the universities of Sheffield, Kiel, Budapest, Vienna and Leipzig. On December 12, 2007, the site of Bibracte received the "Great Site of France" Label. Before the Roman conquest in 52 BC the great Celtic city of Bibracte had more than thirty thousand inhabitants.
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Relations between France and Asia span a period of more than two millennia. France–Asia relations span a period of more than two millennia, starting in the 6th century BCE with the establishment of Marseille by Greeks from Asia Minor, and continuing in the 3rd century BCE with Gaulish invasions of Asia Minor to form the kingdom of Galatia and Frankish Crusaders forming the Crusader States. Since these early interactions, France has had a rich history of contacts with the Asian continent.
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The main struggle (58–50 BC) against the Romans came against Julius Caesar under Vercingetorix at Battle of Gergovia (a city of the Arverni) and at the Battle of Alesia (a city of the Mandubii). The Gaulish commander was captured at the siege of Alesia and the war ended. Caesar seized the remainder of Gaul, justifying his conquest by playing on Roman memories of savage attacks over the Alps by Celts and Germans. Italy was now to be defended from the Rhine.
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De Vita Caesarum. IV:8. A faction of Treveri, led by Julius Florus and allied with the Aeduan Julius Sacrovir, led a rebellion of Gaulish debtors against the Romans in 21 CE. Florus was defeated by his rival Julius Indus, while Sacrovir led the Aedui in revolt.Tacitus, Annales III:40-42. The Romans quickly re-established cordial relations with the Treveri under Indus, who promised obedience to Rome; in contrast, they completely annihilated the Aedui who had sided with Sacrovir.
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Map of Briton settlements in the 6th-century, including what became Brittany and Britonia (in Spain). Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History (4.17.105), claims that Armorica was the older name for Aquitania and states Armorica's southern boundary extended to the Pyrenees. Taking into account the Gaulish origin of the name, that is perfectly correct and logical, as Aremorica is not a country name but a word that describes a type of geographical region, one that is by the sea.
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Although they are thrown in prison, Obelix easily breaks the door (another running gag) and they flee, taking Rhetoric with them to question. While at first he pretends to speak only Gothic, Rhetoric accidentally reveals that he can speak Gaulish and is forced to spill the beans. While trying to sneak into the Gothic town, Rhetoric screams and attracts a patrol. Although Asterix and Obelix beat up the patrol, they surrender to the last standing man to be brought to the Chief.
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The book begins with Asterix and Obelix hunting wild boar until one boar leads them to a Roman patrol, which the Gauls vanquish while the boars escape. In Rome, Julius Caesar orders M. Devius Surreptitious, the head of M.I.VI, service, to send an agent to infiltrate the Gauls. This agent is a Gaulish-Roman druid known as Dubbelosix, who travels in a folding chariot full of secret devices. Dubbelosix and Surreptitius communicate via a carrier fly, who develops a crush for Dubbelosix.
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Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield (, "The Arvernian Shield") is the eleventh volume in the Asterix comic book series, written by René Goscinny and drawn by Albert Uderzo. It was originally published as a serial in Pilote issues 399–421 in 1967. The book is inspired by the battle of Alesia, where the Gaulish warrior chief Vercingetorix surrendered to Julius Caesar. However, only the very end of the actual battle appears in the book – the main plot concerns what happened after the battle.
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Capdenac is a commune in the Lot department in south-western France. It has been inhabited since prehistoric times. At one time Capdenac was thought to be identifiable as the Gaulish settlement of Uxellodunum which was besieged by Julius Caesar,baron de Walckenaer, Géographie ancienne historique et comparée des Gaules cisalpine et transalpine, p 353, Paris, 1862 (1st edition 1839) but this theory has been discredited.(2008-08-06), Uxellodunum: une nouvelle bataille en perspective, La Dépêche du Midi (ladepeche.
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The name Vercingetorix derives from the Gaulish ver- ("over, superior" – an etymological cognate of Cornish gor-, Irish for-, more distantly English over, German über, Latin super, or Greek hyper), cingeto- ("warrior", related to roots meaning "tread, step, walk", so possibly "infantry"; compare Old Irish cingid), and rix ("king") (cf. Welsh rhi, Latin rex), thus literally either "great warrior king" or "king of great warriors". In his Life of Caesar, Plutarch renders the name as Vergentorix.Plutarch, Life of Caesar 25; 27.
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In Irish mythology, Aífe the daughter of Airdgeimm, sister of Scathach, is a warrior woman beloved of Cuchullain in the Ulster Cycle. T. F. O'Rahilly supposed that the Irish heroine reflects an otherwise unknown goddess representing a feminine counterpart to Gaulish Esus.Donnchadh Ó Corráin, Fidelma Maguire, Gaelic personal names (1981), p. 16. Aífe or Aoife was also one of the wives of Lir in the Oidheadh chloinne Lir ("Fate of the Children of Lir"), who turned her stepchildren into swans.
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Gilmour Its origins are with Gauls, who occupied the Parma area in around 400 BC, who had stayed there after the invasion of the Romans. The lexicon was therefore a type of Latin influenced by Gaulish. The Gauls, or Celts, left their mark on modern Parmigiano in some words today, such as gozèn "pig", scrana "chair" and sôga "rope". As a result of Spanish and especially French invasions, Parmigiani began to use words which came from a French language that had Latin roots.
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They settled in Tolosa, intermarrying with the local people, and their Gaulish language became predominant. By 200 BC, Tolosa is attested on coins as the capital of the Volcae Tectosages (which Julius Caesar called Tolosates—singular Tolosas—in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico). According to archaeologists, Tolosa was one of the wealthiest and most important cities in Gaul during the pre-Roman era. Gold and silver mines were nearby, and offerings to its shrines and temples accumulated wealth in the city.
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Latin-speakers adopted the word drungus - first attested in the early 4th century - either from Gaulish or from a Germanic language. In the late 6th century, the Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) in his Strategikon used droungos to refer to a specific tactical deployment, usually of cavalry, although still in the general sense of "grouping, division". The term droungarios (Greek: δρουγγάριος) is not documented before the early 7th century but might have been used as an informal or unofficial designation before that date.
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In 52 BC, Garanella plain was the site of the Battle of Lutetia between the troops of the Gaulish chief Camulogène and the Roman legion under General Labienus. Despite their courageous resistance, the Gauls were defeated. Towards the middle of the 13th century, Grenelle became a fiefdom of the Abbey of St Genevieve and became part of the village of Vaugirard. On May 15, 1824, two city councillors from Vaugirard, Jean-Léonard Violet and Alphonse Letellier, bought and divided up Grenelle plain.
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The entrance of the Via delle Volte The first settlements in the area dates from the Etruscan age, and they were probably devastated by Gaulish invasions at the time of the latter's invasions against Rome. In the early Middle Ages the town was known as Salingolpe; in the 11th century Matilda of Tuscany gave it as fief to the counts Guidi and, subsequently, to the Trebbio. In the early 15th century it became a stronghold, of which today the Rocca remain.
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Toon turns off his ship's "anti- collision magnetic field", ending the paralysis of the village. He informs the Gauls he is on a mission to confiscate their "secret weapon" (Getafix's potion) that is "known throughout the universe", in order to prevent it from being seized by evil aliens called Nagmas. Meanwhile, a Nagma has landed his spaceship in the nearby Roman camp of Compendium and seeks the "powerful deadly weapon". The Roman centurion Polyanthus gives him directions to the Gaulish village.
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Already in the time of Julius Caesar, the "Island of the Batavi" was known to the Romans. Its eastern point was the split of the Rhine into the Oude Rijn and the Waal, which at this time were the two main branches of the Rhine. The Waal flowed into the Meuse in the Roman period. Pliny the Elder's Natural History gives a list of tribes living in the "Gaulish islands" within the delta region between different mouths of the Rhine.
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Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:8:11 The name Segusiavi stems from Gaulish sego- ('victory, force'). The second element -siavi is unclear. Segusiavi , who by then possessed a wide area just north of the Greek colony of Massalia may have been an alternative name of the Segobriges, involved in the legendary foundation myth of the city. The city of Feurs, attested as Foros Segusiavon in the 2nd century CE ('forum, market of the Segusiavi', Forum in 950, Fuer in 1227) is ultimately named after the Gallic tribe.
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Pompignan - the first stop on the tour of eleven sites sketched - is less than two kilometers from his natal village, Grisolles, and the sketchbook as whole is attentive to both architectural details and landscape, necessary for his studies in archeology. Details in Cranga, p179, note 4. which depict some of the fabriques as they existed at the time of the visit. :The Gaulish temple There is an image of a small hexagonal temple, surmounted by a miniature portico, and nearby a statue of St Bonaventure.
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In 390 BC a Gaulish warband first defeated the Roman army at the Battle of the Allia and then sacked Rome. The ancient writers report that in 389 the Etruscans, the Volsci and the Aequi all raised armies in hope of exploiting this blow to Roman power. According to Livy the leading men of all of Etruria gathered at the sanctuary of Voltumna to form a hostile alliance against Rome.Livy, vi.2.2 Beset by dangers on all sides, the Romans appointed Marcus Furius Camillus dictator.
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Around 300 BC, a group from the Gaulish Parisii tribe apparently took over East Yorkshire, establishing the highly distinctive Arras culture. And from around 150–100 BC, groups of Belgae began to control significant parts of the South. These invasions constituted movements of a few people who established themselves as a warrior elite atop existing native systems, rather than replacing them. The Belgic invasion was much larger than the Parisian settlement, but the continuity of pottery style shows that the native population remained in place.
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The shield was made principally from wood, now perished, to a design later known as a "Gaulish Shield" that originated in the seventh century BC. What remains is an almost complete facing that had been made to cover its surface. The sheeting is 0.2-0.3 mm thick and was designed to be applied to a wooden backing estimated at 8 mm thick. There are two main sheets that meet at the midpoint of the shield. Each of these sheets is just over one metre long.
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The Galatian language, based on onomastic evidence (as no texts written in Galatian have yet been discovered), seems to have closely resembled the Gaulish language of western and central Europe. The language was introduced to Anatolia in the 3rd century BC, when Celtic tribes – notably the Tectosages, Trocmii, and Tolistobogii – migrated south from the Balkans. According to the Greek historian Strabo, the Tectosages of Anatolia were related to the Volcae Tectosages of Gaul; the parent tribe of both branches, the Volcae, originally lived in central Europe.
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Strabo's claim appears to be confirmed by the participation of other Gaulish tribes trading with Britain in the war, and by the involvement of Britons themselves.' Caesar had left for Illyricum at the beginning of the winter of 57–56. Informed of the events occurring in Armorica by Crassus, he launched the construction of a fleet of galleys, and placed orders for ships from the Pictones, Santones, and other 'pacified tribes'. War preparations were quickly achieved, and he joined the army 'as soon as the season permitted'.
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Archaeological evidence show a shift in trade with Britain from Armorica to the more north-easterly routes during the second half of the 1rst century BCE, following the Roman decisive victory over Gaulish Armorican tribes in 56 BCE. The Veneti built their ships of oak with large transoms fixed by iron nails of a thumb's thickness. They navigated and powered their ships through the use of leather sails. This made their ships strong, sturdy and structurally sound, capable of withstanding the harsh conditions of the Atlantic.
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Keep the tail closed up in the palm > of the same hand until it dies and touch the woman and her private parts > when you have intercourse with her.Marcellus, De medicamentis 33.64. > There is an herb called nymphaea in Greek, 'Hercules’ club' in Latin, and > baditis in Gaulish. Its root, pounded to a paste and drunk in vinegar for > ten consecutive days, has the astonishing effect of turning a boy into a > eunuch.Marcellus, De medicamentis 33.64; compare Pliny the Elder, Natural > History 25.75 (37).
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Although the general contents of the inscription are known with some confidence, there is as yet no unified, agreed-upon translation. On the first side, David Stifter (2001), for example, indicates that <> is an 'assembly of 300', similar to Gaulish , while <> according to Bayer (1994) is something like 'was (deemed) suitable (by the assembly)' (cf. Latin 'to please'). The sequences with and with infinitive in are clearly something like '(it is) not permitted to...', and mentions some kind of monetary and property fines for ignoring the prohibitions.
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The commune was listed under the name Blanoilus and is considered an important community of the area. The origin of the name Bléneau is unclear, and there are hypothesis of a gaulish or Celtic origin. The city was on an ancient road called Voie des marchands, meaning "merchants' road", which connected Auxerre to Briare by crossing the Loing. Archeological researches in the area showed that there were notable Gallo-Roman settlements in the area, and sarcophagus and traces of iron mining were found near the commune.
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Rogny-les-sept-écluses was simply known as Rogny before 1978, when the name was changed to mirror its famous monument. Human settlement in the area dates back to Roman times. Medals and coins bearing the image of the Emperor Constantine (306-337) and the Gaulish tyran Tetricus (268) were found along an ancient Roman road. In the Middle Ages, the lower part of the village was on wetlands, so most of the villagers lived around the church on the higher part of the village.
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Rome annexed Veii's territory and enrolled her citizens as Roman citizens, significantly increasing Roman territory and manpower. In 390 BC a Gaulish warband first defeated the Roman army at the Battle of Allia and then sacked Rome. Despite ancient sources' emphasis on the severity of the destruction, this appears to have been only a temporary setback for Rome. The records for the first half of the 4th century BC are confused, but Rome appears to have embarked on a deliberate policy of aggression against the Volsci.
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150 AD and abandoned ca. 280–290 AD. A vase dedicated to Apollo Vatumarus and deposed with an offering found in the site, along with the statuette of a mother-goddess, depictions of Risus, and effigies of the Nymphs and Sol. The divine name Vatumaros ('High Seer') is composed of the Gaulish root vātis ('soothsayer, seer') attached to maros ('high'). An inscription from Augusta Viromandorum mentions Suiccius as a Viromanduan priest honouring the Imperial numen, and attests the presence of a public cult to the god Vulcan.
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Caninius Rebilus, upon learning of the Gauls' plans, concentrated the bulk of his legions and unleashed them on the Gaulish convoy. Lucterius, who was in charge of the convoy, immediately took flight with his war-bands without informing Drapes. The rest of the Gauls were massacred almost to a man, some sources saying that as many as 12,000 Gauls were killed in the action. Caninius Rebilus left one of his legions behind to defend his three camps and gathered the rest of his soldiers to pursue Drapes.
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None of the Didii mentioned during the Republic is known to have borne a cognomen. A number of surnames are found under the Empire, of which the only one that appears to be a family name is Gallus. This cognomen, referring to a cockerel, belongs to an abundant class of cognomina derived from the names of everyday objects and animals. The same surname could also refer to a Gaul, indicating someone of Gaulish descent, or whose appearance or character resembled that of a Gaul.
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The ius gentium was not a written legal code, but was thought to exist among all peoples as a matter of natural law. Roman jurists show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths.Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," pp. 558–559. While the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin until the 220s,Adams, "Romanitas and the Latin Language," pp. 186–187.
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Inciona is also apparently invoked along with Lenus Mars Veraudunus on a bronze ex voto from Luxembourg;Musée d'histoire et d'art, Luxembourg. 1974. Pierres sculptées et inscriptions de l'époque romaine, catalogued by Eugénie Wilhelm, p.71. it is unclear what connection, if any, exists between Inciona and Ancamna. Jufer and Luginbühl link Ancamna with two other consorts of the Gaulish Mars, Litavis and Nemetona, noting that none of these appear to be warrior goddesses themselves; instead, they suggest that Ancamna might have been associated with a spring.
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The Fir Domnann were a people named in Irish legendary history. The name Fir Domnann is based on the root dumno-, which means both ‘deep’ and ‘the world’. The suffix -on- often occurs in Gaulish and British divine names. The tribal name Dumnonii, found in Britain, would therefore mean ‘people of the god of the world’. Old Irish fir means ‘men’, and so Fir Domnann had the same meaning as the British tribal name, leading to conjecture that these tribes had a common origin.
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Naturalis Historia, 4:109 and as Bitoúriges oi̔ Kou͂boi (Βιτούριγες οἱ Κοῦβοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).Ptolemy. Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:7:10 The name Bituriges means 'kings of the world', stemming from the Gaulish root bitu- ('world') attached to riges ('kings'; sing. rix). The city of Bourges, attested as civitas Biturigum ca. 400 CE ('civitas of the Bituriges', Bituricas in 844, Bituris in 1182), and the region of Berry, attested as pagus Biturigus in 860 ('pagus of the Bituriges'), are named after the Gallic tribe.
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Stained glass window at Gloucester Cathedral depicting St Patrick being taught by St Germanus Around 429, shortly after the Romans had withdrawn from Britain, a Gaulish assembly of bishops chose Germanus and Lupus, Bishop of Troyes, to visit the island. It was alleged that Pelagianism was rife among the British clergy, led by a British bishop's son named Agricola. Germanus went to combat the threat and satisfy the Pope that the British church would not break away from the Augustinian teachings of divine grace.Butler, Rev.
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His extravagant, empire-wide program of public and private works was funded by a rise in taxes that was much resented by the upper classes. In contrast, his populist style of rule remained well-admired among the lower classes of Rome and the provinces until his death and beyond. Various plots against Nero's life developed, and Nero had many of those involved put to death. In AD 68 Vindex, governor of the Gaulish territory Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled, with support from Galba, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.
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Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, 2:8:2; 2:8:5 The meaning of the name Viducasses is unclear. The prefix stems from Gaulish uidu- ('tree, wood'), but the translation of the element -casses is less certain, possibly 'hair, hairstyle', perhaps a particular warrior coiffure, or 'tin, bronze (helmet?)'. From this interpretation, the meaning 'tangled-hair ones', 'those with the tangled hair (like a tree)' has been proposed. The city of Vieux, attested as Veiocae in 1180 (Vex in 1239, Vieux in 1294) is named after the Gallic tribe.
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Although often credited with prehistoric origin, most were erected in medieval times, and some in later centuries. They are often situated close to a ford where carts could cross. According to the Dartmoor National Park, the word 'clapper' derives ultimately from an Anglo-Saxon word, , meaning 'bridging the stepping stones'; the Oxford English Dictionary gives the intermediate Medieval Latin form , , "of Gaulish origin", with an initial meaning of "a pile of stones".French and Provençal clapier developed the additional significance of a rabbit warren.
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Similar throwing straps were used on light javelins throughout Europe. Italian, Gaulish, and Iberian troops used them before and after the Roman conquests, they are mentioned in an ancient Irish story, and remains have been found on spears in the Nydam bog finds, where some appear to have been permanently fastened with studs. A similar device was used in New Caledonia, but in the rest of the world, the spear-thrower was the usual device for increasing the speed and range of light javelins.
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D.S. xiv.106 Records of fighting between Romans and Aequi become much sparser in the second half of the 5th century BC. Likely the Aequi had gradually become a more settled people and their raiding petered out as a result. In 390 BC, a Gaulish war band defeated the Roman army at the Battle of Allia and then sacked Rome. The ancient writers report that, in 389 BC, the Etruscans, Volsci, and Aequi all raised armies in the hope of exploiting this blow to Roman power.
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All the known effigies from the 2nd century AD forum at Cuicul are of emperors or Concordia. By the middle of the 1st century AD, Gaulish Vertault seems to have abandoned its native cultic sacrifice of horses and dogs in favour of a newly established, Romanised cult nearby: by the end of that century, Sabratha's so-called tophet was no longer in use.Van Andringa, in Rüpke (ed), 89. Colonial and later Imperial provincial dedications to Rome's Capitoline Triad were a logical choice, not a centralised legal requirement.
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Xavier Delamarre is a French linguist, lexicographer and diplomat. He is considered a specialist of the Gaulish language. Since 2019, he has been an associate researcher for the CNRS-PSL AOrOc laboratory (Archéologie & Philologie d'Orient et d'Occident), and the co-administrator, with Pierre-Yves Lambert, of Thesaurus Paleo-Celticus, a CNRS project that aims to replace Alfred Holder's Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz (1913). With linguist Romain Garnier, Delamarre is the co-publishing editor of Wékwos, a journal founded in 2014 and devoted to Indo-European comparative linguistics.
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64–66 With the Gregorian missionaries, a third strand of Christian practice was added to the British Isles, to combine with the Gaulish and the Hiberno-British strands already present. Although it is often suggested that the Gregorian missionaries introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into England, there is no supporting evidence.Lawrence Medieval Monasticism pp. 54–55 The early archbishops at Canterbury claimed supremacy over all the bishops in the British Isles, but their claim was not acknowledged by most of the rest of the bishops.
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By 411 a Burgundian group had established themselves on the Rhine, between Franks and Alamanni, holding the cities of Worms, Speyer, and Strassbourg. In 436, Aëtius defeated the Burgundians on the Rhine with the help of Hunnish forces, and then in 443, he re-settled the Burgundians within the empire, in Savoy in Gaul. This Gaulish domain became the Kingdom of the Burgundians, in the western Alps region where modern Switzerland, France and Italy meet. This later became a component of the Frankish empire.
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While relatively little has been written about Celtic warfare at sea, the Gaulish Veneti, a tribe occupying the South of Brittany fiercely resisted Romans on land. They were said to have constructed ships of oak with tough leather sails, well adapted for plying the rough Atlantic seas. Their capital, Darioritum, was extremely difficult to attack from land. At first the Roman galleys, fighting in unfamiliar conditions, were at a great disadvantage until new tactics were developed by the Roman admiralre subject to savage reprisals for their defiance.
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Colin Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History of France (Cambridge University Press, 1994), 29-30. Later, the Consul of Gaul — Julius Caesar — conquered all of Gaul. Despite Gaulish opposition led by Vercingetorix, the Gauls succumbed to the Roman onslaught. The Gauls had some success at first at Gergovia, but were ultimately defeated at Alesia in 52 BC. The Romans founded cities such as Lugdunum (Lyon), Narbonensis (Narbonne) and allow in a correspondence between Lucius Munatius Plancus and Cicero to formalize the existence of Cularo (Grenoble).
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Signs in Gallo are very rare and the writing systems they use are unknown by most of the speakers. Gallo is spoken on the eastern half of Brittany. It is not itself a Celtic language. Like French, it is also descended from Latin (and is classified in the Langues d'oïl branch), but has some Celtic influences, particularly in its vocabulary, whereas French has influences from both Celtic (Gaulish) and Frankish (the Germanic language which arrived after Latin in much of the rest of France).
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The settlement was founded in the 3rd century BC and existed until c. 50–30 BC. It reached its largest extent during the late La Tène period (late 2nd century BC), when it had a size of 380 hectares. At that time, 5,000 to 10,000 people lived within its 7.2 km long walls. The oppidum of Bibracte is another example of a Gaulish fortified settlement. The Mura aureliane are a line of city walls built between 271 AD and 275 AD in Rome, Italy, during the reign of the Roman Emperors Aurelian and Probus.
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However, Napoleon Bonaparte was greatly attracted to the romantic image of the Celt, which was partly based on Jean-Jacques Rousseau's glorification of the noble savage and the popularity of James Macpherson's Ossianic tales throughout Europe. Bonaparte's nephew, Napoleon III, would later have the Vercingétorix monument erected to honour the Celtic Gaulish leader. Indeed, in France the phrase "nos ancêtres les Gaulois" (our ancestors the Gauls) was invoked by Romantic nationalists,. typically in a republican fashion, to refer to the majority of the people, contrary to the aristocracy (claimed to be of Frankish-Germanic descent).
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The original may have been commissioned at some time between 230 and 220 BC by Attalus I of Pergamon to celebrate his victory over the Galatians, the Celtic or Gaulish people of parts of Anatolia (modern Turkey). The original sculptor is believed to have been Epigonus, a court sculptor of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon. Until the 20th century the marble statue was usually known as The Dying Gladiator, on the assumption that it depicted a wounded gladiator in a Roman amphitheatre.Henry Beauchamp Walters, The Art of the Greeks, The Macmillan Company, 1906, p.
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Senigallia was first settled in the 4th century BC by the gallic tribe of the Senones who first settled this coastal area. In 284 BC, the settlement was taken over by Romans, who established the colony Sena Gallica there. "Sena" is probably a corrupted form of "Senones" and "Gallica" (meaning "Gaulish") distinguished it from Saena (Siena) in Etruria. In the prelude to the Battle of the Metaurus between Romans and Carthaginians in 207 BC, Sena Gallica was the southernmost point of Carthaginian General Hasdrubal Barca's invasion of Italy.
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The origin of Belpech is very old, the site was inhabited from the Gallo-Roman times. The name of the village at this time (Bellopodio-Beaupuy) derives from that of a Gaulish god: Belenos and "pech" means the hill which dominates. It was once a very important city that had to suffer religious wars and large fires (97 houses were burned down in 1791). It was dominated by a castle called Castelas, built in the eleventh century on the hill "pech" overlooking the present village, which you can still see the remains of the keep.
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It is inscribed in Gaulish with Latin characters and uses Roman numerals. The Coligny Calendar is an attempt to reconcile the cycles of the moon and sun, as is the modern Gregorian calendar. However, the Coligny calendar considers the phases of the moon to be important, and each month always begins with the same moon phase. The calendar uses a mathematical arrangement to keep a normal 12 month calendar in sync with the moon and keeps the whole system in sync by adding an intercalary month every years.
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Julius Caesar said in his Gallic Wars: "[the Gaulish Celts] keep birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in such an order that the day follows the night." Longer periods were reckoned in nights, as in the surviving English term fortnight meaning two weeks, and the obsolete se'nnight meaning one week. The Laws of Hywel Dda (in editions surviving from the 12th and 13th centuries) make repeated references to periods of nine days (nawfed dydd), rather than the "eight nights" that make up the current word wythnos.
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Dumnorix was spared any serious retribution at the intervention of his brother Diviciacus, who had good relations with Caesar and the Romans. Caesar agreed instead to place Dumnorix under surveillance. Dumnorix continued to be troublesome, and in 54 BC was one of the Gaulish leaders Caesar proposed to take with him as hostages on his second expedition to Britain, fearing that they might cause trouble in his absence. Dumnorix pleaded his fear of the sea and religious obligations in an attempt to get Caesar to leave him behind.
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Polybius (2.33) reports that the Gauls at the Battle of Telamon (224 BC) had inferior iron swords which bent at the first stroke and had to be straightened with the foot against the ground. Plutarch, in his life of Marcus Furius Camillus, likewise reports on the inferiority of Gaulish iron, making the same claim that their swords bent easily. These reports have puzzled some historians, since by that time the Celts had a centuries long tradition of iron workmanship.Vagn Fabritius Buchwald, Iron and steel in ancient times, Kgl.
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A story of the Roman wars against the Gauls of the 4th century BC, recorded by Livy, Aulus Gellius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, may preserve a reference to her. A Roman soldier, Marcus Valerius, accepted a challenge to single combat with a Gaulish champion. When the fight began, a crow landed on Valerius's helmet and began to attack the Gaul, who, terrified by this divine intervention, was easily beaten. Valerius adopted the cognomen "Corvus" (crow), and as Marcus Valerius Corvus went on to be a famous general and politician of the Roman Republic.
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L'Hospitalet-du-Larzac () is a commune in the Aveyron department in southern France, part of the southern Massif central, incorporating part of the Larzac plateau. The economy is agricultural, notably dairy produce (Roquefort cheese), but also beef and mutton production, and rural tourism. L'Hospitalet- du-Larzac is the site of discovery of one of the longest and most important inscriptions in the Gaulish language, a lead curse tablet (found in 1983). The commune is named for a historical hospital founded by vicount Millau Gilbert (or Guibert) in 1108.
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Ludowici 1927; Ricken 1942; Ricken & Fischer 1963 Rheinzabern produced both decorated and plain forms for around a century from the middle of the 2nd century. Some of the Dr.37 bowls, for example those with the workshop stamp of Ianus, bear comparison with Central Gaulish products of the same date: others are less successful. But the real strength of the Rheinzabern industry lay in its extensive production of good-quality samian cups, beakers, flagons and vases, many imaginatively decorated with barbotine designs or in the 'cut-glass' incised technique.
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The falcon- headed Horus and crane-headed Seth. Examples of humans with animal heads (theriocephaly) in the ancient Egyptian pantheon include jackal-headed Anubis, cobra-headed Amunet, lion-headed Sekhmet, falcon-headed Horus, etc. Most of these deities also have a purely zoomorphic and a purely anthropomorphic aspect, with the hybrid representation seeking to capture aspects of both of which at once. Similarly, the Gaulish Artio sculpture found in Berne shows a juxtaposition of a bear and a woman figure, interpreted as representations of the theriomorphic and the anthropomorphic aspect of the same goddess.
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Within both Eßweiler's and Rothselberg’s municipal limits, several Stone Age finds have been brought to light. Later, Celts settled here. They were forced out by Germanic tribes, who were in turn pushed out, over to the Rhine’s right bank, by the Romans. By the time the Gallic Wars ended locally, in 51 BC, the whole of the Rhine’s left bank was part of Roman Gaul. Unearthed in 1904, and bearing witness to Roman-Gaulish times, was a silver spoon decorated with doves, grapes and grapeleaves and inscribed “Lucilianae vivas”.
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The northern bank of the hillfort The defences were subsequently strengthened by adding further material to the bank to create a glacis. The ditch was widened to give it a wide, flat bottom of the Fécamp type, named after a Gaulish oppidum near the eponymous town in Normandy. A stone revetment was constructed at the north- east entrance, probably with a wooden breastwork, above and beside a heavy wooden gate protected by a defensive outwork. The gate was destroyed by burning and a large quantity of sling stones was found nearby.
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According to Suetonius, the Octavian family held some renown there, and Gaius Octavius (father of the future Caesar Augustus) defeated a Spartacist army near there. As a result, the future emperor was granted the surname Thurinus shortly after birth. At the outbreak of the Civil Wars, it was deemed by Julius Caesar of sufficient importance to be secured with a garrison of Gaulish and Spanish horse, and it was there that M. Caelius Rufus was put to death, after a vain attempt to excite an insurrection in this part of Italy.
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The canal junction was built in the 19th century to transport wood by timber rafting from the Morvan forests to Paris. Accolay is one of the most ancient locations of the Yonne department, first mentioned in a document by the Bishop of Auxerre, Saint Aunaire, in the 6th century under the name Accolacus. The name is from the Gaulish patronym Accola with the suffix acus, which was applied to settlements along Roman . saint-Nizier church in Accolay The Saint-Nizier church has a chancel and a Romanesque apsel separated by a classic nave.
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The church is dedicated to St. Caprasius, a 4th-century Gaulish-Roman saint connected to the pilgrims who, during the Middle Ages, ran the Way of Santiago. The town of Santa Cruz de la Serós was located some from the route. It was erected in the early 11th- century in Lombard-Romanesque style, perhaps with support of artists and craftsmen from northern Italy. In 1089 the diocese of Jaca gave the church to monastery of San Juan de la Peña, which, for some time, converted it into a priorate.
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"Compendium" appears as a Latin pun in the English translation of the Franco- Belgian comics The Adventures of Asterix, where it is the name of one of the four Roman military camps surrounding the Gaulish village where the protagonists reside. Compendium Records is the name of Norway`s first progressive record store and label, which was located on Bernt Ankers Gate, in Oslo, Norway, between the years 1974 and 1977. The label specialised in quality experimental and progressive music and books, they also released 10 albums on their in-house record label.
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A map of Gaul in the 1st century BC, showing the relative positions of the Celtic tribes. The Senones or Senonii (Gaulish: "the ancient ones"; ) were an ancient Gallic tribe that dwelled in the Seine basin, around present-day Sens, in Caesar's time. Part of the Senones settled in the Italian peninsula, where they ousted the Umbrians between Ariminum (modern-day Rimini) and Ancona. They are described in classical sources as the leaders of the Gallic war-band that captured Rome during the Battle of the Allia in 390 BCE.
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His escape gives the Romans the belief that the Gauls can no longer resist the Romans, and makes them more confident. Asterix returns to the village and attempts to warn them, but everyone gathers to witness the public debate between Vitalstatistix and Orthopaedix, until it is interrupted by rocks launched from the Roman catapults. Vitalstatistix begs for Getafix to give them magic potion, but the druid refuses, too disgusted by the Gaulish in-fighting. When Vitalstatistix asks for the druid to give magic potion to his rival instead, Getafix finally agrees to help them.
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He contributed greatly to the growth of Breton language teaching at the university level. Fleuriot's book Les origines de la Bretagne defended a "two wave" model of British immigration into Brittany and argued that the legend of King Arthur arose from the life of Romano-British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus, who was known in Gaul as Riothamus. Fleuriot came into conflict with François Falc'hun's claim that Breton was essentially native Gaulish, only influenced by the incoming British language. However, he accepted that Breton had been influenced by surviving local forms of Celtic.
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Like all of Southern Germany, what is now Swabia was part of the La Tène culture, and as such has a Celtic (Gaulish) substrate. In the Roman era, it was part of the Raetia province. The name Suebia is derived from that of the Suebi. It is used already by Tacitus in the 1st century, albeit in a different geographical sense: He calls the Baltic Sea the Mare Suevicum ("Suebian Sea") after the Suiones, and ends his description of the Suiones and Sitones with "Here Suebia ends" (Hic Suebiae finis).Germania Section 45.
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Drusus repelled them, gaining honors, but was unable to smash their forces, and required reinforcement from Tiberius. The brothers easily defeated the local Alpine tribes. Drusus arrived in Gaul in late 15 BC to serve as legatus Augusti pro praetore (governor on Augustus' behalf with the authority of a praetor) of the three Gaulish provinces. His contribution to the ongoing building and urban development in Gaul can be seen in the establishment of the pes Drusianus, or ‘Drusian foot’, of about , which was in use in Samarobriva (modern Amiens) and among the Tungri.
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Large hoards of their coins were unearthed in the "treasure of Amanlis" found in June 1835 and that of Saint- Jacques-de-la-Lande, discovered in February 1941. The museum at Rennes contains a large representative collection. In 57 BC the Redones joined the Gaulish coalition against Rome which was suppressed by Crassus. In 56 BC Roman emissaries were held hostage by the Redones causing Julius Caesar to intervene in Armorica suppressing the rebels, and the following year to cross the Channel to discourage further support of the Redones by the Britons.
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The terrace surrounding the ground floor level was removed. Local legend has it that Napoleon originally wanted to completely tear down the church, but locals convinced him that the church had actually been a Gaulish festival hall before being turned into a church. Another version of the story is that they told him about its Roman origins, persuading him to convert the gate back to its original form. In 1986 the Porta Nigra was designated a World Heritage Site, along with other Roman monuments in Trier and its surroundings.
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8, especially note 10. or their voting tribe (tribus) as Roman citizens. Several major writers of Latin came from the Iberian peninsula in the Imperial period, including Seneca, Lucan, Quintilian,Herman, Vulgar Latin, p. 12. Martial, and Prudentius. However despite acquisition of Latin, Gaulish is held by some to have held on quite a long time, lasting at least until the middle of the 6th century CE, despite considerable Romanization in the local material culture. Most of the 136 Greek inscriptions from Mediterranean Gaul (the Narbonensis), including those from originally Greek colonies, are post-Augustan.
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The territory of the Colonia stretched between the Jura, Rhone river and Lake Geneva. The border with the Helvetii probably ran to Aubonne and later formed the dividing line between the dioceses of Lausanne and Geneva. However, it is possible (based on some milestones) that the border ran to the Venoge and Morge rivers (Morga is Gaulish for border). The center of the Roman city was on an elevated plateau between the Asse and Cossy rivers, at the same point as the later medieval castle and old town of Nyon.
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The historical area of Scy-Chazelles was shared between the Gorze Abbey, the Bishop of Metz, and the city of Metz. In 1415, the town was inhabited by Burgundians until it was occupied by the Franks in 1444. Scy (with probable Gaulish linguistical origins) and Chazelles (under Roman occupation, the Latin word castellum, or "watch tower," became Chazelles) existed for many centuries as two separate entities before being put together in 1817. Scy, a village in the pre-Revolutionary province of the Three Bishoprics (Trois-Évêchés), annexed the village of Chazelles.
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Lleu is a major figure in the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi, and is counterpart to the Irish mythological figure Lugh and the Gaulish god Lugus. Lludd is also probably related to an earlier pan-Celtic figure, represented by the Irish Nuada and the British Nodens, via the earlier form Nudd. Elements of Lludd and Llefelys bear some similarity with the Irish story of Nuada and Lugh, particularly the narrative Cath Maige Tuired. Like Llefelys, Lugh is dispossessed while the kingdom (in this case Ireland) is ruled by his kinsman Nuada.
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In European historiography, the term "'staple" refers to the entire medieval system of trade and its taxation; its French equivalent is étape, and its German equivalent stapeln, words deriving from Late Latin ' with the same meaning,E.g. Lodovico Guicciardini, in Descrittione di tutti i Paesi Bassi altrimenti detti Germania inferiore (1567): "Stapula est locus publicus quo principis auctoritate et privilegio, lame, vina, coria, frumenta, aliæque merces exotica vendendo causa convenunter." derived from stabulum.du Cange, Glossaire, s.v. "stapulum: "a voce latina stabulum designating a system that Hadrianus Junius considered to be of Gaulish origin.
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October the following year saw the publication of the MCD Vên (Helvetian Gaulish for "wild joy"Interview with Chrigel Glanzmann taste-of- black.ch Retrieved 24 February 2010). After Chrigel decided to make Eluveitie a real band instead of a studio project, he assembled nine other musicians, making it a full ten-piece band. Shortly afterwards, the group performed its first shows, one including the Swiss metal festival Elements of Rock, and Eluveitie signed a contract with the Dutch record label Fear Dark, which released a re-recorded Vên in 2004.
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The peninsula formed part of the Roman geographical area of Armorica. The town known today as Coutances, capital of the Unelli, a Gaulish tribe, acquired the name of Constantia in 298 during the reign of Roman emperor Constantius Chlorus. The base of the peninsula, called in Latin the pagus Constantinus, joined together with the pagus Coriovallensis centred upon Cherbourg to the north, subsequently became known as the Cotentin. Under the Carolingians it was administered by viscounts drawn successively from members of the Saint-Sauveur family, at their seat Saint-Sauveur on the Douve.
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Asterix preparing to face a Roman soldier in the SNES version The player controls the short and mustached Gaul who has to progress through levels located all across Europe, fighting Romans and various aggressive animals along the way, to rescue his friend Obelix before Caesar throws him to the lions. The gameplay takes place in 50 BC. Gaul is entirely occupied by the Romans. One small Gaulish village continues to defy the occupying forces, thanks to a magic potion which makes them invincible. But now Obelix has vanished.
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Arthur's court at Celliwig, 1881 Mabon ap Modron is a prominent figure from Welsh literature and mythology, the son of Modron and a member of Arthur's war band. Both he and his mother were likely deities in origin, descending from a divine mother–son pair. His name is related to the Romano-British god Maponos, whose name means "Great Son"; Modron, in turn, is likely related to the Gaulish goddess Dea Matrona. He is often equated with the Demetian hero Pryderi fab Pwyll, and may be associated with the minor Arthurian character Mabon ab Mellt.
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The fort that Conall must penetrate is guarded by a mighty serpent. The supposed anti-climax of this tale is when the fearsome serpent, instead of attacking Conall, darts to Conall's waist and girdles him as a belt. Rather than killing the serpent, Conall allows it to live, and then proceeds to attack and rob the fort of its great treasures the serpent previously protected. Cernunnos, as the conjectured Gaulish manifestation of the Roman Dis Pater, is considered to share the latter's attributes of ruling over the hidden treasures of the underworld.
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The site on which the built-up area of Nîmes has become established in the course of centuries is part of the edge of the alluvial plain of the Vistrenque River which butts up against low hills: to the northeast, Mont Duplan; to the southwest, Montaury; to the west, Mt. Cavalier and the knoll of Canteduc. Its name appears in inscriptions in Gaulish as dede matrebo Namausikabo = "he has given to the mothers of Nîmes" and "toutios Namausatis" = "citizen of Nîmes". Nemausus was the god of the local Volcae Arecomici tribe.
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Some time before Caesar's governorship of Gaul (which began in 58 BC), the Gaulish Arverni and Sequani enlisted Ariovistus's aid in their war against the Aedui. The latter were a numerous Celtic people occupying the area of the upper Loire river in France. Their territory lay between their neighbors to the northeast, the Sequani, who occupied the Doubs river valley, and the Arverni in the Massif Central. Caesar does not say what the cause of the conflict was, but the Sequani controlled access to the Rhine river along the valley of the Doubs.
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This would also explain the absence of any traces of watchtowers between Seckmauern and Wörth. Trennfurt Roman Fort (ORL 37), lying somewhat further along in the direction of the Main, is ruled out from consideration because it is more recent. It appears that Wörth was garrisoned only after the fort at Obernburg, and after the earth and timber fortifications of Seckmauern were constructed, since to date no late south Gaulish Terra Sigillata appears among the finds there. Pieces of this pottery are found, however, in other forts of the Odenwald Limes.
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Ambicatus (or Ambicatu in Gaulish) is mentioned in the founding legend of Mediolanum (Milan) by Livy,Livius, Ab Urbe condita 5.34-35.3. whose source is Timagenes, as a king of the Bituriges,The Bituriges had their capital in Avaricum, today Bourges. "kings of the world" as their name suggests,From bitu = world (cf. Welsh byd or Breton bed of same meaning) and rix = king (cognate to Latin rex) who ruled over the Celts in central Gaul, between Hispania and Germany, in the days of Tarquinius Priscus (the sixth century BCE).
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Even before the Romans came, people lived here, because the location favoured transport, being at the confluence of the Nahe and Rhine Rivers, and the Rhine's entry into the gorge. The first settlement seems to have been a Celtic (Gaulish) settlement by the name of Binge – meaning "rift". In the early first century AD, Roman troops were stationed in Bingen on the Rhine Valley Road, and rendered the local name as Bingium in Latin. There the Romans erected a wooden bridge across the Nahe and constructed a bridgehead castrum.
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Bronze cuirass, weighing 2.9 kg, Grenoble, end of 7th century – early 6th century BCE Gaulish or Gallic is the name given to the Celtic language that was spoken in Gaul before the Latin of the late Roman Empire became dominant in Roman Gaul. According to Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic War, it was one of three languages in Gaul, the others being Aquitanian and Belgic."Gallic Wars" I.1. In Gallia Transalpina, a Roman province by the time of Caesar, Latin was the language spoken since at least the previous century.
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Caen was known in Roman times as 'Catumagos', from the Gaulish roots magos meaning 'field' and catu meaning 'combat'. It remained a minor settlement throughout the Roman period and began to see major development commence in the 10th century, under the patronage of the Dukes of Normandy. Around 1060, William the Conqueror began construction of the Château de Caen, which became the centre of the ducal court. Duchess Matilda of Flanders also founded the Benedictine Abbey of Sainte-Trinité, Caen around the same time, eventually being buried in the abbey.
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He won the Battle of Gergovia against Julius Caesar in which several thousand Romans and their allies were killed and the Roman legions withdrew. Caesar had been able to exploit Gaulish internal divisions, easily to subjugate the country and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late. At the Battle of Alesia, also in 52 BC, the Romans besieged and defeated his forces; to save as many of his men as possible, he gave himself to the Romans. He was held prisoner for five years.
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The name "Beaune" derives from the Latinised Gaulish word "Belena", which was the name of a spring around which the settlement was established. That name in turn is derived from "Belen" or "Belenos", a god of fast-flowing water. A Roman fort was built there in the first century A.D. and it was already a prosperous wine-growing region in the 13th century. The town is served by a small watercourse, the "Bouzaise" (or "Bouzaize") of which the source is in a public park at the north-east boundary.
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After its use by Edward Lhuyd in 1707,(Lhuyd, p. 290) Lhuyd, E. (1971) Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain. (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, the use of the word "Celtic" as an umbrella term for the pre-Roman peoples of the British Isles gained considerable popularity. Lhuyd was the first to recognise that the Irish, British, and Gaulish languages were related to one another, and the inclusion of the Insular Celts under the term "Celtic" from this time forward expresses this linguistic relationship.
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The name of a town, Briga (Gaulish 'mount, hill'; modern Bois L'Abbé), appears on an inscription from the early 3rd century AD. Briga has been erected in the late 1st c. BC on a plateau overlooking the Channel coast, in an upright position between the valley of the Bresle river in the north (where modern Eu is located), and the valley of Saint-Pierre-en-Val in the south. The site appears to have been abandoned between at the end of the 3rd century AD, perhaps around 280-290., par. 3.
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Sanctuary of Madonna della Gamba. Archaeological findings have showed that the area was already settled in the Copper Age. In Roman times there were settlements in the area (probably of Gaulish origin), though the first document mentioning a in vico Albines dates from 892 AD. Later, entangled in the struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines, the town was strongly fortified, a castle being built in the 14th century. Later it was under the Republic of Venice, with a strong increasing of textile and iron industry, peculiarities which still characterize Albino today.
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Parisii. Veneti, 5th-1st century BCE. Greek coinage occurred in three Greek cities of Massalia, Emporiae and Rhoda, and was copied throughout southern Gaul. Northern Gaulish coins were especially influenced by the coinage of Philip II of Macedon and his famous son Alexander the Great. Celtic coins often retained Greek subjects, such as the head of Apollo on the obverse and two-horse chariot on the reverse of the gold stater of Philip II, but developed their own style from that basis, allowing for the development of a Graeco-Celtic synthesis.
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The name of Caveirac originates from the Gallo-Roman name of Cavarius and the Gaulish suffix -acos, together designating a property on the site of the villa which belonged to Cavarius. The site stood on a Roman road, of which a milestone excavated in the comune was purchased and installed in the paving of the square before the Château.Répertoire des Bornes Milliaires en France. Its name was first mentioned in 893 in an act of sale recorded by the cathedral of Nîmes: "in territorio civitatis Nemausensis in vicaria Valle Anagia in villas quas nominant…Cavariago".
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The territory around Modena (Latin: Mutina, Etruscan: Mutna) was inhabited by the Villanovans in the Iron Age, and later by Ligurian tribes, Etruscans, and the Gaulish Boii (the settlement itself being Etruscan). Although the exact date of its foundation is unknown, it is known that it was already in existence in the 3rd century BC, for in 218 BC, during Hannibal's invasion of Italy, the Boii revolted and laid siege to the city. Livy described it as a fortified citadel where Roman magistrates took shelter. The outcome of the siege is not known, but the city was most likely abandoned after Hannibal's arrival.
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Following the rebuilding of the Gaulish village after Brutus' attack in the previous story, Chief Vitalstatistix is trying to give a speech, when he is interrupted by the bard Cacofonix, whose song causes rain. This introduces Watziznehm the fakir, who falls from his flying carpet. Watziznehm explains he was searching for the village because he needs to make it rain in his country, a kingdom in the Ganges Valley, within the following 1001 hours, otherwise Princess Orinjade, daughter of Rajah Wotzit, will be sacrificed to the gods. This prophecy is part of an evil scheme by Grand Vizier Hoodunnit, to seize the throne.
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When construction of the N3 motorway in Ireland threatened to destroy archaeological sites around the Hill of Tara, Celtic Reconstructionists (among others) organized protests and a coordinated ritual of protection. Like many other modern pagan traditions, Celtic Reconstructionism has no sacred texts and so personal research is stressed. In order to more fully reconstruct pre-Christian Celtic religions, many CRs study archaeology, historical manuscripts, and comparative religion, primarily of Celtic cultures, but sometimes other European cultures, as well. Celtic Reconstructionists are not pan-Celtic in practice, but rather immerse themselves in a particular Celtic culture, such as Gaelic, Welsh or Gaulish.
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He was supported by a number of local Gallo- Roman nobles who had survived Constantine's defeat. Under the pretext of Jovinus' imperial authority, Gundahar and his Burgundians established themselves on the left bank of the Rhine (the Roman side) between the river Lauter and the Nahe. Here they founded a kingdom with the old Romanized Gaulish settlement of Borbetomagus (Worms) as its capital. Jovinus' end came after the Visigoths under Ataulf left Italy (at Priscus Attalus' advice), ostensibly to join him, carrying with them as hostages the ex-emperor Attalus and Galla Placidia, Honorius' half-sister.
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The Proto-Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age. The earliest records of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul (Northern Italy), the oldest of which predate the La Tène period. Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of Massilia, are in Gaulish, which was written in the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest. Celtiberian inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic is available only from about 400 AD, in the form of Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions.
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The first inhabitants settled in the territory of today's Ain about 15000 BC. The in Simandre-sur- Suran, Ain, dates from the mid-Neolithic era, in the fourth or third millennium BC and it is the sole menhir in Burgundy. The late-second century BC Calendar of Coligny, Ain, bears the oldest surviving Gaulish inscription. In the year 58 BC, Julius Caesar's military action against the Helvetians, advancing through Gaul on the territory of today's Ain, marked the beginning of the Gallic Wars. Under the Merovingians, the four historic regions of the modern département belonged to the Kingdom of Burgundy.
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The Gallo-Romance languages today, in the broadest definition of the term. Before Roman incursion, most of Gaul spoke Celtic dialects that are today considered to be the Gaulish language, with considerable variation. The south-western region that would later become Gascony spoke the Aquitanian language, which may have been the parent language of Basque,Trask, L. The History of Basque Routledge: 1997 while parts of the coast near Marseille spoke Ligurian with some Greek- speaking colonies on the Mediterranean coast, notably including Massilia. In the northeastern zone of Belgica, there may have been some presence of Germanic languages, although this is disputed.
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The Etruscans, already widespread in the Po Valley, had contacts with Alpine populations by the 5th century BC. Surviving traces of Etruscan cultural influence are recorded in the aforementioned rock art in over two hundred texts written in the Camunic alphabet, which is a variant of the North Etruscan alphabet.. At the beginning of the 7th century BC, the Celtic Gauls arrived in Italy. Coming from Transalpine Gaul, they settled in the Po plain and came in touch with the Camunian population. Some of the petroglyphs in Valcamonica with figures of Celtic deities such as Kernunnos attest this Gaulish presence.
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Oswald's classification (Oswald 1936–7) is much fuller, covering South, Central and East Gaulish types, but is marred by the poor quality of the drawings. Lezoux wares also included vases decorated with barbotine relief, with appliqué motifs, and a class usually referred to as 'cut-glass' decoration, with geometric patterns cut into the surface of the vessel before slipping and firing. Two standard 'plain' types made in considerable numbers in Central Gaul also included barbotine decoration, Dr.35 and 36, a matching cup and dish with a curved horizontal rim embellished with a stylised scroll of leaves in relief.
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In 56 BCE, the Veneti captured the commissaries Rome had sent to demand grain supplies in the winter of 57–56, in order to use them as bargaining chips to secure the release of the hostages they had previously surrendered to Caesar. Hearing of the nascent revolt, all the coastal Gaulish tribes bound themselves by oath to act in concert. This is the cause explicitly given by Caesar for the war.' This version is contradicted by Strabo, who contends that the Veneti aimed to stop Caesar's planned invasion of Britain, which would have threatened their trade relations with the island.
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The oppidum of Villeneuve-Saint-Germain, founded on a plain near the Aisne river in the middle of the 1st century BC, was the main settlement of the Suessiones before the Roman conquest. It was an important Gallic agglomeration, reaching 70ha at its height. From the period of the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), their chief town became the oppidum of Pommiers, generally identified with the fortress of Noviodunum (Gaulish: 'new fortress') mentioned by Caesar. Pommiers was progressively abandoned and became unoccupied after the end of reign of Augustus (27 BC–14 AD), when their chief town became Augusta Suessionum.
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The Senones were a Gaulish tribe originating from the part of France at present known as Seine-et-Marne, Loiret, and Yonne, who had expanded to occupy northern Italy.G.J. Caesar, Book 2 Chapter 2 At around 400 BC, a branch of the Senones made their way over the Alps and, having driven out the Umbrians, settled on the east coast of Italy from Ariminum to Ancona, in the so-called Ager Gallicus, and founded the town of Sena Gallica (current Senigallia), which became their capital. In 391 BC, they invaded Etruria and besieged Clusium. The Clusines appealed to Rome.
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Coin of the Pictones. The Pictones had felt threatened by the migration of the Helvetians toward the territory of the Santones and supported the intervention of Caesar in 58 BC. Though fiercely independent, they collaborated with Caesar, who noted them as one of the more civilized tribes. Nevertheless, 8000 men were sent to aid Vercingetorix, the chieftain who led the Gaulish rebellion in 52 BC. This act divided the Pictones and the region was the location of a later uprising, especially around Lemonum. This was later quelled by legate Gaius Caninius Rebilus and finally by Caesar himself.
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The resistance of the Gaulish village against the Romans causes friction between dictator Julius Caesar and the Roman Senate, whose power had been reduced by Julius Caesar. With their Magic Potion which gives them superhuman strength and is known only to their druid Getafix, they easily stand up against Rome and her laws. At a meeting with his associates, it is suggested to Caesar that causing internal conflict between the Gauls will lead to their breakdown. He is then told by another Official about Tortuous Convolvulus, a natural troublemaker whose mere presence causes arguments, quarrels and fights.
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To this end, the Gaulish men and women attack the Roman camp together; and when the Centurion demands to know why Prolix did not warn him of this, the latter admits his ignorance. Convinced of the soothsayer's fraudulence, Impedimenta beats him and the Centurion. Returning to the village, the Gauls meet Bulbus Crocus, an envoy of Julius Caesar's, come to confirm the Centurion's claim that the village is conquered, and expel him. In the Roman camp, Crocus demotes the Centurion to a common soldier, who is then commanded by the Optio to clean the camp alone.
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Traces of human presence in the area date to the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages; later it was a Gallo-Roman settlement on the main road from Paris to Sens. The name Corbeil is derived from the Latin Corbulium, from the Gaulish cor beel, meaning "holy house". Since the time of Aymon, comte de Corbeil (died 957), to the 12th century it was the chief town of a powerful county, which passed to Mauger, son of Richard I of Normandy. William de Corbeil (died 1136) became archbishop of Canterbury, but nothing is known for certain about his parentage.
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279 compares this image with one of a goddess found in Mavilly-Mandelot, France, portrayed with a similar pleated garment, holding two snakes in one hand, on an altar associated with aquatic cults. Ross fails to mention that this region of France is where the Lingones, a Gaulish tribe from which the Roman troops were recruited, originated. It seems possible that the Mavilly altar is a precursor of the Verbeia altar. Some sources state, however, that the Ilkley troops were recruited from the Lingones in northeast Italy; some of the tribe migrated across the Alps in around 400 BC Lingones.
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A 1st century AD Latin inscription from a public fountain in Limoges mentions a Gaulish ten-night festival of Grannus (lightly Latinized as decamnoctiacis Granni): :POSTVMVS DV[M] :NORIGIS F(ilius) VERG(obretus) AQV :AM MARTIAM DECAM :NOCTIACIS GRANNI D(e) S(ua) P(ecunia) D(edit)AE 1989: 521; AE 1991: 1222. Translation: "The vergobretus Postumus son of Dumnorix gave from his own money the Aqua Martia ("Water of Martius [or Mars]", an aqueductLaurent Lamoine, Le pouvoir local en Gaule romaine, Presses Universitaires Blaise Pascal, 2009, pp. 114-115.) for the ten-night festival of Grannus".
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Scholars of Celtic mythology have proposed that Ogma represents the vestiges of an ancient Celtic god. By virtue of his battle prowess and the invention of Ogham, he is compared with Ogmios, a Gaulish deity associated with eloquence and equated with Herakles. J. A. MacCulloch compares Ogma's epithet grianainech (sun-face) with Lucian's description of the "smiling face" of Ogmios, and suggests Ogma's position as champion of the Tuatha Dé Danann may derive "from the primitive custom of rousing the warriors' emotions by eloquent speeches before a battle",J. A. MacCulloch, The religion of the ancient Celts.
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His entrance into northern Italy was followed by his reinforcement by Gaulish allies and crushing victories over Roman armies in the Battle of the Trebia and the giant ambush at Trasimene. Against his skill on the battlefield the Romans employed the Fabian strategy, which resorted to skirmishes in lieu of direct engagement, with the aim delaying and gradually weakening his forces. While effective, this approach was politically unpopular, as it ran contrary to traditional military strategy. The Romans thus resorted to another major field battle at Cannae, but despite their superior numbers, suffered a crushing defeat.
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The Romans having been humiliated many times by the rebel Gauls, Felonius Caucus, advisor to Centurion Nebulus Nimbus, suggests a single combat between Vitalstatistix, chief of Asterix's tribe, and the Gallo-Roman Chief, Cassius Ceramix of Linoleum. According to ancient Gaulish customs, the loser would forfeit his entire tribe to the winner. When Ceramix argues that Vitalstatistix would surely win with Getafix's magic potion of invincibility, Caucus sends a patrol to capture Getafix before the challenge is confirmed. Whilst attempting to scatter the attackers, Obelix accidentally strikes Getafix with a menhir, the impact of which causes amnesia and insanity.
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Neolithic triple spiral symbol Triskele of the Amfreville Gaulish helmet A triskelion or triskeles is a motif consisting of a triple spiral exhibiting rotational symmetry. The spiral design can be based on interlocking Archimedean spirals, or represent three bent human legs. The triple spiral is found in artefacts of the European Neolithic and Bronze Age with continuation into the Iron Age especially in the context of the La Tène culture and related Celtic traditions. The actual triskeles symbol of three human legs is found especially in Greek antiquity, beginning in archaic pottery, and continued in coinage of the classical period.
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The origin of the name Beli is still a matter of debate among scholars.Delamarre, Xavier. Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Editions Errance, Paris, 2003, pp. 70-72. The most popular hypothesis sees the name Beli as a Middle Welsh reflex of the Gaulish and Brittonic divine name Belenus (also attested as a personal name), but a more recent alternative is that proposed by the Celticist John T. Koch, who suggests that Beli derives from a Proto-Celtic name Belgius or Bolgios borne by one of the chieftains who led the Gallic invasion of Macedonia in 280–279 BCE.
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Some scholars have argued that Augusta (Saint-Quentin) was replaced by Virmandis (Vermand) as the chief town of the civitas during this period, and that it eventually regained its position in the 9th century. Noviomagus (Gaulish: novio-magos 'new market'; modern Noyon) is first mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary (late 3rd c. AD) as a station on the route between Amiens and Reims. By the 6th century, the influence of the town could rival that of neighbouring towns and it became a local religious centre of power after the bishop Medardus transferred his episcopal siege to Noviomagus in 531.
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Burdigala (Bordeaux): En route, the Gauls rest for the night by a roadside, where their bag is stolen by two Roman highwaymen, Villanus and Unscrupulus. The next morning, Asterix and Obelix pursue the thieves, who are caught by a Roman patrol and mistaken them for the Gauls. In the town square of Burdigala, General Motus shows the "Gaulish outlaws" to the public, only to realize he has the wrong men when Asterix and Obelix arrive to reclaim their bag. The public attacks General Motus and his men while the heroes regain their bag and buy oysters and white wine.
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Imaginative illustration of 'An Arch Druid in His Judicial Habit', from The Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands by S.R. Meyrick and C.H. Smith (1815), the gold gorget collar copying Irish Bronze Age examples. The Greco-Roman and the vernacular Irish sources agree that the druids played an important part in pagan Celtic society. In his description, Julius Caesar claimed that they were one of the two most important social groups in the region (alongside the equites, or nobles) and were responsible for organizing worship and sacrifices, divination, and judicial procedure in Gaulish, British, and Irish societies.Caesar, Julius.
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The name of Albenga comes from the Latin Albíngaunum that comes from Album Ingaunum, that is means the capital city + genitive plural in -um. The ethnonym Ingauni ing consists of Indo-European origin, and a name of Gaulish-ligurian land. Album comes from alb o alp an ancient pre-Indo-European (rock, hill), often erroneously assocciata to "album" a Latin word meaning white or clear. The first name was Album Ingaunum, but when it was conquered by the Romans, the name became Albingaunum; after the Roman Empire the name became Albinauno and near the 1000 became Albingano.
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Iolo's "Third Series" of triads were initially accepted as authentic, and were published in the influential collection known as The Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales. However, they are now known to be forgeries created by Iolo himself. Iolo wrote further about Hu in his Barddas, supposedly an ancient collection of bardic lore, where he identifies Hu with the Gaulish god Esus and with Jesus. The 20th- century English author Robert Graves accepted Iolo's version of Hu Gadarn (and much of the rest of his work), and further identified Hu as a Welsh horned god, a variant of Cernunnos.
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Drawing showing a hooded monk The cowl (from French coule, itself from Latin cuculla, itself from Gaulish Celtic cucullos, which all originate from the Greek koukoula (κουκούλα) meaning "hood") is an item of clothing consisting of a long, hooded garment with wide sleeves. Originally it may have referred simply to the hooded portion of a cloak. In contemporary usage, however, it is distinguished from a cloak or cape (cappa) by the fact that it refers to an entire closed garment. Today it is worn primarily by most Catholic and Anglican monks when participating in liturgical services.
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American armored and infantry forces pass through Coutances, France, in July 1944 Capital of the Unelli, a Gaulish tribe, the town was given the name of Constantia in 298 during the reign of Roman emperor Constantius Chlorus. The surrounding region, called in Latin the pagus Constantinus subsequently became known as the Cotentin Peninsula. The town was destroyed by invading Normans in 866, who later established settlements and incorporated the whole peninsula into the Duchy of Normandy in 933. On 17 July 1944, during the Battle for Normandy in World War II, the city was bombed during the Allied offensive against the occupying Germans.
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The Vellavi sited south of the Arverni-- whose name is embodied in Auvergne The Vellavi were a Gaulish people in the region of Le Puy-en-Velay in the region of the Auvergne, which, at the time of Julius Caesar's campaigns against the Gaul (Gallic Wars) lay on the border of Gallia Narbonensis. The oppidum of Ruessium, an early seat of a Catholic bishop, began to be called during the 4th century the [civitas] que dicitur Vetula in pago Vellavorum-- the city "called Vetula in the country ('pays') of the Vellavi" a document of 1004 termed it (Lauranson-Rosaz).
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For a long time after the abandonment of the Roman town, the location of Alesia and thus the site of the important battle was unknown and subject to speculation. In the 19th century, Emperor Napoleon III developed an interest in the location of this crucial battle in pre-French history. He was writing a biography of Caesar and saw the command of Vercingetorix over all Gaulish armies as a symbol of the French nation. At the same time he realized that the future French nation was heavily influenced by the Roman victory and centuries of rule over Gaul.
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Paul's letter is addressed "to the churches of Galatia" (), but the location of these churches is a matter of debate. Most scholars agree that it is a geographical reference to the Roman province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s BC and retained Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day. Acts of the Apostles records Paul traveling to the "region of Galatia and Phrygia", which lies immediately west of Galatia. and A minority of scholars have argued that the "Galatia" is an ethnic reference to a Celtic people living in northern Asia Minor.
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The Treveri boasted of their Germanic origin, according to Tacitus, in order to distance themselves from "Gallic laziness" (inertia Gallorum). But Tacitus does not include them with the Vangiones, Triboci or Nemetes as "tribes unquestionably German". The presence of hall villas of the same type as found in indisputably Germanic territory in northern Germany, alongside Celtic types of villas, corroborates the idea that they had both Celtic and Germanic affinities. Strabo says that their Nervian and Tribocan neighbours were Germanic peoples who by that point had settled on the left bank of the Rhine, while the Treveri are implied to be Gaulish.
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The Ilvates were a Ligurian tribe, whose name is found only in the writings of Livy. He mentions them first as taking up arms in 200 BC, in concert with the Gaulish tribes of the Insubres and Cenomani, to destroy the Roman colonies of Placentia (modern Piacenza) and Cremona. They are again noticed three years later as being still in arms, after the submission of their Transpadane allies; but in the course of that year's campaign (197 BC) they were reduced by the consul Quintus Minucius Rufus, and their name does not again appear in history. (Liv. xxx. 10, xxxi.
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After Harry and Dumbledore's adventure in the cave to retrieve a locket they believe to be one of Voldemort's Horcruxes, they apparate to Hogsmeade, where Madam Rosmerta alerts them to the presence of the Dark Mark above the school and gives them brooms on which they can travel rapidly back to Hogwarts, where Draco's plan can be brought to completion. Rosmerta is among those paying respects at Dumbledore's funeral. She is named after the Gaulish goddess Rosmerta, whose attributes include abundance and fertility. Julie Christie appeared as Madam Rosmerta in the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban.
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The most famous Gaulish record is the Coligny calendar, a fragmented bronze tablet dating from the 2nd century AD and providing the names of Celtic months over a five-year span; it is a lunisolar calendar attempting to synchronize the solar year and the lunar month by inserting a thirteenth month every two and a half years. Many inscriptions consist of only a few words (often names) in rote phrases, and many are fragmentary.Schmidt, Karl Horst, "The Celtic Languages of Continental Europe" in: Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies volume XXVIII. 1980. University of Wales Press.
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Thinking another Legionary captured them and has gone for reinforcements, they decide to take the reward, and take the prisoners to the general's tent. When the captives are ungagged, however, the full story comes out, and the Romans promptly begin capturing each other left and right, believing each other to be Goths, much to the disappointment of the General. Asterix and Obelix, back in Gaulish clothing, are completely untouched, along with the Goths, who approach the border. The Goths cross the Roman Empire's border back into Germania, stunning a young legionary whose eagerness to report an invasion becomes a running gag.
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After a miraculous storm brought them over the sea in a single day to a Gaulish port, Ursula declared that before her marriage she would undertake a pan-European pilgrimage. She headed for Rome with her followers and persuaded the Pope, Cyriacus (unknown in the pontifical records, though from late 384 AD there was a Pope Siricius), and Sulpicius, bishop of Ravenna, to join them. After setting out for Cologne, which was being besieged by Huns, all the virgins were beheaded in a massacre. The Huns' leader fatally shot Ursula with a bow and arrow in about 383 AD (the date varies).
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The Old High German name Langatun is presumably composed of a hydronym langa- and the Gaulish element dunum "fort" (which had become productive as a suffix in toponyms).Marianne Ramstein, Chantal Hartmann, Langenthal, Unterhard: Gräberfeld und Siedlungsreste der Hallstatt- und Latènezeit, der römischen Epoche und des Frühmittelalters Authors , Archäologischer Dienst des Kantons Bern, 2008, p. 11 The re- interpretation of the name as including the element -tal "valley" dates to c. the 15th century, during which the name is on record as either Langaten or Langental (the same process can be observed in the case of Murgenthal, earlier Murgatun).
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Bilingual Latin-Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna, Roman Africa (present-day Libya) References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin, particularly in Egypt, where Coptic predominated, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths.Rochette, pp. 558–559. In the province of Africa, Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions and for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius (1st century AD).
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Several tribes are referred to by Caesar as the "Germani Cisrhenani", to distinguish them from Germani living on the east of the Rhine, outside of the Gaulish and Roman area. Whether they actually spoke a Germanic language or not, is still uncertain. The region was strongly influenced by Gaul, and many of the personal names and tribal names from these communities appear to be Celtic. But on the other hand it was claimed by Tacitus that these Germani were the original Germani, and that the term Germani as it came to be widely used was not the original meaning.
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Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 2.4 and 6.32 These tribes are referred to as the "Germani Cisrhenani", to distinguish them from Germani living on the east of the Rhine, outside of the Gaulish and Roman area. Whether this meant that they actually spoke a Germanic language or not, is still uncertain, but it was claimed by Tacitus that these Germani were the original Germani, and that the term Germani as it came to be widely used was not the original meaning. He also said that the descendants of the original Germani in his time were the Tungri.Tacitus, Germania, II 2.
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Dillens studied under Eugène Simonis at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts. In 1877 he received the Prix de Rome for A Gaulish Chief taken Prisoner by the Romans. At Brussels, in 1881, he executed the groups entitled Justice and Herkenbald, the Brussels Brutus. For the pediment of the orphanage at Uccle, Figure Kneeling (Brussels Gallery), and the statue of the lawyer Hippolyte Metdepenningen in front of the Palais de Justice at Ghent, he was awarded the medal of honor in 1889 at the Paris Universal Exhibition, where, in 1900, his Two Statues of the Anspach Monument gained him a similar distinction.
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Immediately above them, the small consoles featuring pods or cloves resemble those of Hôtel d'Assézat. Hôtel Molinier also contains the most beautiful fireplace of Renaissance Toulouse, it being built between 1551 and 1556. The sculptor took for model a fireplace of Château de Madrid (a royal castle near Paris) designed by Girolamo della Robbia for king Francis I. The hood bears a scene that evoke Christian charity, through the inscription, and a Gaulish Hercules on the sculpted bas-relief. Hercules enchains the populace, without restraining them, by means of a bond that links his mouth to the ears of Man.
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In particular, from 1908 she worked on the origins and development of local terra sigillata pottery. On its publication in 1913, considerable attention was given to her work Die Bilderschüsseln der ostgallischen Sigillata- Manufakturen: Römische Keramik in Trier (Decorated Bowls from the East Gaulish Sigillata Manufactories: Roman Pottery in Trier). Despite the success of her book, although she twice applied for a permanent management post at the Trier museum (1911 and 1918), in each case a man was selected. As there was no further provision for her salary, she had to leave the Trier museum on 30 March 1917.
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Following St. George the founder, later medieval local traditions evoke a legendary list of bishops at this chief town of the pays of Le Velay: Macarius, Marcellinus, Roricius, Eusebius, Paulianus, and Vosy (Evodius), all of them canonized by local veneration. The Gaulish settlement of Ruessium/Vellavorum was given its Christianizing name, Saint- Paulien, from Bishop Paulianus. A bishop Evodius attended the Council of Valence in 374. In the early 1180s peasants of Le Puy, led by a carpenter named Durandus, formed a conspiratio (sworn association) called the Capucciati (because of the white hoods they wore as a sign of their conspiratio).
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Gaius Plautius Proculus was the first member of the gens Plautii to achieve consular rank. Little is known of his life before becoming consul with Gaius Fabius Ambustus in 358 BC, although there is some archaeological evidence that his family came from Privernum.Nicola Terrenato, "Private Vis, Public Virtus: Family agendas during the early Roman expansion", in Roman Republican Colonization New Perspectives from Archaeology and Ancient History, edited by Tesse D. Stek and Jeremia Pelgrom (Rome: Papers of the Royal Netherlands Institute in Rome, 2014), pp. 48f At the same time Gaius Sulpicius Peticus was made consul to deal with a Gaulish threat.
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86 Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross the Pyrenees, the Alps, and many significant rivers., page 221 Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from the Gauls, whose territory he passed through. Starting in the spring of 218 BC, he crossed the Pyrenees and reached the Rhône by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs along his passage before the Romans could take any measures to bar his advance, arriving at the Rhône in September. Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 38 elephants, almost none of which would survive the harsh conditions of the Alps.
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The first known settlement is Samarobriva ("Somme bridge"), mentioned for the first time in the Commentarii de Bello Gallico of Julius Caesar. Some forty years later, it was the central settlement of the Ambiani, one of the principal tribes of Gaul, who were issuing coinage, probably from Amiens, in the 1st century BC. It was a large town which controlled the passage of the Via Agrippa connecting Lyon to Boulogne-sur-Mer. The Ambiani derived their name from the Gaulish word ambe, meaning river – a reference to the Somme that flows through Amiens. The town was given the name Ambianum by the Romans, meaning settlement of the Ambiani people.
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A number of etymologies are suggested: 1) Divona, Devona - the name of a Gaulish goddess of a sacred spring providing water for the city that is now Bordeaux, invoked in a 4th- century Latin poem by Ausonius. The Latin quatrain was engraved on a stone tablet above a spring at Divonne in the nineteenth century by persons erroneously supposing that Divonne was referred to. It can still be seen near the Casino. 2) Conflation of the Latin word divis (rich, abundant) and the word Ona or Ana, for a flowing river (as in the river Rhone) 3) Conflation of the Celtic word vonne (a source) and di (abundant)M.
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Skirmishing began between Romans and Gauls shortly after Tullius's address, prompting Peticus to formulate a strategy. Peticus decided to send a mix of muleteers and cavalry atop a nearby mountain, and lined up the rest of his forces along the plains near base of the mountain.Liv. 7 14 The Gauls were quick to attack after they spotted the Romans descending the mountain, but the move ultimately resulted in disorder, and the Romans were able to rout both the right and left flanks of the Gaulish forces, driving them to retreat. At this, Peticus ordered his cavalry and muleteers to intercept the fleeing Gallic army.Liv.
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Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 6:17-18 In characteristic Roman fashion, Caesar does not refer to these figures by their native names but by the names of the Roman gods with which he equated them, a procedure that complicates the task of identifying his Gaulish deities with their counterparts in the insular Celtic literatures. He also presents a neat schematic equation of god and function that is quite foreign to the vernacular literary testimony. Yet, given its limitations, his brief catalog is a valuable witness. The gods named by Caesar are well-attested in the later epigraphic record of Gaul and Britain.
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Traces of the pre-Christian religions of the area that is now Switzerland include the Bronze Age "fire dogs". The Gaulish Helvetii, who became part of Gallo-Roman culture under the Roman Empire, left only scarce traces of their religion like the statue of dea Artio, a bear goddess, found near Bern. A known Roman sanctuary to Mercury was on a hill north-east of Baar.Baarburg at ; Tages-Anzeiger 5 June 2008 St. Peter in Zürich was the location of a temple to Jupiter. Basilique de Valère (12th century) in Sion The Bishopric of Basel was established in AD 346; the bishopric of Sion, before 381; the bishopric of Geneva.
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Reflecting his disdain for ordinary people, Gobineau claimed French aristocrats like himself were the descendants of the Germanic Franks who conquered the Roman province of Gaul in the fifth century AD, while common French people were the descendants of racially inferior Celtic and Mediterranean people. This was an old theory first promoted in a tract by Count Henri de Boulainvilliers. He had argued that the Second Estate (the aristocracy) was of "Frankish" blood and the Third Estate (the commoners) were of "Gaulish" blood. Born after the French Revolution had destroyed the idealized Ancien Régime of his imagination, Gobineau felt a deep sense of pessimism regarding the future.
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There are various other surviving textual references attesting to the presence of Christianity in late fourth and fifth century Britain. In the 390s, Victricius, the Bishop of Rouen, travelled to Britain and in his De Laude Sanctorum referred to a priesthood existing there. Another Gaulish bishop, Germanus of Auxerre, was sent to Britain by Pope Celestine I in 429, there to deal with a bishop named Agricola who was promoting Pelagianism. The Life of Saint Germanus refers to the bishop visiting Britain for a second time, this time with a Bishop Severus, in the last year of his life, although the precise year is not known.
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Victorinus spent most of his reign dealing with insurgencies and attempting to recover the Gaulish territories taken by Claudius Gothicus. He was assassinated in 271, but his mother Victoria took control of his troops and used her power to influence the selection of his successor. With Victoria's support, Tetricus was made Emperor, and was recognized in Britannia and the parts of Gaul still controlled by the Empire. Tetricus fought off Germanic barbarians who had begun ravaging Gaul after the death of Victorinus, and was able to re-take Gallia Aquitania and western Gallia Narbonensis while the Roman Emperor, Aurelian, was engaging Queen Zenobia's Palmyrene Empire in the east.
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Ptolemy in Geography (Ptolemy) (150 AD) In Latin, the name Germania means "lands where people called Germani live".. "Augustus, Rome's first emperor, tried to conquer Germania ("land of the people(s) called Germani") but failed.... Germania means "lands where people called Germani live". The etymological origins of the word Germanus remain obscure. It might well, as Tacitus claimed (Germania 2), originally have been the name of one small group, which was picked up by the Greeks and Romans, perhaps following Gaulish usage, and applied to any other foreign neighbours considered similar in language and other aspects of culture." Modern scholars do not agree on the etymology of the name Germani.
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Plate reconstruction during the late Devonian, showing the location of Armorica (Am) within the proposed Hun superterrane Geological map of the Armorican Massif, the main outcrop of the Armorican 250px The Armorican terrane, Armorican terrane assemblage, or simply Armorica, was a microcontinent or group of continental fragments that rifted away from Gondwana towards the end of the Silurian and collided with Laurussia towards the end of the Carboniferous during the Variscan orogeny. The name is taken from Armorica, the Gaulish name for a large part of northwestern France that includes Brittany, as this matches closely to the present location of the rock units that form the main part of this terrane.
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Interpretatio romana offered Roman names for Gaulish deities such as the smith-god Gobannus, but of Celtic deities only the horse-patroness Epona penetrated Romanized cultures beyond the confines of Gaul. The barbarian invasions beginning in the late third century forced upon Gallo-Roman culture fundamental changes in politics, in the economic underpinning, in military organization. The Gothic settlement of 418 offered a double loyalty, as Western Roman authority disintegrated at Rome. The plight of the highly Romanized governing class is examined by R.W. Mathisen,Mathisen, Roman Aristocrats in Barbarian Gaul: Strategies for Survival in an Age of Transition (University of Texas Press) 1993.
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1st century AD. Italian and Gaulish TS vessels were made in standardised shapes constituting services of matching dishes, bowls and serving vessels. These changed and evolved over time, and have been very minutely classified; the first major scheme, by the German classical archaeologist Hans Dragendorff (1895), is still in use (as e.g. "Dr.29"),H. Dragendorff, 'Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der griechischen und römischen Keramik', Bonner Jahrbücher 96 (1895). and there have been many others, such as the classifications of Déchelette, Knorr, Hermet, Walters, Curle, Loeschcke, Ritterling, Hermet and Ludowici, and more recently, the Conspectus of Arretine forms and Hayes's type-series of African Red Slip and Eastern sigillatas.
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These factors, coupled with their intimate knowledge of the coast and tides, put the Romans at a disadvantage. However, Caesar's legate Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus was given command of the Roman fleet, and in a decisive battle, succeeded in destroying the Gaulish fleet in Quiberon Bay, with Caesar watching from the shore. Using long billhooks, the Romans struck at the enemy's halyards as they swept past (these must have been fastened out-board), having the effect of dropping the huge leathern mainsails to the deck, which crippled the vessel whether for sailing or rowing. The Romans were at last able to board, and the whole Veneti fleet fell into their hands.
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Ludowici created his own type-series, which sometimes overlaps with those of other sigillata specialists. Ludowici's types use combinations of upper- and lower-case letters rather than simple numbers, the first letter referring to the general shape, such as 'T' for Teller (dish). In general, the products of the East Gaulish industries moved away from the early imperial Mediterranean tradition of intricately profiled dishes and cups, and ornamented bowls made in moulds, and converged with the later Roman local traditions of pottery-making in the northern provinces, using free-thrown, rounded forms and creating relief designs with freehand slip-trailing. Fashions in fine tablewares were changing.
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Map showing the Atrebates' territory in Gallia Belgica The Atrebates (Gaulish: "inhabitants, land-owners, possessors of the soil") were a Belgic tribe of the Iron Age and the Roman period, originally dwelling in the Artois region. After the tribe of Gallia Belgica was defeated by Caesar in 57 BC, 4,000 of their men participated in the battle of Alesia in 53, led by their chief Commius. They revolted again in 51 BC, after which they maintained a friendly relationship with Rome, as Commius received sovereignty over the neighbouring Morini. The quality of their woollens is still mentioned in 301 AD by Diocletian's Price Edict.
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The story introduces Chief Whosemoralsarelastix, the chief of a neighboring Gaulish village: a miser who often does business with the Romans. When the Romans levy new taxes, Whosemoralsarelastix asks the people of Asterix's village to guard a cauldron full of sestertii, ostensibly to keep the money away from the imminent visit of the Roman tax collectors. Despite Asterix keeping watch, the cauldron is stolen during the night, whereupon the strict laws of the Gauls demand that Asterix be banished until he has atoned for his negligence. Obelix immediately "banishes" himself to accompany Asterix, until they find money to refill the cauldron and repay Whosemoralsarelastix.
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The Ala Gallorum Indiana ("Indus's Wing of Gauls") was a Gaulish auxiliary cavalry unit in the Roman army, named after its first commander, Julius Indus, a nobleman of the Treveri who helped put down a rebellion of the Treveri and Aedui in 21. The Ala Indiana is thought to have participated in the Roman conquest of Britain, and by the mid-to-late 1st century was posted at Corinum (Cirencester). In 98 it is recorded in Germania Inferior, and in 134 in Germania Superior. The only mention of this ala in Britain is the tombstone of an eques from Cirencester with a style dating around 70.
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It appears to have shared many features with other Indo-European languages, primarily Celtic (Gaulish) and Italic (Latin and the Osco-Umbrian languages). Historical attempts to define these languages were often made under the assumption that languages do not generally evolve beyond regional dialects, and at the time of Jubainville's work, the concept of the Indo- European language family was loosely defined and most of the significant work on the subject did not occur until the following century, at which time it became quite clear that the Celtic languages were distinctly Indo-European, and that the hypothesized Ligurian language was clearly derivative of that family of languages.
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In the Gaulish village, things are being organised for Chief Vitalstatistix's birthday, whom all enjoy except Impedimenta, who complains against the acquisition of useless presents including a mounting collection of swords, shields, stuffed fish, and menhirs. Arriving in Gaul, Convolvulus moves into the nearby Roman camp of Aquarium and gets a description of the village inhabitants. He then gives a valuable vase to Asterix whom he describes as the "most important man in the village", to the annoyance of Chief Vitalstatistix. The other villagers take this announcement seriously, until Impedimenta fights with the village's other women over their husbands' relative importances, and then privately dismisses her husband as a failure.
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The ethnic identity of the Sotiates is debated. Their lifestyle was very similar to that of the Gauls, which led some scholars to postulate that they were originally a Gallic people that had settled at the frontier of Aquitania. In the mid-first century BCE, led by their chief Adiatuanos, the Sotiates fought alone against the Roman armies of Crassus, whereas other Aquitani tribes had formed a coalition against the foreign invader. Furthermore, the name Adiatuanos is probably related to the Gaulish adiantu- ('eagerness, desire, ambition'; perhaps cognate with the Middle Welsh add-iant 'wish'), and thus may be translated as 'zealously striving (for rulership)'.
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They were one of a group of tribes listed by his local Remi informants as the Germani, along with the Eburones, Condrusi, Caeraesi (or Caeroesi), and Segni.Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 2.4 and 6.32. These tribes are therefore referred to as the "Germani Cisrhenani", to distinguish them from Germani living on the east of the Rhine, outside of the Gaulish and Roman area. Whether this meant that they spoke a Germanic language or not, is still uncertain, but it was claimed by Tacitus that these Germani were the original Germani, and that the term Germani had come to be used broadly, having once only referred to this one people.
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Julius Caesar in his De Bello Gallico identified six gods worshipped in Gaul, by the usual conventions of interpretatio romana giving the names of their nearest Roman equivalents rather than their Gaulish names. He said that "Mercury" was the god most revered in Gaul, describing him as patron of trade and commerce, protector of travellers, and the inventor of all the arts.Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 6.17 The Irish god Lug bore the epithet samildánach ("skilled in all arts"), which has led to the widespread identification of Caesar's Mercury as Lugus. Mercury's importance is supported by the more than 400 inscriptions referencing him in Roman Gaul and Britain.
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From 14 to 13 BC, Augustus himself was also active in Gaul, whether in Lugdunum (modern Lyon) or along the Rhine frontier. As governor of Gaul, Drusus made his headquarters at Lugdunum, where he decided to establish the concilium Galliarum or ‘council of the Gaulish provinces’ sometime between 14 and 12 BC. This council would elect from its members a priest to celebrate games and venerate Rome and Augustus as deities every 1 August at the altar of the three Gauls that Drusus established at Condate in 10 BC. Drusus' son Tiberius—the future emperor Claudius—was born in Lugdunum on the same day that this altar was inaugurated.
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Other historians have accepted that Caesar's account might be more accurate. Norman J. DeWitt surmised that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society may report an idealized tradition, based on the society of the 2nd century BCE, before the pan-Gallic confederation led by the Arverni was smashed in 121 BCE, followed by the invasions of Teutones and Cimbri, rather than on the demoralized and disunited Gaul of his own time.DeWitt (1938) p 324 ff. John Creighton has speculated that in Britain, the druidic social influence was already in decline by the mid-1st century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power structures embodied in paramount chieftains.
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185 et passim. By late antiquity, some Gaulish words had become so Latinized that their origin was no longer recognized as such.Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p. 195. Celtiberian inscription on a hospitality token from the Republican period Celtiberian is documented as a written language only after contact with the Romans in the 2nd century BC.Fiona A. Rose, "Text and Image in Celtiberia: The Adoption and Adaptation of Written Language into Indigenous Visual Vocabulary," Oxford Journal of Archaeology 22.2 (2003), p. 155. Of 103 Celtiberian inscriptions, thirty in Iberian script are hospitality tokens (tesserae hospitales), twenty of which are in the shape of animals.
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Votive bust (late 1st century AD) with the Gaulish name Esumopas Cnustious and the Latin abbreviation VSLM (votum solvit libens merito, "fulfilled his vow freely, as is deserved") In the Western Empire, Latin gradually replaced the Celtic languages, which were related to it by a shared Indo-European origin. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin.Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," p. 550; Stefan Zimmer, "Indo-European," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 961; Leonard A. Curchin, "Literacy in the Roman Provinces: Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain," American Journal of Philology 116.3 (1995), p. 464.
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Clackson and Horrocks, The Blackwell History of the Latin Language, pp. 85–86. Gaulish survived in Gaul into the late 6th century, and played a decisive role in the formation of Gallo-Romance languages. Latin did not become as deeply entrenched in the province of Britannia, and may have dwindled rapidly after the Roman withdrawal around 410 AD, although pockets of Latin-speaking Britons survived in western Britain until about 700 AD.Herman, Vulgar Latin, p. 12. The evidence of Latin loanwords into Brittonic suggests that the Latin of Roman Britain was academic, in contrast to the everyday conversational Latin ("Vulgar" Latin) on the continent.
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Today, the Wymysorys dialect is still spoken by less than 70 native speaking residents—the elderly being the majority. The dialect is the result of the transformation of the Flemish language. According to the late professor , a Polish historian and expert of Germanic languages, including the Flemish language, described this dialect as a patchwork of ancient languages: Old Germanic, Old French, Celtic, Gaulish and Romansh, which later crystallized in Dutch or Flemish. The status of the Wilamowice ethnolect is controversial, because according to the traditional classification of all dialects it is broadly understood as a High German language, and should be considered a dialect of the German language.
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They are usually considered a Gaulish tribe,Scholar Giacomo Devoto considered them as a Celtic people who entered in the Italian territory from the Alpine passes in the 4th century BC. See: Gianna G. Buti e Giacomo Devoto, Preistoria e storia delle regioni d'Italia, Sansoni Università, 1974, pagina 56 . although some associate them with the Venetic peoples, a group closely related to but probably distinct from the Celts.Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, , page 183, "... We may begin with the Venetic peoples, Veneti, Carni, Histri and Liburni, whose language set them apart from the rest of the Illyrians. ..." Their area of settlement isn't known with precision.
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The first reference to any religious figure in the text is Asclepius, the premier god of healing among the Greeks. Marcellus alludes to a Roman version of the myth in which Asclepius restores the dismembered Virbius to wholeness; as a writer, Marcellus says, he follows a similar course of gathering the disiecta … membra ("scattered body parts") of his sources into one corpus (whole body).De medicamentis prefatory epistle 1. In addition to gods from the Greco-Roman pantheon, one charm deciphered as a Gaulish passage has been translated to invoke the Celtic god Aisus, or Esus as it is more commonly spelled, for his aid in dispelling throat trouble.
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In ancient times, Sark was almost certainly occupied by the Unelli, the Gaulish tribe of the Cotentin peninsula. These people were subdued by the Roman Empire about 56 BC. The Channel Islands became part of the Lugdunensis secunda (Lyonnaise 2nd), then a dependence of the bishopric of Coutances (until the 16th century), itself in the archbishopric of Rouen, having about the same limits as the Lyonnaise 2nd. In 933, it was included in the Duchy of Normandy, based on the traditional boundaries of the Lugdunensis secunda and the archbishopric of Rouen. Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the island was united with the Crown of England.
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The names Dubrovnik and Ragusa co-existed for several centuries. Ragusa, recorded in various forms since at least the 10th century, remained the official name of the Republic of Ragusa until 1808, and of the city within the Kingdom of Dalmatia until 1918, while Dubrovnik, first recorded in the late 12th century, was in widespread use by the late 16th or early 17th century. The name Dubrovnik of the Adriatic city is first recorded in the Charter of Ban Kulin (1189). It is mostly explained as , a Celtic name for water (Gaulish , Irish , Welsh , Cornish ), akin to the toponyms , Dover, and ; or originating from a Proto-Slavic word meaning 'oak'.
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As the name might suggest (venteux means windy in French), it can get windy at the summit, especially with the mistral; wind speeds as high as have been recorded. The wind blows at over for 240 days a year. The road over the mountain is often closed due to high winds, especially the col des tempêtes ("storm pass") just before the summit, which is known for its strong winds. The real origins of the name are thought to trace back to the 1st or 2nd century AD, when it was named Vintur after a Gaulish god of the summits, or Ven-Top, meaning "snowy peak" in the ancient Gallic language.
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In this case he would have been a native speaker of a language close to Latin, rather than Gaulish Insubrian. There he came to the attention of Marcus Caecilius Denter, the Legatus Legionibus Praepositus in Cisalpine Gaul in 200 BC who introduced him in Rome. He supported himself by adapting Greek plays for the Roman stage from the New Comedy writers, especially Menander, a genre called Comoedia Palliata. If the statement in the life of Terence by Suetonius is correct and the reading sound, Caecilius's judgment was so esteemed that he was ordered to hear Terence's Andria (exhibited 166 BC) read and to pronounce an opinion upon it.
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Disaster strikes the Gaulish village when Getafix the druid breaks his golden sickle, as without one, he cannot attend the annual conference of druids, or cut mistletoe for the magic potion which keeps the Roman army at bay. Asterix and Obelix set out for Lutetia (present-day Paris) to buy a new sickle from Obelix's distant cousin, the sicklesmith Metallurgix. On the way there, they encounter bandits, but easily defeat them, and learn from a fellow-traveller that "sickles are in short supply in Lutetia". In the city, they find Metallurgix missing and make inquiries at a local inn, but the landlord professes to know nothing.
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Victis is the dative plural form of victus; the dative singular forms of the phrase are vae victo (masculine & neuter) & vae victae (feminine). It means that those defeated in battle are entirely at the mercy of their conquerors and should not expect—or request—leniency. Most of the events related by ancient historians about early Roman history are considered legends, with the Gaulish sack of Rome one of the first events which modern scholars are confident actually occurred, without accepting the colourful incidents reported by tradition. According to tradition, in 390 BC, an army of Gauls led by Brennus attacked Rome, capturing all of the city except for the Capitoline Hill.
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Before its religious designation, the site of the abbey, Cala (Gaulish "a collection of pebbles"; modern Chelles, Seine-et-Marne) had held a royal Merovingian villa. Queen Clotilde, the wife of Clovis I, had previous built a small chapel there dedicated to Saint George circa 511. King Chilperic I and his wife, Fredegund, frequently resided at Cala; Chilperic was assassinated in 584 while hunting there. The Queen-Saint Balthild, wife of King Clovis II (639-657/658), an Anglo-Saxon aristocrat who had been taken to Gaul as a slave, founded the abbey in 658 on the ruins of the Clothilde's chapel as a monastery for women.
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The name of Bully-les-Mines has frequently had various forms over the centuries : from Bulgi (in 1135), to Bugi (1152), Builli (1157), Bullia (1198), Bully (1270), Boulli (1303), Buylly (1410), Builly-lez-Aix (1486), Builly-lez-Grenay (1511), Builly-en-Gohelle (1569), Bully-en-Gohelle (1709), Bully-Grenay (1750), Bully-en-Gohelle (1782), and finally Bully-les-Mines in 1925. According to many sources, the name has Gaulish origins. Ricouart proposes that "Bullire" derives from the French "bouillonner," a reference to the source of the river Surgeon in a neighboring commune. The current use of "les mines" indicates the importance of mining to the commune and the region.
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In a manuscript from the Abbey of Saint Gall, sacellum is glossed as Old Irish nemed, Gaulish nemeton, originally a sacred grove or space defined for religious purposes, and later a building used for such.Bernhard Maier, Dictionary of Celtic Religion and Culture (Boydell Press, 1997, 2000, originally published 1994 in German), p. 207. In Christian architecture, rooflessness ceases to be a defining characteristic and the word may be applied to a small chapel marked off by a screen from the main body of a church, while an Italian sacello may alternatively be a small chapel or oratory which stands as a building in its own right.
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After the Roman conquest (125-118 BC) in the wars against the Salyes, the Vocontii retained a certain degree of autonomy; they had two capitals, Luc-en-Diois, apparently the religious centre, and Vaison which was named Vasio Julia Vocontiorum. Their authority continued in the gradual Romanisation of the Celtic oppidum.The jurisdiction of the Roman civitas coexisted for some time with the Gaulish oppidum, according to Christian Goudineau. Early building was probably done by Vocontian aristocrats who moved down from the oppidum and established houses along the river, around which the city eventually accreted but based on a Roman orthogonal street plan with different alignment from the earlier houses.
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The Carnutes (or Carnuti), were a powerful Gallic people in the heart of independent Gaul, dwelled in an extensive territory between the Sequana (Seine) and the Liger (Loire) rivers. Their lands were later organized as the Catholic dioceses of Chartres, Orléans and Blois, that is, the greater part of the modern departments of Eure-et-Loir, Loiret and Loir-et-Cher. The territory of the Carnutes had the reputation among Roman observers of being the political and religious center of the Gaulish nations. The chief fortified towns were Cenabum (mistakenly labeled "Genabum"), the modern Orléans, where a bridge crossed the Loire, and Autricum (or Carnutes, thus Chartres).
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For instance, the Dene-Dinje tribe of North America refer to 5 as my hand dies, 10 as my hands have died, 15 as my hands are dead and one foot is dead and 20 as a man dies. Even the French language today shows remnants of a Gaulish base-20 system in the names of the numbers from 60 through 99. For example, sixty-five is (literally, "sixty [and] five"), while seventy-five is (literally, "sixty [and] fifteen"). The Yuki language in California and the Pamean languages in Mexico have octal (base-8) systems because the speakers count using the spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves.
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R.R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution 2:394-421 Resistance was strongest in the more traditional Catholic bastions, with armed uprisings breaking out in spring 1798 in the central part of Switzerland. The French Army suppressed the uprisings, but support for revolutionary ideals steadily increased, as the Swiss resented their loss of local democracy, the new taxes, the centralization, and the hostility to religion. Nonetheless, there were long-term impacts. The Republic being named Helvetic after the , the Gaulish inhabitants of the Swiss Plateau in antiquity, was not an innovation; rather, the Swiss Confederacy had occasionally been dubbed ' in humanist Latin since the 17th century, and ', the Swiss national personification, made her first appearance in 1672.
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Asterix and Obelix therefore board a ship with Ekonomikrisis the Phoenician merchant, who agrees to take them to Rome after they save him from the pirates. In Rome, after Cacofonix has subjected the slaves in the prefect's galley to his bad singing, the prefect presents him to Julius Caesar; but when Caius Fatuous, the gladiators' trainer, declares Cacofonix unfit to serve as a gladiator, Caesar decides to throw the bard to the lions. Upon arrival in Rome, Asterix and Obelix befriend Instantmix (a Gaulish cook working in Rome) and visit the public baths. There, Caius Fatuous decides they would be perfect candidates for the gladiators' fights in the Circus Maximus, and he arranges to have them captured.
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As Cacofonix is put into the arena to be killed by the lions, he sings to the Romans, and thus frightens the lions into retreat; whereupon Caesar orders the gladiators' competition to begin. When Asterix, Obelix, and the gladiators introduce Caesar to their guessing-game, and Caesar insists on a martial contest, Asterix challenges a cohort of Caesar's own guard, and the two Gauls win easily. Seeing that the audience are amused, Caesar releases the three Gauls and grants them Fatuous as a prisoner. Soon afterwards, the four men meet back up with Ekonomikrisis, and Asterix surprises him and his men by having Caius Fatuous row the ship back to the Gaulish Village alone.
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The Roman historian Tacitus suggested that the Britons were descended from people who had arrived from the continent, comparing the Caledonians (in modern-day Scotland) to their Germanic neighbours; the Silures of Southern Wales to Iberian settlers; and the inhabitants of Southeast Britannia to Gaulish tribes.Tacitus, Agricola 11: "Their physical characteristics are various and this is suggestive... overall however it seems reasonable to believe that the Gauls occupied this island lying so near to them." (Habitus corporum varii atque ex eo argumenta. [...] In universum tamen aestimanti Gallos vicinam insulam occupasse credibile est.) This migrationist view long informed later views of the origins of the British Iron Age and the making of the modern nations.
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Caesar, Gallic War, > 6.24 Modern archaeologists, having found no sign of such movements, see the Gaulish La Tène culture as native to what is now southern Germany, and the La Tène- influenced cultures on both sides of the Lower Rhine in this period as quite distinct from the Elbe Germanic peoples, well into Roman times. On the other hand, the account of Caesar finds broad agreement with the archaeological record of the Celtic La Tène culture first expanding to the north, influencing all cultures there, and then suddenly having a weaker influence in that area. Subsequently, the Jastorf culture expanded in all directions from the region between the lower Elbe and Oder rivers.
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Moulded Mithras slaying the bull, from Lavinium near Rome, 400 ± 50 From about the 4th century, competent copies of the fabric and forms were also made in several other regions, including Asia Minor, the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt. Over the long period of production, there was obviously much change and evolution in both forms and fabrics. Both Italian and Gaulish plain forms influenced ARS in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD (for example, Hayes Form 2, the cup or dish with an outcurved rim decorated with barbotine leaves, is a direct copy of the samian forms Dr.35 and 36, made in South and Central Gaul),Hayes 1972, p. 19–20. but over time a distinctive ARS repertoire developed.
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It was investigated by the antiquarian William Stukeley, who noted its Christian symbolism but who thought that it had likely originated in France and been brought to England by fifteenth-century soldiers. In another instance, a Romano-British beaker decorated with Biblical scenes was discovered in a child's grave within the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Long Wittenham, Oxfordshire during excavations led by John Yonge Akerman in the 1850s. Akerman regarded it as being early medieval and of Gaulish origin. The first attempt to synthesise archaeological and historical material to understand Romano-British Christianity was an academic paper published in the English Historical Review; written by Francis J. Haverfield in 1896, it remained little known among scholars.
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Deacon Mushrat speaks in blackletter, P.T. Bridgeport speaks in circus posters, Sarcophagus MacAbre speaks in condolence cards, "Mr. Pig" (a take on Nikita Khrushchev) speaks in faux Cyrillic, etc. In the famous French comic series Asterix, Goscinny and Uderzo use bubbles without tails to indicate a distant or unseen speaker. They have also experimented with using different types of lettering for characters of different nationalities to indicate they speak a different language that Asterix may not understand; Goths speak in blackletter, Greeks in angular lettering (though always understood by the Gaulish main characters, so it is more of an accent than a language), Norse with "Nørdic åccents", Egyptians in faux hieroglyphs (depictive illustrations and rebuses), etc.
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The name of the locality is attested in the forms Plebs Seminiaca in 869,In a chart from the Abbey of Redon from 29 novembre 869. Sivingac in 1212, Sevinar in 1218, Syvignac in 1239, Sevignac in 1256, 1262, and in 1266, Sivingnac in 1269, Sevignac in 1271, Seguignac in 1278, Sevignac in 1289, Saint Vingac in 1303, and Sevignac around 1330 and in 1340. Sévignac comes from the Latin name Sabinius (a name of a veteran of the Roman legion who was awarded for his bravery around the time of Christ), and the Gaulish suffix acos. However, it should not be overlooked that in the name Sévignac (Seminiacum) one finds the form sem(i)nio which means "throat".
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He stated that the former name had nothing to do with skin colour or racism, but that it was merely a common name for the Norse god Baldr. Vikernes suggests that Belus is the oldest known (Proto-Indo-European) name of the life-death-rebirth deity that is reflected in the Norse Baldr, the Greek Apollo, the Gaulish Belenus and the Slavic Belobog (itself meaning "White God"), among others. The other Proto-Indo-European theonyms used in the lyrics are "Lukan" (equivalent to the god Loki), "Kaimadalthas" (equivalent to the gods Heimdallr and Hermóðr, which Vikernes believes were initially the same god, Haimaþellar) and "Kelio" (equivalent to the underworld Hel).Interview with Varg Vikernes (10.03.
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By the early 2nd century AD, when Gaulish samian was completely dominating the markets in the Northern provinces, the eastern sigillatas were themselves beginning to be displaced by the rising importance of African Red Slip wares in the Mediterranean and the Eastern Empire. In the fourth century AD, Phocaean red slip appears as a successor to Eastern sigillata C. In the 1980s two primary groups of Eastern Terra Sigillata in the Eastern Mediterranean basin were distinguished as ETS-I and ETS-II based on their chemical fingerprints as shown by analysis by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). ETS-I originated in Eastern Cyprus, whereas the ETS-II was probably made in Pamphylia, at Perge, Aspendos and Side.
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The Battle of the Rhône Crossing took place during the Second Punic War. The Carthaginian army under Hannibal Barca, while marching to Italy in the autumn of 218 BC, fought an army of the ethnically-Gaulish Volcae tribe on the east bank of the Rhone River possibly near Aurasio. The pro-Roman Volcae, acting on behalf of a Roman army camped on the east bank near Massalia, intended to prevent the Carthaginians from crossing and invading Italy. Devising a plan to circumvent the Volcae, the Carthaginians, before crossing the river to attack the Gauls, had sent a detachment upriver under Hanno, son of Bomilcar, to cross at a different point and take position behind the Gauls.
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The first known inhabitants of this region were hunter-gatherers and it was later occupied by pastoralists, shepherds living in caves or simple huts. It later came under the control of a Gaulish tribe called Vellavi and at the time of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars, this area lay on the border of Gallia Narbonensis. The area became a Roman province in 121 BC, originally under the name Gallia Transalpina (Transalpine Gaul). The name distinguished it from Cisalpine Gaul on the near side of the Alps to Rome. In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate, Lepidus was given responsibility for Narbonese Gaul (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony was given the balance of Gaul.
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In the third book he must give up Eilonwy, although only temporarily while she is fostered in a foreign royal court, and in the fourth book, he gives up his quest to learn of his parentage. In the last book there is a moment he has to choose between completing his mission and his search for Eilonwy; and there is his momentous decision of giving up eternal life in order to rebuild Prydain. Like many figures in the series, Taran's name is derived from the Mabinogion, where he is named as the father of a man named Glineu. Taran is the Welsh word for thunder, and may be related to the Gaulish god Taranis.
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In the event that this unsuccessful and the distinction between the heroes present unclear, the matter would be taken to arbitration, as in the similar Ulster Cycle tale Fled Bricrenn; Chadwick suggests that this arbitration may be parodied when Mac Da Thó releases Ailbe to see which province the hound would side with first. Chadwick argues that the antiquity of the tale's theme – feasting – is probably the most anciently attested of all Celtic stories. The heroic communal feast was apparently central to the Celtic tradition, and classical ethnographers of the Posidonian tradition, notably the 2nd-century Athenaeus, give accounts of Gaulish feasts which closely parallel their Insular counterparts.Chadwick (1959), pp. 82–83.
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Grégoire de Tours (6th century). Histoire ecclésiastique des Francs, cited in Centre Généalogique de l'Orne et du Perche’s (CGOP), "Le Perche existe-t-il ?" Le Perche’ was surrounded by the following Gaulish areas and peoples: in Hyesmois country, where the Exmes people were based in Sées; in Aulerques Eburoviques country, where the Évreux people were based in Évreux; in Aulerques Cénomans country, where the Maine people were based in Le Mans; and in Carnutes country, where the Chartain people were based in Chartres.Centre Généalogique de l'Orne et du Perche (CGOP), Formation du Conté du Perche Located about west of Paris, ancient Perche province is now located mostly in present-day Normandy région's Orne département.
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Some of the Lingones migrated across the Alps and settled near the mouth of the Po River in Cisalpine Gaul of northern Italy around 400 BC. These Lingones were part of a wave of Celtic tribes that included the Boii and Senones (Polybius, Histories ii.17). The Lingones may have helped sack Rome in 390 BC. The Gaulish Lingones did not participate in the battles of the Gauls against Caesar. They gained Roman citizenship at the end of the first century CE, living in a rich and urbanized society in the region of Langres and Dijon and minting coins. They were caught up in the Batavian rebellion (69 AD) described by Tacitus.
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In the Gaulish language, DusiosXavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (Éditions Errance, 2003), p. 158. The Latinized form would be dusius, most often in the plural dusii. was a divine beingPerhaps a deus. As late as the 13th century, Thomas Cantipratensis asserted that some people still regard groves as consecrated to dusii and entered them to sacrifice to "their own gods" (suis diis, dative plural of deus); see discussion under Surviving tradition below. The 19th-century Celiticist Henri d'Arbois de Jubainville regarded the dusii as divinities who might be compared to aquatic deities of the Homeric tradition in Greece as lovers who begat children with mortal women; see "Esus, Tarvos trigaranus," Revue Celtique 19 (1898), pp.
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1911), p. 232 online thought that the dusii "do not appear to represent the higher gods reduced to the form of demons by Christianity, but rather a species of lesser divinities, once the object of popular devotion." among the continental CeltsGalli as designated by Augustine and Isidore (see following). In antiquity, Galli refers both to inhabitants of the geographical region Gallia as it was delineated by the Greeks and Romans, and to peoples who spoke a form of Celtic (that is, who spoke gallice, "in Gaulish") or who were perceived by the Greeks and Romans as ethnically "Celtic." See J.H.C. Williams, Beyond the Rubicon: Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy (Oxford University Press, 2001), pp.
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In summer of 10 BC, Drusus left the field in order to return to Lugdunum, where he inaugurated the sanctuary of the Three Gaulish provinces at Condate on 1 August. Augustus and Tiberius were in Lugdunum for this occasion (when Drusus' youngest son Claudius was born), and afterwards Drusus accompanied them back to Rome. Drusus easily won election as consul for the year 9 BC. Once more he left the city before assuming office. His consulship conferred the chance for Drusus to attain Rome's highest and rarest military honor, the spolia opima, or spoils of an enemy chieftain slain personally by an opposing Roman general who was fighting (as consuls did) under his own auspices.
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Porte de Mars, which dates from the 3rd or 4th century Before the Roman conquest of northern Gaul, Reims had served as the Remi tribe's capital, founded circa 80 BC. In the course of Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul (58–51 BC), the Remi allied themselves with the Romans, and by their fidelity throughout the various Gallic insurrections secured the special favour of the imperial power. At its height in Roman times the city had a population in the range of 30,000–50,000 or perhaps up to 100,000. Reims was first called in Latin, which is hypothesized to derive from a Gaulish name meaning "Door of Cortoro-". The city later took its name from the Remi tribe ( or ).
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Lugdunum (Lyon): The two Gauls abandon the postal cart and, after crashing through a Roman blockade, meet Jellibabix, head of the resistance movement. He pretends to betray the Gauls to Prefect Poisonous Fungus, but lures the Romans into a maze of back alleys, where the legionaries become hopelessly lost (the prefect's plan to leave behind a trail of pebbles to find his way out backfires when a legionary picks up the pebbles). Jellibabix gives the duo a parcel of sausages and meatballs, and arranges a chariot for them. Nicae (Nice): En route to Nicae, Asterix and Obelix become stuck in holiday traffic bound for the Gaulish Riviera and stop at an inn for lunch.
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He then dispersed the vanquished Gauls throughout the province for all to see that they would never again be able to take up arms against him or the Roman Republic. After dealing with the Gaulish rebels, Caesar took two of the legions and marched with a view to spend the summer in Aquitania which he had previously not visited. He briefly passed through the city of Narbo Martius in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis and marched through Nementocenna. Deeming Gaul sufficiently pacified, as no further rebellions arose, Caesar took the 13th Legion and marched to Italy, where he proceeded to cross the Rubicon and start the Great Roman Civil War on 17 December 50 BC.
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The Romans under Nero Claudius Drusus established a military outpost belonging to the Germania Superior Roman province at Strasbourg's current location, and named it Argentoratum. (Hence the town is commonly called Argentina in medieval Latin.) The name "Argentoratum" was first mentioned in 12 BC and the city celebrated its 2,000th birthday in 1988. "Argentorate" as the toponym of the Gaulish settlement preceded it before being Latinized, but it is not known by how long. The Roman camp was destroyed by fire and rebuilt six times between the first and the fifth centuries AD: in 70, 97, 235, 355, in the last quarter of the fourth century, and in the early years of the fifth century.
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From the Roman view, the refusal to venerate the Roman emperor was political treason. The edict of Milan which decreed tolerance of Christianity was followed by a time of parallel existence of Christianity and paganism which was, though, far from an actual religious pluralism - the religion of the emperor was always at an advantage, and the Arian, trinitarian and pagan emperors in the fourth century saw it as perfectly legitimate to take measures against religious leaders who did not share their belief. By the fifth century, the western Roman Empire had crumbled, but the same patterns of behavior continued in the eastern Roman Empire along with the Gaulish, Celtic, and Germanic kingdoms that replaced the west.
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Marcellus Empiricus, also known as Marcellus Burdigalensis (“Marcellus of Bordeaux”), was a Latin medical writer from Gaul at the turn of the 4th and 5th centuries. His only extant work is the De medicamentis, a compendium of pharmacological preparations drawing on the work of multiple medical and scientific writers as well as on folk remedies and magic. It is a significant if quirky text in the history of European medical writing, an infrequent subject of monographs, but regularly mined as a source for magic charms, Celtic herbology and lore, and the linguistic study of Gaulish and Vulgar Latin.Carmélia Opsomer and Robert Halleux, “Marcellus ou le mythe empirique,” in Les écoles médicales à Rome.
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The Tarentine Games were presented most notably in 249 BC, as a "crisis ritual"Jörg Rüpke, "Communicating with the Gods," in A Companion to the Roman Republic (Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, 2010), p. 225. during the First Punic War, in accordance with the Sibylline Books. The ludi took the form of three-night ritesTribus noctibus, Censorinus 17.8 (Latin). Three-night rites were also characteristic of the Gallic religious calendar, as evidenced by notations of the Gaulish word trinoχtion (equivalent to Latin trinoctium), "fête des Trois Nuits," in the Coligny calendar; Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux- celtique continental (Paris: Éditions Errance, 2003, 2nd ed.), pp. 302–303.
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Following the Migration Period, these two cities, as well as regions to the east of the Vilaine, including the town Vannes,Encyclopædia Britannica, "Vannes" 13 April 2014 fell under Frankish rule. Thus, during the Merovingian dynasty, the population of Armorica was diverse, consisting of Gaulish tribes with assimilated Bretons, as well as Romanized cities and Germanic tribes. "France" 04 March 2014 War between the Frank and Breton kingdoms was constant between the 6th and 9th centuries, which made the border between the two difficult to define. Before the 10th century, Breton was spoken by at least one third of the populationSorosoro "Breton" 04 March 2014 up to the cities of Pornic and Avranches.
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Beginning with Henry Petersen's doctoral dissertation in 1876, which proposed that Thor was the indigenous god of Scandinavian farmers and Odin a later god proper to chieftains and poets, many scholars of Norse mythology in the past viewed Odin as having been imported from elsewhere. The idea was developed by Bernhard Salin on the basis of motifs in the petroglyphs and bracteates, and with reference to the Prologue of the Prose Edda, which presents the Æsir as having migrated into Scandinavia. Salin proposed that both Odin and the runes were introduced from Southeastern Europe in the Iron Age. Other scholars placed his introduction at different times; Axel Olrik, during the Migration Age as a result of Gaulish influence.
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The book begins with Vercingetorix conceding defeat to Julius Caesar. His surrendered weapons remain at Caesar's chair for several hours, until a Roman archer steals Vercingetorix's famous shield, which he loses in a game of dice to another legionary, who then loses it to a drunken centurion, in return for the centurion not reporting him for a military offence. The centurion himself uses the shield to pay for a jar of wine at a nearby Gaulish inn; later, the shield is given by the innkeeper to a survivor of the Battle of Alesia. Following this prologue, Chief Vitalstatistix is made helpless by a sore liver, a consequence of overeating and drinking at his last banquet.
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Apart from Cernunnos and Taranis, discussed above, there is no consensus regarding the other figures, and many scholars reject attempts to tie them in to figures known from much later and geographically distant sources. Some Celticists have explained the elephants depicted on plate B as a reference to Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. Because of the double-headed wolfish monster attacking the two small figures of fallen men on plate b, parallels can be drawn to the Welsh character Manawydan or the Irish Manannán, a god of the sea and the Otherworld. Another possibility is the Gaulish version of Apollo, who was not only a warrior, but one associated with springs and healing besides.
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This slash-and-burn practice, known as "debbio" in Italian, aimed to create fields where grapevines or cereals such as foxtail, millet and rye were grown, or just to create open spaces where stone huts with thatched roofs were built. By doing this, they created a bustum (burnt, in Latin), that is a new settlement which, in order to be distinguished from the other nearby settlements, was assigned a name: arsicium (again "burnt", or better "arid") for Busto Arsizio, whose name is actually a tautology; carulfì for nearby Busto Garolfo, cava for Busto Cava, later Buscate. The slow increase in population was helped by the Insubres, a Gaulish tribe who arrived in successive waves by crossing the Alps c.
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When language shift occurs, the language that is replaced (known as the substratum) can leave a profound impression on the replacing language (known as the superstratum), when people retain features of the substratum as they learn the new language and pass these features on to their children, leading to the development of a new variety. For example, the Latin that came to replace local languages in present-day France during Roman times was influenced by Gaulish and Germanic. The distinct pronunciation of the Hiberno English dialect spoken in Ireland comes partially from the influence of the substratum of Irish. Outside the Indo-European family, Coptic, the last stage of ancient Egyptian, is a substratum of Egyptian Arabic.
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The Bern zinc tablet dedicated to Gobannus (ΓΟΒΑΝΟ) in the Bern Historical Museum, 2019 Gobannus (or Gobannos, the Gaulish form, sometimes Cobannus) was a Gallo-Roman god, whose name, denoting "the smith", is normally taken to identify him as patron of smiths. A number of statues dedicated to him are preserved, found together with a bronze cauldron dedicated to Deus Cobannos, in the late 1980s and illegally exported to the USA, now in the Getty Museum in the Getty Center, in California.US Epigraphy project, inscription number CA.Malibu.JPGM.L.96.AB.54 He is mentioned in an inscription found in the 1970s in Fontenay-près-Vézelay, reading AVG(VSTO) SAC(RVM) [DE]O COBANNO, i.e.
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Bolgios (Greek Βόλγιος, also Bolgius, Belgius) was a Gaulish leader during the Gallic invasion of the Balkans who led an invasion of Macedon and Illyria in 279 BC, killing the Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos. He was part of a force of Gauls settled in Pannonia who had advanced to Thrace under a leader called Cambaules. Deciding on fresh conquests, they sent separate forces to different regions: one led by Cerethrius against the Thracians and Triballi; another against Paionia led by Brennus and Acichorius; and a third against the Macedonians and Illyrians, led by Bolgios. The Macedonian king, Ptolemy Keraunos, was unconcerned by the approaching army, and declined an offer of 20,000 soldiers from the Dardanians.
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Caesar, De Bello Gallico 4.27 Commius was able to provide a small detachment of cavalry from his tribe to help Caesar defeat further British attacks.Caesar, De Bello Gallico 4.35 During Caesar's second expedition to Britain Commius negotiated the surrender of the British leader Cassivellaunus.Caesar, De Bello Gallico 5.22 He remained Caesar's loyal client through the Gaulish revolts of 54 BC, and in return Caesar allowed the Atrebates to remain independent and exempt from tax, and in addition appointed Commius to rule the Morini.Caesar, De Bello Gallico 6.6, 7.76 However this loyalty was not to last, as related by Aulus Hirtius in the final book of the De Bello Gallico, written after Caesar's death.
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Some authors believe that, before the spread of the Gaulish language in the plain of the river Po from c. 400 BC onwards, northern and central Italy were dominated by non-IE languages: Etruscan, which shared some similarities with the Raetic, the possibly non-IE Ligurian and the language of the undeciphered Novilara inscriptions from the region around Ancona on the Adriatic coast. Some scholars have earlier suggested that Etruscan language could have been introduced by later migrants. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus preserves the tradition that the Tyrrhenoi (Etruscans) originated in Lydia in Anatolia,Herodotus Histories I.94 but Lydians spoke an Indo-European language, completely different from the Etruscan language.
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There they set up their own small kingdoms and the Breton language developed there from Brittonic Insular Celtic rather than Gaulish or Frankish. A further Brittonic colony, Britonia, was also set up at this time in Gallaecia in northwestern Spain. Many of the old Brittonic kingdoms began to disappear in the centuries after the Anglo-Saxon and Scottish Gaelic invasions; Parts of the regions of modern East Anglia, East Midlands, North East England, Argyll and South East England were the first to fall to the Germanic and Gaelic Scots invasions. The kingdom of Ceint (modern Kent) fell in 456 AD. Linnuis (which stood astride modern Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire) was subsumed as early as 500 AD and became the English Kingdom of Lindsey.
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In 286, Carausius, a Roman military commander of Gaulish origins, was appointed to command the Classis Britannica, and given the responsibility of eliminating Frankish and Saxon pirates who had been raiding the coasts of Armorica and Belgic Gaul. However, he was suspected of keeping captured treasure for himself, and even of allowing the pirates to carry out raids and enrich themselves before taking action against them, and Maximian ordered his execution. In late 286 or early 287 he learned of this sentence and responded by usurping power and declaring himself emperor of Britannia and northern Gaul. When the British fleet was attacked by a Rhine fleet representing the Roman Empire, the British fleet was victorious, showing that it must have been substantial at the time.
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Reconstruction of the redoubt of Bibracte, a part of the Gaulish oppidum. The Celts utilized these fortified cities in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. In Ancient Greece, the Acropolis (literally: "high city"), placed on a commanding eminence, was important in the life of the people, serving as a refuge and stronghold in peril and containing military and food supplies, the shrine of the god and a royal palace. The most well known is the Acropolis of Athens, but nearly every Greek city-state had one – the Acrocorinth famed as a particularly strong fortress. In a much later period, when Greece was ruled by the Latin Empire, the same strong points were used by the new feudal rulers for much the same purpose.
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Weiss 1973:13 note 4. The first published study of Arretine ware was that of Fabroni in 1841,Fabroni 1841 and by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, German scholars in particular had made great advances in systematically studying and understanding both Arretine ware and the Gaulish samian that occurred on Roman military sites being excavated in Germany. Dragendorff's classification was expanded by other scholars, including S. Loeschcke in his study of the Italian sigillata excavated at the early Roman site of Haltern.Loeschcke 1909 Research on Arretine ware has continued very actively throughout the 20th century and into the 21st, for example with the publication and revision of Oxé-Comfort and the Conspectus of forms, bringing earlier work on stamps and shapes up to date.
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The centres of production were in the Roman provinces of Africa Proconsularis, Byzacena and Numidia; that is, modern Tunisia and part of eastern Algeria. From about the 4th century AD, competent copies of the fabric and forms were also made in several other regions, including Asia Minor, the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt. Over the long period of production, there was obviously much change and evolution in both forms and fabrics. Both Italian and Gaulish plain forms influenced ARS in the 1st and 2nd centuries (for example, Hayes Form 2, the cup or dish with an outcurved rim decorated with barbotine leaves, is a direct copy of the samian forms Dr.35 and 36, made in South and Central Gaul),Hayes 1972, p. 19–20.
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The left thumb The area has been inhabited by humans at least since the Upper Paleolithic, as attested by the famous cave paintings at Chauvet Pont d'Arc. The plateau of the Ardèche river has extensive standing stones (dolmens and menhirs), erected thousands of years ago. The river has the largest canyon in Europe and the caves that dot the cliffs—which go as high as 300 metres (1,000 feet)—are known for signs of prehistoric inhabitants (arrowheads and flint knives are often found). The Vivarais, as the Ardèche is still called, takes its name and coat-of-arms from Viviers, which was the capital of the Gaulish tribe of Helvii, part of Gallia Narbonensis, after the destruction of their previous capital at Alba-la- Romaine.
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Alfoldy (1974) 21 The evidence suggests that, as in the western Alps, the non-Celtic elements were either displaced or assimilated, while their native languages had virtually disappeared by the time of the Roman conquest.Alfoldy (1974) 24-5 Overall, it is likely that Gaulish Celtic was the lingua franca of the Alps until replaced by Latin during the centuries of Roman rule: Livy states that Hannibal's guides for his crossing of the western Alps in 218 BC, who were Gallic Boii from the lower Po valley, could understand the "wild men of the mountains" through which they passed even when the latter spoke among themselves.Livy XXI.29, 32 In addition, the ancient authors often refer to the people of the eastern Alps as Galli transalpini.e.g.
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He destroyed the remaining Gaulish forces in the area under Drapes (Lucterius having already fled), capturing Drapes, who was executed shortly thereafter. Safe in the knowledge that further Gallic reinforcements would not likely be coming to the aid of Uxellodunum due to the blunders of Lucterius and Drapes, Gaius Caninius Rebilus intensified his siege works around Uxellodunum. Shortly after, Gaius Fabius, another of Caesar's legates in Gaul who had been tasked with subduing the Senones, arrived fresh from his victory at the Battle of the Loire with a full 25 cohorts of legions (roughly two and a half legions). These reinforcements put the Roman forces at four and a half legions, enough to construct competent siege works and completely encircle the fort.
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In The Religion of the Ancient Celts (1911), J. A. MacCulloch noted that "the swine was a frequent representative of the barleycorn-spirit or of vegetation divinities in Europe" and that "the flesh of the animal was often mixed with the seed corn or buried in the fields to promote fertility". MacCulloch speculates that it was Moccus' role as a fertility god that led to his being identified with Mercury, whose Greek equivalent Hermes was associated with "fertility in flocks and herds". Jouët connects Moccus with the Irish myth in Oidheadh Chlainne Tuireann, in which Lugh obtains the pig-skin of Tuis, which could heal any injury. Lugh is widely considered to be the Irish form of the Celtic god Lugus, an analogue of the Gaulish Mercury.
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The dedications, such as DEIFAVNIAVSECI (RIB 2420.21) (literally, 'of the God Faunus Ausecus') are engraved in the bowls of both the cochlearia and cigni. The epithets or by-names applied to Faunus in the inscriptions have been identified as containing Celtic (Gaulish or British) linguistic elements, supporting the supposition that any cult of Faunus which they represent was Romano-British, not one that consisted of devotees from elsewhere in the Roman Empire. The inscriptions were discussed in the published catalogue by the late Kenneth Jackson. It has been suggested that it is unlikely that these items were intended to be used for ordinary domestic dining, and that their eventual deposition may be interpreted as a ritual act rather than a practical one (See Religion in Ancient Rome).
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Lezard, Nicholas (16 January 2009), Asterix has sold out to the Empire ," The Guardian (retrieved 21 June 2016) In a letter published in the French newspaper Le Monde in 2009, Uderzo's daughter, Sylvie, attacked her father's decision to sell the family publishing firm and the rights to produce new Astérix adventures after his death. She said: > ... the co-creator of Astérix, France's comic strip hero, has betrayed the > Gaulish warrior to the modern-day Romans – the men of industry and finance. However, René Goscinny's daughter, Anne, also gave her agreement to the continuation of the series and sold her rights at the same time. She is reported to have said that "Asterix has already had two lives: one during my father's lifetime and one after it.
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Julius Caesar is celebrating his victory over all of Gaul, but Lucius Detritus has kept from him that one village has managed to resist them. Detritus travels to the garrison near the village where Caius Bonus (Crismus Bonus), the garrison's commanding Centurion, explains that the Gauls have a magic potion, which makes them invincible. Detritus decides to capture the potion for himself, and hearing that the clever Asterix and permanently invincible Obelix are the backbone of the Gaulish forces, attempts and fails to eliminate them. A false soothsayer arrives at the village and predicts the arrival of Romans and treasure; despite Asterix's protests, the village believe him, wherefore when a Roman tax collector arrives, they drive off his forces and take the gold.
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The Aedui, Haedui, or Hedui (Gaulish: "the ardent ones"; ) were a Gallic tribe, dwelling in the modern Burgundy region during the La Tène and Roman periods. According to Julius Caesar in his writings on the Gallic Wars in Commentarii de Bello Gallico, the Aedui were one of the stronger gallic tribes, them being the target of jealous tribes like the Helvetii, Sequani, Remi, and Arverni. Furthermore, the Aedui seemed to work in a semi-republican state, with the powerful Vergobret at least slightly being at the will of the people, similar to the senators of Rome The Aedui had an ambiguous relationship with the Roman Republic and other Gallic tribes. In 121 BC, they appealed to Rome against the Arverni and Allobroges.
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Tanaka wrote the main narrative and scenarios for the characters, assisted by a dedicated writing team. While the leads Welkin and Alicia and much of the key supporting cast were present from the earliest stages, several had different artistic designs and several concept scenes and more fantastical elements such as floating islands were dropped from the final game. Welkin's name and parts of his storyline were derived from Gaulish chieftain Vercingetorix who united Gaul against the Romans. To give the story a more personal feeling and draw from Japanese military history, the characters were made militiamen without extensive military training, creating a deliberate contrast to the hardened career soldier protagonists from the movie Saving Private Ryan and the series Combat!.
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Novioialos was a Gaulish site established next to a pagan fountain, and was Christianized under the patronage of Saint-Vivien. In the eleventh century, the area and the Church belonged to the Viscounts of Rochechouart that created the benedictine Abbaye Saint-Pierre d'Uzerche, the forest was then cleared by the monks of the Priory of Sainte Marie-Madeleine de I'Espinassouze. All that remains is the apse of the Church, a wall of the chapel of I' Espinassouze and the foundations of the mill. The Châtellenie of Nieuil passed successively through the noble families Raja, Jaubert, Green Saint, - Marsault – (builders of the first castle) and Perry Fief of the barony of Champagne Mouton, it remained an enclave of Poitou until the French Revolution.
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To that end, they interrogate the archer, Lucius Circumbendibus, who now owns a wheel manufacturing business; the second legionary, Marcus Carniverus, who worked at a health resort before opening a restaurant; and the drunken Centurion Crapulus. Vapus and his men in turn search in vain for both the shield and Asterix and Obelix, as a running gag dirtying themselves with charcoal dust while searching the coal heaps belonging to Winesanspirix and their neighbors. The search eventually leads the two Gauls back to Winesanspirix, to whom Crapulus had given the shield in the prologue. Upon the protagonists' reunion with him, Winesanspirix confesses having given the shield to a dispirited Gaulish warrior, who is thereupon identified with the arrival of a newly cured and much slimmer Vitalstatistix.
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Prior to this the Velabri around Kerry Head and further south the Iverni people (or Iernoi from the earlier Greek) were noted by Ptolemy to be concentrated in the south-west area of Ireland, speaking the most primitive Goidelic language similar to Gaulish (as recorded on Ogham stones, with examples found close by in Knockbrack and Tralee, from the 6th Century). The Érainn, in Irish tradition, may be the name for the same group of people as there are linguistic links. Kilflynn was a historical civil parish in the barony of Clanmaurice. This barony developed from the area which had been in the control of native leaders (especially O'Conors) but was taken over by the Norman, Maurice, son of Thomas FitzGerald of Shanid who died in 1213.
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Satellite image of Rome Aerial view of part of Rome's Centro Storico Throughout the history of Rome, the urban limits of the city were considered to be the area within the city's walls. Originally, these consisted of the Servian Wall, which was built twelve years after the Gaulish sack of the city in 390 BC. This contained most of the Esquiline and Caelian hills, as well as the whole of the other five. Rome outgrew the Servian Wall, but no more walls were constructed until almost 700 years later, when, in 270 AD, Emperor Aurelian began building the Aurelian Walls. These were almost long, and were still the walls the troops of the Kingdom of Italy had to breach to enter the city in 1870.
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Koch; NMD Despite the fact that the vessel was found in Denmark, it was probably not made there or nearby; it includes elements of Gaulish and Thracian origin in the workmanship, metallurgy, and imagery. The techniques and elements of the style of the panels relate closely to other Thracian silver, while much of the depiction, in particular of the human figures, relates to the Celts, though attempts to relate the scenes closely to Celtic mythology remain controversial. Other aspects of the iconography derive from the Near East.NMD; Green, 45, Sandars, 255 Hospitality on a large scale was probably an obligation for Celtic elites, and although cauldrons were therefore an important item of prestige metalwork, they are usually much plainer and smaller than this.
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The Gaulish language of the inhabitants of Gaul disappeared progressively over the course of Roman rule as the Latin languages began to replace it: written (Classical) Latin and spoken (vulgar) Latin. Classical Latin, taught in schools, remained the language of religious services, of scientific works, of legislative acts and of certain literary works. Vulgar Latin, spoken by the Roman soldiers and merchants, and adopted by the natives, evolved slowly, taking the forms of different spoken Roman vernaculars according to the region of the country. Eventually the different forms of Vulgar Latin would evolve into three branches in the Gallo-Romance language sub-family, the langues d'oïl north of the Loire, the langues d'oc in the south, and the Franco- Provençal languages in part of the east.
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Uderzo married Ada Milani in 1953 and had one daughter Sylvie Uderzo (b. 1956). After Uderzo fired Sylvie and her husband in 2007 as managers of his estate and agreed to sell his share of Editions Albert René to Hachette Livre, Sylvie accused him in a column in Le Monde, that with this sale to a corporation it was "as if the gates of the Gaulish village had been thrown open to the Roman Empire". Uderzo had previously stated in interviews that Asterix would end with his death; however, the terms of the sale to Hachette allowed the company to continue producing Asterix titles indefinitely with or without Uderzo's participation. Uderzo in 2013 sued his daughter and son-in-law for "psychological violence".
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The opus gallicum (Latin for "Gallic work") was a technique of construction whereby precise holes were created in stone masonry for the insertion of wooden beams to create a wooden infrastructure. The technique was so named because, though its presence is attested in protohistoric times, its use was common enough in Gaul to merit mention in Julius Caesar's De bello Gallico and was frequently employed in the Merovingian era. The technique was imported by the Normans into the Molise, where it was used extensively in the raising of castles in a short time. Gaulish masons are even known to have brought the technique from Merovingian Francia to Anglo-Saxon England during the 7th and 8th centuries and employed it in church architecture.
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Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as Lugh, the Mórrígan, Aengus and Manannán Mac Lir appear in stories set centuries later, betraying their immortality. A poem in the Book of Leinster lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends "Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them". Goibniu, Creidhne and Luchta are referred to as Trí Dé Dána ("three gods of craftsmanship"), and the Dagda's name is interpreted in medieval texts as "the good god". Nuada is cognate with the British god Nodens; Lugh is a reflex of the pan-Celtic deity Lugus, the name of whom may indicate "Light"; Tuireann may be related to the Gaulish Taranis; Ogma to Ogmios; the Badb to Catubodua.
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Detail of the antlered figure holding a torc and a ram-headed snake depicted on the 1st or 2nd century BC Gundestrup cauldron discovered in Jutland, Denmark. A recurrent figure in Gaulish iconography is a deity sitting cross-legged with antlers, sometimes surrounded by animals, often wearing or holding a torc. The name usually applied to him, Cernunnos, is attested only a few times: on the Pillar of the Boatmen, a relief in Paris (currently reading ERNUNNOS, but an early sketch shows it as having read CERNUNNOS in the 18th century); on an inscription from Montagnac (αλλετ[ει]νος καρνονου αλ[ι]σο[ντ]εας, "Alletinos [dedicated this] to Carnonos of Alisontea"Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises I (1985), pp.318-325.); and on a pair of identical inscriptions from Seinsel-Rëlent ("Deo Ceruninco").
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Dál Riata grew in size and influence, and Gaelic language and culture was eventually adopted by the neighbouring Picts (a group of peoples who may have spoken a Brittonic language) who lived throughout Scotland. Manx, the language of the Isle of Man, is closely akin to the Gaelic spoken in the Hebrides and the Irish spoken in northeast and eastern Ireland and the now-extinct Galwegian Gaelic of Galloway (in southwest Scotland), with some influence from Old Norse through the Viking invasions and from the previous British inhabitants. The oldest written Goidelic language is Primitive Irish, which is attested in Ogham inscriptions from about the 4th century. The forms of this speech are very close, and often identical, to the forms of Gaulish recorded before and during the Roman Empire.
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118 It has been suggestedDavid Evans, "Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala," in Myth in Indo-European Antiquity (University of California Press, 1974), p. 116. that behind the vague outlines of this tale lurks an older myth having to do with Herakles' encounter with the river deity Achelous, who had chthonic associations and whose name was the subject of speculative theological etymology among the Greeks, in this case involving acherōïs, another Greek word for "poplar." In a founding myth of the 1st century BC, Herakles is supposed to have established the Arvernian oppidum of Alesia,Diodorus Siculus 4.19; Nico Roymans, Ethnic Identity and Imperial Powers: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire (Amsterdam University Press, 2004), p. 241. the name of which likely derives from the Gaulish word for poplar.
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This was opposed by several of the group's founders, who wanted it to retain its inter-religious origins, and certain groves actually emphasized their connection to other religions: there was a group of Zen Druids in Olympia and Hassidic Druids in St. Louis for instance. Among those largely responsible for this transition towards Neopaganism within the organisation were Isaac Bonewits and Robert Larson, who worked in a grove located in Berkeley, California. Believing that the Reformed Druidic movement would have to accept that it was essentially Neopagan in nature, Bonewits decided to found a split-off group known as the New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA), which he defined as an "Eclectic Reconstructionist Neo-Pagan Priestcraft, based primarily upon Gaulish and Celtic sources".Adler 2006. p. 340.
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In Gallo-Roman religion, Sequana was the goddess of the river Seine, particularly the springs at the source of the Seine, and the Gaulish tribe the Sequani. The springs, called the Fontes Sequanae ("The Springs of Sequana"), are located in a valley in the Châtillon Plateau, to the north-west of Dijon in Burgundy, and it was here, in the 2nd or 1st century BC, that a healing shrine was established. The sanctuary was later taken over by the Romans, who built two temples, a colonnaded precinct and other related structures centred on the spring and pool. Many dedications were made to Sequana at her temple, including a large pot inscribed with her name and filled with bronze and silver models of parts of human bodies to be cured by her.
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The native population of Gallia was referred to by Visigothic and Iberian writers as the "Gauls" and there is a well-attested hatred between the Goths and the Gauls which was atypical for the kingdom as a whole. The Gauls commonly insulted the Goths by comparing the strength of their men to that of Gaulish women, though the Spaniards regarded themselves as the defenders and protectors of the Gauls. It is only in the time of Wamba (reigned 672-680) and Julian of Toledo, however, that a large Jewish population becomes evident in Septimania: Julian referred to it as a "brothel of blaspheming Jews." Thanks to the preserved canons of the Council of Narbonne of 590, a good deal can be known about surviving pagan practices in Visigothic Septimania.
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The word baron comes from the Old French , from a Late Latin "man; servant, soldier, mercenary" (so used in Salic law; Alemannic law has in the same sense). The scholar Isidore of Seville in the 7th century thought the word was from Greek "heavy" (because of the "heavy work" done by mercenaries), but the word is presumably of Old Frankish origin, cognate with Old English meaning "warrior, nobleman". Cornutus in the first century already reports a word which he took to be of Gaulish origin. He glosses it as meaning and explains it as meaning "stupid", by reference to classical Latin "simpleton, dunce"; because of this early reference, the word has also been suggested to derive from an otherwise unknown Celtic , but the Oxford English Dictionary takes this to be "a figment".
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The city Pavia was initially settled by the Ligures and was later occupied by Gaulish tribes; it was conquered by the Romans in 220 BCE. Named "Ticinum" by the Romans, the town was reinforced and became a key part of their defenses in northern Italy; despite this, the town was sacked by Attila, the ruler of the Hunnic Empire, in 452 CE, and then again by Odoacer in 476 CE. In the sixth century it was the capital of German tribe the Lombards and survived an attempted Frankish invasion. However, following the death of Charlemagne, the Lombard territory became part of Frankish territory. In the 12th century, it became a commune after Frankish rule ceased, and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor fortified areas of the commune and he was crowned in Pavia in 1155.
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The term Pritani may have reached Pytheas from the Gauls, who possibly used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands. Greek and Roman writers, in the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, name the inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland as the Priteni, the origin of the Latin word Britanni. It has been suggested that this name derives from a Gaulish description translated as "people of the forms", referring to the custom of tattooing or painting their bodies with blue woad made from Isatis tinctoria. Parthenius, a 1st-century Ancient Greek grammarian, and the Etymologicum Genuinum, a 9th-century lexical encyclopaedia, mention a mythical character Bretannus (the Latinised form of the , Brettanós) as the father of Celtine, mother of Celtus, the eponymous ancestor of the Celts.
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Caesar mentions that their chief was protected by a troop of 600 men named soldurii, which could be a Latinized form of Gaulish soldurio ('body-guard, loyal, devoted') according to Xavier Delamarre. Theo Vennemann argues on the contrary that the name may be of Aquitanian (Vasconic) origin, since it is used by the local people (illi), and the first element of sol-durii could be related to the Basque zor ('debt'). In any case, the soldurii of Adiatuanos were probably involved in a patron-client relationship that has been compared to the Gallic ambactus, and the size of his army (600 men) illustrates the concentration of a personal power ruling over different clans. They may also have been an Aquitanian tribe that had been Celticized before Caesar's first historical accounts.
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A number of early Celtic (Hallstatt culture) specimens are known, notably the remains of a huge gold- banded horn found at the Hochdorf burial. Krauße (1996) examines the spread of the "fashion" of drinking horns (Trinkhornmode) in prehistoric Europe, assuming it reached the eastern Balkans from Scythia around 500 BC. It is more difficult to assess the role of plain animal horns as everyday drinking vessels, because these decay without a trace, while the metal fittings of the ceremonial drinking horns of the elite are preserved archaeologically.Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (ed.), Ancient Greeks West and East, 1999, , pp. 416ff. Julius Caesar has a description of Gaulish use of aurochs drinking horns (cornu urii) in De bello gallico 6.28: :„Amplitudo cornuum et figura et species multum a nostrorum boum cornibus differt.
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The cognomen ex virtute was a surname derived from some virtuous or heroic episode attributed to the bearer. Roman history is filled with individuals who obtained cognomina as a result of their exploits: Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis, who commanded the Roman army at the Battle of Lake Regillus; Gaius Marcius Coriolanus, who captured the city of Corioli; Marcus Valerius Corvus, who defeated a giant Gaul in single combat, aided by a raven; Titus Manlius Torquatus, who likewise defeated a Gaulish giant, and took his name from the torque that he claimed as a prize; Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, who carried the Second Punic War to Africa, and defeated Hannibal. Interestingly, the most famous examples of this class of cognomen come from the period of the Republic, centuries before the concept of the agnomen was formulated.
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Many songs are composed in English, but Viking metal bands often write lyrics in other languages, usually of the North Germanic family – Norwegian, Old Norse, Swedish, Danish and, less commonly, Icelandic and Faroese – and also in Finnish, which is non-Germanic.; Other European languages, such as German, Old High German, Latin, Dutch, Sami languages, or Gaulish are sometimes used. Heavy metal fans around the world sometimes learn languages such as Norwegian or Finnish in order to understand the lyrics of their favorite bands and improve their appreciation of the music. Irina-Maria Manea considers this preference to sing in a native language, along with the imagery of album covers, and stage performances which often involve warrior costumes, weapons, and sometimes reenactments, a demonstration of a völkisch aspect to Viking metal.
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The theonym Moccus is known from a single votive inscription from Langres, which reads as follows: The name is derived from the Gaulish moccos 'pig' or 'wild boar', cognate with Old Irish mucc, Welsh moch, and Breton moc'h, all with similar meanings. The same root also appears in the personal names of a number of individuals in Gaul in such forms as Moccius, Moccia, Mocconius, Catomocus, etc. Celtic god of Euffigneix Scholars such as Émile Thévenot and Philippe Jouët have connected Moccus with the god of Euffigneix, a Celtic sculpture depicting a torc-wearing god with a wild boar vertically over his torso. Thévenot points out that Euffigneix would have lain in the same tribal territory—that of the Lingones—as did Langres, where the Moccus inscription was found.
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His chief work was his De gratia Dei et libero arbitrio (432), written against John Cassian's Collatio. He also induced Pope Celestine to publish an open letter to the bishops of Gaul, Epistola ad episcopos Gallorum against some members of the Gaulish Church. He had earlier opened a correspondence with Augustine, along with his friend Hilary (not Hilary of Arles), and although he did not meet him personally, his enthusiasm for the great theologian led him to make an abridgment of his commentary on the Psalms, as well as a collection of sentences from his works—probably the first dogmatic compilation of that class in which Peter Lombard's Liber sententiarum is the best-known example. He also put into elegiac metre, in 106 epigrams, some of Augustine's theological dicta.
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Remains of a Roman canal in Martigny Château de la Bâtiaz The Gaulish name of the settlement in the 1st century BC was either Octodurus or Octodurum (whence Martigny is sometimes also called Octodure in French), an oppidum or vicus of the Veragri. Octodurus was conquered by the Roman Republic in 57 BC, and occupied by Servius Galba with the twelfth legion and some cavalry in order to protect the strategically important pass of Poeninus (now known as the Great St. Bernard), by which road the mercatores had used to travel at great risk as well as paying great tolls. (B. G. iii. 1.) Galba, after capturing many local strongholds and receiving the submission of the people, sent troops into the country of the Nantuates, and with his remaining army determined to winter in Octodurus.
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Whether the superstratum case (the local language persists and the intrusive language disappears) or the substratum one (the local language disappears and the intrusive language persists) applies will normally only be evident after several generations, during which the intrusive language exists within a diaspora culture. In order for the intrusive language to persist (substratum case), the immigrant population will either need to take the position of a political elite or immigrate in significant numbers relative to the local population (i. e., the intrusion qualifies as an invasion or colonisation; an example would be the Roman Empire giving rise to Romance languages outside Italy, displacing Gaulish and many other Indo-European languages). The superstratum case refers to elite invading populations that eventually adopt the language of the native lower classes.
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The Old Italic alphabets clearly derive from the Greek alphabet, specifically from the Euboean variant (also known in this case as Cumaean variant) used in the Euboean Greek colonies of Ischia and Cumae in the Bay of Naples in the 8th century BC. The Etruscans were the leading civilization of Italy in that period, and it is assumed that the other Old Italic scripts were derived from theirs – although some of them, including the Latin alphabet, retained certain Greek letters that the Etruscans themselves dropped at a rather early stage. The Old Italic alphabets were used for various different languages, which included some Indo- European ones (predominantly from the Italic branch, but also in Gaulish and probably in inscriptions interpreted as Proto-Germanic) and some non-Indo- European ones (such as Etruscan itself).
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"Gallic Wars" II.4 This alliance was defeated after a series of events culminating in the Battle of the Sabis. In 54 BCE, the Eburones and the Aduatuci rebelled again in alliance with the Gaulish tribes to their south and west, the Treveri and Nervii. Also concerning these powerful tribes it is difficult to be certain what language they spoke, although the Treveri are generally thought to have spoken a Celtic language. (Tacitus says of these two tribes that they were not originally Germani, but that they wished to be associated with that name and not the softer name of the Gauls.) The capital of the Eburones is named by Caesar as Aduatuca, and the capital of the region in later Roman times was Aduatuca Tungrorum (modern Tongeren).
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Martin, too, had denounced the worldliness and greed of the Gaulish bishops and clergy. Accordingly we find that Severus, in narrating the division of Canaan among the tribes, calls the special attention of ecclesiastics to the fact that no portion of the land was assigned to the tribe of Levi, lest they should be hindered in their service of God. "Our clergy seem", he says, "not merely forgetful of the lesson but ignorant of it, such a passion for possessions has in our days fastened like a pestilence on their souls." We here catch a glimpse of the circumstances which were winning over good men to monasticism in the West, though the evidence of an enthusiastic votary of the solitary life, such as Severus was, is probably not free from exaggeration.
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Severus also fully sympathized with the action of St. Martin touching Priscillianism. This mysterious Western offshoot of Gnosticism had no single feature about it which could soften the hostility of a character such as Martin's, but he resisted the introduction of secular punishment for evil doctrine, and withdrew from communion with those bishops in Gaul, a large majority, who invoked the aid of Maximus against their erring brethren. In this connection, the account given by Severus of the Council of Rimini in 359, where the question arose whether the bishops attending the assembly might lawfully receive money from the imperial treasury to recoup their travelling and other expenses, is notable. Severus evidently approved the action of the British and Gaulish bishops, who deemed it unbecoming that they should lie under pecuniary obligation to the emperor.
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He was captured and beheaded, and his head was paraded around the army on a spear. The Gauls did not follow up their victory, and Sosthenes, a Macedonian nobleman, took command, assembled an army and forced them to withdraw, although he was defeated by Brennus' contingent soon afterwards. The combined Gaulish army under Brennus and Acichorius then mounted an invasion of Greece, defeating a combined Greek army at Thermopylae and advancing to Delphi, where they were routed.Pausanias, Description of Greece 10.19-23; Junianus Justinus, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus' Histories 24.4-8; Memnon, History of Heracleia 8; Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library 22.3 Koch has suggested that Bolgios had become quasi-deified by the Late Iron Age, and the ethnonym of the "Belgae" refers to their claiming ancestry from him.
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In 52 BC the Atrebates joined the pan-Gaulish revolt led by Vercingetorix, and Commius was one of the leaders of the army that attempted to relieve Vercingetorix at the Siege of Alesia.Caesar, De Bello Gallico 7.75-76, 79; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40:42 After Vercingetorix was defeated Commius joined a revolt by the Bellovaci and persuaded some 500 Germans to support them, but this too was defeated and Commius sought refuge with his German allies.Hirtius, De Bello Gallico 8.6-7, 10, 21 In 51 BC he returned to his homeland with a small mounted war-band for a campaign of agitation and guerrilla warfare. That winter Mark Antony, a legionary legate at the time, ordered Volusenus to pursue him with cavalry, something Volusenus was more than happy to do.
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The Gauls divided the universe into three parts: Albios ("heaven, white-world, upper-world"), Bitu ("world of the living beings"), and Dubnos ("hell, lower-world, dark-world").;; According to Lucan, the Gaulish druids believed that the soul went to an Otherworld, which he calls by the Latin name Orbis alius, before being reincarnated. Graeco- Roman geographers tell us about Celtic belief in islands consecrated to gods and heroes. Among them were Anglesey (Môn), off the north coast of Wales, which was the sacred island of the druids of Britain; the Scilly islands, where archaeological remains of proto-historical temples have been found; and some of the Hebrides, which were, in the Gaelic tradition, home of ghosts and demons: on one of them, Skye, the Irish hero Cúchulainn was taught by the warrior woman Scathach.
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Celtic expansion in Europe, 6th–3rd century BC Covering large parts of modern-day France, Belgium, northwest Germany and northern Italy, Gaul was inhabited by many Celtic and Belgae tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and who spoke the Gaulish language roughly between the Oise and the Garonne (Gallia Celtica), according to Julius Caesar. On the lower Garonne the people spoke Aquitanian, a Pre-Indo-European language related to (or a direct ancestor of) Basque whereas a Belgian language was spoken north of Lutecia but north of the Loire according to other authors like Strabo. The Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded Tolosa (Toulouse). Long before any Roman settlements, Greek navigators settled in what would become Provence.
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Map of the pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe showing cultures associated with Proto-Germanic, 500 BC. The red shows the area of the preceding Nordic Bronze Age in Scandinavia; the magenta-colored area towards the south represents the Jastorf culture of the North German Plain. The Italo-Celtic branch of the Indo-European languages split off in Central and Southern Europe, diverging into the Italic languages (which includes Latin and all subsequent Romance languages) and the Celtic languages. The Urnfield Culture that appeared around 1300 BCE is believed to be the first Proto-Celtic culture followed by the Hallstatt culture in Austria in 800 BC. Celtic languages spread throughout Central Europe, to central Anatolia, western Iberia, the British Isles and current day France, diverging into Lepontic, Gaulish, Galatian, Celtiberian and Gallaecian. Distribution of Celtic languages.
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While the polytheistic cultures of ancient Greece and Rome revolved around urban life, ancient Celtic society was predominantly rural. The close link with the natural world is reflected in what we know of the religious systems of Celtic Europe during the late 1st millennium BCE and early 1st millennium CE. As in many polytheistic systems, the local spirits honoured were those of both the wild and cultivated landscapes and their inhabitants. As Anne Ross observed: "... god-types, as opposed to individual universal Gaulish deities, are to be looked for as an important feature of the religion of the Gauls ... and the evidence of epigraphy strongly supports this conclusion." As what some may consider spirits are considered by other authors to be deities, the list of Celtic deities derived from local inscriptions can at times be rather long.
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Cathubodua (, "battle crow") is the name of a Gaulish goddess inferred from a single inscription at Mieussy in Haute Savoie, eastern France, which actually reads ATHVBODVAE AVG SERVILIA TERENTIA S L M. The text's restitution as Cathubodua depends on the assumptions that an initial C has been lost and that the personal names ATEBODVAE, ATEBODVVS and ATEBODVI in 3 other inscriptions in modern Austria and SloveniaCIL III, 5247; CIL III, 4732; CIL III, 5386; are unrelated. She appears to be identical to the Irish goddess Badb Catha; under this identification, Badb Catha would foresee the fate of warriors before the battle. Nicole Jufer and Thierry Luginbühl provisionally link Cathubodua with other apparently martial goddesses attested elsewhere, such as Boudina, Bodua, and Boudiga, whose names share roots meaning either 'fighting' or 'victory'.Jufer, N. and T. Luginbühl (2001).
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The Droungarios of the Watch was originally the commander of the Vigla ("guard watch") or Arithmos ("number"), the third of the tagmata, professional cavalry regiments headquartered in and around Constantinople, and distinct from the provincial or thematic troops. The title of droungarios itself means "commander of a droungos", a term of Gaulish origin which came to be used as a term for a kind of tactical cavalry formation in the East Roman army of Late Antiquity. The term droungarios (Greek: δρουγγάριος) is not documented before the early 7th century but might have been used as an informal or unofficial designation before that date. The office and the corresponding unit appear to have initially referred to ad hoc arrangements, but during the early 7th century these were formalized, like much of the East Roman army's rank structure.
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Murus Gallicus in Basel Basel-Münsterhügel is the site of an Iron Age (late La Tène) fort or oppidum, known as Basel oppidum, constructed by the Gaulish Rauraci after the battle of Bibracte in 58 BC. It the site of Basel Minster, in the Swiss city of Basel. The fort was abandoned or destroyed shortly after its construction, before the end of the 1st century BC, with the Roman conquest of the Alps and the establishment of the province of Gallia Belgica. By the early 1st century AD, there was a small vicus on the hill built on top of the ruins of the oppidum, possibly the origin of the name Basilia, from a toponym villa Basilia "estate of Basilius". In the mid-3rd century, the ruined oppidum was rebuilt as a Roman castrum, fortified with an encircling wall in c. 270.
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Roman interest in the area led to some of the earliest written evidence about Ireland. The names of its tribes were recorded by the geographer Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD.Wallace and O'Floinn, 171 The recorded tribes of Ireland included at least three with names identical or similar to British or Gaulish tribes: the Brigantes (also the name of the largest tribe in northern and midland Britain), the Manapii (possibly the same people as the Menapii, a Belgic tribe of northern Gaul) and the Coriondi (a name similar to that of Corinion, later Cirencester and the Corionototae of northern Britain). Up to about 150 BC there are many finds that show stylistic influence from continental Europe (as in the preceding Dowris Phase), and some direct imports. After that date relationships with British styles predominate, perhaps reflecting some movement of people.
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He also insists that Sinusitus remain in the Gaulish village as a hostage; apparently to guarantee Asterix and Obelix's return, but actually to protect Sinusitus from Flavus. Asterix and Obelix reach Helvetia but soon run into difficulties set by the Romans, as Varius Flavus has warned his colleague in Helvetia, the equally-corrupt Curius Odus, of their arrival. Thus the Gauls find themselves continually chased and delayed by the Romans, but are assisted by the hotel manager Petitsuix, bank manager Zurix, and some Helvetian veterans who hold a celebration at Lake Geneva. During the celebration, Obelix is rendered senseless by plum wine, and the veterans are attacked by the Roman army; whereupon Asterix and some of the Helvetians, tying themselves to Obelix and each other, obtain the "silver star" from the mountainside, while the remaining Helvetians repel the Romans.
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Nemausus (Nîmes), France: :Rufina Lucubus v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito) Distribution of inscriptions to the Lugoves or to Lugus The majority of the known inscriptions dedicated to Lugus come from the Iberian Peninsula, perhaps indicating this deity's particular importance and popularity among the Iberian Celts.Francisco Marco Simón, "Religion and Religious Practices of the Ancient Celts of the Iberian Peninsula", E-Keltoi Vol 6, 2007 An inscribed lead plate found in Chamalières in France includes the phrase luge dessummiíis, which has been tentatively interpreted by some scholars as "I prepare them for Lugus", though it may also mean "I swear (luge) with/by my right (hand)".Lugus: The Gaulish Mercury at Mabinogion.info. P.-Y. Lambert leaves this phrase partially untranslated, Que tu ... à ma droite ("May you ... to my right"), cited at L'Arbre Celtique.
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The Stanwick Horse Mask, La Tène style mount, British, 1st century AD, 10 cm The last centuries before the Roman invasion saw an influx of Celtic speaking refugees from Gaul (approximately modern day France and Belgium) known as the Belgae, who were displaced as the Roman Empire expanded around 50 BC. They settled along most of the coastline of southern Britain between about 200 BC and AD 43, although it is hard to estimate what proportion of the population there they formed. A Gaulish tribe known as the Parisi, who had cultural links to the continent, appeared in northeast England. From around 175 BC, the areas of Kent, Hertfordshire and Essex developed especially advanced pottery-making skills. The tribes of southeast England became partially Romanised and were responsible for creating the first settlements (oppida) large enough to be called towns.
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Rouen was founded by the Gaulish tribe of the Veliocasses, who controlled a large area in the lower Seine valley. They called it Ratumacos; the Romans called it Rotomagus. It was considered the second city of Gallia Lugdunensis after Lugdunum (Lyon) itself. Under the reorganization of Diocletian, Rouen was the chief city of the divided province Gallia Lugdunensis II and reached the apogee of its Roman development, with an amphitheatre and thermae of which foundations remain. In the 5th century, it became the seat of a bishopric and later a capital of Merovingian Neustria. From their first incursion into the lower valley of the Seine in 841, the Normans overran Rouen. From 912, Rouen was the capital of the Duchy of Normandy and residence of the local dukes, until William the Conqueror moved his residence to Caen.Stratford, Jenny.
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Its name is derived from Ruscino (Rosceliona, Castel Rossello), a small fortified place near modern-day Perpignan where Gaulish chieftains met to consider Hannibal's request for a conference. The region formed part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis from 121 BC to AD 462, when it was ceded with the rest of Septimania to the Visigoth Theodoric II. His successor, Amalaric, on his defeat by Childebert I in 531, retired to Hispania, leaving a governor in Septimania. In 719, the Saracens crossed the Pyrenees and maintained political hegemony of Septimania until their final defeat in 759 by Pepin the Short, who went on to occupy Roussillon after conquering Narbonne. Roussillon was occupied by the Carolingians in 760. Upon the invasion of Hispania in 778, Charlemagne found the Marca Hispanica wasted by war and the inhabitants settled in the mountains.
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In 278 BC Gaulish settlers in the Balkans were invited by Nicomedes I of Bithynia to help him in a dynastic struggle against his brother. They numbered about 10,000 fighting men and about the same number of women and children, divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and Tectosages. They were eventually defeated by the Seleucid king Antiochus I (275 BC), in a battle in which the Seleucid war elephants shocked the Galatians. Although the momentum of the invasion was broken, the Galatians were by no means exterminated, and continued to demand tribute from the Hellenistic states of Anatolia to avoid war. 4,000 Galatians were hired as mercenaries by the Ptolemaic Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus in 270 BC. According to Pausanias, soon after arrival the Celts plotted “to seize Egypt”, and so Ptolemy marooned them on a deserted island in the Nile River.
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With regard to the historical reliability of the Vita Germani Nora K. Chadwick Chadwick, Nora (1955) Poetry and Letters in Early Christian Gaul, London quoted Constantius himself : “So many years have passed it is difficult to recover the facts from the silence in which they are buried”. Edward Arthur Thompson Thompson, E.A. 1984 St Germanus of Auxerre and the End of Roman Britain, Woodbridge: Boydell Press emphasised how poorly informed Constantius seems to have been about Germanus's British visit compared to his activities in Gaul and Italy. There are apparent discrepancies between Constantius's account of Germanus's British expeditions and the more reliable near contemporary one of Prosper of Aquitaine. The former relates that Germanus was sent by a council of Gaulish bishops, while Prosper states that he was sent by Pope Celestinus on the advice of the deacon, Palladius.
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The Brigantes are attested in Ireland as well as Britain in Ptolemy's 2nd century Geographia,Ptolemy, Geographia 2.1, 2.2 but it is not clear what link, if any, existed between the Irish and the British Brigantes. T. F. O'Rahilly proposed that the Irish branch was the origin of the later Uí Bairrche clan, believing that they belonged to the Érainn (Ptolemy's Iverni) who he hypothesized were originally descendant from the Gaulish and British BelgaeO'Rahilly, T. F. (1946), Early Irish History and Mythology, Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies according to his model of Irish prehistory. Professor John T. Koch posits links between the British and Irish groups, identifying the Romano-British goddess Brigantia with the Irish Brigid and pointing to a possibly Roman or Romano-British burial in Stonyford, County Kilkenny. He identifies the Irish Brigantes with the early mediaeval Uí Brigte clan.
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Caesar describes northern Belgic tribes such as the Menapii and Nervii as being particularly far removed from Celtic Gaulish norms found in what is today central France, and he specifically refers to their eastern Belgic neighbours, such as the Eburones, as "Cisrhenane Germani". He reported German ancestry amongst these tribes and by the first century BC Germanic languages may have already become prevalent amongst the northern Belgae. In late classical times, as the Roman empire came under increasing pressure from outside tribal groups, the coast of Flanders itself became a part of the "Saxon Shore", which was a militarized area under attack from seaborne "Saxon" raiders and invaders, coming from the direction of northern Germany. Inland parts of modern Flanders, Brabant and especially Limburg, came under pressure from the Frankish group of Germanic tribes, from across the Rhine.
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Greek historian Strabo, however, attributed the foundation of Tergeste to the Gaulish tribe of Carni, who settled the Eastern Alps in classical antiquity. Following the Roman conquest of Istria in 177 BC the town became a Roman municipality called Tergeste, developing and acquiring a clear urban physiognomy by the Augustan Age at the beginning of the 1st millennium. Roman Tergeste reached its peak during the rule of Trajan in the early 2nd century AD. According to Triestine historian Pietro Kandler, the town's population at the time was around 12,000 to 12,500 - a number the city reached again only in the 1760s. In the lower part of the San Giusto hill in the city's historic centre it is still possible to see the remains of the ancient Roman settlement, despite the many modern buildings that partially cover the view today.
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Bohemia, like neighbouring Bavaria, is named after the Boii, a large Celtic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with the Helvetii into southern France, which was one of the events leading to the interventions of Julius Caesar's Gaulish campaign of 58 BC. The emigration of the Helvetii and Boii left southern Germany and Bohemia a lightly inhabited "desert" into which Suebic peoples arrived, speaking Germanic languages, and became dominant over remaining Celtic groups. To the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast, in present-day Hungary, were Dacian peoples. In the area of modern Bohemia the Marcomanni and other Suebic groups were led by their king, Marobodus, after they had suffered defeat to Roman forces in Germany.
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Image of a tricephalic god identified as Lugus, discovered in Paris According to Caesar the god most honoured by the Gauls was ‘Mercury’, and this is confirmed by numerous images and inscriptions. Mercury's name is often coupled with Celtic epithets, particularly in eastern and central Gaul; the commonest such names include Visucius, Cissonius, and Gebrinius. Another name, Lugus, is inferred from the recurrent place-name Lugdunon ('the fort of Lugus') from which the modern Lyon, Laon, and Loudun in France, Leiden in the Netherlands, and Lugo in Galicia derive their names; a similar element can be found in Carlisle (formerly Castra Luguvallium), Legnica in Poland and the county Louth in Ireland, derived from the Irish "Lú", itself coming from "Lugh". The Irish and Welsh cognates of Lugus are Lugh and Lleu, respectively, and certain traditions concerning these figures mesh neatly with those of the Gaulish god.
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The Gallic Empire was symptomatic of the fragmentation of power during the third-century crisis. It has also been taken to represent autonomous trends in the western provinces, including proto-feudalistic tendencies among the Gaulish land-owning class whose support has sometimes been thought to have underpinned the strength of the Gallic Empire, and an interplay between the strength of Roman institutions and the growing salience of provincial concerns. One of Postumus' primary objectives as emperor was evidently the defence of the Germanic frontier; in 261 he repelled mixed groups of Franks and Alamanni to hold the Rhine limes secure (though lands beyond the upper Rhine and Danube had to be abandoned to the barbarians within a couple of years). In so doing, Postumus positioned himself avowedly as not only the defender and restorer of Gaul, but also as the upholder of the Roman name.
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What is present-day Luxembourg, was inhabited by Celts during the Iron Age (from roughly 600 BC until 100 AD). The Gaulish tribe in what is present-day Luxembourg during and after the La Tène period was known as the Treveri; they reached the height of prosperity in the 1st century BC. The Treveri constructed a number of oppida, Iron Age fortified settlements, near the Moselle valley in what is now southern Luxembourg, western Germany and eastern France. Most of the archaeological evidence from this period has been discovered in tombs, many closely associated with Titelberg, a 50 ha site which reveals much about the dwellings and handicrafts of the period. The Romans, under Julius Caesar, completed their conquest and occupation in 53 BC. The first known reference to the territory of present-day Luxembourg was by Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic War.
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Rabelais also relates that he drew the more optimistic Aeneid 6, 857,"He, when his country, threaten'd with alarms, / Requires his courage and his conqu'ring arms, / Shall more than once the Punic bands affright; / Shall kill the Gaulish king in single fight;" which he took to mean himself. Viscount Falkland once went to a public library in Oxford with King Charles I and, being shown a finely printed and bound copy of the Aeneid, suggested to the King that he use the Sortes Virgilanae to tell his future. The King opened the book but happened on Dido's prayer against Aeneas in Book 4.615,Nor let him then enjoy supreme command; / But fall, untimely, by some hostile hand at which he was troubled. Nevertheless, Falkland took his own lots, hoping to pick a passage that did not relate to him and thus stop the King from worrying about his own.
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Transcribed ogham inscriptions, which lack a letter for , show Primitive Irish to be similar in morphology and inflections to Gaulish, Latin, Classical Greek and Sanskrit. Many of the characteristics of modern (and medieval) Irish, such as initial mutations, distinct "broad" and "slender" consonants and consonant clusters, are not yet apparent. More than 300 ogham inscriptions are known in Ireland, including 121 in County Kerry and 81 in County Cork, and more than 75 found outside Ireland in western Britain and the Isle of Man, including more than 40 in Wales, where Irish colonists settled in the 3rd century, and about 30 in Scotland, although some of these are in Pictish. Many of the British inscriptions are bilingual in Irish and Latin; however, none show any sign of the influence of Christianity or Christian epigraphic tradition, suggesting they date from before 391, when Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire.
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Blason des comtes de Lyon In the tenth century, the counts of Lyons were the sovereign rulers of the city of Lyons which coalesced during the time of the Kingdom of Arles, then in the Holy Roman Empire after 1058. These counts of Lyons took for their emblem De gueules au lion d'argent. The name of the city of Lyons has no link with the animal lion, as it comes from the Latin name Lugdunum of which the root Lug- could also have been attached, like the Latin Lux ("light") or the Gaulish Lugos ("bracket") to the other root dunum, which means "hill." But the linguistic closeness which is noted today between the animal and the name of the city could have given inspiration to the arms parlantes, that is, the imagistic content gives in rebus the name of the cities that they designate.
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The many individual Treveri attested epigraphically in other civitates may attest to the development of a Treveran commercial network within the western parts of the Empire. During the early 2nd century CE, Augusta Treverorum was an important centre for the production of samian ware (along with Lezoux and Rheinzabern), supplying the Rhineland with high-quality glossy red pottery which was often elaborately decorated with moulded designs. Treveran villa architecture shows both coexistence and mixture of typically Gallic and Germanic traits. In some villas, such as at Otrang and Echternach, small rooms opened onto a large central hall, rather than onto the front verandah as in most places in Gaul; this arrangement has been considered typically ‘Germanic’, and may reflect a social structure in which extended families and clients all lived in a patron's home. On the other hand, typically ‘Gaulish’ villas are also found in Treveran territory.
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Some generations earlier, Julius Caesar, on the other hand, did not mention the Tungri, but did say that the Condrusi, the Eburones, the Caeroesi and the Paemani, living in the same approximate area as the later Tungri, were "called by the common name of Germans (Germani)" and had settled in Gaul already before the Cimbric wars, having come from Germany east of the Rhine. The Romans allies named them as having one collective contribution of men to the Belgic revolt against him, within which the Eburones were the most important. The Eburones, who apparently lived as far east as Cologne, were led by Ambiorix and Cativolcus.De Bello Gallico 2.4 Also neighbouring these tribes where the Aduatuci, whose origin Caesar describes more specifically as having descended from the Cimbri and Teutones, against whom the Germani had been the only Gaulish tribe to successfully defend themselves.
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At the beginning of the Roman period, the Remi left the villages and oppida that were in unfavourable positions within the emerging economic system of the Empire. For instance, the oppidum of Saint-Thomas (Bibrax) was abandoned in the middle of the 1st century BC, whereas Le Moulin à Vent, which bordered the trade route between Reims and Trier, developed into the town of Voncq, attested as Vongo vicus in the 3rd c. AD. Durocortorum (modern Reims), a former oppidum probably built in the late 2nd–early 1st centuries AD and mentioned by Caesar in the mid-1st century AD, was promoted as capital of their civitas in the end of the 1st century BC. The name of the settlement stems from the Gaulish duron ('gates', then 'enclosed town, market town'). Secondary agglomerations of the Roman period are also known at Vervins, Chaourse, Nizy-le-Comte, Laon or Coucy-les-Eppes.
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Erriapus , or Saturn XXVIII (28), is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by Brett Gladman, John J. Kavelaars and colleagues in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 10.IAUC 7539: S/2000 S 10 December 7, 2000 (discovery)MPEC 2000-Y14: S/2000 S 3, S/2000 S 4, S/2000 S 5, S/2000 S 6, S/2000 S 10 December 19, 2000 (discovery and ephemeris) It was named Erriapo in August 2003IAUC 8177: Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus August 8, 2003 (naming the moon) after Erriapus (also rendered Erriappus), a giant in Gaulish mythology; the name was changed from dative Erriapo to nominative Erriapus per IAU conventions in late 2007.IAUC 9191: SATURN XXVIII (ERRIAPUS) January 11, 2011 Erriapus is about 10 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 17,3 Gm in 871 days.
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Proto-Italic was originally spoken by Italic tribes north of the Alps. Early contacts with Celtic and Germanic speakers are also suggested by linguistic evidence. Italic peoples probably moved towards the Italian Peninsula during the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, gradually reaching the southern regions. Although an equation between archeological and linguistic evidence cannot be established with certainty, the Proto-Italic language is generally associated with the Terramare (1700–1150 BCE) and Proto- Villanovan culture (1200–900 BCE).Rhaetian; N2, Etruscan: N3, North Picene (Picene of Novilara); N4, Ligurian; N5, Nuragic; N6, Elymian; N7, Sicanian; C1, Lepontic; C2, Gaulish; I1, South Picene; I2, Umbrian; I3, Sabine; I4, Faliscan; I5, Latin; I6, Volscian and Hernican; I7, Central Italic (Marsian, Aequian, Paeligni, Marrucinian, Vestinian); I8, Oscan, Sidicini, Pre-Samnite; I9, Sicel; IE1, Venetic; IE2, Messapian; G1-G2-G3, Greek dialects (G1: Ionic, G2: Aeolic, G3: Doric); P1, Punic.
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Following his sojourn in Italy as the military administrator of the maréchal de Maillebois during the War of Austrian Succession, he published his Observations sur l'Italie et les Italiens. He came in second in the competition ordered by the Académie de Dijon in 1750, which was won by Jean- Jacques Rousseau with his Discours sur les sciences et les arts. In 1752 he published his Recherches pour servir à l'histoire du droit françois; the essay, maintaining the Gaulish origin of French customary law, is divided in three sections: the first presents arguments to show that Gaul was least Romanised in the north; the second that French customs did not have their origins in the anarchic feudal conditions of the tenth and eleventh centuries; the third, that the Roman law did not prevail north of the Loire.Catalogue of books on foreign law 1849 London (The Charles Purton Cooper collection at Lincoln's Inn) Grosley was elected an associate of the Académie royale des inscriptions et belles-lettres in 1761.
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A Central European boar The boar was an important symbol in prehistoric Europe, where, according to the archaeologist Jennifer Foster, it was "venerated, eulogised, hunted and eaten ... for millennia, until its virtual extinction in recent historical time." Anglo-Saxon boar symbols follow a thousand years of similar iconography, coming after La Tène examples in the fourth century BC, Gaulish specimens three centuries later, and Roman boars in the fourth century AD. They likely represent a fused tradition of European and Mediterranean cultures. The boar is said to have been sacred to a mother goddess figure among linguistically Celtic communities in Iron Age Europe, while the Roman historian Tacitus, writing around the first century AD, suggested that the Baltic Aesti wore boar symbols in battle to invoke her protection. Boar- crested helmets are depicted on the turn-of-the-millennium Gundestrup cauldron, discovered in Denmark, and on a Torslunda plate from Sweden, made some 500 years later.
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A Central European boar The boar was an important symbol in prehistoric Europe, where, according to the archaeologist Jennifer Foster, it was "venerated, eulogised, hunted and eaten ... for millennia, until its virtual extinction in recent historical time." Anglo-Saxon boar symbols follow a thousand years of similar iconography, coming after La Tène examples in the fourth century BC, Gaulish examples three centuries later, and Roman boars in the fourth century AD. They probably represent a fused tradition of European and Mediterranean cultures. The boar is said to have been sacred to a mother goddess figure among linguistically Celtic communities in Iron Age Europe, while the Roman historian Tacitus, writing around the first century AD, suggested that the Baltic Aesti wore boar symbols in battle to invoke her protection. Boar-crested helmets are depicted on the turn-of-the-millennium Gundestrup cauldron, discovered in Denmark, and on a Torslunda plate from Sweden, made some five hundred years later.
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It is unclear when literacy first came to Ireland. The earliest Irish writings are inscriptions, mostly simple memorials, on stone in the ogham alphabet, the earliest of which date to the 4th century. The Latin alphabet was in use by 431, when the fifth century Gaulish chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine records that Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine I as the first bishop to the Irish believers in Christ.Michael Richter, Medieval Ireland, Revised Edition, Gill & MacMillan, 2005, p. 11, 41 Pelagius, an influential British heretic who taught in Rome in the early 5th century, fragments of whose writings survive, is said by Jerome to have been of Irish descent.Jerome, Patrologia Latina, XXIV, 682, 758 Coelius Sedulius, the 5th century author of the Carmen Paschale, who has been called the "Virgil of theological poetry", was probably also Irish: the 9th-century Irish geographer Dicuil calls him noster Sedulius ("our Sedulius"), and the Latin name Sedulius usually translates to the Irish name Siadal.
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Statue of Vercingétorix by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi on the main square of the city Clermont ranks among the oldest cities of France. The first known mention was by the Greek geographer Strabo, who called it the "metropolis of the Arverni" (meaning their oppidum, civitas or tribal capital). The city was at that time called Nemessos – a Gaulish word for a sacred forest, and was situated on the mound where the cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand stands today. Somewhere in the area around Nemossos the Arverni chieftain Vercingetorix (later to head a unified Gallic resistance to the Roman invasion led by Julius Caesar) was born around 72 BC. Also, Nemossos was situated not far from the plateau of Gergovia, where Vercingetorix repulsed the Roman assault at the Battle of Gergovia in 52 BC. After the Roman conquest, the city became known as Augustonemetum sometime in the 1st century, a name which combined its original Gallic name with that of the Emperor Augustus.
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From December 2013 to January 2014, Dick and Dom played the roles of King Arthur and Patsy in the West End revival of Spamalot to rave reviews.. In 2015 they starred in the World's Biggest Panto alongside Paul O'Grady and Bradley Walsh at the Arena Birmingham In 2016, the pair voiced the roles of Unhygienix and Fulliautomatix, the constantly- bickering fishmonger and blacksmith of the indomitable Gaulish village, in the British release of the 2014 CGI animated film Asterix: The Mansions of the Gods, 2019 saw Dick and Dom move into broadcasting for the Millennial generation launching their own podcast, Cash from Chaos. The live gameshow was recorded at a comedy club and pitted the audience against them to try to win their show fee. The first six episodes aired in May and June 2019. 2020 sees the release of their new podcast, The Dick and Dom Debate, like Question Time or Talk Radio for the Dick and Dom generation.
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The magic invoked is clearly malicious, of a nature well attested from other parts of the Celtic world, notably Irish mythology. Sisterhoods of sorceresses or witches are also known to have existed in ancient Gaul on the authority of ancient ethnographers; thus, Pomponius Mela (III, 6, 48) records a college of nine priestesses capable of invoking tempests and adopting animal form among the Osismii, while Strabon (IV, 4, 6) is aware of a convent of women of the Samnitae possessed by Dionysus, installed on an island of the Loire estuary. Both the context of the curse tablet and the names of the women listed as targets of the curse reflect the syncretic culture of Roman Gaul at the end of the 1st century. The name of Severa Tertionicna, the "head witch" targeted by the curse, consists of a Roman cognomen Severa and a patronymic which combines the Roman cognomen Tertio with the Gaulish -ikno- suffix.
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A Central European boar The boar was an important symbol in prehistoric Europe, where, according to the archaeologist Jennifer Foster, it was "venerated, eulogised, hunted and eaten ... for millennia, until its virtual extinction in recent historical time." Anglo-Saxon boar symbols follow a thousand years of similar iconography, coming after La Tène examples in the fourth century BC, Gaulish specimens three centuries later, and Roman boars in the fourth century AD. They likely represent a fused tradition of European and Mediterranean cultures. The boar is said to have been sacred to a mother goddess figure among linguistically Celtic communities in Iron Age Europe, while the Roman historian Tacitus, writing around the first century AD, suggested that the Baltic Aesti wore boar symbols in battle to invoke her protection. Boar-crested helmets are depicted on the turn-of-the-millennium Gundestrup cauldron, discovered in Denmark, and on a Torslunda plate from Sweden, made some five hundred years later.
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Auraicept na n-Éces, 7th century, explaining ogham. The Gaelic languages are part of the Celtic languages and fall under the wider Indo-European language family. There are two main historical theories concerning the origin and development of the Gaelic languages from a Proto-Celtic root: the North Atlantic-based Insular Celtic hypothesis posits that Goidelic and Brythonic languages have a more recent common ancestor than Continental Celtic languages, while the Q-Celtic and P-Celtic hypothesis posits that Goidelic is more closely related to the Celtiberian language, while Brythonic is closer to the Gaulish language. Estimates of the emergence of proto-Gaelic in Ireland vary widely from the introduction of agriculture 7000–6000 BC to around the first few centuries BC. Little can be said with certainty, as the language now known as Old Irish—ancestral to modern Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx—only began to be properly recorded with the Christianisation of Ireland in the 4th century, after the introduction of the Roman script.
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Polybius tells us: In 219 BC, the Dardanians collected their forces for a raid into Macedonia and at that time Bylazora must already have been in their hands. With its location at Sveti Nikole, Bylazora commanded the entrance to a long defile and, no less important, a route southwestwards into Pelagonia via the Babuna Valley, or Raec Valley into Styberra and interior of the Macedonian Kingdom. It can be assumed that Bylazora, as the largest Paeonian town, must have been in Dardanian possession when Philip V captured it in 217 BC, with the aim of garrisoning it and ending Dardanian raids. Bylazora is also mentioned by Livy in his "The History of Rome" when Perseus in 168 BC arranged military support from the Gauls who were campaigning in Desudaba, Maedica, requesting the Gaulish army to shift their camp to Bylazora, a place in Paeonia, and their officers to go in a body to him at Almana on the River Axius.
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Galicia. The god Lugus is mentioned in a Celtiberian inscription from Peñalba de Villastar in Spain, which reads: :ENI OROSEI VTA TICINO TIATVNEI TRECAIAS TO LVGVEI ARAIANOM COMEIMV ENI OROSEI EQVEISVIQVE OGRIS OLOCAS TOGIAS SISTAT LVGVEI TIASO TOGIAS The exact interpretation of the inscription is debated, but the phrase "to Luguei" (where the theonym appears in the dative singular following the preposition to "to, for", thus "to/for Lugus") clearly indicates a dedication to the god Lugus.Lejeune, Michel, Celtibérica, Universidad de Salamanca, 1997, pp. 8ff.Koch, John, Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2006, p. Additionally, the name is attested several times in the plural, for example: nominative plural Lugoues in a single-word (and potentially Gaulish) inscription from Avenches, Switzerland, on the capital of a Corinthian column, and dative plural in a well-known Latin inscription from Uxama (Osma), Spain: :Lugovibus sacrum L. L(icinius) Urcico collegio sutorum d(onum) d(at)Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Vol.
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Caesar's ethnogenesis and migrations of the Volcae. Julius Caesar was convinced that the Volcae had originally been settled east of the Rhine, for he mentioned the Volcae Tectosages as a Gaulish tribe which still remained in western Germany in his day (Gallic Wars 6.24): Caesar related a tradition associating the Celtic tribe of the Volcae to the vast Hercynian Forest, though they were more probably to be located in the eastern range of the České Středohoří; yet, Volcae of his time were settled in Moravia, east of the Boii. Their apparent movement may indicate that the Volcae were newcomers to the region. Caesar's remark about the wealth of this region may have referred not only to agriculture but also to the mineral deposits there, while the renown attributed to the Volcae "in peace and in war" resulted from their metallurgical skills and the quality of their weapons, both attracting the attention of their northern neighbors.
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The meaning of Swsan/Swsog is again, uncertain, but two local traditions hold that this is a personal name, either of a Queen Swswen (a name which may translate as "The Blessed/Pure Kiss") a Celtic leader who is said to have fought a battle in the vicinity around the time of the Roman occupation, or it is named for a Roman lieutenant "Hesus". Furthurmore, the linguist John Rhys noted that the dialect of Mid-Wales Welsh (Y Bowyseg) was closer to the Gaulish language than its neighbours, and concluded that the area had pre- Roman links to Gaul. This may suggest a link between Caersŵs and the God Esus venerated by the Parisii and Treverii. Other suggested etymologies include the name retaining a Roman-era dedication to Zeus, and the fact that "sws" (not sŵs) can be literally translated to "Kiss" in modern Welsh has led to a number of developing folk etymologies.
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A Central European boar The boar had symbolic import in prehistoric Europe, where, according to the archaeologist Jennifer Foster, it was "venerated, eulogised, hunted and eaten ... for millennia, until its virtual extinction in recent historical time." Anglo-Saxon boar symbols follow a thousand years of similar iconography, coming after La Tène examples in the 4th century BC, Gaulish specimens three centuries later, and Roman boars in the 4th century AD. They likely represent a fused tradition of European and Mediterranean cultures. The boar is said to have been sacred to a mother goddess figure among linguistically Celtic communities in Iron Age Europe, while the Roman historian Tacitus, writing around the 1st century AD, suggested that the Baltic Aesti wore boar symbols in battle to invoke her protection. Boar-crested helmets are depicted on the turn-of-the-millennium Gundestrup cauldron, discovered in Denmark, and on a Torslunda plate from Sweden, made 500 years later.
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Recent overseas annual camps have been held in the Czech Republic 1999 (Ex Czech Mate); France 2001 (Ex Gaulish 1); Germany 2002 (Ex Paperchase); Ukraine 2003 (Ex Cossack Steppe); Wyoming, USA 2005 (Ex Stoney Run) and Albania 2006. In addition the battalion has a number of regular exercises and unit exchanges in which it takes part, including Ex Paperchase (exchange with German 272 Fallschirmjager Battalion); Ex Anthropoid (patrol competition with Slovak Special Forces); Ex Pathfinder (exchange with Czech airborne forces) and Ex Market-Garden (annual commemoration and jump into Arnhem). The battalion also regularly sends teams to the annual Exercise Cambrian Patrol competition held at the Sennybridge Training Area. A total of 104 soldiers from the battalion were mobilised to reinforce the 1st and 3rd battalions during the invasion of Iraq in 2003 Operation Telic. The battalion provided a platoon for force protection duties on Op Telic 3 in 2004 and a company for Op Telic 7 in 2005-2006.
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The third expansion introduces the Byzantine and Gaulish civilizations, led by Basil II and Ambiorix, respectively; a new map called "Highlands", and two new world wonders—the Biosphere and Statue of Zeus. The new "Dramatic Ages" mode abolishes the Normal and Heroic Ages and ensures that players can only enter in Golden or Dark Ages each era, with increased bonuses for the Golden Ages and harsher penalties for Dark Ages, including the possibility of some cities seceding from the empire. In addition, Dedications are also removed from this mode, and instead are replaced by Golden and Dark Age policies that can be slotted in the current government. As compensation for these changes, Era Score can now be earned when discovering new technologies or civics, or through promoting military units (after the unit's first promotion), in addition to the usual Historic Moments, and any extra Era Score acquired beyond what is necessary to earn a Golden Age is converted to extra loyalty pressure during the next era.
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Olmsted, Garrett S (1979), "The Gundestrup cauldron : its archaeological context, the style and iconography of its portrayed motifs and their narration of a Gaulish version of Táin Bó Cúailnge", Collection Latomus 162 [Latomus: Bruxelle 1979]. It is now usually on display in the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen, with replicas at other museums; during 2015–16 it was in the UK on a travelling exhibition called The Celts.Exhibition page , National Museum of Scotland, 10 Mar – 25 Sep 2016 The cauldron is not complete, and now consists of a rounded cup-shaped bottom making up the lower part of the cauldron, usually called the base plate, above which are five interior plates and seven exterior ones; a missing eighth exterior plate would be needed to encircle the cauldron, and only two sections of a rounded rim at the top of the cauldron survive. The base plate is mostly smooth and undecorated inside and out, apart from a decorated round medallion in the centre of the interior.
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The surname can be traced back to the Old Breton "tanet" meaning "aflame", that could be a nickname for a nervous or irritated trait or as a corruption of the Common Celtic 'tan-arth' "high fire", derived from the place where the original bearer once resided, suggesting in this case "one who dwelt on the beacon or lighthouse". Tanet could also be a corruption of the toponymic tanouët meaning oak grove (tannoed, which underwent a consonant mutation to tann-eto in Common Brittonic), and has the same root as Gaulish tanno- (oak tree), Latin tannum (oak bark) used in the tanning of leather, Old High German tanna (oak, fir, akin) from proto-Germanic tan, (needle, what sticks out) and Breton tann (oak tree). In Old French speaking regions it also meant brown cloth or the color of the tan and designated the manufacturer. This surname is now spread all over France with concentrations in Brittany and Aquitaine, though the Aquitanian origin may differ.
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However, one vessel type used in food preparation was closely linked with the spread of Roman culture and Roman cuisine: the '. This was a robust shallow bowl with a thick, out-curved rim that made it easy to handle, often a pouring lip, and an internal surface deliberately roughened with a coating of grit or coarse sand during manufacture. It was used with a pestle to purée or pulverise ingredients in order to prepare elaborate and carefully seasoned Roman dishes; the Roman culinary tradition made extensive use of herbs and spices. The mortarium was the Roman equivalent of the food-processor, and is a real indicator of 'romanisation';Potter and Johns 2002, 141–142 In Britain, the first mortaria were being imported from Gaulish sources more than a generation before Britain became a Roman province in AD 43, indicating the growing influence of Roman culture in late Iron Age southern Britain, and perhaps the actual presence of immigrants from Gaul.
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The terms, "Upper Germania" and "Lower Germania" do not appear in the Gallic Wars of Julius Caesar, yet he writes about reports that the people who lived in those regions were referred to as Germani locally, a term used for a tribe that the Romans called the Germani Cisrhenani, and that the name Germania seems to have been adopted to designate other indigenous tribes in the area. Lower Germania was occupied by the Belgae. Upper Germania was occupied by Gaulish tribes including the Helvetii, Sequani, Leuci, and Treveri, and, on the north bank of the middle Rhine, the remnant of the Germanic troops that had attempted to take Vesontio under Ariovistus, but who were defeated by Caesar in 58 BC. The Romans did not abandon this region at any time after then. During a 5-year period in the initial years of his reign (28–23 BC), as Cassius Dio tells us (53.12), Octavian Caesar assumed direct governorship of the major senatorial provinces on grounds that they were in danger of insurrection and he alone commanded the troops required to restore security.
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The culture's richest flowering was Golasecca II, in the first half of the 6th to early 5th centuries BC. It lasted until it was overwhelmed by the Gaulish Celts in the 4th century BC and was finally incorporated into the hegemony of the Roman Republic. Golasecca culture is divided for convenient reference into three parts: the first two cover the period of the 9th to the first half of the 5th century BC; the third, coinciding with La Tène A-B of the later Iron Age in this region and extending to the end of the 4th century BC, is marked by increasing Celtic influences, culminating in Celtic hegemony after the conquests of 388 BC. The very earliest finds are of the Late Bronze Age (9th century BC), apparently building upon a local culture.The nature of this "proto-Golasecca" culture shows that the culture was autochthonous—developed at its sites—rather than imported by immigrants. The use of tumuli over grave sites, like the tumulus at Belcora di Somma Lombardo, was a feature of proto-Golaseccan culture that died out.
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Carausius, a Menapian of humble birth, rose through the ranks of the Roman military and was appointed to a naval command at Bononia (Boulogne), tasked with clearing the English Channel of Frankish and Saxon raiders. However, he was accused of collaborating with the pirates to enrich himself, and the western Augustus, Maximian, ordered him to be put to death. Carausius responded by declaring himself emperor in Britain.Panegyrici Latini 8:6; Aurelius Victor, Book of Caesars 39:20-21; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 21; Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans 7:25.2-4 His forces comprised not only his fleet, augmented by new ships he had built, and the three legions stationed in Britain, but a legion he had seized in Gaul, a number of foreign auxiliary units, a levy of Gaulish merchant ships, and barbarian mercenaries attracted by the prospect of booty.Panegyrici Latini 8:12 Coin of Allectus, 96 A panegyric delivered to Maximian in 288 or 289 refers to the emperor preparing an invasion to oust Carausius.
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Vichy was intensely anti-Communist and generally pro-German; American historian Stanley G. Payne found that it was "distinctly rightist and authoritarian but never fascist". Political scientist Robert Paxton analysed the entire range of Vichy supporters, from reactionaries to moderate liberal modernizers, and concluded that genuine fascist elements had but minor roles in most sectors. French historian Olivier Wieviorka rejects the idea that Vichy France was fascist, noting that "Pétain refused to create a single party state, avoided getting France involved in a new war, hated modernization and supported the Church." Propaganda poster for the Vichy Regime's Révolution nationale program, 1942 The Vichy government tried to assert its legitimacy by symbolically connecting itself with the Gallo-Roman period of France's history, and celebrated the Gaulish chieftain Vercingetorix as the "founder" of the nation. It was asserted that just as the defeat of the Gauls in the 52 BC Battle of Alesia had been the moment in French history when a sense of common nationhood was born, the defeat of 1940 would again unify the nation.
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Due Torri Porta Maggiore, one of the twelve medieval city gates of Bologna Depiction of a 14th-century fight between the Guelf and Ghibelline factions in Bologna, from the Croniche of Giovanni Sercambi of Lucca Traces of human habitation in the area of Bologna go back to the 3rd millennium BCE, with significant settlements from about the 9th century BCE (Villanova culture). The influence of Etruscan civilization reached the area in the 7th to 6th centuries, and the Etruscan city of Felsina was founded at the site of Bologna by the end of the 6th century. By the 4th century BCE, the site was occupied by the Gaulish Boii, and it became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of Bonōnia in 196 BCE. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Bologna, then a frontier outpost of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna, was repeatedly sacked by the Goths; it is in this period that legendary Bishop Petronius, according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the basilica of Saint Stephen.
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Germanus may have made a second visit to Britain in the mid 430s or mid 440s, though this is contested by some scholarsAnthony A. Barrett, "Saint Germanus and the British Missions", Britannia 40 (2009), 197–217 who suggest it may be a 'doublet' or variant version of the visit that has been mistaken as describing a different visit and erroneously included as such by Constantius, according to whom Germanus was joined by Severus, Bishop of Trier and met Elafius, "one of the leading men of the country". Germanus is said to have cured Elafius' enfeebled son by a miracle that served to persuade the population that Gaulish Catholicism rather than Pelagianism was the true faith. According to a legend recorded in the Historia Brittonum of circa 829 it is during this second visit, around 447, that Germanus is said to have condemned for incest and other crimes Guorthigern, identified with the 'Vortigern' of Welsh tradition. Vortigern ordered his daughter to bring her child to Germanus and name the bishop as its father.
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Gold Celtic torc with three "balusters" and decoration including animals, found in Glauberg, Germany, 400 BC Depictions of the gods and goddesses of Celtic mythology sometimes show them wearing or carrying torcs, as in images of the god Cernunnos wearing one torc around his neck, with torcs hanging from his antlers or held in his hand, as on the Gundestrup cauldron. This may represent the deity as the source of power and riches, as the torc was a sign of nobility and high social status.Green, 78−79 The famous Roman copy of the original Greek sculpture The Dying Gaul depicts a wounded Gaulish warrior naked except for a torc, which is how Polybius described the gaesatae, Celtic warriors from modern northern Italy or the Alps, fighting at the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC, although other Celts there were clothed.Green, 77 One of the earliest known depictions of a torc can be found on the Warrior of Hirschlanden (6th century BC), and a high proportion of the few Celtic statues of human figures, mostly male, show them wearing torcs.
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12, Pl.II Early production of plain forms in South Gaul initially followed the Italian models closely, and even the characteristic Arretine decorated form, Dragendorff 11, was made. But many new shapes quickly evolved, and by the second half of the 1st century AD, when Italian sigillata was no longer influential, South Gaulish samian had created its own characteristic repertoire of forms. The two principal decorated forms were Dragendorff 30, a deep, cylindrical bowl, and Dragendorff 29, a carinated ('keeled') shallow bowl with a marked angle, emphasised by a moulding, mid-way down the profile. The footring is low, and potters' stamps are usually bowl-maker's marks placed in the interior base, so that vessels made from the same, or parallel, moulds may bear different names. The rim of the 29, small and upright in early examples of the form, but much deeper and more everted by the 70s of the 1st century, is finished with rouletted decoration,'Rouletted' decoration: this is a regular, notched surface texture, created by using a tool with a toothed wheel (roulette) to impress the pattern on the bowl before the clay was hard.
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While we have no direct evidence for that, it is highly likely that legal proceedings only started if there was a plaintiff, either the injured party or a representative, the latter almost certainly a kinsmen of the injured party. Proceedings probably will have been started by a complaint to whoever was seen responsible to uphold justice, which might have been a druid, in some late Gaulish policies an official, or perhaps a noble patron of either the injured party or the offender, or possibly the offender himself had to be approached. It is most likely that if the offender did not submit willingly to settle the dispute in court, he could be distrained by the plaintiff. While we have no direct evidence for the latter, it seems quite likely, given that the practice is well attested in early medieval Irish and Welsh lawBinchy 1973; Kelly 1988, 177–86; Jenkins 1990 with cognate terminology,Kelly 1988, 177 FN 1 but also in the early Germanic laws,Mitteis & Lieberich 1992, 38–48 and even in early Roman law.Kelly 1988, 177; Cornell 1995, 272–92 What little evidence we have (almost exclusively a few lines in Caesar's De Bello Gallico)b.g.
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During his dictatorship, Caesar extended full rights of Roman citizenship to ethnically Celtic Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy), and filled the roll of the Roman senate with controversial appointments that included Cisalpine and possibly a few Narbonese Gauls. Although accusations of degrading the senate with uncivilized "trouser-wearing Gauls"A jibe in poetic form is recorded by Suetonius, Divus Iulius 80.2: "Caesar led the Gauls in triumph and likewise into the senate house; the Gauls took off their trousers and put on the wide stripe" (Gallos Caesar in triumphum ducit, idem in curiam / Galli bracas deposuerunt, latum clavum sumpserunt). were exaggerations meant to disparage Caesar's inclusive efforts, Ronald Syme has pointed out that men such as Troucillus and Trogus were educated citizens worthy of such appointments: Troucillus's fluent bilingualism is asserted by Caesar. The French scholar Christian Goudineau found it "perplexing" to have Caesar take special note that a native Gaul spoke Gaulish, and suggests that this emphasis on Troucillus's retention of what should have been his first language indicates that the Helvian had been given the same education as a Roman, perhaps even in Rome and maybe as a hostage.
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Toponyms revealing the presence of former Neolithic dolmens (Grandes and Petites Pierres Folles), near the resurgent springs of the Montet into the river Indre, above which a Gaulish village of the Bituriges was later established, then a nearby Gallo- Roman fanum, confirm the age of Vicus Dolensis or Dolus. The village was moved westward by the Romans next to the antique ford and later bridge built over the river Indre on the road from Paris to Toulouse. In 469 or 470 the Visigoths of Euric defeated the army of the Briton king Riothamus at the battle of Déols, the victory carrying with it the supremacy over the district of Berry and initiating the Visigothic threat over the last years of the Roman empire. But it was only during the Middle Ages that, through the pilgrimage to the tomb of Saint Ludre and his father Saint Léocade in the crypts of the parish church of St Stephen built upon their graves, later one of the steps on the route from Paris to Santiago de Compostela, then through the lords of Déols and Châteauroux, that Déols acquired its significance.
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Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice, Czech Republic, wearing a torc, late La Tène culture The iconography of the human head is believed by many archaeologists and historians to have played a significant part in Celtic religion. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BCE, described how Celtic warriors "cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses." Strabo meanwhile commented in the same century that until the Roman authorities put a stop to it, among the Celts, "the heads of enemies held in high repute they used to embalm in cedar oil and exhibit to strangers." Archaeological evidence indicating that the Celts did indeed behead humans and then display their heads, possibly for religious purposes, has been unearthed at a number of excavations; one notable example of this was found at the Gaulish site of Entremont near to Aix-en-Provence, where a fragment of a pillar carved with images of skulls was found, within which were niches where actual human skulls were kept, nailed into position, fifteen examples of which were found.
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The first mention of Illiberis occurs in the history of Livy (xxi.24): it was the Iberian city at which Hannibal pitched camp having crossed the Pyrenees in 218 BCE, where he negotiated with the assembled Gaulish chiefs his safe passage through their territories on the way to Italy. In the first century CE, however, it was no more than "a modest vestige of a hitherto great city" (Pliny). In the fourth century Illiberis became "Castrum Helenae" after Helen, the mother of Constantine, whence its modern name was derived by degrees. Within its walls was assassinated Constans, the son of Constantine in 350 A.D. With the division of southern Gaul in 462, Elne became one of the "seven cities" of Septimania. Its Catholic bishopric was established in the 6th century. The first known bishop of Elne, Dominus, was mentioned in 571 in the Chronicle of John of Biclarum. Its bishop attended the Council of Toledo in 599. Numerous synods were held by the bishops of Elne: That of 1027 in Toulouges upheld the Peace and Truce of God, that no one should attack his enemy from Saturday at nine o'clock to Monday at one. Further synods were held in 1058, 1114, 1335, 1337, 1338, 1339, 1340, and 1380 (CE).
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