They'd call it the Commensal Radio Astronomy FAST Survey, or CRAFTS.
|
|
The microbes in question here are known generally as commensal bacteria.
|
|
Pamer argues that introducing beneficial or "commensal" bacteria during that period could help patients resist subsequent bacterial infections.
|
|
Alcock, meanwhile, isn't sure that our commensal bacteria (or that of the flies) have our best interests at heart.
|
|
The second comes from biology and is a little grim: an animal in which a parasite or commensal animal lives.
|
|
Invasive infections "Typically, fungus and particularly candida species are commensal organisms or organisms that live within us, that live within our guts," Armstrong said.
|
|
When they are not threatened, but constrained, by clean water, bed nets, condoms, soap and water, they develop in a more friendly, commensal manner.
|
|
"Robbing and bartering (RB) is a behavioral practice anecdotally reported in free-ranging commensal macaques," the researchers wrote in their study, recently published in the journal Primate.
|
|
"Now during the day, with more and more people using the Metro, the microbial community started becoming more similar, dominated by the human skin commensal bacteria," meaning bacteria that typically live on human skin.
|
|
Their whole commensal thing is chilling on the parts of your body exposed to the outside world (skin, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract), a group of surfaces known together as the epithelium, and living it up courtesy of your various forms of filth.
|
|
"I would refer to the ancient house mice that we studied from the Levant—those that initially became associated with pre-farming, sedentary hunter-gatherers (the Natufian culture)—as 'commensal' rather than 'domesticated,'" explained study co-author Lior Weissbrod in an interview with Gizmodo.
|
|
"This opens a new chapter in understanding the evolution of the commensal bacteria we carry in our [mouths,]" Johannes Krause, the director of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, who did not take part in the study, writes in an email to The Verge.
|
|
Australaugeneria michaelseni is commensal. Its host taxa are alcyonacean corals.
|
|
A. pottsi is commensal. Its host taxa are alcyonacean corals.
|
|
Australaugeneria rutilans is commensal. Its host taxa are alcyonacean corals.
|
|
Allopontonia brockii is a small commensal shrimp in the family Palaemonidae.
|
|
Gattyana fauveli has a commensal relationship with the echiuran, Anelassorhynchus branchiorhynchus.
|
|
Schuchertinia is a genus of commensal athecate hydroids in the family Hydractiniidae.
|
|
Benhamipolynoe cairnsi has a commensal relationship with the stylasterid coral Conopora adeta.
|
|
E. oplina is commensal. Its host taxon is a sea cucumber: Bathyplotes bongraini.
|
|
E. laetmogonensis is commensal; it's host taxon is the sea cucumber, Laetmogone violacea.
|
|
A mucus layer protects the large intestine from attacks from colonic commensal bacteria.
|
|
For example, commensal bacteria stimulate TLR4, which may inhibit allergic responses to food.
|
|
This frog is host to the commensal protists Opalina proteus and Cepedea couillardi.
|
|
The immune response becomes more pronounced when bacteria are found that are not commensal.
|
|
E. pallida is commensal; its host taxa are sea stars and possibly sea cucumbers.
|
|
E. depress is commensal. Its host taxa are hermit crabs and brachyuran crabs (Crustacea).
|
|
The Staphylococcus intermedius bacteria, a common commensal on cats, is associated with infection in humans.
|
|
P. greeffi is a commensal organism. Its host are antipatharian corals in the genus Tanacetipathes.
|
|
In most cases, microorganisms live in harmony with their hosts via mutual or commensal interactions.
|
|
It also often nests on cliffs. Saker nests support a species-rich assemblage of commensal insects.
|
|
A. iberica is commensal. Its host taxa are alcyonacean corals such as Acanella or a similar genera.
|
|
The Emperor shrimp, Periclimenes imperator, is a commensal shrimp that is commonly found living on Hexabranchus sanguineus.
|
|
Benhamipolynoe antipathicola has a commensal relationship with species of antipatharian corals, namely Parantipathes tenuispina and Antipathes columnaris.
|
|
Phoresy is another type of commensalism, the commensal uses the host solely for transport. Many mite species rely on another organism, such as birds or mammals, for dispersal. Metabiosis is the final form of commensalism. The commensal relies on the host to prepare an environment suitable for life.
|
|
The commensal relation is often between a larger host and a smaller commensal; the host organism is unmodified, whereas the commensal species may show great structural adaptation consistent with its habits, as in the remoras that ride attached to sharks and other fishes. Remoras feed on their hosts' fecal matter, while pilot fish feed on the leftovers of their hosts' meals. Numerous birds perch on bodies of large mammal herbivores or feed on the insects turned up by grazing mammals.
|
|
The symbiosis between Aplanochytrium cells and the host organism can be of various origins, like commensal or parasite.
|
|
Some carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes, obtain nourishment from the feces of commensal animals.
|
|
The sspA gene has a high prevalence in the genome of both commensal- and pathogenic-type S. aureus strains.
|
|
This pattern of overhunting before domestication suggests that the prey pathway was as accidental and unintentional as the commensal pathway.
|
|
Commensal mites travelling (phoresy) on a fly (Pseudolynchia canariensis) Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word commensal, used of human social interaction. It derives from a medieval Latin word meaning sharing food, formed from com- (with) and mensa (table). Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation (phoresy) or for housing (inquilinism), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death (metabiosis).
|
|
Syndesmis longicanalis is a species of marine flatworms endemic to the waters off Kenya. They are commensal symbionts of sea urchins.
|
|
Intestinal enteroendocrine cells are not clustered together but spread as single cells throughout the intestinal tract. Hormones secreted include somatostatin, motilin, cholecystokinin, neurotensin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and enteroglucagon. The enteroendocrine cells sense the metabolites from intestinal commensal microbiota and, in turn, coordinate antibacterial, mechanical, and metabolic branches of the host intestinal innate immune response to the commensal microbiota.
|
|
The Temnocephalida are an order of turbellarian flatworms. Unlike most other turbellarians, all the species in this order are either commensal or parasitic. They can be found living on crustaceans, molluscs, and, in some species, even turtles. The commensal species typically live in the gill or mantle cavities of their hosts, while the parasites live inside the digestive system.
|
|
Members of the genus Capnocytophaga are found in the oral cavities of humans and animals. Most of these species are not found in humans. C. canimorsus is a commensal bacterium found in dogs and cats; it is not a member of the normal microbiota of humans. About 26% of dogs carry these commensal bacteria in their mouths.
|
|
Gattyana mossambica has been collected from the tubes of Eunice tubifex but it is not clear if this represents a commensal relationship.
|
|
The eggs are laid in small groups of capsules which resemble stalked clubs. The commensal hydroid deters several of the snail's predators.
|
|
In Australia it is reported as being an obligate commensal inside solitary, free-living corals such as Heterocyathus aequicostatus and Heteropsammia cochlea.
|
|
Closup of Asthenosoma varium, showing distinctive spines It plays host to the commensal shrimp Periclemenes colemani and the zebra crab, Zebrida adamsii.
|
|
Australaugeneria is a genus of marine annelids in the family Polynoidae (scale worms). The genus includes 4 species which are commensal on octocorals.
|
|
Polyeunoa maculata is commensal with another species of marine annelid, Mesochaetopterus japonicus; it was first found inside the tube constructed by M. japonicus.
|
|
The first profile of microbes in healthy term pregnancies identified non- pathogenic commensal microbiota from the Firmicutes, Tenericutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Fusobacteria phyla.
|
|
Because of the algae, sloth fur is a small ecosystem of its own, hosting many species of commensal and parasitic arthropods. There are a large number of arthropods associated with sloths. These include biting and blood-sucking flies such as mosquitoes and sandflies, triatomine bugs, lice, ticks and mites. Sloths have a highly specific community of commensal beetles, mites and moths.
|
|
Diplogastridae, formerly Diplogasteridae, are a family of nematodes (roundworms) known from a wide range of habitats, often in commensal or parasitic associations with insects.
|
|
Siphamia is a genus of cardinalfishes native to the Indian and Pacific Ocean. Several of these species are commensal with various species of sea urchins.
|
|
Onthophagus polyphemi, known generally as the gopher tortoise onthophagus beetle or onthophagus tortoise commensal scarab, is a species of dung beetle in the family Scarabaeidae.
|
|
This behaviour is also observed in rainbow runner and is a rare example of a commensal cleaner relationship where the cleaner does not gain anything.
|
|
Commensal bacteria in the GI tract survive despite the abundance of local immune cells. Homeostasis in the intestine requires stimulation of toll-like receptors by commensal microbes. When mice are raised in germ-free conditions, they lack circulating antibodies, and cannot produce mucus, antimicrobial proteins, or mucosal T-cells. Additionally, mice raised in germ-free conditions lack tolerance and often suffer from hypersensitivity reactions.
|
|
The prey does not have to be attracted towards the predator for the predator to benefit: it is sufficient for the predator simply not to be identified as a threat. Wicklerian-Eisnerian mimics may resemble a mutualistic ally, or a species of little significance to the prey such as a commensal. For example, the spider Arachnocoris berytoides resembles Faiditus caudatus, a spider commensal of ants.
|
|
Male aggression is also higher in noncommensal populations. In commensal populations, males come into contact with other males quite frequently due to high population densities and aggression must be mediated or the risk of injury becomes too great. Both commensal and noncommensal house mouse males aggressively defend their territory and act to exclude all intruders. Males mark their territory by scent marking with urine.
|
|
Arctonoe vittata is a species of scaled polychaete worms commonly known as a "scale worm". This species often lives as a commensal of another marine animal.
|
|
Lotilia is a small genus of gobies native to the Indo-Pacific region. The members of this genus are commensal with shrimps of the genus Alpheus.
|
|
Until recently the placenta was considered to be a sterile organ but commensal, nonpathogenic bacterial species and genera have been identified that reside in the placental tissue.
|
|
Most of these associations appear to be commensal, with the Trichodesmium providing substrate and nutrition while deriving no obvious benefit from the organisms dwelling within the colonies.
|
|
Gattyana cirrhosa has a commensal relationship with chaetopterid, terebellid, and pectinariid polychaete worms, living within the tubes they construct. However, it is also a free-living taxon.
|
|
Members of Bdellonemertea are all commensal, living in the mantle cavities of bivalves.Pechenik, J.A. (2005). "The Nemertines". Biology of the Invertebrates (5 ed.) McGraw-Hill. p. 205. .
|
|
Notably, the majority of intestinal bacterial cells in healthy individuals is bound by sIgA. The sIgA-coating of commensal enteric bacteria is believed to promote intestinal microbial homeostasis by a number of mechanisms. Secreted IgA anchors commensal bacteria to the mucus and facilitates biofilm formation, thereby limiting their translocation from the lumen into mucosal tissues. This minimizes activation of the innate immune system, a process termed "immune exclusion".
|
|
Lastly, binding by sIgA can downregulate the expression of virulence factors e.g. involved in adhesion or nutrient acquisition by commensal bacteria. If the homeostasis breaks down, innate immune responses directed against commensal enteric bacteria lead to a shift in the species composition (dysbiosis). Invasive species are better equipped to resist or take advantage of host inflammatory mechanisms and in the perturbed niche successfully compete with the resident microbiota.
|
|
Streptococcus intermedius is an aerotolerant anaerobic commensal bacterium and a member of the Streptococcus anginosus group. The S. anginosus group, occasionally termed “Streptococcus milleri group” (SMG) display hemolytic and serologic diversity, yet share core physiological traits. Despite being commensal organisms, members of the S. anginosus group display wide pathogenic potential. S. intermedius has been isolated from patients with periodontitis and fatal purulent infections, especially brain and liver abscesses.
|
|
Siokunichthys is a genus of pipefishes native to the Indian and Pacific Oceans. One species, Siokunichthys nigrolineatus, has a commensal relationship with mushroom corals of the genus Fungia.
|
|
It inhabits a range of habitats including plantations, gardens, and disturbed and undisturbed forests. The species will also feed inside human buildings, but is not described as commensal.
|
|
High-throughput sequencing and the whole genome sequencing approaches will provide the further information about the complexity and physiological implication of commensal bacteria in the lower respiratory tract.
|
|
Minimum recorded depth is 101 m. Maximum recorded depth is 101 m. It lives as an obligatory commensal on certain species of sponges from families Halichondriidae and Thrombidae.
|
|
Proto-dogs might have taken advantage of carcasses left on site by early hunters, assisted in the capture of prey, or provided defense from large competing predators at kills. However, the extent to which proto-domestic wolves could have become dependent on this way of life prior to domestication and without human provisioning is unclear and highly debated. In contrast, cats may have become fully dependent on a commensal lifestyle before being domesticated by preying on other commensal animals, such as rats and mice, without any human provisioning. Debate over the extent to which some wolves were commensal with humans prior to domestication stems from debate over the level of human intentionality in the domestication process, which remains untested.
|
|
A few different animals establish commensal interactions with A. gigas, which means that both organisms maintain a relationship that benefits (the commensal) species but not the other (in this case, the queen conch). Commensals of this species include certain mollusks, mainly slipper shells (Crepidula spp.) The porcelain crab Porcellana sayana is also known to be a commensal and a small cardinalfish, known as the conch fish (Astrapogon stellatus), sometimes shelters in the conch's mantle for protection. A. gigas is very often parasitized by protists of the phylum Apicomplexa, which are common mollusk parasites. Those coccidian parasites, which are spore-forming, single-celled microorganisms, initially establish themselves in large vacuolated cells of the host's digestive gland, where they reproduce freely.
|
|
A number of organisms live in or on C. novaeguineae. The small shrimp Periclimenes soror lives as a commensal hiding under the cushion star. Astroxynus culcitae, Stellicola oreastriphilus and Stellicola parvulipes are copepods which live parasitically on the outside of the cushion star. The star pearlfish (Carapus mourlani) sometimes lives as a commensal inside the cushion star, working its way into the large body cavity through an ambulacral groove and emerging periodically to feed.
|
|
S. epidermidis also stimulates IL-17A+ CD8+ T cells production that increases host immunity. Exposure to these skin commensal bacteria early in development is crucial for host tolerance of these microbes as T cell encounters allow commensal antigen presentation to be common during development. S. epidermidis and other important microflora work similarly to support homeostasis and general health in areas all over the human body such as the oral cavity, vagina, gastrointestinal tract, and oropharynx.
|
|
Commensal mice populations often have an excessive food source resulting in high population densities and small home ranges. This causes a switch from territorial behaviour to a hierarchy of individuals. When populations have an excess of food, there is less female-female aggression, which usually occurs to gain access to food or to prevent infanticide. Male-male aggression occurs in commensal populations, mainly to defend female mates and protect a small territory.
|
|
Malassezia sympodialis, often has a symbiotic or commensal relationship with its host, but it can act as a pathogen causing a number of different skin diseases, such as atopic dermatitis.
|
|
Syndesmis longicanalis are commensal symbionts of two common species of sea urchins: the flower urchin (Toxopneustes pileolus) and the collector urchin (Tripneustes gratilla). They inhabit the intestines of their hosts.
|
|
Tomiyamichthys alleni, Allen's shrimpgoby, is a species of ray-finned fish from the family Gobiidae. It occurs in the western Pacific Ocean where its is commensal with an aplheid shrimp.
|
|
The African pied wagtail inhabits subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, rivers, and, sometimes, freshwater marshes. In some areas it is commensal with humans in towns and villages.
|
|
This goby inhabits sandy or sand-rubble bottoms adjacent to reefs at depths of from . It is one of several species that form commensal relationships with Randall's pistol shrimp (Alpheus randalli).
|
|
LbpAB is a receptor for human lactoferrin. TbpAB (Tbp1-Tbp2) is a receptor for human transferrin. All of these receptors are used for iron acquisition for both pathogenic and commensal species.
|
|
Scoffield is also the principal investigator of the Scoffield Lab. Her lab explores the role of commensal bacteria in maintaining homeostasis. The lab focuses on both oral and pulmonary commensal bacteria and how these bacteria are able to control and suppress pathogenic bacteria in these niches. The main pathogenic bacteria the Scoffield Lab explores are Streptococcus mutans, the major cause of pathogenic oral infection, and P. aeruginosa, the major cause of pulmonary infection in CF patients.
|
|
It is found in all the zones of reefs, in mangrove habitats, in seagrass meadows, among seaweeds and in contaminated waters, and is often found living inside sponges, possibly as a commensal.
|
|
Stonogobiops is a genus of gobies native to the Indian and Pacific oceans. This is one of the "shrimp goby" genera, the members of these genera being commensal with various species of shrimps.
|
|
Parasites of millipedes include nematodes, phaeomyiid flies, and acanthocephalans. Nearly 30 fungal species of the order Laboulbeniales have been found growing externally on millipedes, but some species may be commensal rather than parasitic.
|
|
'Virus protects coral from 'white plague',' at New Scientist, 7 July 2012.p.17. Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals' apparently heat-adapted commensal algae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere.
|
|
KT71 uses these particles that are high in nutrients as a source of nutrients or live in a commensal relationship with other bacteria that provide the necessary compounds that KT71 uses for substrates.
|
|
The winged females, now laden with pollen, follow, flying off to find other receptive syconia at the right stage of development. Most species of fig have their own unique commensal species of wasp.
|
|
Girl with young cat Cat on a walk being held affectionately Hundreds of millions of cats are kept as pets around the world. Cats have either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with humans.
|
|
D. canis The natural host of D. canis is the domestic dog. Although it can temporarily infect humans, D. canis mites cannot survive on human skin and will die shortly after exposure and are therefore not considered to be zoonotic. Naturally, the D. canis mite has a commensal relationship with the dog and under normal conditions does not produce any clinical signs or disease. The escalation of a commensal D. canis infestation into one requiring clinical attention usually involves complex immune factors.
|
|
The peptide has a cyclized backbone and forms three cross-links between the sulphurs of Cys13, Cys7 and Cys4 and the alpha-positions of Phe22,Thr28 and Phe31. Microcins produced by commensal E. coli strains target and eliminate enteric pathogens such as Salmonella enterica by mimicking the siderophores the pathogens use for iron scavenging. Microcins also help commensal strains of E. coli outcompete pathogenic strains. Tine Hesman Saey, "Tiny toxic proteins help gut bacteria defeat rivals", Science News Magazine Vol.
|
|
Various sessile organisms such as barnacles are sometimes attached to their carapace and legs, and small commensal amphipods may live in their carapace. They are occasionally the victims of parasitic snailfish of the genus Careproctus, which lay their egg mass in the gill chamber of the crab, forming a mobile "home" until they hatch. Conversely, some juvenile Neolithodes have a commensal relationship with Scotoplanes sea cucumbers. To protect itself from large predators, the young crab hides under the sea cucumber.
|
|
Hydractinia is a genus of commensal athecate hydroids which belong to the family Hydractiniidae. Hydractinia species mostly live on hermit-crabbed marine gastropod shells. One species, Hydractinia echinata, is commonly known as snail fur.
|
|
Theorizing the feast: rituals of consumption, commensal politics, and power in African societies. In M. Dietler & B. Hayden (eds), Feasts.Archaeological and Ethnographic Perspectives on Food,Politics, and Power, 65–114. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution.
|
|
Commensal symbionts such as crustaceans and cardinal fish may be found sheltered inside the shells mantle cavity. This species is preyed upon by starfish, and other carnivorous gastropods, including the horse conch Triplofusus papillosus.
|
|
Papuascincus stanleyanus is commensal with humans, and is often found in human settlements. In the Upper Kaironk Valley of Madang Province, Papua New Guinea, it is the most common small lizard found in houses.
|
|
When the eggs hatch, a few young escape at the crawling stage.M. Poulicek, J.-C. Bussers and P. Vandewalle, Biology and description of Antisabia juliae sp. nov., new Hipponicid gastropod commensal on Turbo spp.
|
|
Hoplophrys is a monotypic genus of crab in the family Epialtidae. It contains the single species Hoplophrys oatesi, also known as the candy crab, Oates's soft coral crab, commensal soft coral crab and Dendronephthya crab.
|
|
Both species of Benhamipolynoe currently known are commensal with corals.Hanley, J. R.; Burke, M. (1991). Polychaeta Polynoidae: Scaleworms of the Chesterfield Islands and Fairway Reefs, Coral Sea. in: Crosnier, A. Résultats des Campagnes MUSORSTOM 8.
|
|
They lack cytostomes. They are saprozoic, consuming dead matter, which suggests their commensal role. They propagate by means of plasmotomy. The body is flattened, leaf-like and oval in outline and covered by thin pellicle.
|
|
Brisaster latifrons (Alexander Emanuel Agassiz, 1898). In: Kroh, A. & Mooi, R. (2010) World Echinoidea Database. at the World Register of Marine Species. They serve as hosts for the commensal epibiont Waldo arthuri, a galeommatid clam.
|
|
She found that commensal bacteria in the oral cavity suppress the growth and infection of pathogenic P. aeruginosa through their release of nitrate and H202. This work suggests that H202 and nitrate may present an infection treatment strategy in patients with P. aeruginosa infections. Scoffield then found that P. aeruginosa require nitrite reductase to survive in the presence of nitrite producing commensal oral bacteria. In 2018, Scoffield was appointed to Assistant Professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham in the Department of Microbiology.
|
|
Factor H binding protein (fHbp) that is exhibited in N. meningitidis and some commensal species is the main inhibitor of the alternative complement pathway. fHbp protects meningococci from complement-mediated death in human serum experiments, but has also been shown to protect meningococci from antimicrobial peptides in vitro. Factor H binding protein is key to the pathogenesis of N. meningitidis, and is, therefore, important as a potential vaccine candidate. Porins are also an important factor for complement inhibition for both pathogenic and commensal species.
|
|
Porcellana sayana is a species of porcelain crab that lives in the western Atlantic Ocean, often as a commensal of hermit crabs. It is red with white spots, and has a characteristic bulge behind each claw.
|
|
S. ferus is commensal in wild rats and pigs and demonstrates a relatively weak cariogenic potential compared to other streptococcus species such as S. mutans S. ferus has not had any reported pathogenic instances in humans.
|
|
Failure of treatment with penicillin is generally attributed to other local commensal organisms producing β-lactamase, or failure to achieve adequate tissue levels in the pharynx. Certain strains have developed resistance to macrolides, tetracyclines, and clindamycin.
|
|
Dipolydora commensalis is a species of polychaete worm in the family Spionidae. It has a commensal relationship with a hermit crab and occurs on the lower shore of coasts on the western side of the Atlantic Ocean.
|
|
Ceratosoma tenue serving as commensal host to an Emperor Shrimp (Periclimenes imperator) Ceratosoma tenue is active all time and has a diurnal activity.Bidgrain, P., 2019. Ceratosoma tenue Sea Slugs of the Indian Ocean, accessed 2019-01-30.
|
|
Like ILC2, ILC 3 can express MHC II and be appropriating the function of antigen presenting cells.Hepworth, Matthew R., et al. "Innate lymphoid cells regulate CD4+ T cell responses to intestinal commensal bacteria." Nature 498.7452 (2013): 113.
|
|
It is believed that approximately 22% of Scotoplanes globosa are attended by at least one of these crabs. At this time, scientists are unsure whether the relationship between S. globosa and N. diomedea is mutualistic or commensal.
|
|
The commensal pathway was traveled by animals that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received little benefit or harm. Those animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the 'tamer' individuals: less aggressive, with shorter fight-or-flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans and led to a domestic relationship.
|
|
While TLR2 signaling can activate clearance of peptides, PSA induces an anti-inflammatory response when it binds to TLR2 on CD4+ T cells. Through TLR2 binding, PSA suppresses pro-inflammatory TH17 responses, promoting tolerance and establishing commensal gut colonization. Commensal gut microbes create a variety of metabolites that bind aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AHR). AHR is a ligand-inducible transcription factor found in immune and epithelial cells and binding of AHR is required for normal immune activation as the lack of AHR binding has been shown to cause over activation of immune cells.
|
|
"Induction of Cyclooxygenase-2 Signaling by Stomatococcus mucilaginosus Highlights the Pathogenic Potential of an Oral Commensal". The Journal of Immunology 191 (7): 3810-3817. This bacterium has also been shown to form biofilms, similar to that of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. S. mucilaginous is a cohabitant in the lower airways of patient with bronchiectasis Sadikot, Ruxana T.; Yuan, Zhihong; Panchal, Dipti; Syed, Mansoor Ali; Mehta, Hiren; Joo, Myungsoo; Hadid, Walid (October 2013). "Induction of Cyclooxygenase-2 Signaling by Stomatococcus mucilaginosus Highlights the Pathogenic Potential of an Oral Commensal". The Journal of Immunology 191 (7): 3810-3817.
|
|
But the negative effects of HDAC3 deletion are not due to the presence of an altered microbiota because normal germ-free mice colonized with the altered microbiota did not show the negative effects seen in deletion mutants. Although the precise mechanism and the specific signals are not known it is clear that HDAC3 interacts with derived signals of commensal bacteria of the gut microbiota. These interactions are responsible of calibrating epithelial cells responses necessary to establish a normal relationship between the host and the commensal as well as to maintain intestinal homeostasis.
|
|
Even though pharmacomicrobiomics is often interpreted as the impact the microbiome has on xenobiotic metabolism, the term can also encompass the effects of xenobiotics on the microbiome and microbial genes. The impact of antibiotics on the human microbiome has been well studied. It has been shown that antibiotic therapies not only target a specific pathogen, but also the commensal inhabitants of a host. Evidence suggests that commensal bacteria levels in some cases are not normalized after antibiotic treatment, and in fact may be negatively affected for extended periods of time.
|
|
The commensal pathway was traveled by vertebrates that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received no harm but little benefit. Those animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the tamer, less aggressive individuals with shorter fight or flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans that led to a domestic relationship.
|
|
Grace, S., 2017. Winter Quiescence, Growth Rate, and the Release from Competition in the Temperate Scleractinian Coral Astrangia poculata (Ellis & Solander 1786). Northeastern Naturalist, 24(sp7), pp.B119-B134. The base often hosts various boring or burrowing commensal invertebrates.
|
|
Both the pedal disc and the tentacles are very sticky and either can quickly form a firm attachment to the shell.The commensal association of Calliactis polypus and the hermit crab Dardanus gemmatus in Hawaii Retrieved 2011-09-10.
|
|
However, it has been observed that Eurybia elvina rarely trip flowers. It was found that their ineffective pollination in the study system did not significantly reduce fruit-set. Thus, the adult interaction with the host plant is commensal.
|
|
The shell is often shared by the commensal zebra flatworm (Stylochus ellipticus). The diet of the flat-clawed hermit crab comprises organic matter, algae, and sometimes other hermit crabs. Fish are the most important predators of this species.
|
|
The Broken Mirror, a Hindi novel by Krishna Baldev Vaid, portrays the psychological and sociological transformations in a West Punjabi village in the phase leading up to the Partition, with emphasis on commensal taboos and hardened community boundaries.
|
|
T. tenax is a commensal of the human oral cavity, found particularly in the patients with poor oral hygiene and advanced periodontal disease. Transmission is through saliva, droplet spray, and kissing or use of contaminated dishes or drinking water.
|
|
Themes of Parasitology. 2012. Web. 28 Nov 2012. This relationship, however, is not truly commensal. While the barnacles are not directly parasitic to their hosts, they have negative effects to the sea turtles on which they choose to reside.
|
|
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Among these, Caridina spongicola lives on freshwater sponges, making it one of only two known commensal species of freshwater shrimp (the other is a Limnocaridina shrimp that lives in mussels in Lake Tanganyika, East Africa).
|
|
Cord factor also binds and activates the related C-type lectin MCL. A wide range of ligands promote signalling through Mincle, including proteins, sterols and glycolipids from altered or damaged self, and various glycolipids from pathogenic and commensal organisms.
|
|
Fusobacteria are commensal organisms in the oral cavity. F. necrophorum and F. nucleatum are the most important among the non-spore forming anaerobic bacilli in causing human infections. F. necroporum may occasionally cause septicaemia with metastatic abscesses (Lemierre's syndrome).
|
|
The fiery spiny mouse (Acomys ignitus) is a species of rodent in the family Muridae found in Kenya and Tanzania. Its natural habitats are dry savanna and rocky areas. It may be found as a commensal in human habitations.
|
|
Neisseria cinerea is a commensal species grouped with the Gram-negative, oxidase-positive, and catalase-positive diplococci. It was first classified as Micrococcus cinereus by Alexander von Lingelsheim in 1906. Using DNA hybridization, N. cinerea exhibits 50% similarity to Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
|
|
Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host.
|
|
The number of intestinal CD11b+ IgA+ plasma cells was reduced in these mice, suggesting the role of commensals in recruiting IgA- secreting plasma cells. Based on this evidence commensal microbes can protect the host from harmful pathogens by stimulating IgA production.
|
|
Because they nest in crevices, auklets are vulnerable to predation by rats,Atkinson, I.A.E. 1985. The spread of commensal species of Rattus to oceanic islands and their effects on island avifaunas. In Moors, P.J. (eds.). 1985. Conservation of Island Birds.
|
|
Neisseria lactamica is a gram-negative diplococcus bacterium. It is strictly a commensal species of the nasopharynx. Uniquely among the Neisseria they are able to produce β-D-galactosidase and ferment lactose. This species is most commonly carried by young children.
|
|
Whether the relationship between humans and some types of gut flora is commensal or mutualistic is still unanswered. Some biologists argue that any close interaction between two organisms is unlikely to be completely neutral for either party, and that relationships identified as commensal are likely mutualistic or parasitic in a subtle way that has not been detected. For example, epiphytes are "nutritional pirates" that may intercept substantial amounts of nutrients that would otherwise go to the host plant. Large numbers of epiphytes can also cause tree limbs to break or shade the host plant and reduce its rate of photosynthesis.
|
|
Gemmotheres also known as the jewel-box pea crab, is a monotypic genus of pea crab, which was erected in 1996 to hold the species Gemmotheres chamae (formerly Pinnotheres chamae). The species lives as a commensal of the corrugate jewelbox, Chama congregata.
|
|
It is active at night, hiding in crevices or under rocks during the day. It hosts commensal species like the shrimp Stegopontonia commensalis. Saron marmoratus stays close for protection, like many fish of the families Apogonidae (cardinalfish) and Centriscidae (razorfish and relatives).
|
|
Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis, human commensal species of the genus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans.
|
|
"Interspecific associations of Cape ground squirrels with two mongoose species: benefit or cost?". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 61(11):1675-1683. While Cape ground squirrels and meerkats appear to have a mutual relationship, mongoose and squirrel relations appear to be more commensal.
|
|
Accidentally, this enzyme also oxidizes, at no additional cost for M. vaccae, cyclohexane into cyclohexanol. Thus, cyclohexane is co-metabolized in the presence of propane. This allows for the commensal growth of Pseudomonas on cyclohexane. The latter can metabolize cyclohexanol, but not cyclohexane.
|
|
Tellimya ferruginosa lives under the surface of the sediment and prefers muddy sand. It is often found living as a commensal of the sea potato, Echinocardium cordatum. Up to fourteen of the bivalves have been found associated with one urchin.Fish, J.D. and Fish, S., (1996).
|
|
The basic unit of the Qalandar society is the tent or puki. Each puki represents a commensal group, comprising a female, her spouse and unmarried . A collection of puki forms a dera or camp. Most members of the dera are related to each other.
|
|
Amblyeleotris diagonalis, the Diagonal shrimpgoby, is a species of goby native to the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean where it can be found on reefs at depths of from . It is commensal with alpheid shrimps. This species can reach a length of SL.
|
|
Macromolecular components of respiratory secretions (proteins, glycoproteins, lipids, nucleic acids) are converted to nutrients (e.g. carbohydrates, amino acids). Thus, the metabolic activity of present bacteria allow for the colonization of new species. The commensal bacteria are nonpathogenic and defend our airways against the pathogens.
|
|
While living in their host organism, cocci can be pathogenic (e.g., streptococcus), commensal, or symbiotic. Gram-positive Cocci The gram-positive cocci are a large group of loosely bacteria with similar morphology. All are spherical or nearly so, but they vary considerably in size.
|
|
The mouth is far too small to effectively bite a human being. Commensal behavior has been observed with the eastern screech owl in which the owl carries live Texas blind snakes back to the nest, where the snakes help to clean the nest of parasites.
|
|
Vertical transmission of symbionts is the transfer of a microbial symbiont from the parent directly to the offspring. Many metazoan species carry symbiotic bacteria which play a mutualistic, commensal, or parasitic role. A symbiont is acquired by a host via horizontal, vertical, or mixed transmission.
|
|
The Colombian lesserblack tarantulaCommon Names of Arachnids, American Arachnological Society (2003) (Xenesthis immanis) is a tarantula originating from Colombia. It is a relatively large spider with a body length reaching 6–7 cm, and frequently displays a commensal or mutualistic relationship with the microhylid frog Chiasmocleis ventrimaculata.Reginald B. Cocroft and Keith Hambler, "Observations on a Commensal Relationship of the Microhylid Frog Chiasmocleis ventrimaculata and the Burrowing Theraphosid Spider Xenesthis immanis in Southeastern Peru", Biotropica Vol. 21 No. 1 (1989) The relationship described is one where the spider may protect the frog and its eggs from predators while the frog protects the spider's eggs from ants.
|
|
Yegey is the commensal who first finds Estraven during his exile, and who gives Estraven a job and a place to live in Mishnory. Shusgis is the commensal who hosts Genly Ai after Ai's arrival in Mishnory, and is a member of the opposing faction, which supports the Sarf, the Orgota secret police. Although Obsle and Yegey support Ai's mission, they see him more as a means of increasing their own influence within the council; thus they eventually betray him to the Sarf, in order to save themselves. Their Open Trade faction takes control of the council after Ai's presence in Karhide becomes known at the end of the novel.
|
|
Psammodesmus bryophorus camouflaged with symbiotic mosses Some millipedes form mutualistic relationships with organisms of other species, in which both species benefit from the interaction, or commensal relationships, in which only one species benefits while the other is unaffected. Several species form close relationships with ants, a relationship known as myrmecophily, especially within the family Pyrgodesmidae (Polydesmida), which contains "obligate myrmecophiles", species which have only been found in ant colonies. More species are "facultative myrmecophiles", being non-exclusively associated with ants, including many species of Polyxenida that have been found in ant nests around the world. Many millipede species have commensal relationships with mites of the orders Mesostigmata and Astigmata.
|
|
54 no. 1 106-113 Staphylococcus caprae was first described in 1983 by Devisee et al. based on a strain isolated from some goat milk. It can sometimes cause mastitis in the goats, and it is considered a commensal organism for the goats’ skin and mammary glands.
|
|
Despite most species apparently being harmless (some existing on the skin as commensal members of the skin flora), some Fusarium species and subspecific groups are among the most important fungal pathogens of plants and animals. The name of Fusarium comes from Latin fusus, meaning a spindle.
|
|
Bryaninops (commonly known as sea whip gobies) is a tropical Indo-Pacific genus of gobies. The genus takes its common name from the fact that it is commensal on gorgonians (commonly known as sea whips) and black coral. The genus is further characterised by cryptic colouration.
|
|
Although older sources state that Fusobacterium is part of the normal flora of the human oropharynx, the current consensus is that Fusobacterium should always be treated as a pathogen. F. prausnitzii, a gut commensal associated with healthy patients, was completely reclassified as Faecalibacterium (Clostridiales:Ruminococcaceae), in 2002.
|
|
Lepisma is a genus of primitive insects belonging to the family Lepismatidae. The most familiar member of the genus is the silverfish (L. saccharinum), a commensal of humans worldwide. Lepisma are known to have metabolisms that allow them to go long periods of time without food.
|
|
Protandrous hermaphrodite, changing to female at about 2 to 3 years. Consumes algae, and large individuals defend themselves by clamping down their shell edges on the predators. Commensal flatworm Notoplana patellarum lives in the gill cavity under the shell. Harvested for food in the Transkei (Eastern Cape).
|
|
Ruminococcaceae is a family of bacteria in the class Clostridia. All Ruminococcaceae are obligate anaerobes. However, members of the family have diverse shapes, with some rod-shaped and others cocci. Within the family, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii is notable as an abundant commensal bacteria of the human gut microbiota.
|
|
Regarding the genus Acetobacter’s involvement with other organisms, it is known for having species that are important commensal bacteria in the gut microbiome of Drosophila melanogaster. The species A. pomorum specifically helps uphold the physiology and development of D. melanogaster through insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling.
|
|
Stelletta kallitetilla often harbours the commensal amphipod Colomastix janiceae, as well as another amphipod, Leucothoe spinicarpa, in the tubes, holes and crevices of the sponge; in a study off southeastern Florida and the Florida Keys, all the ten individual sponges examined contained the amphipods living inside.
|
|
Diverse viruses colonize the human skin and differ by skin site. These skin virome includes human viruses (i.e. human papillomavirus) and bacteriophages (bacterial viruses) that infect commensal skin bacteria such as Staphylococci. Virus communities differ by moisture levels and degree of protection from the external environment.
|
|
The pathways that animals may have followed are not mutually exclusive. Pigs, for example, may have been domesticated as their populations became accustomed to the human niche, which would suggest a commensal pathway, or they may have been hunted and followed a prey pathway, or both.
|
|
Oral streptococci have both harmless and harmful bacteria. However, under special conditions commensal streptococci can become opportunistic pathogens, initiating disease and damaging the host. Imbalances in the microbial biota can initiate oral diseases. Candida albicans is an opportunistic pathogenic yeast that can be found within the oral cavity.
|
|
Pinnixa schmitti, the Schmitt pea crab, is a commensal of A. pacifica and is often found cohabiting in its burrow. The crab may benefit from the protective environment but it is unclear whether the worm gains from the arrangement.O’Clair, R.M. and C.E. O’Clair. 1998. Southeast Alaska’s rocky shores: animals.
|
|
Euplotes is a genus of ciliates in the subclass Euplotia. Species are widely distributed in marine and freshwater environments, as well as soil and moss. Most members of the genus are free-living, but two species have been recorded as commensal organisms in the digestive tracts of sea urchins.
|
|
Glycymeris yessoensis is a species of bivalve mollusc in the family Glycymerididae. It can be found burrowing in soft sediment in shallow water in the Pacific Ocean around the coasts of China and Japan. It is often associated with a polychaete worm with which it forms a commensal relationship.
|
|
Members of Roseobacter clade display diverse physiologies, and are commonly found to be either free living, particle associated, or in commensal relationships with marine phytoplankton, invertebrates, and vertebrates. Roseobacter are similar with phytoplankton in ways of living. Both of them colonize surface, scavenge iron and produce bioactive secondary metabolites.
|
|
Eunoe laetmogonensis is a scale worm known from the north-east Atlantic Ocean at depths of about 800 to 2300m.Kirkegaard, J.B. & Billet, D. (1980) Eunoë laetmogonensis: A New Species of Polynoid Worm, Commensal with the Bathyal Holothurian Laetmogone violacea, in the North-East Atlantic. Steenstrupia 6, 101–109.
|
|
Normally-commensal bacteria can harm the host if they extrude from the intestinal tract. Translocation, which occurs when bacteria leave the gut through its mucosal lining, can occur in a number of different diseases. If the gut is perforated, bacteria invade the interstitium, causing a potentially fatal infection.
|
|
Ecology 73(2):463-478. The two share a commensal relationship as the mites travels from carcass to carcass on the beetle in search for food. Fly eggs are generally the source of food for these mites, therefore, N.orbicollis does not compete with the mites in any form.
|
|
Commensal fish: a remora holds on to its host with a sucker-like organ (detail inset) Some teleosts are parasites. Remoras have their front dorsal fins modified into large suckers with which they cling onto a host animal such as a whale, sea turtle, shark or ray, but this is probably a commensal rather than parasitic arrangement because both remora and host benefit from the removal of ectoparasites and loose flakes of skin. More harmful are the catfish that enter the gill chambers of fish and feed on their blood and tissues. The snubnosed eel, though usually a scavenger, sometimes bores into the flesh of a fish, and has been found inside the heart of a shortfin mako shark.
|
|
I. pubescens may be encountered both free-living in the inter-tidal and sub-tidal zone, at depths of up to 5 m, and as a commensal in the brood pouch of larger isopods. Host genera include Sphaeroma, Exosphaeroma and Dynamenella. On the host Exosphaeroma obtusum, the reproduction of the host was found not to be impacted although up to 25 Iais individuals could be carried at one time. The species has evolved an unusual mating system (documented in commensal-living individuals) that involves males actively seeking out newly born virgin females and retaining them in their own brood pouches for several days, fertilizing and releasing them shortly after their first moult.
|
|
S. caprae occurs as a commensal on human skin, but has also been implicated in infections of the bloodstream, urinary tract, bones, and joints. Because S. caprae is difficult to identify definitively in the laboratory, according to a study in 2014, the incidence of S. caprae in humans is under-reported.
|
|
Occurring in a climate Tchernov described as similar to but rainier than that in Palestine today, it was considered by Tchernov as a "wild" ancestor of the modern sparrows which have a commensal association with humans, although its presence in Oumm-Qatafa cave may indicate that it was associated with humans.
|
|
Thoracica is a superorder of crustaceans which contains the most familiar species of barnacles found on rocky coasts, such as Semibalanus balanoides and Chthamalus stellatus. They have six well-developed limbs, and may be either stalked or sessile. The carapace is heavily calcified. The group includes free-living and commensal species.
|
|
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, 2016. Scotoplanes sp, like other sea cucumbers, host parasitic and commensal organisms. For example, it provides a shelter to juvenile crabs, Neolithodes diomedeae. It is known that such relationship benefits the crabs because they can reduce risks of predation when they are under the shelter.
|
|
Mycobacteria and corynebacteria produce a wide range of glycolipids that can signal through Mincle. These include glucose and trehalose mycolates, and their closely related corynomycolates from mycobacteria and corynebacteria. Glycosyl diglycerides from various pathogenic and commensal bacteria and fungi such as Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Malassezia sp.
|
|
Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are carbohydrate components in human milk. They are mostly indigestible and work as a prebiotic to feed commensal bacteria in the infant gut. Studies show that HMOs also function as immune-modulators by blocking receptors that allow pathogenic bacteria to attach to the infant intestinal epithelium.
|
|
It has also been reported from blotched frozen peas stored at for 8 weeks with yeast burden increasing significantly after 24 weeks at , suggesting an ability to proliferate at temperatures below freezing. The fungus is a commensal of mammals including humans, occurring commonly on skin and is found in stool.
|
|
Porcellana sayana lives in shallow water, at depths of up to , among rocks and oyster shells, or as a commensal of the hermit crabs Pagurus pollicaris and Petrochirus diogenes. Like another porcelain crab, Petrolisthes galathinus, Porcellana sayana is parasitised by the bopyrid isopod Aporobopyrus curtatus, which lives in the porcelain crab's gill chamber.
|
|
The emperor shrimp (Periclimenes imperator) is known to inhabit the surface of Actinopyga caerulea in a commensal relationship, possibly feeding on ectoparasites or organic detritus on the surface of its skin. There has also been at least one recorded instance of Pleurosicya mossambica living on it off the coast of Bitung as well.
|
|
The Pinnotheridae are a family of tiny soft-bodied crabs that live commensally in the mantles of certain bivalve molluscs (and the occasional large gastropod mollusc species in genera such as Strombus and Haliotis). Tunicotheres moseri is commensal with a tunicate. The earliest fossils attributable to the Pinnotheridae date from the Danian.
|
|
Serpulina innocens, formerly known as Serpula innocens (this is a fungal genus) and formerly as Treponema innocens is a species of bacteria. The other species in this genus is Serpulina hyodysenteriae. Both species however are classified as belonging to the genus Brachyspira, together with Brachyspira pilosicoli. They are thought to be commensal bacteria.
|
|
Elegant feather stars are usually found singly on shallow reefs and are more abundant on deeper reefs. If displaced they may swim using their arms. Commensal organisms such as the myzostomid worm Myzostoma fuscomaculatum (shown in main image) and the crinoid shrimp Hippolyte catagrapha are found on the specimens found in False Bay.
|
|
Amblyeleotris aurora, the pinkbar goby, is a species of goby native to reefs of the western Indian Ocean at depths of from though usually not deeper than . It is commensal with the shrimp Alpheus randalli. This species can reach a length of TL. It can also be found in the aquarium trade.
|
|
Rodgers, J.K., Sandland, G.J., Joyce, S.R., Minchella, D.J. (2005): Multi-species interactions among a commensal (Chaetogaster limnaei limnaei), a parasite (Schistosoma mansoni), and an aquatic snail host (Biomphalaria glabrata). Journal of Parasitology 91: 709-712. The subspecies Ch. l. limnaei is also often found on freshwater mussels, especially of the genus Sphaerium.
|
|
Mutualism is often conflated with two other types of ecological phenomena: cooperation and symbiosis. Cooperation refers to increases in fitness through within-species (intraspecific) interactions. Symbiosis involves two species living in proximity and may be mutualistic, parasitic, or commensal, so symbiotic relationships are not always mutualistic. Mutualism plays a key part in ecology.
|
|
Rather than using mucus to prevent nematocysts from firing, as is seen in some of the clownfish sheltering among sea anemones, the fish appears to use highly agile swimming to physically avoid tentacles.Jenkins, R. L. (1983): Observations on the Commensal Relationship of Nomeus gronovii with Physalia physalis. Copeia, Vol. 1983, No. 1 (Feb.
|
|
Temnocephala lamothei is a species of flatworm in the family Temnocephalidae. The specific name lamothei is in honor of Mexican helminthologist Dr. Marcos Rafael Lamothe-Argumedo. This species was collected in 2005 in Misiones Province, Argentina and described in 2008 as a commensal in the mantle cavity of freshwater snail Pomella megastoma.
|
|
Electron micrograph of Caenorhabditis elegans.jpg Caenorhabditis elegans- microbe interactions are defined as any interaction that encompasses the association with microbes that temporarily or permanently live in or on the nematode C. elegans. The microbes can engage in a commensal, mutualistic or pathogenic interaction with the host. These include bacterial, viral, unicellular eukaryotic, and fungal interactions.
|
|
High-spined commensal hydroids grow as a fuzzy-looking orange coat usually on the shell of a marine snail, the scaly dogwhelk Nucella squamosa. Individual polyps grow to 0.4cm in total height. The polyps are naked and cluster on the shell surface, interspersed with defensive spines and tiny ball-like reproductive structures. Millard, N.A.H. 1975.
|
|
Janaria is a genus of commensal athecate hydroids in the family Hydractiniidae. It is a monotypic genus and the only species is Janaria mirabilis, commonly known as staghorn hydrocoral. It is a colonial species and lives on a shell occupied by a hermit crab. It is native to the tropical and semitropical eastern Pacific Ocean.
|
|
Overview of bacterial infections and main species involved. Despite their apparent simplicity, bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms. These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism, mutualism and commensalism. Due to their small size, commensal bacteria are ubiquitous and grow on animals and plants exactly as they will grow on any other surface.
|
|
Capnocytophaga spp. are fusiform Gram-negative bacilli, and are part of the oral commensal flora. Microscopic observation revealed a high degree of polymorphism, with a variation in the size and appearance depending on the strain and culture conditions. This polymorphism is also reflected in the observation of colonies (orange-pigmented colonies, spreading on agar, etc.).
|
|
The small brown anemone is distributed throughout estuaries in current-free areas. They all usually found attached to cockles who with they form a commensal relationship as the anemone gets protection and the cockle becomes more camouflaged and so can hide better from predators such as the mud flat whelk (Cominella glandiformis) or sea gulls.
|
|
Many commensal organisms, such as E. coli, regularly harbor one or more gene cassettes that convey antibiotic resistance. Horizontal transfer of genetic elements from non- pathogenic commensals to unrelated species results in highly virulent pathogens that can carry multiple antibiotic resistance genes. The increasing prevalence of resistance creates challenging questions for researchers and physicians.
|
|
Periclimenes, commonly known as glass shrimp or cleaner shrimp, is a commensal and often symbiotic genus of semi-transparent shrimp within the family Palaemonidae. Species of this large genus feature a wide variety of coloration and patterns, widespread distribution throughout much of the world's tropical oceans, and are often sought out for aquarium trade.
|
|
The species forms a commensal relationship with the gumboot chiton, living on its gills. It also lives in the ambulacral groove of Dermasterias imbricata, a starfish. Another host is the keyhole limpet Diodora aspera where it lives in the gill groove. It can be very large in comparison with the size of this particular host.
|
|
Kazakh shepherd with horse and dogs. Their job is to guard the sheep from predators. The directed pathway was a more deliberate and directed process initiated by humans with the goal of domesticating a free-living animal. It probably only came into being once people were familiar with either commensal or prey-pathway domesticated animals.
|
|
The target shrimpgoby (Cryptocentrus strigilliceps) is a species of goby native to the Indo-West-Pacific where it occurs near coasts on silty or sandy reefs at depths of from . This species is commensal with alpheid shrimps. It can reach a length of TL. This species can also be found in the aquarium trade.
|
|
A number of hornbills have associations with other animal species. For example, some species of hornbills in Africa have a mutualistic relationship with dwarf mongooses, foraging together and warning each other of nearby birds of prey and other predators. Other relationships are commensal, for example following monkeys or other animals and eating the insects flushed up by them.
|
|
The Tibetan fox primarily preys on Plateau pikas, followed by rodents, marmots, woolly hares and lizards. It also scavenges on the carcasses of Tibetan antelopes, musk deer, blue sheep and livestock. Tibetan foxes are mostly solitary, daytime hunters as their main prey, pikas, are diurnal. Tibetan foxes may form commensal relationships with brown bears during hunts for pikas.
|
|
Several species of small animals regularly live in a symbiotic or commensal relationship with the snakelocks anemone, gaining protection from predators by residing among the venomous tentacles. These include the incognito (or anemone) goby (Gobius incognitus), the shrimp Periclimenes aegylios and the Leach's spider crab (Inachus phalangium).Debelius, H. (2001). Crustacea Guide of the World. pp.
|
|
APA Publications GmbH & Co. Verlag KG., 1993 As with other tropical echinoderms, commensal animals like shrimps (of genus Periclimenes), tiny brittle stars and even juvenile filefish can be found on the surfaces of a horned sea star. This may be attributed to its protective nature, as there are few predators that would dare to eat this echinoderm.
|
|
This has been particularly studied in bacteria. Different bacterial species can coordinate to colonize a host and participate in common quorum sensing. Therapeutic strategies to disrupt this phenomenon are being investigated. Interactions mediated through signaling molecules are also thought to occur between the gut flora and their host, as part of their commensal or symbiotic relationship.
|
|
Propionibacterium spp. are commensal bacteria that can occasionally cause infectious diseases. The most studied of these infections is acne vulgaris, caused by Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes). It is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by the blockage of pilosebaceous units causing inflammatory lesions, non-inflammatory lesions or a mixture of both on the face, neck and/or chest.
|
|
A great number of infaunal organisms have been found in the pitchers of this species. These include the sarcophagid fly Sarcophaga papuensis and the mite Nepenthacarus warreni, which have both been found in Australian populations of the plant.Yeates, D.K., H. de Souza Lopes & G.B. Monteith 1989. A commensal sarcophagid (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) in Nepenthes mirabilis (Nepenthaceae) pitchers in Australia.
|
|
Phyllogobius platycephalops, the Slender spongegoby, is a species of goby native to the western Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean where it occurs on reefs at depths of from . This species is a commensal on sponges of the genus Phyllospongia. This species grows to a length of SL. This species is the only known member of its genus.
|
|
Pleurosicya mossambica, also known as the toothy goby or the Mozambique ghost goby, is a small species of goby native to the tropical Indo-West Pacific region. It was first described by South African ichthyologist J.L.B. Smith in 1959. Like many other gobies, it forms commensal relationships with several other marine invertebrates, including soft corals and sponges.
|
|
The most widespread species is Halocladius variabilis, known from Canada, northern Europe, and the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The larvae can grow to in length. In Nova Scotia, life cycle is univoltine, possibly bivoltine. It is a commensal, potentially symbiotic with marine algae: the larvae feed on diatoms fouling its host, possibly delivering nutrients via faecal material.
|
|
Candida albicans is an opportunistic pathogenic yeast that is a common member of the human gut flora. It can also survive outside the human body. It is detected in the gastrointestinal tract and mouth in 40–60% of healthy adults. It is usually a commensal organism, but it can become pathogenic in immunocompromised individuals under a variety of conditions.
|
|
Stonogobiops dracula, the Dracula shrimpgoby, is a species of goby native to reef environments around the Seychelles and the Maldives. It can be found at depths of where it inhabits areas of rubble or sand near to the reefs where it is a commensal with the shrimp Alpheus randalli. This species can reach a length of TL.
|
|
The other subspecies (Ch. l. limnaei) attaches itself externally to the body of snails or to the inside of their shell (Lymnaea, Physa, Ancylus, Australorbis and many other generaBuse, A. (1974): The relationship of Chaetogaster limnaei (Oligochaeta: Naididae) with a variety of gastropod species. J. Anim. Ecology 43: 821-837.) and can freely move (so-called commensal ectosymbiosis).
|
|
Hafnia is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria in the family Hafniaceae. H. alvei is a commensal of the human gastrointestinal tract and not normally pathogenic, but may cause disease in immunocompromised patients. It is often resistant to multiple antibiotics, including the aminopenicillins. The name comes from Hafnia, the Latin name for Copenhagen.
|
|
B. thetaiotaomicron is one of the most common components of the human gut flora. In a long-term study of Bacteroides species in clinical samples, B. thetaiotaomicron was the second most common species isolated, behind Bacteroides fragilis. B. thetaiotaomicron is considered commensal or symbiotic. However, it is also an opportunistic pathogen and can infect tissues exposed to gut flora.
|
|
Opalina is a genus of parasitic heterokonts found in the intestines of frogs and toads. They lack mouths and contractile vacuoles, they are covered with nearly equal flagelliform cilia, and they have numerous nuclei, all similar. All the species are obligate endosymbionts, most likely commensal rather than parasitic, in cold-blooded vertebrates. Its body is leaflike in shape.
|
|
Oral swabs are taken if culture is required. Some recommend that swabs be taken from 3 different oral sites. Oral rinse involves rinsing the mouth with phosphate-buffered saline for 1 minute and then spitting the solution into a vessel that examined in a pathology laboratory. Oral rinse technique can distinguish between commensal candidal carriage and candidiasis.
|
|
Faecalibacterium is a genus of bacteria. Its sole known species, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii is gram-positive, mesophilic, rod-shaped, anaerobic and is one of the most abundant and important commensal bacteria of the human gut microbiota. It is non-spore forming and non-motile. These bacteria produce butyrate and other short-chain fatty acids through the fermentation of dietary fiber.
|
|
Antipathypolyeunoa is one of many genera in the family Polynoidae which have an obligate commensal relationship with a host marine invertebrate. As the name suggests, Antipathypolyeunoa is associated with antipatharian corals (black corals or thorn corals), being found in hollow tubes in the main stems of the coral host. A. nuttingi's host taxon is Antipathes tanacetum.
|
|
There is an inverse relationship between colonisation by N. lactamica and Neisseria meningitidis. Carriage of N. lactamica has been associated with decreased incidence of invasive meningococcal disease. However, resistance to penicillin and other beta- lactams may be transmitted from commensal neisseriae such as Neisseria lactamica to disease causing Neisseria meningitidis by the process of genetic transformation.
|
|
There are two turns in the preserved burrow section, and smaller secondary sandstone cylinders of various sizes (a few centimeters or inches in cross-section at most) that were probably made by smaller animals sharing the burrow (commensal). The burrow closely fits the probable proportions of the adult dinosaur, another indication that it was the digger.
|
|
M. orale is considered to be a non-pathogenic commensal, especially in immunocompetent individuals. However, abscesses containing M. orale have been noted in patients who are immunocompromised. A study was conducted on bacterial samples taken from a 33-year-old immunocompromised male. This individual presented with fever, increased weight loss, and shoulder pain among other pathologies.
|
|
Adaptation to use normal cellular machinery to enable transmission and productive infection has also aided the establishment of HIV-2 replication in humans. A survival strategy for any infectious agent is not to kill its host, but ultimately become a commensal organism. Having achieved a low pathogenicity, over time, variants that are more successful at transmission will be selected.
|
|
Despite their arboreal lifestyle, they are effective swimmers. Their call is a bird-like whistle described as an "ai- ai" sound. In addition to their mutualism with green algae, pale-throated sloths are also commensal with sloth moths, and with certain species of beetle. These insects live in the sloth's fur, and lay their eggs in its dung, on which their larvae feed.
|
|
Fusobacterium nucleatum is an oral bacterium, commensal to the human oral cavity, that plays a role in periodontal disease. This organism is commonly recovered from different monocultured microbial and mixed infections in humans and animals. It is a key component of periodontal plaque due to its abundance and its ability to coaggregate with other bacteria species in the oral cavity.
|
|
Allogalathea elegans is a commensal species living in association with crinoids in which it gets protection and an ideal support for its feeding. They are capable of living outside its host, but its life expectancy will be shorter because it will not be shielded from predators. They are generally found in shallow waters at depths between 0 and 146 m.
|
|
Access provided by the University of Pittsburgh. Other causes include overgrowth of the commensal flora of the vagina. When associated with the ectocervix, inflammation may be caused by the herpes simplex virus. Inflammation is often investigated through directly visualising the cervix using a speculum, which may appear whiteish due to exudate, and by taking a Pap smear and examining for causal bacteria.
|
|
After completing her PhD training, Scoffield pursued her postdoctoral training at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. She trained under the mentorship of Hui Wu in the Department of Pediatric Dentistry. Scoffield continued to study P. aeruginosa, but focused on its infection of the oral cavity. She explored how commensal bacteria in the mouth help to suppress P. aeruginosa infection.
|
|
They are wingless and eyeless, as are many other ectoparasites. Others are kleptoparasites of other invertebrates, such as the small hive beetle (Aethina tumida) that infests honey bee nests, while many species are parasitic inquilines or commensal in the nests of ants. A few groups of beetles are primary parasitoids of other insects, feeding off of, and eventually killing their hosts.
|
|
A number of crustaceans and fish live in association with this urchin. These include the commensal shrimps Periclimenes hirsutus and Stegopontonia commensalis and the crab Zebrida adamsii. Another crab, Dorippe frascone is a symbiont and carries the urchin on its back. Certain juvenile fish also live among the spines including young emperor red snappers (Lutjanus sebae), cardinal fish (Apogonidae) and the zebra lionfish.
|
|
The New Zealand bat fly (Mystacinobia zelandica) is a small, wingless insect which lives in a commensal relationship with the New Zealand lesser short- tailed bat. It is a true fly, in the order Diptera. Although many other species of bat fly exist throughout the world, the New Zealand bat fly is endemic to the islands of New Zealand.Gibbs, George. (2008).
|
|
Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis is a commensal in human alimentary tract and genital tract. Occasionally it is isolated from skin, but usually in relation to a chronic skin condition or some breach of the epithelial barrier. Non-invasive disease manifestations include predominantly tonsillitis and superficial skin infections. Additionally, it has long been recognized as a potential cause of cellulitis/erysipelas.
|
|
The strict definition of phoresis excludes cases in which the relationship is permanent (e.g. that of a barnacle surviving on a whale) or those in which the phoront gains any kind of advantage from the host organism (e.g. remoras attaching to sharks for transportation and food). In this way, phoresis is a commensal relationship and deviations result in mutualistic or parasitic relationships.
|
|
Contrastingly, the isolates from vaccinated patients tended to assume bacilliform also in culture. The general consensus remains, that at least some of the morphology variants seen under trichomoniasis versus health are to be interpreted as representations of "true commensal" versus more pathogenic strains (genotypes), although a possible relationship between morphotype and distinct environment-driven proteome profiles has not been excluded.
|
|
It has 3,864 genes of which 3,696 of those genes are protein coding. H. meridiana is a commensal marine bacteria that is found living on reef-building corals as part of their surface microbiome. It is not known to be pathogenic. Halomonas meridiana is a heterotrophic organism capable of anaerobic growth with the aid of glucose when nitrogen is not present.
|
|
Its genome was sequenced in August 2009. The genus Anaerococcus is one of six genera classified within the group GPAC (Gram-Positive Anaerobic Cocci). These six genera (Peptostreptococcus, Peptoniphilus, Parvimonas, Finegoldia, Anaerococcus and Murdochiella) are found in the human body as part of the commensal human microbiota. It can cause infection and is a normal part of the human microbiome.
|
|
Dientamoeba fragilis is a species of single-celled excavates found in the gastrointestinal tract of some humans, pigs and gorillas. It causes gastrointestinal upset in some people, but not in others. It is an important cause of travellers diarrhoea, chronic diarrhoea, fatigue and, in children, failure to thrive. Despite this, its role as a "commensal, pathobiont, or pathogen" is still debated.
|
|
Cyclocephala castanea is a species of small beetle in the family Scarabaeidae which is native to the Amazon basin in South America. This beetle and certain others in the same genus have a commensal relationship with the large water lily Victoria amazonica. Visiting the flower for food, the beetles are trapped inside and emerge laden with pollen the following evening.
|
|
S. pseudintermedius inhabits and sometimes infects the skin of domestic dogs and cats. This organism, too, can carry the genetic material that imparts multiple bacterial resistance. It is rarely implicated in infections in humans, as a zoonosis. S. epidermidis, a coagulase-negative species, is a commensal of the skin, but can cause severe infections in immunosuppressed patients and those with central venous catheters.
|
|
Morganella morganii is a species of Gram-negative bacteria.eMedicine. Morganella infections It has a commensal relationship within the intestinal tracts of humans, mammals, and reptiles as normal flora. Although M. morganii has a wide distribution, it is considered an uncommon cause of community- acquired infection and it is most often encountered in postoperative and other nosocomial infections such as urinary tract infections.
|
|
Two islands off the west coast of South Africa have very different seafloor ecosystems. On Malgas Island, the population is mostly seaweed and rock lobsters. Rock lobsters act as predators, preying on mussels that try to settle. The lobsters also prey on whelks, except for one species, Burnupena papyracea, the shell of which is usually encrusted with a commensal bryozoan.
|
|
Paper AAI3136721. link "Dogs are not paedomorphic wolves." Compared to the wolf, dog dentition is relatively less robust (Olsen 1985; Hemmer 1990), which is proposed to be due to the relaxation of natural selection when wolves became commensal scavengers, or to artificial selection (Olsen 1985; Clutton-Brock 1995). However, Kieser and Groeneveld (1992) compared the mandibulo-dental measurements of jackals (C.
|
|
The high level of male-male aggression, with a low female-female aggression level is common in polygamous populations. The social unit of commensal house mouse populations generally consists of one male and two or more females, usually related. These groups breed cooperatively, with the females communally nursing. This cooperative breeding and rearing by related females helps increase reproductive success.
|
|
The Fischbach lab discovered that the gut commensal Bacteroides fragilis produces the immune modulatory sphingolipid alpha-galactosylceramide,Wieland Brown LC, Penaranda C, Kashyap PC, Williams BB, Clardy J, Kronenberg M, Sonnenburg JL, Comstock LE, Bluestone JA, Fischbach MA. Production of α-galactosylceramide by a prominent member of the human gut microbiota. PLoS Biol. 2013 Jul;11(7):e1001610. . Epub 2013 Jul 16.
|
|
Corals and members of the family Chaetodontidae were thought to have a commensal relationship. Coral provides the butterflyfish with food and shelter while coral gets little to nothing in return. However, upon further investigation it seems that C. lineolatus and other corallivore members of Chaetodontidae pose a bigger threat to coral than previously understood. Corallivores disturb the growth of coral species.
|
|
There are many species of bacteria and other microorganisms that live on or inside the healthy human body. In fact, 90% of the cells in (or on) a human body are microbes, by number (much less by mass or volume). Some of these symbionts are necessary for our health. Those that neither help nor harm humans are called commensal organisms.
|
|
In contrast to most lactic acid bacteria, this bacterium mainly breaks down lipids, forming free fatty acids. Recent research has focused on possible benefits incurred from consuming P. freudenreichii, which are thought to cleanse the gastrointestinal tract. P. freudenreichii has also been suggested to possibly lower the incidence of colon cancer. This mutualistic relationship is unusual in propionibacteria, which are largely commensal.
|
|
Pearlfishes are unusual in that the adults of most species live inside various types of invertebrates. They typically live inside clams, starfish, or sea squirts, and are simply commensal, not harming their hosts. However, some species are known to be parasitic on sea cucumbers, eating their gonads and living in their anal pores. Pearlfish usually live alone, or in pairs.
|
|
The first troglobitic Glomeridesmus from Brazil, and a template for a modern taxonomic description of Glomeridesmida (Diplopoda) Glomeridesmidans occur in the New World Tropics, Southeast Asia, India, and Oceania. Two species are known cave-dwellers, and, like other troglomorphic animals are translucent from loss of pigment. The five known species of Termitodesmus (constituting the family Termitodesmidae) have a commensal relationship with termites.
|
|
Journal of Clinical Microbiology 27 (2): 231-235. It is a commensal bacterium in the normal gingival flora of canine and feline species, but can cause illness in humans. Transmission may occur through bites, licks, or even close proximity with animals.Fischer LJ, Weyant RS, White EH and Quinn FD. Intracellular Multiplication and Toxic Destruction of Cultured Macrophages by Capnocytophaga canimorsus.
|
|
There are evidence-based consensus guidelines for the optimal administration of FMT. Such documents outline the FMT procedure, including preparation of material, donor selection and screening, and FMT administration. The gut microbiota comprises all microorganisms that reside along the gastrointestinal tract, including commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic organisms. FMT is the transfer of fecal material containing bacteria and natural antibacterials from a healthy individual into a diseased recipient.
|
|
It is hypothesised that maintenance of commensal microorganism growth in the GI tract is dysregulated, either as a result or cause of immune dysregulation. A number of studies have suggested a causal role for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), which causes a similar disease, Johne's disease, in cattle. NOD2 is a gene involved in Crohn's genetic susceptibility. It is associated with macrophages' diminished ability to phagocytize MAP.
|
|
In shallow waters, there is a commensal foraging relationship between Hypanus americanus fish and Phalacrocorax auritus birds in coastal areas generally like the Gulf of Mexico. When foraging, the Hypanus americanus dig through the substrate in search of food; however, this also helps to expose certain other fish hidden in the substrate after which the Phalacrocorax auritus will follow behind the Hypanus americanus and eat.
|
|
Expression levels of aureolysin are at their highest during the post-exponential phase however, up- regulation of aureolysin during phagocytosis has also been observed. Transcription is repressed by staphylococcal accessory regulator sarA and by alternative sigma factor σB (a stress response modulator of Gram-positive bacteria). The aur gene has a high prevalence in the genome of both commensal- and pathogenic-type S. aureus strains.
|
|
Bacteria are present in large numbers in lotic waters. Free-living forms are associated with decomposing organic material, biofilm on the surfaces of rocks and vegetation, in between particles that compose the substrate, and suspended in the water column. Other forms are also associated with the guts of lotic organisms as parasites or in commensal relationships. Bacteria play a large role in energy recycling (see below).
|
|
Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, p. 84. The mucosal immune system provides three main functions: serving as the body's first line defense from antigens and infection, preventing systemic immune responses to commensal bacteria and food antigens (primarily food proteins in the Gut-associated lymphoid tissue, so-called oral tolerance), and regulating appropriate immune responses to pathogens encountered on a daily basis.Helbert, M. (2017). Immunology for medical students (Third ed.).
|
|
Idia gopheri, the tortoise commensal noctuid moth, is a litter moth in the family Erebidae. The species was first described by J. B. Smith in 1899. It is only known from Lake Worth and Port Sewell north to Escambia and Liberty counties in Florida, but it might also be present in southeastern Alabama and southern Georgia. Larvae live and feed in gopher tortoise burrows.
|
|
There is usually competition among hermit crabs for vacant shells, so the empty shell is likely soon to be reoccupied. It is likely that the hermit crab recognises the worm associated with it and does not attack it, but this aspect has not been studied in this species; however, in the case of some other commensal polychaete worms, such as Neanthes fucata, it has been demonstrated.
|
|
Glycymeris yessoensis can live for 45 years. It is a filter feeder, drawing water in through one siphon and expelling it through another. It often acts as a commensal host to the boring polychaete worm Polydora glycymerica. This worm burrows into the bivalve's shell creating a "U"-shaped burrow near the mollusc's siphon, intercepting some of the food particles from the feeding current created by the mollusc.
|
|
Humid environments, such as marshes, swamps, and rain forests, are avoided. This species is often found in highly urbanized areas and settlements in the countryside, the attraction being the rodents commensal with man. As a result, those working outside in these areas are most at risk of being bitten. D. russelii does not associate as closely with human habitation as Naja and Bungarus species (cobras and kraits).
|
|
Long-snout clingfish feed mainly on burrowing bivalves in corals, tube feet of their host, and eggs of a commensal shrimp. The fish's sexual dimorphism is caused by a difference between the male's and the female's diet, causing the adult female to have a longer snout. The adult female eats small bivalves and shrimp's eggs more often than the adult male, who eat tube feet more frequently.
|
|
The International Pathogenic Neisseria Conference (IPNC) occurs every two years and is a forum for the presentation of cutting-edge research on all aspects of the genus Neisseria. This includes immunology, vaccinology and physiology and metabolism of Neisseria meningitidis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and the commensal species. The 21st International Pathogenic Neisseria Conference (IPNC 2018) will be held in Asilomar, California, USA from the 23–28 September 2018.
|
|
Capnocytophaga is a commensal genus considered as an opportunistic pathogen. These bacteria are involved in different types of infections, the severity of which depends on the immune status of the patient. In the literature, cases were reported in immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients. In immunocompetent patients, these bacteria belong to the oral bacterial community responsible for periodontal infections affecting and destroying the supporting tissues of teeth (periodontal tissue).
|
|
Ureaplasma parvum is a species of Ureaplasma, a genus of bacteria belonging to the family Mycoplasmataceae. Ureaplasma parvum was formerly known as Ureaplasma urealyticum biovar 1. Ureaplasma parvum has been identified as being a commensal in the uterus as part of the microbiome in healthy women of reproductive age. In addition, this pathogen may latently infect the chorionic villi tissues of pregnant women, thereby impacting pregnancy outcome.
|
|
Protulophila is a genus of symbiotic or commensal colonial Hydrozoa, known from very small hydroids. These marine hydroids live in the shelly tubes of serpulid tube worms, which are annelids. The genus Protulophila was named by Rovereto in 1901, from fossil material. For many years scientists knew these animals only from fossils, and the genus was thought to have become extinct about four million years ago.
|
|
Staphylococcus pettenkoferi is a bacteria. Named in honour of Max von Pettenkofer, 1818–1901, German pioneer in the field of hygiene and public health, it was described in 2007 and is a member of the bacterial genus Staphylococcus, consisting of spherical, Gram-positive, nonmotile, non-spore- forming, facultative anaerobic bacteria. It is coagulase-negative and is probably a commensal organism on the skin of humans.
|
|
The bacteria then pass into the lumens of the renal tubules and colonise the brush border of the proximal convoluted tubule. This causes the continuous shedding of bacteria in the urine without the animal experiencing significant ill effects. This relationship between the animal and the bacteria is known as a commensal relationship, and the animal is known as a reservoir host. Leptospira are found mostly in mammals.
|
|
Yeasts of the genus Candida, another group of opportunistic pathogens, cause oral and vaginal infections in humans, known as candidiasis. Candida is commonly found as a commensal yeast in the mucous membranes of humans and other warm-blooded animals. However, sometimes these same strains can become pathogenic. The yeast cells sprout a hyphal outgrowth, which locally penetrates the mucosal membrane, causing irritation and shedding of the tissues.
|
|
1 μm in diameter. Mycoplasma salivarium is found in the mouths of 97% of the healthy population, and is generally considered to be a commensal organism and part of the normal oral flora. Mycoplasma salivarium has, however, been implicated in eye and ear disorders, oral infection, septic arthritis and periodontal disease. This species has been isolated from synovial fluid from patients with chronic arthritis and from primates.
|
|
Wayengera M, Kajumbula H, Byarugaba W: Identification of restriction endonuclease with potential ability to cleave the HSV-2 genome: inherent potential for biosynthetic versus live microbicides. Theor Biol Med Model. 2008, 5:18.Wayengera M: Diverting primary HIV entry and replication to vaginal commensal lactobacillus expressing R-M nucleic enzymatic peptides with potent activity at cleaving proviral DNA as a novel HIV live microbicide strategy.
|
|
2001 Outstanding Scientific Achievements by a Young Investigator Profile She is a Board- certified Pathologist and specializes in clinical laboratory testing in molecular diagnostics, microbiology and immunology. She routinely works with research groups to develop novel markers into diagnostic assays that can be run on platforms used in clinical laboratories. She also maintains an NIH- funded research laboratory, studying host-pathogen-commensal interactions in the gut.
|
|
Staphylococcus hominis is a coagulase-negative member of the bacterial genus Staphylococcus, consisting of Gram-positive, spherical cells in clusters. It occurs very commonly as a harmless commensal on human and animal skin and is known for producing thioalcohol compounds that contribute to body odour. Like many other coagulase-negative staphylococci, S. hominis may occasionally cause infection in patients whose immune systems are compromised, for example by chemotherapy or predisposing illness.
|
|
Mysids form an important part of the diet of such fish as shad and flounder. In general, they are free-living, but a few species, mostly in the subfamily Heteromysinae, are commensal and are associated with sea anemones and hermit crabs. Several taxa have also been described from different freshwater habitats and caves. Mysis relicta and its close relatives inhabit cold, deep lakes and have a diurnal cycle of vertical migrations.
|
|
This commensal relationship between early farmers and tamed cats lasted thousands of years. As agricultural practices spread, so did tame and domesticated cats. Wildcats of Egypt contributed to the maternal gene pool of the domestic cat at a later time. The earliest known evidence for the occurrence of the domestic cat in Greece dates to around 1200 BC. Greek, Phoenician, Carthaginian and Etruscan traders introduced domestic cats to southern Europe.
|
|
The feather mite Aralichus ambiguae (syn. A. canestrinii pro parte) was recovered from old museum specimens of Ara ambiguus collected in Costa Rica, Panama and Nicaragua. This is a tiny ectoparasite or possibly commensal, likely, based on related species, inhabiting the wing feathers on the ventral surfaces of the secondaries and inner primaries in the channels formed by adjacent barbs. It feeds on tiny fragments broken off from the feathers.
|
|
Free- living armophoreans live in anoxic or microaerobic habitats, in the sediment or water column where there is reduced or absent oxygen. Thus their distribution is quite limited, although they are found globally in both marine and freshwater habitats, as well as in terrestrial sediment. Clevelandellids live as commensal symbionts inside of the digestive tracts of terrestrial and aquatic animals. Armophoreans can survive by encystment when in unfavorable environmental conditions.
|
|
However, the mutants which form the genetic basis for a variety of human diseases are usually slightly different from the normal nucleic acids. Often, they are only different in a single base, e.g., insertions, deletions, and single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). In this case, imperfect probe-target binding can easily occur, resulting in false-positive outcomes such as mistaking a strain that is commensal for one that is pathogenic.
|
|
The monotypic genus Isela is closely related. Mysmenopsis furtiva from Jamaica lives as a kleptoparasite and commensal in webs of Ischnothele xera. It steals portions of its host's prey, but also consumes minute trapped insects that are not sought after by the host. In order not to be recognized, it moves only slowly when the host does not move; else it synchronizes its rapid movements with the movements of the host.
|
|
The strain 3153A produces at least seven different colony morphologies. In many strains the different phases convert spontaneously to the other(s) at a low frequency. The switching is reversible, and colony type can be inherited from one generation to another. Being able to switch through so many different (morphological) phenotypes makes C. albicans able to grow in different environments, both as a commensal and as a pathogen.
|
|
Staphylococcus warneri is a member of the bacterial genus Staphylococcus, consisting of Gram-positive bacteria with spherical cells appearing in clusters. It is catalase-positive, oxidase-negative, and coagulase-negative, and is a common commensal organism found as part of the skin flora on humans and animals. Like other coagulase-negative staphylococci, S. warneri rarely causes disease, but may occasionally cause infection in patients whose immune system is compromised.
|
|
More than 200 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs or "snips") are now known to be associated with susceptibility to IBD. One of the largest genetic studies of IBD was published in 2012 . The analysis explained more of the variance in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis than previously reported. The results suggested that commensal microbiota are altered in such a way that they act as pathogens in inflammatory bowel diseases.
|
|
The worm pearlfish is a parasite of holothurians, each host is normally home to a pair of these fishes. Species recorded as hosting the worm pearlfish include Holothuria leucospilota, H. scabra, H. lubrica and Thelenota ananas. The worm pearlfish is an uncommon species. While other members of the family Carpidae can be commensal – i.e. living in hosts without causing damage to the hosts’ tissue – the genus Encheliophis is obligately parasitic.
|
|
The yellow prawn-goby (Cryptocentrus cinctus) is a species of goby native to the Western Pacific, where it can be found at depths of from in coastal bays and lagoons. This species is commensal with alpheid shrimps. The species can reach a length of SL. These fish vary greatly in appearance, ranging from brilliant yellow to gray and even brown forms or combinations of each coloring.Tristan Lougher (2006).
|
|
Microbes trigger development of isolated lymphoid follicles in the small intestine of humans and mice, which are sites of mucosal immune response. Isolated lymphoid follicles (ILFs) collect antigens through M cells, develop germinal centers, and contain many B cells. Gram-negative commensal bacteria trigger the development of inducible lymphoid follicles by releasing peptidogylcans containing diaminopimelic acid during cell division. The peptidoglycans bind to the NOD1 receptor on intestinal epithelial cells.
|
|
To survive in its biotope and especially to avoid getting buried, this small coral has an obligate commensal relationship with a small sipunculid worm, Aspidosiphon muelleri, which is lodged under the base of the coral. The worm's movements as it seek food prevents the coral from being buried. This however makes the coral dependent on the worm staying nearby. This small coral often has a small parasitic mussel, Lithophaga lessepsiana.
|
|
Microbiota are "ecological communities of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms" found in and on all multicellular organisms studied to date from plants to animals. Microbiota includes bacteria, archaea, protists, fungi and viruses. Microbiota have been found to be crucial for immunologic, hormonal and metabolic homeostasis of their host. The term microbiome describes either the collective genomes of the microorganisms that reside in an environmental niche or the microorganisms themselves.
|
|
The first case of a spumavirus being isolated from a primate was in 1955 (Rustigan et al., 1955) from the kidneys. What is curious about the cytopathology of SFV is that while it results in rapid cell death for cells in vitro, it loses its highly cytopathic nature in vivo. With little evidence to suggest that SFV infection causes illness, some scientists believe that it has a commensal relationship to simians.
|
|
Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships. Ant societies have division of labour, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems. These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study.
|
|
However, ILCs lack the costimulatory receptors that are necessary for proper activation and initiation of the immune response. ILCs, on the contrary, may set the helper T lymphocytes in the state of anergy. In the case of ILC 3, the ability to express MHC II apparently serves to maintain tolerance to commensal bacteria in the intestine. They suppress the response of CD4 + T lymphocytes to harmless and beneficial intestinal bacteria.
|
|
J. Biol. Chem. 2008 Gordon's group published a series of elegant studies that describe the ability of components of the commensal microbiota to induce specific responses in the host intestinal epithelium. One of these responses, the induction of intestinal cell surface fucose residues, is elicited by a prominent human intestinal symbiont, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, which can harvest and use the host fucose as a carbon and energy source.Bry et al.
|
|
Plants also have receptors that can cause a response to chitin, namely chitin elicitor receptor kinase 1 and chitin elicitor-binding protein. The first chitin receptor was cloned in 2006. When the receptors are activated by chitin, genes related to plant defense are expressed, and jasmonate hormones are activated, which in turn activate systematic defenses. Commensal fungi have ways to interact with the host immune response that were not well understood.
|
|
The housefly (Musca domestica) is a fly of the suborder Cyclorrhapha. It is believed to have evolved in the Cenozoic Era, possibly in the Middle East, and has spread all over the world as a commensal of humans. It is the most common fly species found in houses. Adults are gray to black, with four dark, longitudinal lines on the thorax, slightly hairy bodies, and a single pair of membranous wings.
|
|
A domestication process then began to develop. The grey wolf most likely followed the commensal pathway to domestication. When, where, and how many times wolves may have been domesticated remains debated because only a small number of ancient specimens have been found, and both archaeology and genetics continue to provide conflicting evidence. The most widely accepted, earliest dog remains date back 15,000 YBP to the Bonn-Oberkassel dog.
|
|
The Y-bar shrimpgoby (Cryptocentrus fasciatus) is a species of goby widespread in the Indo-West-Pacific from East Africa to Melanesia and the Great Barrier Reef. This species can be found on reefs at depths of from where they live in burrows in sandy substrates. They are commensal with alpheid shrimps. This species can reach a length of TL. It can also be found in the aquarium trade.
|
|
The legal code enacted on the reign of King Surendra of Nepal shows that the Brahmins of Jaisi caste were punishable by five of NRs. 40 if the male Jaisi Brahmin committed sexual offence to a Rajput girl without establishing commensal relationship with the girl and were punishable by NRs. 60 on the same assault with establishing commensal relationship with the girl. The royal order dated Kartik Badi 6, 1920 V.S. (November 1863) by King of Nepal Surendra Bikram Shah allows Thakuris and Rajputs of Kingdom of Nepal with fiscal privileges of exemption on payment of Serma 1 levies in lieu of compulsory labor (Jhara, Khara, Beth, Begari, Hulak), Walak until 1919 V.S. as well as exemption on levies payable to Zamindars and local administrators (Amali) from the year 1920 V.S. The additions made in Muluki Ain (Legal Code) until 1922-23 Vikram Samvat (1865-66) consists two titles of provisions specially on Rajputs: 114\.
|
|
The various genera of the Panopeidae are morphologically similar, partly as a result of many instances of convergent evolution to similar habitats and food preferences. Crabs of the family Panopeidae are all free-living (not commensal or parasitic), and typically live in soft-bottomed parts of the ocean, lending them the common name "mud crabs" (a name also shared by other organisms). They burrow into the sediment and feed on a variety of marine invertebrates.
|
|
Several species of crabs have adopted the tubes of C. variopedatus as their home with Pinnixa chaetopterana, Polyonyx gibbesi and certain Pisidia species living almost exclusively within the tubes although they do not share a tube with each other. It is likely that the crabs gain protection from predators within the tubes and possibly food from the host worm.Gray, IE. 1961. Changes in abundance of the commensal crabs of Chaetopterus. Biol. Bull.
|
|
Allopontonia brockii is considered as a commensal species from different species of sea urchins like some of the genus Salmaciella, Salmacis, Asthenosoma or Pseudoboletiana. However, Allopontonia brockii can usually be observed on Asthenosoma varium (fire sea urchin). Allopontonia brockii takes advantage of its host when it moves on the substratum to collect its food during the way and also takes benefit of the potential food which can hang onto the sea urchin.
|
|
Streptococcus zooepidemicus is a Lancefield group C streptococcus that was first isolated in 1934 by P. R. Edwards, and named Animal pyogens A. It's a mucosal commensal and opportunistic pathogen that infects several animals and humans, but most commonly isolated from the uterus of mares. It's a subspecies of Streptococcus equi, a contagious upper respiratory tract infection of horses, and shares greater than 98% DNA homology, as well as many of the same virulence factors.
|
|
Data from human oral microbiology research shows that a commensal microflora can switch to an opportunistic pathogenic flora through complex changes in their environment. These changes are driven by the host rather than the bacteria. Archeological evidence of calcified dental plaque shows marked shifts in the oral microbiome towards a disease-associated microbiome with cariogenic bacteria becoming dominant during the Industrial Revolution. Modern oral microbiota are significantly less diverse than historic populations.
|
|
However, there is still a 13% mortality rate for untreated cases. Immunocompromised individuals, such as HIV-positive individuals, are more at risk of death from this disease. Lab personnel and pet store workers, who work closely with animals on a daily basis, also have an increased risk of infection. Although S. moniliformis is believed to be part of the commensal bacteria of the respiratory tract of rats, rats have occasionally shown signs of the disease.
|
|
A very special type of phenotypic switch is the white-GUT switch (Gastrointestinally-IndUced Transition). GUT cells are extremely adapted to survival in the digestive tract by metabolic adaptations to available nutrients in the digestive tract. The GUT cells live as commensal organisms and outcompete other phenotypes. The transition from white to GUT cells is driven by passage through the gut where environmental parameters trigger this transition by increasing the WOR1 expression.
|
|
Certain species are commensal in the skin flora, oral flora, gut flora, and vaginal flora of humans and livestock. They are also known for causing diseases in humans and livestock, usually when they get an opportunity to gain access to the body's interior through wounds. As with other opportunistic infections, people with immunodeficiency are at higher risk. In all of the preceding traits and in their branching filament formation, they bear similarities to Nocardia.
|
|
Obsle, Yegey, and Shusgis are Commensals, three of the thirty-three councillors that rule Orgoreyn. Obsle and Yegey are members of the "Open Trade" faction, who wish to normalize relations with Karhide. Obsle is the commensal of the Sekeve District, and was once the head of the Orgota Naval Trade Commission in Erhenrang, where he became acquainted with Estraven. Estraven describes him as the nearest thing to an honest person among the politicians of Orgoreyn.
|
|
Humans and other animals have E. coli as a commensal in their intestinal tract. It is one of the most studied organisms at laboratories and it has been a useful model for understanding genetic regulation in bacteria and other domains of life. The RNA degradosome of E. coli is a structure that plays diverse roles in RNA metabolism. It shares homologous components and functional analogy with similar assemblies found in all domains of life.
|
|
SERENDIP (Search for Extraterrestrial Radio Emissions from Nearby Developed Intelligent Populations) is a Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) program originated by the Berkeley SETI Research Center at the University of California, Berkeley. SERENDIP takes advantage of ongoing "mainstream" radio telescope observations as a "piggy-back" or "commensal" program. Rather than having its own observation program, SERENDIP analyzes deep space radio telescope data that it obtains while other astronomers are using the telescope.
|
|
This keyhole limpet is host to the ectoparasitic copepod Anthessius nortoni. The scaled polychaete worm Arctonoe vittata acts as a commensal to D. aspera, living between the foot and the shell. This worm is relatively large, growing to a length of up to , and may need to bend in order to fit. The worm is a predator, but does not attack its host, instead searching for prey to target as the limpet moves around.
|
|
A. truncatus feeds by grazing on sponges and other colourful benthic organisms at the base of the kelp forest, amongst which its bright colours are inconspicuous. A commensal shrimp can sometimes be found living among the tubercles. It has been observed releasing gametes into the water column by standing on the tips of its arms to raise its body off the sea floor. However, little is known of the biology of this starfish.
|
|
The infection is most commonly caused by abrasions on different soft tissues through which the bacteria, Actinobacillus lignieresii, enters. These soft tissues include subcutaneous tissues, the tongue, lymph nodes, lungs, and various tissues in the gastrointestinal tract. The injury results in different forms and locations of the disease depending on the location of the tissue. The commensal bacteria is also commonly found in the oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, and reproductive tract, sometimes resulting in disease.
|
|
Two species are known to be commensal with other polychaetes. Pilargis berkeleyae will live in the tubes of Chaetopteridae, and Ancistrosyllis commensalis will live in Capitellidae burrows. Pilargid worms are almost all exclusively predators, classified as carnivore omnivores. They are similar in appearance to Hesionidae, with a peristomium often with two pairs of tentacular cirri (with 1 pair or 0 in some species), reduced or absent notopodia, and a lack of pharyngeal jaws.
|
|
The star pearlfish is a commensal of starfishes such as Culcita novaeguineae and holothurians such as Bohadschia argus and Stichopus spp. It spends most of its time in the coelomic cavity of its host, emerging, usually at night, to feed. Some species of Carapus feed on small crustaceans, other carapid fish, and possibly, polychaete worms. This species is usually found singly in its host, or sometimes as a male and female pair.
|
|
Argyrodes, also called dewdrop spiders, is a genus of comb-footed spiders that was first described by Eugène Louis Simon in 1864. They occur worldwide, and are best known for their kleptoparasitism. They can spin their own webs, but tend to invade and reside in their hosts' webs. This relationship can be commensal or even mutual if the dewdrop spider feeds on small trapped insects that are not eaten by the host.
|
|
A source of soluble and fermentable fiber helps to increase the movement of digesta through the gut and decrease gastric emptying. This helps to increase satiety in cats, potentially decreasing feeding rates and voluntary energy consumption. Fermentable fiber promotes healthy mucosa and commensal bacterial growth and improved digestion/nutrient absorption. Prebiotic fibers like fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannonoligosaccharides (MOS) decrease the number of pathogenic bacteria and increase the number of beneficial bacteria in the gut.
|
|
Larvae of the barnacle Conopea galeata tend to preferentially settle on the remains of the egg mass of the snail and the juvenile barnacle then becomes attached to the skeleton of the coral as the egg mass decays. In fact this barnacle is an obligate commensal and the coenenchyme of the coral grows to enclose it, leaving an aperture for the barnacle to feed and reproduce.Conopea galeata South Georgia University. Retrieved 2011-12-05.
|
|
The brown box crab, Lopholithodes foraminatus, is a king crab that lives from Prince William Sound, Alaska to San Diego, California, at depths of . PDF It reaches a carapace length of and feeds on bivalves and detritus. It often lies buried in the sediment, and two foramens in the chelipeds allow water into the gill chamber for respiration. The gill chamber is also sometimes used by the commensal fish Careproctus to hold its eggs.
|
|
Other authors define a situation as mutualistic where both benefit, and commensal, where the unaffected host benefits the symbiont. A nutrient exchange may be bidirectional or unidirectional, may be context dependent and may occur in diverse ways. Microbiota that are expected to be present, and that under normal circumstances do not cause disease, are deemed normal flora or normal microbiota; normal flora can not only be harmless, but can be protective of the host.
|
|
Staphylococcus devriesei is a Gram-positive, coagulase-negative member of the bacterial genus Staphylococcus consisting of clustered cocci. It was originally isolated from cow's milk and teats, and on the basis of 16S ribosomal RNA sequence, is most genetically similar to S. haemolyticus, S. hominis, and S. lugdunensis. More recent studies have found the species on cow teat skin, but not commonly in milk, suggesting this commensal bacterium does not generally flow into milk.
|
|
ASF Lactobacilli and Bacteroides help moderate bowel inflammation in a balanced manner in pathogen infection studies.[Fox, J. G. Helicobacter bilis: bacterial provocateur orchestrates host immune responses to commensal flora in a model of inflammatory bowel disease. 2007. Gut. 56:898-900.] Beyond the study of bacterial pathogen, microflora community, intestinal immune system interactions and diseases, ASF has been used in experiments examining the transmission of retrovirus. In the paper by Kane, et al.
|
|
Ramakrishnan joined NCBS in 2005 as an assistant professor. Her lab has developed methods to conduct population monitoring and landscape/population genetics with tiger fecal samples. Her research has been published in scientific journals Science, Molecular Biology and Evolution, Biological Conservation, Scientific Reports and Conservation Genetics. Her previous projects include work on contrasting population structure between commensal and wild rodents, and understanding drivers of diversification in montane bird communities in the Western Ghats.
|
|
The exact date of the snipe-rail's extinction is unknown, but it is supposed that the decline began in the 13th century when the Kiori/Polynesian rat became widespread in New Zealand.Janet M. Wilmshurst, Atholl J. Anderson, Thomas F. G. Higham, and Trevor H. Worthy (2008). Dating the late prehistoric dispersal of Polynesians to New Zealand using the commensal Pacific rat In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, pp. 7676-7680.
|
|
Mycoplasma hyorhinis is a member of the Mycoplasmatales family. This bacterium is often found as a commensal in the respiratory tract of pigs, and rarely in the skin of humans. It is thought to facilitate and exacerbate the development of diseases such as porcine enzootic pneumonia and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS). Rarely, it may cause mycoplasma arthritis, mycoplasmal polyserositis or mycoplasma septicaemia in piglets without the involvement of other bacteria.
|
|
All members of this genus, including M. orale, inhabit a wide range of mammalian hosts. Though M. orale usually exists as a commensal in human oral cavities, it is an opputunistic pathogen and will cause illness in human hosts when conditions are right. Due to their small genome size and parasitic lifecycle, they lack many non-essential biosynthetic pathways in their metabolism. These include those for cell wall synthesis as well as purine synthesis.
|
|
Heteromysis (from Greek heteros meaning ‘different’, and mysis, a genus name Mysis) is a genus of marine mysid crustaceans (opossum shrimps) from the family Mysidae, associated with various shallow-water invertebrates. The name describes differentiation of its pereiopods (thoracic appendages) as possible adaptation to commensal life-style. Heteromysis is one of the largest mysid genera, containing more than 80 species. The genus is distributed globally, but predominantly in tropical and subtropical waters.
|
|
It was first described in 1974 and has been considered a rare inhabitant of humans. It is considered to usually be a commensal and is a rare bacteria of the normal microbiota of the human oropharynx; it is sometimes cultured from oropharynx of nonhuman primates. However, recent reports have proposed that in common with Mycoplasma hominis, M. faucium may be a pathogen in some brain abscesses. The type strain is strain ATCC 25293 = NCTC 10174.
|
|
In Australia, colonisation began in the 1940s, with the species establishing itself in the north and east of the continent. It began to regularly visit New Zealand in the 1960s. The expansion of the eastern cattle egret's range is due to its relationship with humans and their domesticated animals. Originally adapted to a commensal relationship with large grazing and browsing animals, it was easily able to switch to domesticated cattle and horses.
|
|
Vaccine delivery is a very common application of bacterial surface display. There are two types of live bacterial vaccines that can be made: # Normally pathogenic bacteria are weakened so they are no longer pathogenic. # Commensal or food-grade bacteria which are not pathogenic. Using bacterial surface display of antigens is a valuable alternative to conventional vaccine design for various reasons, one of them being that the proteins expressed on the bacterial cell surface can act favourably as an adjuvant.
|
|
Human skin provides a habitat for various microorganisms that stably maintain communities through commensal relationships. And skin aging is associated with changes in cutaneous physiology including interactions with a skin microbial community. This strain was first isolated from young woman. Additionally, the younger skin appeared to have high proportion of E. keratini , while the older skin had no E. keratini but rather other types of bacteria that this species has been found to be related to skin aging.
|
|
Corynebacterium () is a genus of bacteria that are Gram-positive and aerobic. They are bacilli (rod-shaped), and in some phases of life they are, more particularly, club-shaped, which inspired the genus name (coryneform means "club-shaped"). They are widely distributed in nature in the microbiota of animals (including the human microbiota) and are mostly innocuous, most commonly existing in commensal relationships with their hosts. Some are useful in industrial settings such as C. glutamicum.
|
|
P. aeruginosa. P. aeruginosa have self-immunity to their own effector toxins: Tsi proteins bind and stabilise Tse toxins, preventing cell senescence and peptidoglycan cell wall lysis. A wide range of Gram-negative bacteria have been shown to have antibacterial T6SSs, including opportunistic pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, obligate commensal species that inhabit the human gut (Bacteroides spp.), and plant-associated bacteria such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens. These systems exert antibacterial activity via the function of their secreted substrates.
|
|
Other important personal factors contributing to an individual's metabolic profile, such as patient nutritional status, commensal bacteria, age, and pre-existing medical conditions, are also reflected in metabolite assessment., Overall, pharmacometabolomic analyses combined with such approaches as pharmacogenetics, can function to identify the metabolic processes and particular genetic alterations that may compromise the anticipated efficacy of a drug in a particular patient. The results of such analyses can then allow modification of treatment regimens for an optimal outcome.
|
|
Jessica A. Scoffield is an American microbiologist and an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at the University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine. Scoffield studies the mechanisms by which oral commensal bacteria interfere with pathogenic bacterial growth in order to inform the development of active therapeutic tools to prevent drug resistant pathogen infection. In 2019, Scoffield became the Inaugural Recipient of the American Association for Dental Research Procter and Gamble Underrepresented Faculty Research Fellowship.
|
|
Streptococcus dysgalactiae is a gram positive, beta-haemolytic, coccal bacterium belonging to the family Streptococcaceae. It is capable of infecting both humans and animals, but is most frequently encountered as a commensal of the alimentary tract, genital tract, or less commonly, as a part of the skin flora. The clinical manifestations in human disease range from superficial skin-infections and tonsillitis, to severe necrotising fasciitis and bacteraemia. The incidence of invasive disease has been reported to be rising.
|
|
Analysis of CRISPR sequences revealed coevolution of host and viral genomes. Cas9 proteins are highly enriched in pathogenic and commensal bacteria. CRISPR/Cas-mediated gene regulation may contribute to the regulation of endogenous bacterial genes, particularly during interaction with eukaryotic hosts. For example, Francisella novicida uses a unique, small, CRISPR/Cas- associated RNA (scaRNA) to repress an endogenous transcript encoding a bacterial lipoprotein that is critical for F. novicida to dampen host response and promote virulence.
|
|
Scleroplax granulata is a species of crab in the monotypic genus Scleroplax. It was first described by Mary J. Rathbun in a paper dated 1893 but only published in 1894. Scleroplax lives as a commensal of various burrowing animals including the mud shrimp Neotrypaea californiensis, N. gigas, Upogebia pugettensis and U. macginiteorum, and the echiuran worm Urechis caupo (known as the "fat innkeeper"), and occurs from Vancouver Island, British Columbia to Punta Abreojos, Mulegé, Baja California Sur, Mexico.
|
|
Neanthes fucata lives inside an empty gastropod mollusc shell inhabited by a hermit crab. It is able to steal scraps of food from the hermit crab by protruding its pharynx between the crab's third maxillipeds. It has been shown that the crab recognises its commensal worm and does not attack it. A single adult worm inhabits a single host mollusc shell occupied by a hermit crab, but occasionally a single adult and several juveniles have been found living together.
|
|
Polydora glycymerica is an obligate commensal of a bivalve mollusc, boring into its shell. It is nearly always associated with Glycymeris yessoensis, but has also been found living in association with the ark clam Anadara broughtonii. Sometimes several worms occupy one host, with up to six per valve, and a maximum of eight per mollusc. The burrows made by the worms are "U"-shaped and are located near the posterior end of the mollusc shell, close to the siphons.
|
|
C. jejuni is commonly associated with poultry, and it naturally colonises the digestive tract of many bird species. All types of poultry and wild birds can become colonized with Campylobacter. One study found that 30% of European starlings in farm settings in Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, were carriers of C. jejuni. It is also common in cattle, and although it is normally a harmless commensal of the gastrointestinal tract in these animals, it can cause campylobacteriosis in calves.
|
|
The condition is usually caused by Gram-positive enteric commensal bacteria of the gut (gut flora). Clostridium difficile is a species of Gram-positive bacteria that commonly causes severe diarrhea and other intestinal diseases when competing bacteria are wiped out by antibiotics, causing pseudomembranous colitis, whereas Clostridium septicum is responsible for most cases of neutropenic enterocolitis. Typhlitis most commonly occurs in immunocompromised patients, such as those undergoing chemotherapy, patients with AIDS, kidney transplant patients, or the elderly.
|
|
Commensalism is a type of relationship among organisms in which one organism benefits while the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed. The organism that benefited is called the commensal while the other organism that is neither benefited nor harmed is called the host. For example, an epiphytic orchid attached to the tree for support benefits the orchid but neither harms nor benefits the tree. This type of commensalism is called inquilinism, the orchid permanently lives on the tree.
|
|
Industrial farming of chickens Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man. Sometimes, these relationships are mutualistic, like the cooperative honey-gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana. Other times, they may be commensal, as when species such as the house sparrow have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests, and some pose an aviation hazard.
|
|
The species name "agalactiae" meaning "no milk", alludes to this. Its significance as a human pathogen was first described in 1938, when Fry reported three fatal cases of puerperal infections caused by GBS. In the early 1960s, GBS was recognized as a main cause of infections in newborns. In general, GBS is a harmless commensal bacterium being part of the human microbiota colonizing the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts of up to 30% of healthy human adults (asymptomatic carriers).
|
|
It is a protandrous hermaphrodite, starting life as a male and becoming a female later. The gametes are liberated into the sea and after fertilisation, the developing larvae drift with the plankton for a long time before settling on the seabed and undergoing metamorphosis into juvenile polyps. The tube is used as a refuge by many commensal organisms, especially polychaete worms and shrimps. The horseshoe worm, Phoronis australis, often attaches itself to the outside of the tube.
|
|
Intestinal commensal bacteria play an important role in affecting gene expression of the GI tract, immune responses, nutrient absorption, and pathogen resistance.[Guarner, F., Malagelada, J. R. Review: gut flora in health and disease. 2003. The Lancet. 361(9356):512-219.] The standardized microbial cocktail enabled the controlled study of microbe and host interactions, role of microbes, pathogen effects, and intestinal immunity and disease association, such as cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes, and other inflammatory or autoimmune diseases.
|
|
FICZ has been identified in the skin of persons with the disease vitiligo Vitiligo. and in extracts of skin originating from patients with the Malassezia-associated diseases Seborrhoeic dermatitis (SD) or Pityriasis versicolor (PV). Malassezia yeasts are commensal microorganisms found on the skin on many animals including humans. When the yeast stain Malassezia furfur is cultured on agar containing Trp as the only nitrogen source it produces a variety of indole derivatives some of which activate AhR e.g. FICZ.
|
|
Atopobium is a genus of Actinobacteria, in the family Coriobacteriaceae. Atopobium species are anaerobic bacteria, Gram-positive rod-shaped or elliptical found as single elements or in pairs or short chains. The atopobium vaginae was discovered in 1999 by Rodriguez as a common commensal of the woman's vagina. This is a facultative anaerobic bacteria, Gram-positive rod- shaped or elliptical coccobacilli, which form small colonies on blood agar at 37 °C is also positive for acid phosphatase.
|
|
Zinc, and to a lesser extent nickel, lead, cadmium and silver accumulate in the body wall and the pyloric caeca (parts of the gut which project into the arms). In the Indian River Lagoon, a small brown polychaete worm sometimes lives on the surface of the sea star as a commensal. There may be several on one sea star and they probably benefit from the stirring up of the sediment caused by the sea star's activities.
|
|
It was not until 11,000 YBP that people living in the Near East entered into relationships with wild populations of aurochs, boar, sheep, and goats. A domestication process then began to develop. The grey wolf most likely followed the commensal pathway to domestication. When, where, and how many times wolves may have been domesticated remains debated because only a small number of ancient specimens have been found, and both archaeology and genetics continue to provide conflicting evidence.
|
|
These enzymes were named for their greater activity against cefotaxime than other oxyimino-beta-lactam substrates (e.g., ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, or cefepime). Rather than arising by mutation, they represent examples of plasmid acquisition of beta-lactamase genes normally found on the chromosome of Kluyvera species, a group of rarely pathogenic commensal organisms. These enzymes are not very closely related to TEM or SHV beta-lactamases in that they show only approximately 40% identity with these two commonly isolated beta-lactamases.
|
|
Bacteria are present in all regions of lentic waters. Free-living forms are associated with decomposing organic material, biofilm on the surfaces of rocks and plants, suspended in the water column, and in the sediments of the benthic and profundal zones. Other forms are also associated with the guts of lentic animals as parasites or in commensal relationships. Bacteria play an important role in system metabolism through nutrient recycling, which is discussed in the Trophic Relationships section.
|
|
Staphylococcus xylosus is a species of bacteria belonging to the genus Staphylococcus. It is a Gram-positive bacterium that forms clusters of cells. Like most staphylococcal species, it is coagulase-negative and exists as a commensal on the skin of humans and animals and in the environment.Karl H. Schleifer and Wesley E. Kloos: Isolation and Characterization of Staphylococci from Human Skin I. Amended Descriptions of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus and Descriptions of Three New Species: Staphylococcus cohnii, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, and Staphylococcus xylosus.
|
|
Bacteria, viruses and one genus of yeasts are a normal part of the uterus before and during pregnancy. The uterus has been found to possess its own characteristic microbiome that differs significantly from the vaginal microbiome. Despite its close spatial connection with the vagina, the microbiome of the uterus more closely resembles the commensal bacteria found in the oral cavity. In addition, the immune system is able to differentiate between those bacteria normally found in the uterus and those that are pathogenic.
|
|
Colochirus quadrangularis is usually found on the seabed where it clings to seagrass, tube worm cases or other projections with its tube feet. It is a suspension feeder, rearing up its anterior end up and spreading its feathery tentacles to catch phytoplankton and other organic particles. The tentacles are then retracted one by one and the mouthparts scrape off the food particles. It often has transparent, and almost invisible, commensal shrimps (Periclimenes sp.) living among its tentacles and on its body wall.
|
|
Tumidotheres maculatus is an endosymbiont of molluscs; it is unclear whether the host is harmed by the crabs presence, that is whether the relationship is commensal or parasitic. It is associated with a wide range of mollusc hosts, most of which are bivalves. They include Argopecten irradians, Atrina rigida, Modiolus americanus, Mytilus edulis and Flexopecten felipponei. It has also been found in a tunicate of the genus Molgula, in the tubes of the tubeworm Chaetopterus variopedatus and on the asteroid (starfish) Asterias rubens.
|
|
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) evolved from methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), otherwise known as common S. aureus. Many people are natural carriers of S. aureus, without being affected in any way. MSSA was treatable with the antibiotic methicillin until it acquired the gene for antibiotic resistance. Through genetic mapping of various strains of MRSA, scientists have found that MSSA acquired the mecA gene in the 1960s, which accounts for its pathogenicity, before this it had a predominantly commensal relationship with humans.
|
|
La rôtie is an alternative ceremony outside the official ceremonies that the youth can be involved in, and create humor by making something that "tastes good but is in bad taste". The commensal quality of the ritual is a symbol for the bridge between youth and adulthood that the couple becomes in marriage, as well as the community's involvement in the new couple's married life.Reed-Danahay, Deborah. “Champagne and Chocolate: ‘Taste’ and Inversion in a French Wedding Ritual.” American Anthropologist, vol.
|
|
3D Medical Animation still shot of Osteomyelitis bone This 2005 scanning electron micrograph (SEM) depicts numerous clumps of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) bacteria. While S. aureus usually acts as a commensal bacterium, asymptomatically colonizing about 30% of the human population, it can sometimes cause disease. In particular, S. aureus is one of the most common causes of bacteremia and infective endocarditis. Additionally, it can cause various skin and soft- tissue infections, particularly when skin or mucosal barriers have been breached.
|
|
His laboratory currently uses the C. elegans pathogenesis model to study intestinal epithelial immunity and how hosts distinguish pathogens from beneficial commensal microorganisms. Related work in his laboratory concerns the identification and characterization of low molecular weight compounds that specifically activate C. elegans immune signaling pathways. His laboratory assembled an automated C. elegans sample preparation pipeline to enable high- throughput chemical screens using whole animals based on automated image analysis. As of 2013, Ausubel had published 215 refereed scientific articles.
|
|
The larvae glue themselves to the chosen spot, a thin layer of flesh is wrapped around them and a shell is secreted. Many species of barnacles can settle on any substrate, however some species of barnacles have an obligatory commensal relationship with specific animals, which makes finding a suitable location harder. Around 29 species of "turtle barnacles" have been recorded. However it is not solely on sea turtles that barnacles can be found; other organisms also serve as a barnacle's settlements.
|
|
Since 2007 Cruickshank has worked in the Department of Immunology at the University of Manchester. She uses in vitro and in vivo approaches to characterise crosstalk between immune cells, commensal bacteria, pathogens and epithelial cells. These experiments make use of infectious models, including Toxoplasma gondii and Trichuris muris, to understand immunity regulation in the skin and gut. By identifying how the skin and gut recognise and respond to the microbiome, they are starting to understand how it affects cell function.
|
|
Many meetings were held at Le Commensal restaurant in Montréal, a strong supporter. Attempts were made to involve the various environmental groups, but most shied away from officially supporting the PVQ in order to maintain political neutrality and protect financial interests. In the party structure of 1989, sovereignty and economical neutrality were promoted rather than left-wing policies, under the slogan of "not left or right but forward". This caused some strife within the party, as many members were more left-leaning.
|
|
In the north Atlantic Ocean, oyster crabs may live in an endosymbiotic commensal relationship within a host oyster. Since oyster crabs are considered a food delicacy they may not be removed from young farmed oysters, as they can themselves be harvested for sale. Dermo disease is caused by a protozoan parasite that infects the oyster's blood cells: Perkinsus marinus. It is spread when infective stages are released into the water column from an infected oyster and siphoned into a new host.
|
|
Lava lizards often scurry over marine iguanas when hunting flies; the iguanas generally ignore these visits Marine iguanas have mutualistic and commensal relationships with several other animals. Lava lizards may scurry over marine iguanas when hunting flies, and Darwin's finches, mockingbirds and Sally lightfoot crabs sometimes feed on mites and ticks that they pick off their skin. Marine iguanas typically ignore these visits. When underwater, they are often cleaned by fish, like Pacific sergeant majors that pick off moulting skin.
|
|
Entamoeba gingivalis from aggressive periodontal disease patient biofilm using phase contrast microscope 1000x. It is recognizable through its dense core in the middle, formed by a central point encircled by a circular halo and surrounded by bigger phagosomes inside a greyish cytoplasm. Entamoeba gingivalis is an opportunistic Amoebozoa (reported by some as an effect of disease; not a cause [hence status as a commensal])Lyons T. Introduction to protozoa and fungi in periodontal disease. Trevor Lyons publications, Ontario, Canada 1989.
|
|
In its natural habitat C. elegans is constantly confronted with a variety of bacteria that could have both negative and positive effects on its fitness. To date, most research on C. elegans-microbe interactions focused on interactions with pathogens. Only recently, some studies addressed the role of commensal and mutualistic bacteria on C. elegans fitness. In these studies, C. elegans was exposed to various soil bacteria, either isolated in a different context or from C. elegans lab strains transferred to soil.
|
|
It is fairly easy to identify because, unlike the great majority of staphylococci, it decarboxylates ornithine and is positive for pyrrolidonyl arylamidase. In the past, it was frequently misidentified as S. hominis, S. aureus, or other species. It occurs as a commensal on human skin, but has been recorded as a cause of serious human infections, such as osteomyelitis, arthritis, septicaemia, wound infections, and aggressive endocarditis. S. lugdunensis is generally very susceptible to antistaphylococcal antibiotics, but increasing penicillin resistance has been reported.
|
|
This experiment showed that through fungal mycelia linkage of the roots of two plants, plants are able to communicate with one another and transfer nutrients as well as other resources through below ground root networks. Further studies go on to argue that this underground “tree talk” is crucial in the adaptation of forest ecosystems. Plant genotypes have shown that mycorrhizal fungal traits are heritable and play a role in plant behavior. These relationships with fungal networks can be mutualistic, commensal, or even parasitic.
|
|
Methanogenic archaea form a symbiosis with termites. The well-characterized interactions between archaea and other organisms are either mutual or commensal. There are no clear examples of known archaeal pathogens or parasites, but some species of methanogens have been suggested to be involved in infections in the mouth, and Nanoarchaeum equitans may be a parasite of another species of archaea, since it only survives and reproduces within the cells of the Crenarchaeon Ignicoccus hospitalis, and appears to offer no benefit to its host.
|
|
However, feeding a few individual ants has no measurable benefit to the ant colony as a whole. Caterpillars are actually appropriating individual ants for their own protection, and therefore stopping such ants from performing tasks that would benefit the colony. It could therefore be argued that caterpillar-ant symbioses do not constitute a mutualism as classically defined. Riodinid and lycaenid singing caterpillars are best categorized as ranging from commensal (one partner benefits while the other is not affected) to parasitic.
|
|
C. polypus lives as a commensal with several species of hermit crab including Dardanus gemmatus. The anemone shows no inclination to attach itself to a gastropod shell with or without a hermit crab. However the crab shows great interest in the anemone and taps and massages the base of the column with its legs until the anemone relaxes and the pedal disc becomes detached. The crab then picks up the anemone and holds it against the shell in which it is living.
|
|
The massive and rapid expansion of the cattle egret's range is due to its relationship with humans and their domesticated animals. Originally adapted to a commensal relationship with large grazing and browsing animals, it was easily able to switch to domesticated cattle and horses. As the keeping of livestock spread throughout the world, the cattle egret was able to occupy otherwise empty niches. Many populations of cattle egrets are highly migratory and dispersive, and this has helped the species' range expansion.
|
|
The social behavior of the house mouse is not rigidly fixed into species-specific patterns but is instead adaptable to the environmental conditions, such as the availability of food and space. This adaptability allows house mice to inhabit diverse areas ranging from sandy dunes to apartment buildings. House mice have two forms of social behaviour, the expression of which depends on the environmental context. House mice in buildings and other urbanized areas with close proximity to humans are known as commensal.
|
|
The house sparrow is closely associated with human habitation and cultivation. It is not an obligate commensal of humans as some have suggested: birds of the migratory Central Asian subspecies usually breed away from humans in open country, and birds elsewhere are occasionally found away from humans. The only terrestrial habitats that the house sparrow does not inhabit are dense forest and tundra. Well adapted to living around humans, it frequently lives and even breeds indoors, especially in factories, warehouses, and zoos.
|
|
They are found alone or in pairs. Fan-tailed warblers are known to engage in commensal feeding, wherein prey that has been roused or disturbed by the foraging or hunting of another animal is opportunistically captured. They have been observed following and foraging for prey near army ants, other passerines, and nine-banded armadillos. The fan-tailed warbler is sometimes placed in the monotypic genus Euthlypis due to its unique morphology, but its nest, eggs, voice, and juvenile plumage are consistent with Basileuterus.
|
|
Among these, Limnocaridina iridinae lives inside the mantle cavity of the unionid mussel Pleiodon spekei, making it one of only two known commensal species of freshwater shrimp (the other is the sponge-living Caridina spongicola from Lake Towuti, Indonesia). Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika far surpasses all others in terms of crustacean and freshwater snail richness (both in total number of species and number of endemics).Segers, H.; and Martens, K; editors (2005). The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems. p. 46.
|
|
Although this ensures the definite ASF propagation in mice intestine, it is labor-intensive and not a good representation of physiological conditions. ASF mice can also be raised in the same conditions as normal mice, because they have addressed the immunological, pathological, and physiological weaknesses of the germfree mice. ASF mice can maintain the eight bacteria species under normal conditions. However, variations in strains of the bacteria and introduction of minor amounts of other commensal or pathogen could occur over time.
|
|
Individuals in a group may make aerial jumps one after the other. These leaps occur in three forms – forward leaps where the fish lands head first, similar jumps with a tail first re-entry, or somersaults. The reason for breaching is not known; possible explanations include mating rituals, birthing, communication, or the removal of parasites and commensal remoras (suckerfish). M. alfredi at a coral reef cleaning station with fish picking off parasites Manta rays are filter feeders as well as macropredators.
|
|
For example, snapping shrimp produce different sounds that larvae may not recognize under acidified conditions due to differences in shell calcification. Hearing is not the only sense that may be altered under future ocean chemistry conditions. Evidence also suggests that larval ability to process olfactory cues was also affected when tested under future pH conditions. Red color cues that coral larvae use to find crustose coralline algae, with which they have a commensal relationship, may also be in danger due to algal bleaching.
|
|
Their habitat is the lower intertidal zones on out to waters as deep as 50-60 feet (13–15 m). They prefer sand, mud, and gravel substrates, normally burying themselves 12-16 inches (30-41 cm), so they are much easier to dig than geoducks. Their preferred substrates are also preferred by butter and littleneck clams, so horse clams are often taken incidentally in commercial harvesting. Horse clams often have a relationship with small commensal pea crabs of the species Pinnixa faba.
|
|
In the pelagic marine food web, phytoplankton are subjected to grazing by macro- and micro-zooplankton as well as competition for nutrients with other phytoplankton species. Marine bacteria try to obtain a share of organic carbon by maintaining symbiotic, parasitic, commensal, or predatory interactions with phytoplankton. Other bacteria will degrade dead phytoplankton or consume organic carbon released by viral lysis. The production of toxins is one strategy that phytoplankton use to deal with this broad range of predators, competitors, and parasites.
|
|
Mammoth bone dwelling, Mezhirich site, Ukraine. Animal domestication is a coevolutionary process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel niche that included another species with evolving behaviors. The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely traveled a commensal pathway into domestication. The dog was the first domesticant, and was domesticated and widely established across Eurasia before the end of the Pleistocene, well before cultivation or the domestication of other animals.
|
|
The scale worm Arctonoe fragilis is often found living on the surface or in an ambulacral groove of the mottled star as a commensal. The parasitic ciliate Orchitophrya stellarum has several hosts, one of which is the mottled star. It lives among the spines on the body and arms until the starfish is ready to breed when it moves inside its host, probably entering through a gonopore. It makes its way to the gonads of the male starfish and feeds on the sperm, effectively castrating its host.
|
|
The microbiome refers the total collection of microbes present in a microenvironment and their respective genomes. For example, an estimated 100 trillion microbial cells colonize the human body at any given time. The human microbiome is of particular interest, as these commensal bacteria are important for human health and immunity. Most of the Earth's bacterial genomes have not yet been sequenced; undertaking a microbiome sequencing project would require extensive de novo genome assembly, a prospect which is daunting with short read DNA sequencing technologies.
|
|
Antibodies against common components (namely flagellin) of the commensal gut flora are a common occurrence in IBS affected individuals. Chronic low-grade inflammation commonly occurs in IBS affected individuals with abnormalities found including increased enterochromaffin cells, intraepithelial lymphocytes, and mast cells resulting in chronic immune-mediated inflammation of the gut mucosa. IBS has been reported in greater quantities in multigenerational families with IBS than in the regular population. It is believed that psychological stress can induce increased inflammation and thereby cause IBS to develop in predisposed individuals.
|
|
Mucosal immunology is the study of immune system responses that occur at mucosal membranes of the intestines, the urogenital tract and the respiratory system, i.e., surfaces that are in contact with the external environment. In healthy states, the mucosal immune system provides protection against pathogens but maintains a tolerance towards non-harmful commensal microbes and benign environmental substances. For example, in the oral and gut mucosa, the secretion of IgA provides an immune response to potential antigens in food without a large and unnecessary systemic immune response.
|
|
Symbion is the name of a genus of commensal aquatic animals, less than 0.5 mm wide, found living attached to the mouthparts of cold-water lobsters. They have sac-like bodies, and three distinctly different forms in different parts of their two-stage life-cycle. They appear so different from other animals that they were assigned their own, new phylum Cycliophora shortly after they were discovered in 1995. This was the first new phylum of multicelled organism to be discovered since the Loricifera in 1983.
|
|
It also has been recorded as the fourth- ranking avian pest in the fruit industry by a 2004 survey of the Hawaiian Farm Bureau and the sixth in number of complaints of avian pests overall. Common mynas can cause considerable damage to ripening fruit, particularly grapes, but also figs, apples, pears, strawberries, blueberries, guava, mangoes and breadfruit. Cereal crops such as maize, wheat and rice are susceptible where they occur near urban areas. Roosting and nesting commensal with humans create aesthetic and health concerns.
|
|
This worm has been found to have a commensal relationship with nine different species of hermit crab. The worm is likely to gain advantage from the crab's mobility and the protection from predators that the crab's presence affords, as well as the avoidance of being overwhelmed by silt. Periodically a hermit crab will leave its shell in order to move into a larger one. During this period of vacancy, the worm is able to use nutrient granules stored in the wall of the gut.
|
|
The xenophyophores themselves also play commensal host to a number of organisms--such as isopods (e.g., genus Hebefustis), sipunculan and polychaete worms, nematodes, and harpacticoid copepods--some of which may take up semi-permanent residence within a xenophyophore's test. Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea) also appear to have a relationship with xenophyophores, as they are consistently found directly underneath or on top of the protozoans. They can also function as nurseries for fish; snailfish have been found to lay eggs in the shelter of the xenophyophore test.
|
|
Endophytic fungi live inside plants, and those that form mutualistic or commensal associations with their host, do not damage their hosts. The exact nature of the relationship between endophytic fungus and host depends on the species involved, and in some cases fungal colonization of plants can bestow a higher resistance against insects, roundworms (nematodes), and bacteria; in the case of grass endophytes the fungal symbiont produces poisonous alkaloids, which can affect the health of plant-eating (herbivorous) mammals and deter or kill insect herbivores.
|
|
Candida parapsilosis is a fungal species of yeast that has become a significant cause of sepsis and of wound and tissue infections in immunocompromised people. Unlike Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis, C. parapsilosis is not an obligate human pathogen, having been isolated from nonhuman sources such as domestic animals, insects and soil. C. parapsilosis is also a normal human commensal and it is one of the fungi most frequently isolated from human hands. There are several risk factors that can contribute to C. parapsilosis colonization.
|
|
The word "commensalism" is derived from the word "commensal", meaning "eating at the same table" in human social interaction, which in turn comes through French from the Medieval Latin commensalis, meaning "sharing a table", from the prefix com-, meaning "together", and mensa, meaning "table" or "meal". Commensality, at the Oxford and the Cambridge Universities, refers to professors eating at the same table as students (as they live in the same "college"). Pierre-Joseph van Beneden introduced the term "commensalism" in 1876.van Beneden, Pierre-Joseph (1876).
|
|
As a result, the intestinal epithelial cells express chemokine ligand 20 (CCL20) and Beta defensin 3. CCL20 and Beta-defensin 3 activate cells which mediate the development of isolated lymphoid tissues, including lymphoid tissue inducer cells and lymphoid tissue organizer cells. Additionally, there are other mechanisms by which commensals promote maturation of isolated lymphoid follicles. For example, commensal bacteria products bind to TLR2 and TLR4, which results in NF-κB mediated transcription of TNF, which is required for the maturation of mature isolated lymphoid follicles.
|
|
Stomatococcus mucilaginous (now known as Rothia mucilaginosa) is a Gram- positive, coagulase-negative, encapsulated, non-spore-forming and non-motile coccus, present in clusters, tetrads or pairs that is a part of the normal oropharyngeal flora. Belonging to the family Micrococcaceae, it was first isolated from the mucous membrane of the cheek and gingiva. It is an oral commensal, that has been linked to causing severe bacteremia in immunocompromised patients.Sadikot, Ruxana T.; Yuan, Zhihong; Panchal, Dipti; Syed, Mansoor Ali; Mehta, Hiren; Joo, Myungsoo; Hadid, Walid (October 2013).
|
|
Before the advent of the whiteman, probably in the 13th or 14th century, Umunya was decimated by invaders from Igbo inland. The first of the attacks was seen as a conspiracy from within and it was responsible for the whittling down of the precursor villages of Ezi sub-group namely, Adagbe- Mpo, Mponenem, Oviabuzo, Ezi-Oli and Okpuru. This incident bore hatred until commensal sacrifices were made through the Ana deity and Ana Priest, Nwakonobi installed to replace the people killed in the mayhem.
|
|
Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria of the class Mollicutes in the division Tenericutes, characterised by the lack of a cell wall (making it Gram negative) due to its parasitic or commensal lifestyle. In molecular biology, the genus has received much attention, both for being a notoriously difficult-to-eradicate contaminant in mammalian cell cultures (it is immune to beta-lactams and other antibiotics),Young L, Sung J, Stacey G, Masters JR. "Detection of Mycoplasma in cell cultures". Nat Protoc. 2010 5(5): 929–34.
|
|
Histone deacetylases can be regulated by endogenous factors, dietary components, synthetic inhibitors and bacteria-derived signals. Studies in mice with a specific deletion of HDAC3 in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) show a deregulated IEC's gene expression. In these deletion-mutant mice, loss of Paneth cells, impaired IEC function and alterations in intestinal composition of commensal bacteria were observed. These negative effects were not observed in germ-free mice, indicating that the effects of the deletion are only seen in the presence of intestinal microbial colonization.
|
|
Norway rats and house mice are thought to have evolved increased levels of neophobia as they became commensal with humans because humans were routinely devising new methods (e.g., mousetraps) to eradicate them. Neophobia is also a common finding in aging animals, although apathy could also explain, or contribute to explain, the lack of exploratory drive systematically observed in aging. Researchers argued that the lack of exploratory drive was likely due neurophysiologically to the dysfunction of neural pathways connected to the prefrontal cortex observed during aging.
|
|
Myrmecophilous aphids being tended by ants Myrmecophily ( ; literally "ant- love") is the term applied to positive interspecies associations between ants and a variety of other organisms such as plants, other arthropods, and fungi. Myrmecophily refers to mutualistic associations with ants, though in its more general use the term may also refer to commensal or even parasitic interactions. The term myrmecophile is used mainly for animals that associate with ants. There are an estimated 10,000 species of ants (Formicidae), with a higher diversity in the tropics.
|
|
Many species of Periclimenes are commensal and often symbiotic organisms within their reef ecosystems. The most common organisms forming symbiotic relationships with this genus are species of fish, cnidarians, echinoderms, and sponges. Some species such as Periclimenes caraibicus have been observed to interact parasitically with species of sponges, living within the sponge and directly eating the sponge tissue. Another species, Periclimenes soror, is commonly found on a species of sea star known as cushion stars with no affect on the star making it a commensalistic relationship.
|
|
Entamoeba coli is a non-pathogenic species of Entamoeba that frequently exists as a commensal parasite in the human gastrointestinal tract. E. coli (not to be confused with the bacterium Escherichia coli) is important in medicine because it can be confused during microscopic examination of stained stool specimens with the pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica. This amoeba does not move much by the use of its pseudopod, and creates a "sur place (non-progressive) movement" inside the large intestine. Usually, the amoeba is immobile, and keeps its round shape.
|
|
Mycoplasma mobile is a species of parasitic bacteria that binds to the gills of freshwater fish causing necrosis. It belongs to the class of Mollicutes which includes bacteria featuring reduced genome sizes that may be parasitic or commensal. It is a gram positive bacterium, however its cells lack a peptidoglycan layer. M. mobile cells are covered with membrane- anchored proteins, including surface proteins responsible for adhesion, or attachment to objects and surfaces, and antigenic variation, a mechanism which enables surface proteins to elude host immune responses.
|
|
Their relationship with their hosts has not been deciphered in full detail, but G. garnhami is generally regarded as a commensal organism that does not harm its host. A typical characteristic is that most eugregarines only have one host during their development. This relationship is generally described as host-specific, but this can also be due to the lack of research on this topic. This host-specificity is set to take place at the level of a specific family of hosts in the case of Orthoptera hosts.
|
|
Infections of the throat can be especially problematic, as antibiotics have difficulty becoming sufficiently concentrated there to destroy the bacteria. This is amplified by the fact that pharyngeal gonorrhoea is mostly asymptomatic, and gonococci and commensal Neisseria species can coexist for long time periods in the pharynx and share anti-microbial resistance genes. Accordingly, an enhanced focus on early detection (i.e., screening of high-risk populations, such as men who have sex with men, PCR testing should be considered) and appropriate treatment of pharyngeal gonorrhoea is important.
|
|
Dietary nitrate is also an important source of nitric oxide in mammals. Green, leafy vegetables and some root vegetables (such as beetroot) have high concentrations of nitrate. When eaten and absorbed into the bloodstream, nitrate is concentrated in saliva (about 10-fold) and is reduced to nitrite on the surface of the tongue by a biofilm of commensal facultative anaerobic bacteria. This nitrite is swallowed and reacts with acid and reducing substances in the stomach (such as ascorbate) to produce high concentrations of nitric oxide.
|
|
Eikenella corrodens is a commensal of the human mouth and upper respiratory tract. It is an unusual cause of infection and when it is cultured, it is most usually found mixed with other organisms. Infections most commonly occur in patients with cancers of the head and neck, but it is also common in human bite infections, especially "reverse bite", "fight bite", or "clenched fist injuries". It also causes infections in insulin-dependent diabetics and intravenous drug users who lick their needles ("needle-licker's osteomyelitis").
|
|
Microbiome analysis flowchart The uterine microbiome is the commensal, nonpathogenic, bacteria, viruses, yeasts/fungi present in a healthy uterus, amniotic fluid and endometrium and the specific environment which they inhabit. It has been only recently confirmed that the uterus and its tissues are not sterile. Due to improved 16S rRNA gene sequencing techniques, detection of bacteria that are present in low numbers is possible. Using this procedure that allows the detection of bacteria that cannot be cultured outside the body, studies of microbiota present in the uterus are expected to increase.
|
|
Cymo melanodactylus is an obligate commensal of Acropora spp. corals. On the large table coral Acropora cytherea, there are usually just one or two of these crabs per head of coral. The crabs feed mostly on mucus secreted by the coral, but also consume zooplankton and suspended particles and nibble the living tissue, though the coral seems little harmed by this. In 2010 in the Chagos Archipelago, infestations of as many as 47 of these crabs were found on individual heads of coral and these corals exhibited dead and dying tissue.
|
|
Coprolites of both fish and cephalopods have been found containing ossicles of various crinoids, such as the pelagic crinoid Saccocoma, from the Jurassic lagerstatten Solnhofen, while damaged crinoid stems with bite marks matching the toothplates of coccosteid placoderms have been found in Late Devonian Poland. The calyxes of several Devonian to Carboniferous-aged crinoids have the shells of a snail, Platyceras, intimately associated with them. Some have the snail situated over the anus, suggesting that Platyceras was a coprophagous commensal, while others have the animal directly situated over a borehole, suggesting a more pernicious relationship.
|
|
Although Chaetopterus variopedatus is of cosmopolitan distribution, P. chaetopterana and another pea crab, Polyonyx gibbesi, are only found associated with it along the eastern seaboard of America from Massachusetts to Uruguay. The latter is an obligate commensal of the tube worm whereas P. chaetopterana is a facultative one. The latter is occasionally free living and also sometimes associates with other hosts such as another polycheate worm, Amphitrite ornata. The two species of crab are intolerant of each other and if placed together in a dish will fight and tear off each other's limbs.
|
|
In Southeastern Asia, golden jackals have been known to hunt alongside dhole packs. They have been observed in the Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar, India, following Indian wolves (Canis lupus pallipes) when these are on a hunt, and they will scavenge off wolf kills without any hostility shown from the wolves. In India, lone jackals expelled from their pack have been known to form commensal relationships with tigers. These solitary jackals, known as kol-bahl, will associate themselves with a particular tiger, trailing it at a safe distance to feed on the big cat's kills.
|
|
Emperor Shrimp (Periclimenes imperator) with a Ceratosoma Tenue nudibranch as its commensal host MartinPan in Manado Lembeh Periclimenes imperator, known as the emperor shrimp, is a species of shrimp with a wide distribution across the Indo-Pacific. It lives commensally on a number of hosts, including the sea slug Hexabranchus. A. J. Bruce first described it in 1967 based on eight specimens ranging from to , and found Periclimenes rex to be its best resemblance. Periclimenes imperator lives in water up to in depth, and can grow to a length of .
|
|
Evidence has demonstrated that the release of high levels of proinflammatory cytokines during acute enteric infection causes increased gut permeability leading to translocation of the commensal bacteria across the epithelial barrier; this in turn can result in significant damage to local tissues, which can develop into chronic gut abnormalities in sensitive individuals. However, increased gut permeability is strongly associated with IBS regardless of whether IBS was initiated by an infection or not. A link between small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and tropical sprue has been proposed to be involved as a cause of post-infectious IBS.
|
|
Talitrus saltator is an abundant animal of sandy beaches around Europe. Dorsal (top) view of a newly discovered amphipod living in a commensal relationship with a bamboo coral Amphipods are found in almost all aquatic environments, from fresh water to water with twice the salinity of sea water and even in the Challenger Deep, the deepest known point in the ocean. They are almost always an important component of aquatic ecosystems, often acting as mesograzers. Most species in the suborder Gammaridea are epibenthic, although they are often collected in plankton samples.
|
|
Asobara is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. The genus is best known for the Drosophila parasitoid Asobara tabida, which is notable as both a model for parasitoid wasp infection in insects, and also as a representative of the hologenome theory of evolution. Asobara tabida is commensally infected with Wolbachia, and cannot reproduce in the absence of Wolbachia infection. As such, the genome of Asobara is directly tied to the genome of its commensal Wolbachia symbiont, and the two are considered to have a hologenome.
|
|
Typically serving as a commensal, Neisseria flavescens has also played a pathogenic role, ever since its origin. Arising from an epidemic meningitis outbreak in Chicago, N. flavescens was isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid of infected individuals. In particular, out of forty-seven total cases of meningitis, fourteen individuals were found to carry N. flavescens, in contrast to carrying one of the typical four meningococci. Additionally, the mortality rate among these fourteen individuals was close to thirty percent, indicating that this bacterium's role as a possible causative agent for meningitis should not be overlooked.
|
|
D. magna can be looked at as a complex ecosystem, colonized by a community of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms called microbiota. The close proximity of the microbiota to its host allows for a tight interaction, capable of influencing development, disease resistance and nutrition. The absence of microbiota in D. magna has been shown to cause a slower growth, a decrease in fecundity and a higher mortality compared to D. magna with microbiota. The gut microbiota changes upon death and its complexity is reduced and stabilized in case of starvation.
|
|
Dense mats formed by this species influence the natural flow of water, which can impede various recreational activities, such as boating and fishing. The disruption of flow can also have a negative impact on infrastructure when it comes to energy, such as the use of hydro- electric dams to power generators. The dense mats also present suitable ecological conditions that mosquitoes can thrive off of. This is a commensal relationship between mosquitoes and A. philoxeroides because mosquitoes receive a breeding ground and the plant gains nothing nor loses anything.
|
|
Diodora aspera, also known as the rough keyhole limpet, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Fissurellidae, the keyhole limpets. Although similar in appearance to a common limpet, it has a hole near the apex of its shell, and is only distantly related. It often has a scaled polychaete worm Arctonoe vittata living inside its shell as a commensal. In the event that it is attacked by a starfish, it extends flaps of mantle to defend itself, and the worm also helps drive the predator away.
|
|
Fusobacteria are obligately anaerobic non-sporeforming Gram-negative bacilli. Since the first reports in the late nineteenth century, various names have been applied to these organisms, sometimes with the same name being applied to different species. More recently, not only have there been changes to the nomenclature, but also attempts to differentiate between species which are believed to be either pathogenic or commensal or both. Because of their asaccharolytic nature, and a general paucity of positive results in routine biochemical tests, laboratory identification of the fusobacteria has been difficult.
|
|
The leap from a synanthropic population to a domestic one could only have taken place after the animals had progressed from anthropophily to habituation, to commensalism and partnership, at which point the establishment of a reciprocal relationship between animal and human would have laid the foundation for domestication, including captivity and then human-controlled breeding. From this perspective, animal domestication is a coevolutionary process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel niche that includes another species with evolving behaviors. Commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs.
|
|
Maturation of the GI tract is mediated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which recognize non-self pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) including bacterial cell wall components and nucleic acids. These data suggest that commensal microbes aid in intestinal homeostasis and immune system development. To prevent constant activation of immune cells and resulting inflammation, hosts and bacteria have evolved to maintain intestinal homeostasis and immune system development. For example, the human symbiont Bacteroides fragilis produces polysaccharide A (PSA), which binds to toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2) on CD4+ T cells.
|
|
Staphylococcus epidermidis under a scanning electron microscope Photo Credit: Janice Carr, Center for Disease Control & Segrid McAllister The skin microbiota is vital as a line of defense against infection, a physical barrier between the environment and the inside of the host. Commensal microbes that live on the skin, such as Staphylococcus epidermidis, produce antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that aid the host immune system. These AMPs signal immune responses and maintain an inflammatory homeostasis by modulating the release of cytokines. S. epidermidis secretes a small molecule AMP which leads to increased expression of Human β-defensins.
|
|
The researchers found that compared to the CD4+ cells in the control mice, CD4+ cells in PSA-treated mice produced reduced levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-17a and TNFα. Furthermore, after intestinal colonization with B. fragilis, IL-23 expression by splenocytes was markedly reduced. These data suggest that PSA secreted by B. fragilis suppresses the inflammatory process during colitis by leading to increased production of IL-10 and decreased production of IL-17, TNFα, and IL-23. Commensal bacteria may also regulate immune responses that cause allergies.
|
|
The symbiotic relationship between a host and its microbiota is under laboratory research for how it may shape the immune system of mammals. In many animals, the immune system and microbiota may engage in "cross-talk" by exchanging chemical signals, which may enable the microbiota to influence immune reactivity and targeting. Bacteria can be transferred from mother to child through direct contact and after birth. As the infant microbiome is established, commensal bacteria quickly populate the gut, prompting a range of immune responses and "programming" the immune system with long-lasting effects.
|
|
Other internal parasites included the cestodes Diphyllobothrium macroovatum, Diplogonoporus balaenopterae, and Tetrabothius sp., which infected the small intestine and were found in 17 per cent of the sample (all three species combined). In the eastern North Pacific, forty-three of forty-four individually identified minke whales possessed what were believed to be scars from cookiecutter sharks, while three had individuals of the commensal barnacle Xenobalanus globicipitis attached to their dorsal fins. Both are primarily warm water species and may be evidence of migration for minke whales from British Columbia to tropical waters.
|
|
This activation mechanism is commensal specific and clearly belongs to the adaptive immune system; however, it strikingly improves innate immune protection as shown after challenging gnobiotic mice with Candida albicans. Indeed, mono-association of gnobiotic mice with S. epidermidis significantly improves innate protection against C. albicans. The connection between the innate and the adaptive system is driven in this case by the production of alarmins S100A8 and S100A9 known to elicit microbicidal responses and as potent chemoattractants for neutrophils. The majority bacteria tested increased the number of skin T cells.
|
|
Thor amboinensis forms a commensal relationship with another invertebrate, usually a shallow water sea anemone or mushroom coral. The species most often used as host in Bermuda include the carpet anemone (Stichodactyla haddoni), the stinging anemone (Lebrunia danae) and the adhesive anemone (Cryptodendrum adhaesivum). One or several shrimps live among the tentacles of their host, feeding on the tentacle tissue and on the mucus- trapped planktonic particles adhering to it. In the Bahamas, Thor amboinensis forms part of an assemblage of symbiotic invertebrates associated with the anemone Lebrunia danae.
|
|
Whale barnacles are species of acorn barnacle that belong to the subfamily Coronulinae, family Coronulidae. They typically attach to baleen whales, though they may settle on toothed whales and, rarely, turtles, which have their own species of barnacle, which split from whale barnacles in the Late Pliocene around 3.5 to 3 million years ago (mya). Whale barnacles passively filter food, using tentacle-like cirri, as the host swims through the water. The arrangement is generally considered commensal as it is done at no cost or benefit to the host.
|
|
The pygmy seahorse not only makes certain species of gorgonians its home, but closely resembles its host and is thus well camouflaged. Some organisms have an obligate relationship with their host species. The mollusc Simnialena marferula is only found on the sea whip Leptogorgia virgulata, is coloured like it and has sequestered its defensive chemicals, and the nudibranch Tritonia wellsi is another obligate symbiont, its feathery gills resembling the tentacles of the polyps. Dardanus calidus with Calliactis parasitica A number of sea anemone species are commensal with other organisms.
|
|
N. meningitidis has a polysaccharide capsule that surrounds the outer membrane of the bacterium and protects against soluble immune effector mechanisms within the serum. It is considered to be an essential virulence factor for the bacteria. N. gonorrhoeae possesses no such capsule. Unlike most other Gram-negative bacteria, which possess lipopolysaccharide (LPS), both pathogenic and commensal species of Neisseria have a lipooligosaccharide (LOS) which consists of a core polysaccharide and lipid A. It functions as an endotoxin, protects against antimicrobial peptides, and adheres to the asialoglycoprotein receptor on urethral epithelium.
|
|
The International Pathogenic Neisseria Conference (IPNC), occurring every two years, is a forum for the presentation of cutting-edge research on all aspects of the genus Neisseria. This includes immunology, vaccinology, and physiology and metabolism of N. meningitidis, N. gonorrhoeae and the commensal species. The first IPNC took place in 1978, and the most recent one was in September 2016. Normally, the location of the conference switches between North America and Europe, but it took place in Australia for the first time in 2006, where the venue was located in Cairns.
|
|
Peptostreptococcus species are commensal organisms in humans, living predominantly in the mouth, skin, gastrointestinal, vagina and urinary tracts, and are members of the gut microbiota. Under immunosuppressed or traumatic conditions these organisms can become pathogenic, as well as septicemic, harming their host. Peptostreptococcus can cause brain, liver, breast, and lung abscesses, as well as generalized necrotizing soft tissue infections. They participate in mixed anaerobic infections, a term which is used to describe infections that are caused by multiple bacteria that do not require or may even be harmed by oxygen.
|
|
The Bathymodiolus childressi complex is also widely distributed along the Atlantic Equatorial Belt from the Gulf of Mexico across to the Nigerian Margin, although not on the Regab or Blake ridge sites. The commensal polynoid, Branchipolynoe seepensis is known from the Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Guinea and Barbados. Other species with distributions extending from the eastern to western Atlantic are: gastropod Cordesia provannoides, the shrimp Alvinocaris muricola, the galatheids Munidopsis geyeri and Munidopsis livida and probably the holothurid Chiridota heheva. There have been found cold seeps also in the Amazon deepsea fan.
|
|
The marsh rice rat (Oryzomys palustris) is a semiaquatic North American rodent in the family Cricetidae. It usually occurs in wetland habitats, such as swamps and salt marshes. It is found mostly in the eastern and southern United States, from New Jersey and Kansas south to Florida and northeasternmost Tamaulipas, Mexico; its range previously extended further west and north, where it may have been a commensal in corn-cultivating communities. Weighing about , the marsh rice rat is a medium-sized rodent that resembles the common black and brown rat.
|
|
This worm is often found associated with the fringe worm, Cirratulus cirriformia, in the littoral and sublittoral zones, in soft mud and under stones. The tiny pea crab Pinnixa chaetopterana is sometimes found living as a commensal inside the tube behind the worm. The ornate worm is often found in marine environments also inhabited by Notomastus lobatus (Polychaeta) and Saccoglossus kowalewskyi (Hemichordata), which produce and contaminate sediments with bromophenols and bromopyrroles.An Unusual Dehalogenating Peroxidase from the Marine Terebellid Polychaete Amphitrite ornata These organic halogen metabolites are toxic and it has been found that A. ornata produces a novel dehaloperoxidase that detoxifies haloaromatic compounds.
|
|
Lactococcus lactis, a species used in microbial drug delivery Microbial drug delivery is an emerging form of drug administration characterized by the use of commensal microbes that have been genetically modified to produce medications for chronic diseases in humans. Only proteinaceous drugs can be produced by microbes, as DNA encodes for protein. Research into microbial drug delivery refers to this route of administration as topical, since the microbes release the drug directly to the surface of affected tissues, namely the gastrointestinal (GI) epithelium. Microbial drug delivery is not currently used as a standard route of drug administration due to its experimental nature.
|
|
The zoo first opened on September 28, 1993. Since 2004, the zoo's black swans have been engaged in a commensal relationship with the koi found in the zoo's waters. The swans had originally begun dipping their food pellets into the water to moisten the texture, and as a result, the koi learned to swim up to the swans and eat the pellets. In November 2011, Chinese state tabloid The Global Times reported that the park's management had sent requests to other Chinese zoos, asking for respective mates to be delivered for a ruffed lemur and a chimpanzee held in their zoo.
|
|
The columella is almost straight, subverrucose, and of a reddish yellow.Kiener (1840). General species and iconography of recent shells : comprising the Massena Museum, the collection of Lamarck, the collection of the Museum of Natural History, and the recent discoveries of travellers; Boston :W.D. Ticknor,1837 (described as Buccinum anglicanum ) The shell is dull brown with fine ridges along the spirals and a papery outer layer that peels off when dead, but in life is usually encrusted by the commensal bryozoan Alcyonidium nodosum which gives a slightly nodular velvety appearance in purplish to orangy brownsBranch, G.M., Branch, M.L, Griffiths, C.L. and Beckley, L.E. (2010).
|
|
Flies are important pollinators, second only to the bees and their Hymenopteran relatives. Flies may have been among the evolutionarily earliest pollinators responsible for early plant pollination. Fruit flies are used as model organisms in research, but less benignly, mosquitoes are vectors for malaria, dengue, West Nile fever, yellow fever, encephalitis, and other infectious diseases; and houseflies, commensal with humans all over the world, spread food-borne illnesses. Flies can be annoyances especially in some parts of the world where they can occur in large numbers, buzzing and settling on the skin or eyes to bite or seek fluids.
|
|
These species' habitat is the lower intertidal zones on out to waters as deep as 50-60 feet (13–15 m). They prefer sand, mud, and gravel substrates, normally burying themselves 12-16 inches (30-41 cm), so they are much easier to dig than geoducks. Their preferred substrates are also preferred by butter and littleneck clams, so horse clams are often taken incidentally in commercial harvesting. Tresus clams often have a relationship with small commensal pea crabs, often a mating pair, which enter through the large siphon and live within the mantle cavity of the horse clam.
|
|
Of all the proteases, aureolysin is the most effective against the complement cascade. In all three pathways of complement activation, there is a target for the protease to manipulate. In the classical pathway, aureolysin not only decreases deposition of C1q on the S. aureus bacterial surface, it induces C1q to bind surfaces and deposit on commensal bacteria surfaces that typically do not activate the innate immune system. Aureolysin has also been noted to produce high levels of C5a in human plasma, which leads to overstimulation of neutrophils that ultimately results in neutrophil death. C3 is another major target of aureolysin.
|
|
Aega psora is a facultive parasite which temporarily attaches itself to its host and is able to survive independently. It probably spends the rest of the time resting on the seabed. It has been found as an external parasite on the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus), a shark in the genus Squalus, the common skate (Raja batis), the thorny skate (Amblyraja radiata) and the barndoor skate (Dipturus laevis). Large numbers have also been found in the stomach of a Greenland shark, though whether living as a parasite or as a commensal is unclear.
|
|
Unable to complete a freshman math class, Hoffman did not complete a degree at Virginia. Rather, in 1951 he was accepted into graduate school at Cornell University, who accepted his publication record as equivalent to passing a math class. When not working in the field or at Cornell, Hoffman worked as a chemist at the Radford Arsenal. He completed his a M.S. in entomology in 1959, and went on to earn a PhD in Zoology from Virginia Tech in 1960, during which he revised the genus Cambarincola, a group of leech-like oligochaete worms that are commensal on crayfish.
|
|
Hypersensitivity responses to commensal enteric microbiota and a perturbation of microbial ecology is observed in many patients suffering from chronic enterocolitis. This alternative theory coincides with the observation that women without a history of urinary tract or vaginal infections harbor higher antibody levels against vaginal lactobacilli than women with a history of these infections. Alvarez-Olmos and her coworkers reported an approximately fourfold elevation of total IgG and a threefold elevation of total IgA concentration in the cervicovaginal secretions of adolescent women colonized with -producing lactobacilli (associated with vaginal health) in comparison to those colonized with non-- producing lactobacilli. Goisis et al.
|
|
Micrococcus is generally thought to be a saprotrophic or commensal organism, though it can be an opportunistic pathogen, particularly in hosts with compromised immune systems, such as HIV patients. It can be difficult to identify Micrococcus as the cause of an infection, since the organism is a normally present in skin microflora, and the genus is seldom linked to disease. In rare cases, death of immunocompromised patients has occurred from pulmonary infections caused by Micrococcus. Micrococci may be involved in other infections, including recurrent bacteremia, septic shock, septic arthritis, endocarditis, meningitis, and cavitating pneumonia (immunosuppressed patients).
|
|
Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes) is the relatively slow- growing, typically aerotolerant anaerobic, Gram-positive bacterium (rod) linked to the skin condition of acne; it can also cause chronic blepharitis and endophthalmitis, the latter particularly following intraocular surgery. Its genome has been sequenced and a study has shown several genes can generate enzymes for degrading skin and proteins that may be immunogenic (activating the immune system). The species is largely commensal and part of the skin flora present on most healthy adult humans' skin. It is usually just barely detectable on the skin of healthy preadolescents.
|
|
This species was first described in 1993 by the Russian marine biologist Vasily I. Radashevsky, who placed it in the genus Polydora and gave it the specific epithet "glycymerica" because of its commensal relationship with the bivalve Glycymeris yessoensis. The new species resembled Polydora vulgaris, a worm from the South China Sea that is also associated with bivalve molluscs, although in this instance, Pinctada margaritifera and Hyotissa hyotis are the hosts. Researchers used starch gel electrophoresis to compare the number of isozyme loci and the allozymic variation present in both species, and the results suggest that the two are valid, separate species.
|
|
Although Chronic bee paralysis virus mainly infects honey bees, the virus has also been found to replicate in two species of carnivorous ant, Camponotus vagus and Formica rufa. These carnivorous ants become infected with CBPV through two mechanisms: eating decomposing bees who harbor the virus or by independently collecting infected honeydew. While the virus does not cause any symptoms in the carnivorous ants, the commensal relationship between the virus and the ants allows the ants to serve as a reservoir for viral replication to occur. Chronic bee paralysis virus is also similar to slow bee paralysis virus and acute bee paralysis virus.
|
|
The species is subclassified into ten serotypes (Ia, Ib, II–IX) depending on the immunologic reactivity of their polysaccharide capsule. This is why the plural term group B streptococci (referring to the serotypes) and the singular term group B streptococcus (referring to the single species) are both commonly encountered. In general, GBS is a harmless commensal bacterium being part of the human microbiota colonizing the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tract of up to 30% of healthy human adults (asymptomatic carriers). Nevertheless, GBS can cause severe invasive infections especially in newborns, the elderly, and people with compromised immune systems.
|
|
Global extinction approximately 65 Ma (million years ago) resulted in the loss of fauna such as non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs and marine reptiles e.g. mosasaurs, elasmosaurs and plesiosaurs. The ancient fauna is not well known, but at least one species of terrestrial mammal existed in New Zealand around 19 Ma. For at least several million years before the arrival of human and commensal species, the islands had no terrestrial mammals except for bats and seals, the main component of the terrestrial fauna being insects and birds. Recently—since —a component has been introduced by humans, including many terrestrial mammals.
|
|
Ancient introductions of paper mulberry presumably went extinct in prehistory due to their replacement with hand-woven fabrics, given that paper mulberry generally only survives under human cultivation. However, its absence in the Philippines further underlines its origins in Taiwan, and not within island Southeast Asia. Additionally, paper mulberry populations in New Guinea also show genetic inflow from another expansion out of Indochina and South China. It is believed to be the most widely transported fiber crop in prehistory, having been transported along with the full range of the Austronesian expansion, as opposed to most of the other commensal crops in Oceania.
|
|
Remora are specially adapted to attach themselves to larger fish that provide locomotion and food. Commensalism is a long-term biological interaction (symbiosis) in which members of one species gain benefits while those of the other species neither benefit nor are harmed. This is in contrast with mutualism, in which both organisms benefit from each other; amensalism, where one is harmed while the other is unaffected; and parasitism, where one is harmed and the other benefits. The commensal (the species that benefits from the association) may obtain nutrients, shelter, support, or locomotion from the host species, which is substantially unaffected.
|
|
This excess of keratin, which is influenced by genetics, results in an increased adherence/bonding of dead skin cells together. This cohesion of cells will block or "cap" the hair follicle (leading to keratosis pilaris) or clog the sebaceous/oil duct (leading to acne). Pathogens may also play a role in causing, perpetuating, or simply taking advantage of this phenomenon, such as virulent sub-strains of Cutibacterium acnes and irregular migration of Staphylococcus epidermidis from the outer surface of the skin into the follicle, where commensal strains of C. acnes exclusively habitate. It itches mildly at times, and strongly at others.
|
|
Possibly originating from the plains of Asia, northern China and Mongolia, the brown rat spread to other parts of the world sometime in the Middle Ages. The question of when brown rats became commensal with humans remains unsettled, but as a species, they have spread and established themselves along routes of human migration and now live almost everywhere humans are. The brown rat may have been present in Europe as early as 1553, a conclusion drawn from an illustration and description by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his book Historiae animalium, published 1551–1558.Freye, H.A., and Thenius, E. (1968) Die Nagetiere.
|
|
In contrast, the blind goby Typhlogobius californiensis lives within the deep portion of Callianassa shrimp burrows where there is not much light. The blind goby is an example of a species that is an obligate commensalist, meaning their existence depends on the host bioturbator and its burrow. Although newly hatched blind gobies have fully developed eyes, their eyes become withdrawn and covered by skin as they develop. They show evidence of commensal morphological evolution because it is hypothesized that the lack of light in the burrows where the blind gobies reside is responsible for the evolutionary loss of functional eyes.
|
|
The viridans streptococci are a large group of commensal streptococcal Gram- positive bacteria species that are α-hemolytic, producing a green coloration on blood agar plates (hence the name "viridans", from Latin "vĭrĭdis", green). The pseudo-taxonomic term "Streptococcus viridans" is often used to refer to this group of species, but writers who do not like to use the pseudotaxonomic term (which treats a group of species as if they were one species) prefer the terms viridans streptococci,Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, headword "streptococcus", subentry "viridans streptococci". viridans group streptococci (VGS), or viridans streptococcal species. These species possess no Lancefield antigens.
|
|
The land hermit crab, Coenobita clypeatus, often uses a shell of Cittarium pica A small limpet, Lottia leucopleura, often lives on the underside of the shell of this large sea snail. The crab Pinnotheres barbatus is mentioned as a commensal. The sessile vermetid gastropod Dendropoma corrodens (also known as ringed wormsnail) and the tube dwelling polychaete Spirorbis may live attached to the shell of Cittarium pica, as is also the case for several species of algae. In the wild, the shell of this species is used extensively by the large land hermit crab species Coenobita clypeatus.
|
|
His successor as bishop of Alexandria was Alexander of Alexandria (312–328). According to Sozomen; "the Bishop Alexander 'invited Athanasius to be his commensal and secretary. He had been well educated, and was versed in grammar and rhetoric, and had already, while still a young man, and before reaching the episcopate, given proof to those who dwelt with him of his wisdom and acumen' ".(Soz., II, xvii) Athanasius' earliest work, Against the Heathen – On the Incarnation (written before 319), bears traces of Origenist Alexandrian thought (such as repeatedly quoting Plato and using a definition from Aristotle's Organon) but in an orthodox way.
|
|
It is sometimes reported that the lurid rocksnail is in fact the gumboot chiton's only predator, but others list such animals as the sea star Pisaster ochraceus, some octopus species, and the sea otter. Several other animal species have been observed living within the gumboot's gills; the relationship is thought to be commensal: neither harmful nor helpful to the chiton. One researcher found that more than a quarter of gumboots hosted an Arctonoe vittata, a pale yellow scale worm which can grow up to length. Opisthopus transversus, a small crab, is also sometimes found within the gills.
|
|
Most other turbellarians are carnivorous, either preying on small invertebrates or protozoans, or scavenging on dead animals. A few feed on larger animals, including oysters and barnacles, while some, such as Bdelloura, are commensal on the gills of horseshoe crabs. These turbellarians usually have an eversible pharynx, in other words, one that can be extended by being turned inside-out, and the mouths of different species can be anywhere along the underside. The freshwater species Microstomum caudatum can open its mouth almost as wide as its body is long, to swallow prey as large as itself.
|
|
Idiomysis live in the small groups (called swarms) of 5 to more than 40 individuals, which hover over sea bottom during a day and probably feed on the seafloor on the nighttime. All known species are found in the shallow coastal waters, however they inhabit different niches and can be found on coral reefs, seaweeds, rocks or sandy bottoms. Two species – I. inermis and I. tsurnamali – are known for commensal relationship with the sea anemones, whereas I. diadema is associated with the sea urchin Diadema. There are also reports of Idiomysis hovering above upside-down jellyfish, Cassiopea.
|
|
The host supplies the bacteria with the energy needed for nitrogen fixation and the bacteria provide much of the nitrogen needed by the host. Such crops as beans, peas, chickpeas and alfalfa are able to fix nitrogen in this way, and mixing clover with grasses increases the yield of pastures. Neurotransmitter tyramine produced by commensal Providencia bacteria, which colonize the gut of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, bypasses the requirement for its host to biosynthesise tyramine. This product is then probably converted to octopamine by the host enzyme tyramine β-hydroxylase and manipulates a host sensory decision.
|
|
Dr. Gordon and his laboratory are currently focused on understanding the mutualistic interactions that occur between humans and the 10-100 trillion commensal microbes that colonize each person's gastrointestinal tract. To tease apart the complex relationships that exist within this gut micobiota, Dr. Gordon's research program employs germ- free and gnotobiotic mice as model hosts, which may be colonized with defined, simplified microbial communities. These model intestinal microbiotas are more amenable to well-controlled experimentation. Jeffrey Gordon has become an international pioneer in the study of gut microbial ecology and evolution, using innovative methods to interpret metagenomic and gut microbial genomic sequencing data.
|
|
Secreted IgA plays an important role in preventing immune response to commensal gut microbes, and accordingly intestinal macrophages do not express FcαRI. However, during invasion of mucosal tissue by pathogenic bacteria, neutrophils responding to the infection will bind and phagocytose dIgA-opsonized bacteria via FcαRI. FcαRI is also an important Fc receptor for neutrophil killing of tumor cells. When FcαRI-expressing neutrophils come into contact with IgA-opsinized tumor cells, the neutrophils not only perform antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, but also release the cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β which cause increased neutrophil migration to the site.
|
|
For the onset of intestinal bowel diseases (IBD) such as Crohn's disease (CD) or Ulcerative colitis (UC), commensal enteric bacteria are generally required as a pathogenic factor. B. caccae contains a TonB-linked outer membrane protein called OmpW that has only been characterized in this particular strain. The OmpW protein contains features similar to a bacterial TonB-linked outer membrane protein which allows the bacteria to increase its ability of iron or vitamin uptake in an environment where it lacks these variables. The TonB-linked outer membrane protein contains a TonB box that is highly conserved and also present in OmpW.
|
|
Bacteroides caccae was specified as being a fiber-degrading microbial specialist in the microbiomes of Western individuals. In a study geared at determining the fermentation of pectin in B. caccae from a rabbit cecum, it was determined that cultures grown with pectin produced more acetate than formate, lactate, fumarate, and succinate as opposed to those cultures grown on glucose which yielded vast amounts of lactate. This elucidates the metabolism of a plant fiber by a human commensal. In addition, B. caccae showed no growth on arabinan (a pectin), arabinoxylan (wheat), xylan, xyloglucan, glucomannan, galactomannan, B-glucan, lichenin, and laminarin.
|
|
He also started a professorship at the Division of Integrative Bioscience and Biotechnology in POSTECH. Also within POSTECH, he was the founding and only director of the Academy of Immunology and Microbiology (AIM) for the Institute for Basic Science (IBS). The Academy researched chronic diseases of the immune system with the "belief that a significant proportion of the chronic diseases arise from aberrant interactions between the host’s immune systems with the components of the diet as well as with the commensal microbes that co-exist with the host." After failing to find a suitable replacement, AIM closed in October 2019.
|
|
Gray whale rostrum covered in the endemic Cryptolepas rhachianecti barnacles and cyamids often called whale lice Whale barnacles typically attach to baleen whales and have a commensal relationship–the barnacle benefits and the whale is neither helped nor harmed. A single humpback whale may carry up to of barnacles. On right whales (Eubalaena spp) an endemic species of barnacle, Tubicinella is embedded in patches of roughened, calcified skin called callosities. The distribution of callosities and the light colored cyamids that occupy the callosities forms a unique pattern for individual whales, and is used to identify markers by researchers.
|
|
The composition of the murine commensal microbiota influences susceptibility to gastrointestinal infections and induced colitis and specific components of this microbiota promote the production of AHR ligands resulting in protection against intestinal damage induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Lamas and co- workers have shown that mice with dysbiotic microbiota due to their lack of the caspase recruitment domain 9 (CARD9) produced lower levels of endogenous AHR agonists and recovered more poorly from DSS-induced colitis. When 1 µg FICZ was injected i.p. one day after DSS administration, the severity of colitis in these animals was reduced significantly.
|
|
Experimental inoculation of American alligators (Alligator mississippienis), Siamese crocodiles (Crocdylus siamensis), and broad-nosed caimans (Caiman latirostris) with M. alligatoris yielded growth of the bacteria in all species tested. However, the infected Siamese crocodiles showed no symptoms of disease as seen in alligators and caimans. The commensal relationship observed between M. alligatoris and C. siamensis suggests the crocodilian as a potential natural reservoir for M. alligatoris. The transmission of M. alligatoris is unknown, but due to its presence in captive alligators, researchers warn against returning captive alligators to their natural habitats, fearing these animals may function as a vector for infecting wild populations.
|
|
They were able to reproduce El-Gholl's results, but again failed to identify the canker producing agent, the other two isolates proved not to cause any disease. In a 1996 article Lee et al. mentioned that the endophyte they were studying, Pestalotiopsis microspora might be the cause of the decline of the species, because a strain they isolated produced a hitherto unknown cytotoxin they named "torreyanic acid", a dimeric quinone. P. microspora is a usually commensal fungus commonly found within the tissues of many plant species, and is only rarely a pathogen -in these cases it is an opportunistic pathogen.
|
|
This species is commonly found in the upper layers of the soil and B. subtilis is thought to be a normal gut commensal in humans. A 2009 study compared the density of spores found in soil (about 106 spores per gram) to that found in human feces (about 104 spores per gram). The number of spores found in the human gut was too high to be attributed solely to consumption through food contamination. B. subtilis has been linked to grow in higher elevations and act as an identifier for both eco-adaptability and honey bee health.
|
|
The MHA-TP test is rarely used any more. Treponema pallidum particle agglutination assay (TP-PA) and the Toluidine red unheated serum test (TRUST), which may be used to confirm a positive VDRL result, are more specific for syphilis than non-treponemal tests and in the presence of a positive test, more likely indicate active infection. Unfortunately, other treponemal infections such as yaws, bejel, and pinta and possibly nonpathogenic commensal treponemes can result in a positive. Not all these disease are venereal; it has been recommended that a careful explanation of this fact be included with test results.
|
|
Malassezia furfur is a fungus that lives on the superficial layers of the dermis. It generally exists as a commensal organism forming a natural part of the human skin microbiota, but it can gain pathogenic capabilities when morphing from a yeast to a hyphal form during its life cycle, through unknown molecular changes. This can lead to its uncontrolled proliferation and a subsequent imbalance of the residential skin flora. Some virulence factors or properties which may increase the fungus' ability to acquire an infectious nature include the formation of biofilms, increased adherence to surfaces, and hydrophobicity.
|
|
The orangespotted goby (Nes longus) is a species of goby native to the tropical Atlantic coast from Bermuda and southern Florida through the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico south to the Caribbean coasts of Venezuela and Colombia, where it prefers silty bottoms around reefs. It is a commensal with an alpheid shrimp. This species grows to a length of TL. This species is the only known member of its genus. This species is symbiotic with snapper shrimp Alpheus floridanus, sharing the burrow with the shrimps, usually a pair, on unvegetated silty substrates in waters of less than depth.
|
|
Caridina spongicola is a small species of freshwater shrimp from Sulawesi (Indonesia) that reaches in length. In the wild it strictly lives on an undescribed species of freshwater sponge, making it one of only two known commensal species of freshwater shrimp (the other is a Limnocaridina shrimp that lives in mussels in Lake Tanganyika, East Africa). It is popularly known as the harlequin shrimp, and also sometimes Celebes beauty shrimp or sponge shrimp in the aquarium trade. It is often confused with Caridina woltereckae, a larger and more contrastingly colored species found in the same region as C. spongicola.
|
|
Monitoring nitric oxide status by saliva testing detects the bioconversion of plant- derived nitrate into nitric oxide. A rise in salivary levels is indicative of diets rich in leafy vegetables which are often abundant in anti-hypertensive diets such as the DASH diet. A related mechanism is thought to protect the skin from fungal infections, where nitrate in sweat is reduced to nitrite by skin commensal organisms and then to NO on the slightly acidic skin surface. In alternative fashion, nitrite anions on sun-exposed skin may be photolyzed to free nitric oxide radicals by UVA in sunlight.
|
|
Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche, when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens. In the stomach, gastric acid serves as a powerful chemical defense against ingested pathogens. Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron. As a result of the symbiotic relationship between commensals and the immune system, the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced.
|
|
Feather mites (subclass Acarina, family Proctophyllodinae) are ectoparasites that live in between the barbs of feathers and are found on nearly every bird species currently described. It was previously believed that these mites had a parasitic relationship with their hosts but it is now thought that most species are more commensal with their hosts. Morphological studies have provided strong evidence for this with feather mite mouthparts being identified as unstructured for biting on solid material. Instead it is suggested that they feed on oils and fats secreted from the uropygial gland as well as pollen, fungus and dead epidermis tissue that is trapped within it.
|
|
MS channels are different from other membrane proteins in that their primary gating stimulus is force, such that they open conduits for ions to pass through the membrane in response to mechanical stimuli. This system allows physical force to create an ion flux, which then results in signal integration and response (as detailed below). MS channels are hypothesized to be the working mechanism in the perception of gravity, vibration, touch, hyper-osmotic and hypo-osmotic stress, pathogenic invasion, and interaction with commensal microbes. MS channels have been discovered across a diverse array of genera as well as in different plant organs, like leaves and stems, and localize to diverse cellular membranes.
|
|
Placenta and its tissue layers The placental microbiome is the nonpathogenic, commensal bacteria claimed to be present in a healthy human placenta and is distinct from bacteria that cause infection and preterm birth in chorioamnionitis. Until recently, the healthy placenta was considered to be a sterile organ but now genera and species have been identified that reside in the basal layer. It should be stressed that the evidence for a placental microbiome is controversial. Most studies supporting the existence of a placental microbiome lack the appropriate experimental controls, and it has been found that contamination is most likely responsible for reports of a placental microbiome.
|
|
For example, in the stink bug Nezara viridula, the vertical transmission rate of symbionts, which females provide to offspring by smearing the eggs with gastric caeca, was 100% at 20 °C, but decreased to 8% at 30 °C. Likewise, in aphids, the vertical transmission of bacteriocytes containing the primary endosymbiont Buchnera is drastically reduced at high temperature. In like manner, the distinction between commensal, mutualistic, and parasitic relationships is also not absolute. An example is the relationship between legumes and rhizobial species: N2 uptake is energetically more costly than the uptake of fixed nitrogen from the soil, so soil N is preferred if not limiting.
|
|
Along with the emerging diagnostic capabilities of pharmacometabolomics, there are limitations introduced when individual variability is looked at. The ability to determine an individual's physiological state by measurement of metabolites is not contested, but the extreme variability that can be introduced by age, nutrition, and commensal organisms suggest problems in creating generalized pharmacometabolomes for patient groups. However, as long as meaningful metabolic signatures can be elucidated to create baseline values, there still exists a possible means of comparison. Issues surrounding the measurement of metabolites in an individual can also arise from the methodology of metabolite detection, and there are arguments both for and against NMR and mass spectrometry (MS).
|
|
Psathyrella ammophila has a wide but sparse distribution throughout the European continent and in limited coastal locations outside Europe, with records of collection in Algeria, New Zealand, and Canada. It can sometimes be found near the shoreline, inside the littoral zone, but is most often encountered in more stable and established sand dunes and dune slacks inland. The presence of marram grass nearby is a key aspect of its habitat, as it has a symbiotic (specifically, commensal) relationship with the plants, using their decaying roots as food. The mushrooms grow singly or in clumps and are, to some degree, sympatric with the fly Delia albula.
|
|
In contrast to this mutualistic relationship, certain clingfish species that live among the spines of sea urchins appear to be part of a more varied relationship. It can be either commensal (the clingfish gains protection from the sea urchin spines, but apparently neither benefits nor is a disadvantage to the sea urchin) or parasitic (the clingfish gains protection, and eats tube feet and pedicellaria from its sea urchin host). No clingfish species is known to be exclusively herbivorous, but some are omnivorous and will feed extensively on a range of algae (brown, green and red), while other, more strictly carnivorous species may ingest plant material incidentally.
|
|
By these definitions, a reservoir is a host that does not experience the symptoms of disease when infected by the pathogen, whereas non-reservoirs show symptoms of the disease. The pathogen still feeds, grows, and reproduces inside a reservoir host, but otherwise does not significantly affect its health; the relationship between pathogen and reservoir is more or less commensal, whereas in susceptible hosts that do suffer disease caused by the pathogen, the pathogen is considered parasitic. What further defines a reservoir for a specific pathogen is where it can be maintained and from where it can be transmitted. A "multi-host" organism is capable of having more than one natural reservoir.
|
|
P. faba are only known to mate in Tresus capax and Tresus nuttallii where somehow juveniles are prevented from maturing until one member of the breeding couple dies or the juvenile finds another host. In a breeding couple the female will remain in the visceral fold feeding on the material filtered by Tresus clams while the males and juveniles roam around the mantle cavity. Juveniles can be found in most other clams, notably the butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus. Some writers consider the relationship of P. faba with its hosts to be commensal while others consider it parasitic, though it is clear that P. faba causes minimal damage to the host.
|
|
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is proven to be an opportunistic human pathogen, though of relatively low virulence. Despite widespread use of this microorganism at home and in industry, contact with it very rarely leads to infection. Saccharomyces cerevisiae was found in the skin, oral cavity, oropharinx, duodenal mucosa, digestive tract, and vagina of healthy humans (one review found it to be reported for 6% of samples from human intestine). Some specialists consider S. cerevisiae to be a part of the normal microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, and the vagina of humans, while others believe that the species cannot be called a true commensal because it originates in food.
|
|
Innate lymphoid cells (ILC) are another class of immune cell that is depleted during HIV infection. However, if ART is initiated before this depletion at around 7 days post infection, ILC levels can be maintained. While CD4 cell counts typically replenish after effective ART, ILCs depletion is irreversible with ART initiated after the depletion despite suppression of viremia. Since one of the roles of ILCs is to regulate the immune response to commensal bacteria and to maintain an effective gut barrier, it has been hypothesized that the irreversible depletion of ILCs plays a role in the weakened gut barrier of HIV patients, even after successful ART.
|
|
Mahidolia mystacina, the flagfin prawn goby, flagfin shrimpgoby or smiling goby, is a species of goby native to the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean from Delagoa Bay, Mozambique to the Society Islands and from southern Japan to Samoa and northern Australia. This species occurs in marine and brackish waters, being found in coastal bays, estuaries and reef bases where the bottom is silty or muddy at depths of from . This species is a commensal with a species of alpheid shrimp, using its burrow as its home. This species can reach a length of TL. This species can also be found in the aquarium trade.
|
|
However, a higher incidence of colonization of M. fulvum has been documented on the epidermis of hedgehogs without causing any serious skin lesions, suggesting a commensal relationship between the organisms. Isolates of the fungus have been found in skin and lung samples of healthy rodents without indication of impairment. As well, other Microsporum species have arthrospores that are known to remain on human scalp hairs for months without causing skin lesions. Due to the similar behavioural description of species in the Microsporum genus, it is believed that penetration of the mucous membrane is necessary for the fungus to become infectious to the host, otherwise the fungal organism can coexist without harm.
|
|
Domestic cats were introduced to Rottnest both as pets and as predators of commensal pest animals such as the black rat and house mouse at various times since European settlement. Historically, the Rottnest Island Authority has attempted to rid the island of all cats since the 1960s. It was suggested that cats may be influencing the abundance of native fauna and if left uncontrolled, the cat population was likely to increase and could result in considerable damage to ground-nesting birds and heavy predation pressure on quokkas and reptile species. A feral cat monitoring and trapping campaign was conducted in November 2001 and 2002.
|
|
The flared lip is absent in juveniles; it develops once the snail reaches reproductive age. The thicker the shell's flared lip is, the older the conch is. The external anatomy of the soft parts of A. gigas is similar to that of other snails in the family Strombidae; it has a long snout, two eyestalks with well-developed eyes, additional sensory tentacles, a strong foot and a corneous, sickle-shaped operculum. The shell and soft parts of living A. gigas serve as a home to several different kinds of commensal animals, including slipper snails, porcelain crabs and a specialized species of cardinalfish known as the conchfish (Astrapogon stellatus).
|
|
In humans, IL-10 is encoded by the IL10 gene, which is located on chromosome 1 and comprises 5 exons, and is primarily produced by monocytes and, to a lesser extent, lymphocytes, namely type-II T helper cells (TH2), mast cells, CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells, and in a certain subset of activated T cells and B cells. IL-10 can be produced by monocytes upon PD-1 triggering in these cells. IL-10 upregulation is also mediated by GPCRs, such as beta-2 adrenergic and type 2 cannabinoid receptors. The expression of IL-10 is minimal in unstimulated tissues and seems to require triggering by commensal or pathogenic flora.
|
|
The wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) is a murid rodent native to Europe and northwestern Africa. It is closely related to the yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis) but differs in that it has no band of yellow fur around the neck, has slightly smaller ears, and is usually slightly smaller overall: around 90 mm (3.54 in) in length and 23 g in weight. It is found across most of Europe and is a very common and widespread species, is commensal with people and is sometimes considered a pest. Other common names are long-tailed field mouse, field mouse, common field mouse, and European wood mouse.
|
|
The main concern with bank milk is that it has lost many immune cells, commensal microbiota and bio-active proteins during the pasteurization process. Donor milk is in high demand for infants in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU). who have been shown to benefit most from access to human milk Immunological consequences or benefits of milk sharing are not well documented, but it has been speculated that allo-nursing, or nursing from multiple females, may provide infants with an immune boost. The reported risk associated with unregulated sharing milk includes the possibility of the transmission of drugs, toxins, pathogenic bacteria, HIV and other viruses.
|
|
While many Escherichia are commensal members of the gut microbiota, certain strains of some species, most notably the serotypes of E. coli, are human pathogens, and are the most common cause of urinary tract infections, significant sources of gastrointestinal disease, ranging from simple diarrhea to dysentery-like conditions, as well as a wide range of other pathogenic states classifiable in general as colonic escherichiosis. While E. coli is responsible for the vast majority of Escherichia-related pathogenesis, other members of the genus have also been implicated in human disease. Escherichia are associated with the imbalance of microbiota of the lower reproductive tract of women. These species are associated with inflammation.
|
|
The leap from a synanthropic population to a domestic one could only have taken place after the animals had progressed from anthropophily to habituation, to commensalism and partnership, when the relationship between animal and human would have laid the foundation for domestication, including captivity and human-controlled breeding. From this perspective, animal domestication is a coevolutionary process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel niche that included another species with evolving behaviors. Commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs. The domestication of animals commenced over 15,000 years before present (YBP), beginning with the grey wolf (Canis lupus) by nomadic hunter-gatherers.
|
|
The wolves most likely drawn to human camps were the less- aggressive, subdominant pack members with lowered flight response, higher stress thresholds, less wary around humans, and therefore better candidates for domestication. The earliest sign of domestication in dogs was the neotenization of skull morphology and the shortening of snout length that results in tooth crowding, reduction in tooth size, and a reduction in the number of teeth, which has been attributed to the strong selection for reduced aggression. This process may have begun during the initial commensal stage of dog domestication, even before humans began to be active partners in the process. Montage showing the morphological variation of the dog.
|
|
The difference in overall body size between a Cane Corso (Italian mastiff) and a Yorkshire terrier is over 30-fold, yet both are members of the same species. Selection appears to have acted on the dog's metabolic functions to cope with changes in dietary fat, followed later with a dietary increase in starch associated with a more commensal lifestyle. The dog genome compared to the wolf genome shows signs of having undergone positive selection, these include genes relating to brain function and behavior, and to lipid metabolism. This ability to process lipids indicates a dietary target of selection that was important when proto-dogs hunted and fed alongside hunter- gatherers.
|
|
Saharan rock art depicting two dogs attacking a mouflon – Algeria during the Horse Period 3,200–1,000 YBP. During the Upper Paleolithic (50,000–10,000 YBP), the increase in human population density, advances in blade and hunting technology, and climate change may have altered prey densities and made scavenging crucial to the survival of some wolf populations. Adaptations to scavenging such as tameness, small body size, and a decreased age of reproduction would reduce their hunting efficiency further, eventually leading to obligated scavenging. Whether these earliest dogs were simply human-commensal scavengers or they played some role as companions or hunters that hastened their spread is unknown.
|
|
Her research studies host- microbiome interactions and their application to develop new therapeutics for human disease. She has authored or co-authored >70 peer-reviewed articles and book chapters, including original papers in Science detailing a molecular model of host-microbial cross-talk in the small intestine, and in Nature Medicine demonstrate therapeutic use of defined commensal microbes to reverse food allergies. Bry teaches medical school courses and is also a lecturer and mentor for the Project Success Program at Harvard Medical School. While at Washington University, Bry founded and became Executive Director of The Madsci Network, an Ask-A-Scientist service based on the World Wide Web.
|
|
Malassezia pachydermatis is a zoophilic yeast in the division Basidiomycota. It was first isolated in 1925 by Fred Weidman, and has been named pachydermatis Greek for "thick-skin" after the original sample taken from an Indian rhinoceros (Rhinocerosus unicornis) with severe exfoliative dermatitis. Within the genus Malassezia, M. pachydermatis is most closely related to the species M. furfur. A commensal fungus, it can be found within the microflora of healthy mammals such as humans, cats and dogs, However, it is capable of acting as an opportunistic pathogen under special circumstances and has been seen to cause skin and ear infections, most often occurring in canines.
|
|
Nephrops norvegicus is the host to a number of parasites and symbionts. A number of sessile organisms attach to the exoskeleton of N. norvegicus, including the barnacle Balanus crenatus and the foraminiferan Cyclogyra, but overall Nephrops suffers fewer infestations of such epibionts than other decapod crustaceans do. In December 1995, the commensal Symbion pandora was discovered attached to the mouthparts of Nephrops norvegicus, and was found to be the first member of a new phylum, Cycliophora, a finding described by Simon Conway Morris as "the zoological highlight of the decade". S. pandora has been found in many populations of N. norvegicus, both in the north Atlantic and in the Mediterranean Sea.
|
|
Enterococcus faecalis – formerly classified as part of the group D Streptococcus system – is a Gram-positive, commensal bacterium inhabiting the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other mammals. Like other species in the genus Enterococcus, E. faecalis is found in healthy humans, but can cause life-threatening infections, especially in the nosocomial (hospital) environment, where the naturally high levels of antibiotic resistance found in E. faecalis contribute to its pathogenicity. E. faecalis has been frequently found in reinfected, root canal-treated teeth in prevalence values ranging from 30% to 90% of the cases. Re-infected root canal-treated teeth are about nine times more likely to harbor E. faecalis than cases of primary infections.
|
|
Because no premaxillae were found, the bones could not be distinguished from those of the house sparrow. Tchernov argued that the house sparrow and related species have undergone considerable morphological changes in adapting to a commensal relationship with humans, with the beak becoming longer and narrower. He wrote that P. predomesticus was intermediate between the house sparrow and Spanish sparrow (Passer hispaniolensis), and suggested that it may be a primitive relative of the ancestor of the house sparrow that did not become dependent on humans. In a 1984 paper, Tchernov suggested that the period in which the house sparrow and P. predomesticus could have separated was the Würm glaciation 70,000–10,000 years ago.
|
|
Safety is a major factor in the efficacy of microbial drug delivery. Depending on the type of drug being administered, a certain level of control is required for effective and safe treatment of colonic diseases. The L. lactis system has a 72-hour delay between ingesting thymidine and activating IL-10 production, while the B. ovatus system allows the drug to be produced once xylan reaches the bacteria. Regarding IL-10 secretions in L. lactis, the delay is acceptable for treatment of IBD, however any drug that requires a precise dosage and timing may necessitate B. ovatus for controlling drug output. The safety of microbial drug delivery is tied to the microbes’ commensal capability and instance of pathogenesis.
|
|
Humans are colonized by many microorganisms; the traditional estimate is that the average human body is inhabited by ten times as many non-human cells as human cells, but more recent studies estimate that ratio as 3:1 or even 1:1. Some microorganisms that colonize humans are commensal, meaning they co-exist without harming humans; others have a mutualistic relationship with their human hosts. Conversely, some non-pathogenic microorganisms can harm human hosts via the metabolites they produce, like trimethylamine, which the human body converts to trimethylamine N-oxide via FMO3-mediated oxidation. Certain microorganisms perform tasks that are known to be useful to the human host but the role of most of them is not well understood.
|
|
The relationship between some gut flora and humans is not merely commensal (a non-harmful coexistence), but rather a mutualistic relationship. Some human gut microorganisms benefit the host by fermenting dietary fiber into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as acetic acid and butyric acid, which are then absorbed by the host. Intestinal bacteria also play a role in synthesizing vitamin B and vitamin K as well as metabolizing bile acids, sterols, and xenobiotics. The systemic importance of the SCFAs and other compounds they produce are like hormones and the gut flora itself appears to function like an endocrine organ, and dysregulation of the gut flora has been correlated with a host of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions.
|
|
Blind loop syndrome (BLS), also known as stagnant loop syndrome, is a state that occurs when the normal bacterial flora of the small intestine proliferates to numbers that cause significant derangement to the normal physiological processes of digestion and absorption. In some cases of blind loop syndrome, overgrowth of pathogenic non-commensal bacteria has also been noted. It has long been understood that from birth, and throughout life, large amounts of bacteria reside symbiotically within animal gastrointestinal tracts such as the human gastrointestinal tract. The understanding of this gut flora has even led to novel treatments for bowel irregularity that utilize so called "probiotics" or good bacteria that aid in normal digestion.
|
|
Sea turtles are believed to have a commensal relationship with some barnacles, in which the barnacles benefit from growing on sea turtles without harming them. Barnacles are small, hard-shelled crustaceans found attached to multiple different substrates below or just above the ocean. The adult barnacle is a sessile organism, however in its larval stage it is planktonic and can move about the water column. The larval stage chooses where to settle and ultimately the habitat for its full adult life, which is typically between 5 and 10 years. However, estimates of age for a common sea turtle barnacle species, Chelonibia testudinaria, suggest that this species lives for at least 21 months, with individuals older than this uncommon.
|
|
One of the more salient applications of engineering behaviors and interactions between microbes in a community is the ability to combine or even switch metabolisms. The combination of autotrophic and heterotrophic microbes allows the unique possibility of a self-sufficient community that may produce desired biofuels to be collected. Co-culture dyads of autotrophic Synechococcus elongatus and heterotrophic Escherichia coli were found to be able to grow synchronously when the strain of S. elongatus was transformed to include a gene for sucrose export. The commensal combination of the sucrose- producing cyanobacteria with the modified E. coli metabolism may allow for a diverse array of metabolic products such as various butanol biofuels, terpenoids, and fatty-acid derived fuels.
|
|
Pulpitis may be caused by bacteria from dental caries that penetrate through the enamel and dentin to reach the pulp, or it may be mechanical, a result of trauma, such as physical abuse of the tooth from excessive orthodontic force during orthodontic treatment and drilling or thermal insults, including overheating from insufficiently cooled dental drills and use of dental curing lights. More often it is from physical trauma rather than dental treatments. Inflammation is commonly associated with a bacterial infection but can also be due to other insults such as repetitive trauma or in rare cases periodontitis. The inflammation of dental pulp is mainly caused by an opportunistic infection of the pulp by a commensal oral microorganism.
|
|
As a result of microbial symbiosis and immunity, alterations in the gut microbiome may contribute to inflammatory gut diseases. IBD-affected individuals have been found to have 30–50 percent reduced biodiversity of commensal bacteria, such as decreases in Firmicutes (namely Lachnospiraceae) and Bacteroidetes. Further evidence of the role of gut flora in the cause of inflammatory bowel disease is that IBD-affected individuals are more likely to have been prescribed antibiotics in the 2–5 year period before their diagnosis than unaffected individuals. The enteral bacteria can be altered by environmental factors, such as concentrated milk fats (a common ingredient of processed foods and confectionery) or oral medications such as antibiotics and oral iron preparations.
|
|
Amblyeleotris wheeleri, the Gorgeous prawn-goby, is a species of goby native to tropical reefs of the Indian Ocean to the western Pacific Ocean. It can be found at depths of from though is usually does not occur deeper than . It is a commensal with alpheid shrimps, most often being found in association with Alpheus ochrostriatus. This species can reach a length of SL. It can also be found in the aquarium trade. The specific name honours the English ichthyologist Alwynne Cooper Wheeler (1929-2005), who was curator of Fishes at the British Museum (Natural History), "for his help over the years, particularly with the authors’ study of prawn-associated gobies of the Seychelles".
|
|
This is not without controversy, as there is widespread consensus in the scientific community that king crabs are derived from hermit crabs and closely related to pagurid hermit crabs, and therefore a separate superfamily in the classification poorly reflects the phylogenetic relationship of this taxon. Species of the king crab, including Neolithodes diomedeae, use a species of sea cucumber often referred to as sea pigs (Scotoplanes Sp. A) as hosts and can be found on top of and under Scotoplanes. The Scotoplanes reduce the risk of predation for the N. diomedeae, while the Scotoplanes are not harmed from being hosts, which supports the consensus that the two organisms have a commensal relationship.
|
|
When enough food is gathered, the worm moves forward in its burrow and swallows the net and entangled food. This process is repeated, and in an area with plenty of detritus, may be completed in only a few minutes. Faecal pellets accumulate around the worm's anus, and periodically the worm contracts its body sharply to produce a stream of water from the anus that blasts the pellets and loose sediment from the tube, creating a casting on the surface of the sand. Larger food particles are rejected and discarded in the burrow where they provide food for the many different commensal organisms which share the burrow, resulting in this spoonworm being known as the "innkeeper worm".
|
|
Probiotic bacteria such as Lactobacilli are able to modulate the activity of the Ub-proteasome system via inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in epithelial cells. In mammalian cells, ROS have been shown to serve as critical second messengers in multiple signal transduction pathways in response to proinflammatory cytokines. Bacterially induced ROS causes oxidative inactivation of the catalytic cysteine residue of Ub 12 resulting in incomplete but transient loss of cullin-1 neddylation and consequent effects on NF-κB and β-catenin signaling. Another commensal species, B. thetaiotaomicron, attenuates pro-inflammatory cytokine expression by promoting nuclear export of NF-κB subunit RelA, through a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ)-dependent pathway.
|
|
Although it is not known exactly how MHC-specific odors are recognized, it is currently believed that proteins bound to the peptide-binding groove of the MHC may produce the odorant. Each MHC protein binds to a specific peptide sequence, yielding a set of uniquely bound peptide-MHC complexes for each individual. During cellular turnover, the MHC-peptide complex is shed from the cell surface and the fragments are dispensed in bodily fluids such as blood serum, saliva, and urine. Scientists believe that commensal microflora, microorganisms that line epithelial surfaces open to the external environment such as the gastrointestinal tract and vagina, further degrade these fragments, which are made volatile by this process.
|
|
Recent studies have demonstrated that specific components of the microbiota, as well as their metabolites, selectively promote the activation and the expansion of different T cell subsets under normal and/or pathological conditions. For example, colonization with Staphylococcus epidermidis may have diverse effects, as promote the growth of IL-17A+ CD8+ T cells that reside in the epidermis. This, would limit pathogen invasion improving innate immune barrier in an IL-17 dependent manner. According to an investigation led by US researchers, skin- resident CD11b+ dendritic cells would be the ones to orchestrate a specific response after interacting with commensal bacteria stimulating the proliferation of IL-17A+ CD8+ T cells through their capacity to produce IL-1.
|
|
T. Whary, S. J. Danon, Y. Feng, Z. Ge, N. Sundina, V. Ng, N. S. Taylor, A. B. Rogers and J. G. Fox. Rapid onset of ulcerative typhlocolitis in B6.129P2-IL10tm1Cgn (IL-10-/-) mice infected with Helicobacter trogontum is associated with decreased colonization by altered Schaedler’s flora. 2006. Infect. Immun. 74(12):6615.] In another summary, Fox examined the relationship between microbiome of the gut and the onset of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) with the infection of H. bilis. H. bilis is noted to elicit heterologous immune response to lower gut flora, in both activating pro-inflammatory cytokine and dendritic cell activity and probiotic anti-inflammatory activity due to the presentation of commensal antigens.
|
|
The changes in foraging style may have contributed to a greater population density and decreased territorial behavior of the Mrčaru population. Another difference found between the two populations was the discovery, in the Mrčaru lizards, of cecal valves, which slow down food passage and provide fermenting chambers, allowing commensal microorganisms to convert cellulose to nutrients digestible by the lizards. Additionally, the researchers discovered that nematodes were common in the guts of Mrčaru lizards, but absent from Kopište P. siculus, which do not have cecal valves. The cecal valves, which occur in less than 1 percent of all known species of scaled reptiles, have been described as an "adaptive novelty, a brand new feature not present in the ancestral population and newly evolved in these lizards".
|
|
A microscopy image of a sample of human breast milk The human milk microbiota, also known as human milk probiotics (HMP), refers to the microbiota (community of microorganisms) residing in the human mammary glands and breast milk. Human breast milk has been traditionally assumed to be sterile, but more recently both microbial culture and culture-independent techniques have confirmed that human milk contains diverse communities of bacteria which are distinct from other microbial communities inhabiting the human body. The human milk microbiota which could be source of commensal, mutualistic, and potentially probiotic bacteria to the infant gut microbiota. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines "probiotics" as "living organisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host".
|
|
It is known that Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria can suppress the growth of pathogenic microorganisms such as Salmonella typhimurium and Clostridium perfringens by colonization of a child's intestine and competing for nutrients, thus preventing their adhesion. Intestinal colonization by commensal bacteria also plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis of immune system. These bacteria stimulate the T helper 1 response and counteract the trend towards a T helper 2 response of neonatal immune system, which in turn reducing the incidence of the inflammatory processes such as necrotizing enterocolitis. Children with colic symptoms possibly have an imbalance in the intestinal microbiota – analyses of faecal samples found higher counts of coliform bacteria and lower counts of Lactobacilli in infants with colic symptoms compared with children not suffering from colic.
|
|
A pair of Drosophila endobranchiae on the carapace of Gecarcinus ruricola G. ruricola is the host organism for two species of commensal flies in the genus Drosophila. They were first observed on Montserrat by Henry Guernsey Hubbard in 1894, and presented at a scientific meeting later that year (where the crab was misidentified as Cardisoma guanhumi), but no further research was conducted until 1955, when specimens were again collected, this time from Mona Island, and named as Drosophila carcinophila by M. R. Wheeler. In 1967, a second species of fly, Drosophila endobranchia was discovered on Gecarcinus ruricola, although it also inhabits the closely related species Gecarcinus lateralis. Drosohila endrobranchia is not closely related to D. carcinophila, and this trait appears therefore to have evolved convergently.
|
|
Candida glabrata is a species of haploid yeast of the genus Candida, previously known as Torulopsis glabrata. Despite the fact that no sexual life cycle has been documented for this species, C. glabrata strains of both mating types are commonly found. C. glabrata is generally a commensal of human mucosal tissues, but in today's era of wider human immunodeficiency from various causes (for example, therapeutic immunomodulation, longer survival with various comorbidities such as diabetes, and HIV infection), C. glabrata is often the second or third most common cause of candidiasis as an opportunistic pathogen. Infections caused by C. glabrata can affect the urogenital tract or even cause systemic infections by entrance of the fungal cells in the bloodstream (Candidemia), especially prevalent in immunocompromised patients.
|
|
Staphylococcus aureus on basic cultivation media Hemolysis on blood agar, DNase activity, clumping factor, latex agglutination, growth on mannitol-salt and Baird-Parker agar, hyaluronidase production. Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium that is a member of the Firmicutes, and it is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need for oxygen. Although S. aureus usually acts as a commensal of the human microbiota it can also become an opportunistic pathogen, being a common cause of skin infections including abscesses, respiratory infections such as sinusitis, and food poisoning.
|
|
They describe these ancient signals as danger-associated molecular patterns, or DAMPs. In a 2013 article in Nature Immunology, Matzinger makes a case for what she now views as the most important implication of the danger model: that the tissues of the body are a large part of what drive immune response. She argues that immunologists have had overly simplistic and schematic ideas about immune response because of the limits of their assays, and that organs are likely to induce immune responses that are best-suited to defending the organ from the damage of microbes but also from the damage of the immune system itself. She also asserts that the relationship of the immune system to commensal bacteria remains poorly understood but is likely to be important.
|
|
The changes in foraging style may have contributed to a greater population density and decreased territorial behavior of the Mrčaru population. Another difference found between the two populations was the discovery, in the Mrčaru lizards, of cecal valves, which slow down food passage and provide fermenting chambers, allowing commensal microorganisms to convert cellulose to nutrients digestible by the lizards. Additionally, the researchers discovered that nematodes were common in the guts of Mrčaru lizards, but absent from Kopište P. sicula, which do not have cecal valves. The cecal valves, which occur in less than 1 percent of all known species of scaled reptiles, have been described as an "adaptive novelty, a brand new feature not present in the ancestral population and newly evolved in these lizards".
|
|
The dog was the first domesticated animal, and was domesticated and widely established across Eurasia before the end of the Pleistocene, well before the cultivation of crops or the domestication of other animals. The dog is often hypothesised to be a classic example of a domestic animal that likely traveled a commensal pathway into domestication. Archaeological evidence, such as the Bonn- Oberkassel dog dating to ~14,000BP, supports the hypothesis that dog domestication preceded the emergence of agriculture and began close to the Last Glacial Maximum when hunter-gatherers preyed on megafauna. The wolves more likely drawn to human camps were the less-aggressive, subdominant pack members with lowered flight response, higher stress thresholds, and less wary around humans, and therefore better candidates for domestication.
|
|
In humans, the gut flora is established at one to two years after birth; by that time, the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes have co-developed in a way that is tolerant to, and even supportive of, the gut flora and that also provides a barrier to pathogenic organisms. The relationship between gut flora and humans is not merely commensal (a non- harmful coexistence), but rather a mutualistic relationship. Human gut microorganisms benefit the host by collecting the energy from the fermentation of undigested carbohydrates and the subsequent absorption of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), acetate, butyrate, and propionate. Intestinal bacteria also play a role in synthesizing vitamin B and vitamin K as well as metabolizing bile acids, sterols, and xenobiotics.
|
|
The adaptive immunity, mediated by antibodies and T cells, is only found in vertebrates. Whereas all of them have a gut-associated lymphoid tissue and the vast majority have a version of spleen and thymus, not all vertebrates show bone marrow, lymph nodes or germinal centers, what means that not all vertebrates can generate lymphocytes in bone marrow. This different distribution of the adaptive organs in the different groups of vertebrates suggests GALT as the very first part of the adaptive immune system in vertebrates. It has been suggested that from this existing GALT, and due to the pressure put by commensal bacteria in gut that coevolved with vertebrates, later specializations as thymus, spleen or lymph nodes appeared as part of the adaptive immune system.
|
|
They are also known to imitate the calls of species (and possibly even behaviour as it was once recorded to fluff up and moving head and body like a jungle babbler when imitating its calls) that typically are members of mixed-species flocks such as babblers and it has been suggested that this has a role in the formation of mixed-species flocks. In some places they have been found to be kleptoparasitic on others in mixed-species flock, particularly laughingthrushes but they are most often involved in mutualistic and commensal relations. Several observers have found this drongo associating with foraging woodpeckers and there is a report of one following a troop of macaques. The greater racket-tailed drongo is a resident breeder throughout its range.
|
|
The commensal consumption of energy-dense low nutrient foods is considered to be appropriated during long stretches of gameplay to contribute to the community and hedonistic aspects of social gaming. In response to the central importance that food plays in the collective enjoyment of social gaming, various websites have been created which allow gamers to rate their favorite foods to accompany play. The presence of rituals, shared discourse, collective action, and even a liminal food culture among video game communities gives credence to the concept of these cohorts existing as self-defining sub-units within mainstream culture. However, due to the ephemeral and transient nature of their rituals, and also the possibility of virtual interaction through online participation, these cohorts should be considered 'postmodern subcultures'.
|
|
The purpose of this mechanism to create NO is thought to be both sterilization of swallowed food (to prevent food poisoning) and to maintain gastric mucosal blood flow. The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway elevates nitric oxide through the sequential reduction of dietary nitrate derived from plant-based foods. Nitrate-rich vegetables, in particular leafy greens, such as spinach and arugula, and beetroot, have been shown to increase cardioprotective levels of nitric oxide with a corresponding reduction in blood pressure in pre-hypertensive persons. For the body to generate nitric oxide through the nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway, the reduction of nitrate to nitrite (by nitrate reductase, a bacterial enzyme) occurs in the mouth, by commensal bacteria, an obligatory and necessary step.
|
|
Traditional "kiveve" is made using the following ingredients: a pumpkin or "andai" with a deep orange flesh and sweet flavor, cooked and pureed; sugar, a kind of cornmeal with a consistency between corn starch and corn flour (harina de maíz), and fresh cheese. It's served mildly warm or already cool in a bowl, each commensal pours in milk to taste. The pumpkin is peeled, cubed and boiled in water. When cubes are tender enough the preparation is pureed with a blender or smashed in its own cooking liquid in the same pot, then sugar is added, and finally corn flour is sifted all over the bland puree in the pot while stirring the mixture in the fire, keep stirring for about 10 minutes, or until the corn flour is completely cooked.
|
|
One of the most relevant discoveries of her group is that DC are able to produce interleukin 2 (IL2)Citation in the reference list from Nature Medicine 17, 604–609 (2011), PubMed upon activation with appropriate microbial or sterile signals. The IL2 cytokine was thought to act only during adaptive immune responses, but is now recognized as a key player in both innate and adaptive immunity. To activate the transcription of IL2, DC (and their progenitors) use the calcineurin/NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T cells) mediated signaling pathway. In addition to their work on IL2, her group has shown that DC play a key role in mucosal tissues, such as the lamina propria of the intestinal villi where DC have a sentinel functions and sense the gut commensal flora with dendrites.
|
|
It has been found that in areas where heavy fishing takes place, the number of urchins is increased because their natural predators are less abundant and as a consequence, greater damage to the reef takes place. A commensal shrimp, Athanas areteformi, lives among the spines of this sea urchin and its appearance is mimicked by the mantis shrimp, Echinosquilla guerinii, which conceals itself in a hole in the rock with only its spiny telson visible. Copper is having a detrimental effect to larvae at 0.02 mg/l, and adults have 48- and 96-h TL50 values of 0.54 and 0.30 mg/l. Fertilization success was also reduced to 50% in 0.18 mg/L, and cleavage of the 8-cell stage as well, at 0.42 mg/l of Cu++.
|
|
In the U.S.A. Brachyspira- associated pig disease and isolation of Brachyspira species from swine with diarrheal disease largely disappeared from swine herds in the late 1990s and early 2000s, but returned in the mid-2000s for unknown reasons. A 2011 study of isolates from Midwestern swine herds described major changes in Brachyspira spp frequency and hemolysis, i.e. pathogenicity: the majority of isolated Brachyspira species were previously considered minimally pathogenic or commensal, like Brachyspira murdochi (27%)or novel/unclassifiable Brachyspira species (25%), while only 40.5% of 79 isolates from diseased pigs could be confirmed as the classic pathogens B. hyodysenteriae or Brachyspira pilosicoli by PCR.Clothier KA, Kinyon JM, Frana TS, Naberhaus N, Bower L, Strait EL, Schwartz K.Species characterization and minimum inhibitory concentration patterns of Brachyspira species isolates from swine with clinical disease.
|
|
In humans, the gut microbiota has the largest numbers of bacteria and the greatest number of species compared to other areas of the body. In humans, the gut flora is established at one to two years after birth, by which time the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes have co-developed in a way that is tolerant to, and even supportive of, the gut flora and that also provides a barrier to pathogenic organisms. The relationship between some gut flora and humans is not merely commensal (a non-harmful coexistence), but rather a mutualistic relationship. Some human gut microorganisms benefit the host by fermenting dietary fiber into short- chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as acetic acid and butyric acid, which are then absorbed by the host.
|
|
Perhaps a warm period during the Quaternary enabled the rice rat to disperse northward and when the climate cooled, relict populations were able to survive in the north as commensals in corn-cultivating Native American communities.Richards, 1980, pp. 429–430 Some subfossil animals are slightly larger than living marsh rice rats, possibly because environmental constraints were relaxed in commensal populations.Richards, 1980, pp. 426, 429 In Tamaulipas and southern Texas, the ranges of the marsh rice rat and the related Oryzomys couesi meet;Schmidt and Engstrom, 1994, p. 914 in parts of Kenedy, Willacy and Cameron counties, Texas, and in far northeastern Tamaulipas, the two are sympatric (occur in the same places).Schmidt and Engstrom, 1994, p. 916 In experimental conditions, they fail to interbreedSchmidt and Engstrom, 1994, pp.
|
|
Domesticated dairy cows in North India The prey pathway was the way in which most major livestock species entered into domestication as these were once hunted by humans for their meat. Domestication was likely initiated when humans began to experiment with hunting strategies designed to increase the availability of these prey, perhaps as a response to localized pressure on the supply of the animal. Over time and with the more responsive species, these game-management strategies developed into herd-management strategies that included the sustained multi-generational control over the animals’ movement, feeding, and reproduction. As human interference in the life-cycles of prey animals intensified, the evolutionary pressures for a lack of aggression would have led to an acquisition of the same domestication syndrome traits found in the commensal domesticates.
|
|
The Shaper Captain-Doctor Simon Afriel, a passenger in an Investor ship, arrives at an asteroid in another solar system to study a colony of a non- intelligent species known as the Swarm. Their society has an insect-like hierarchy with a queen and different castes, and also hosts some degenerated alien species known with a common name as symbiotes which live as parasites or in commensal relationships with the others. Afriel plans to stay for two years and study it, together with another Shaper called Galina Mirny who was already there. Their intentions are partly to prevent the Mechanists from benefiting from it, and partly to find a way to use the hive pheromones to control and manipulate the species, so they can establish a colony in their own solar system and make them work for them.
|
|
Another androgenic hormone responsible for increased sebaceous gland activity is DHEA-S. The adrenal glands secrete higher amounts of DHEA-S during adrenarche (a stage of puberty), and this leads to an increase in sebum production. In a sebum-rich skin environment, the naturally occurring and largely commensal skin bacterium C. acnes readily grows and can cause inflammation within and around the follicle due to activation of the innate immune system. C. acnes triggers skin inflammation in acne by increasing the production of several pro-inflammatory chemical signals (such as IL-1α, IL-8, TNF-α, and LTB4); IL-1α is essential to comedo formation. C. acnes' ability to bind and activate a class of immune system receptors known as toll-like receptors (TLRs), especially TLR2 and TLR4, is a core mechanism of acne-related skin inflammation.
|
|
Most species of Careproctus are poorly known, but they feed on small animals and some have unusual breeding behaviors: At least C. ovigerus appears to be a mouth brooder where the eggs are carried and develop in the males' mouth. C. fulvus has a commensal relationship with glass sponges, laying their eggs in the paragastral cavity. Several other Careproctus species are parasitic on king crabs (at least Lithodes, Neolithodes and Paralithodes, and likely Lopholithodes), laying their egg mass in the gill chamber of the crab, forming a well-protected and well-aerated mobile "home" until they hatch. As far as known, these parasitic Careproctus are not host specific, but will use various king crab species, and on occasion an individual king crab may even carry the eggs of more than one Careproctus species at the same time.
|
|
In contrast, harmless bacteria do not cause the translocation of NF- κB into the nucleus thus preventing the inflammation although they can express the same microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). One possible mechanism explaining this effect was suggested by Neish showing that non-pathogenic S. typhimurium PhoPc and S. pullorum are able to prohibit the ubiquitination of NF-κB inhibitor molecule nuclear factor of NF-κB light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor alpha (IκB-κ). Another explanation of commensal tolerance of the epithelium refers to the post-translational modification of a protein by the covalent attachment of one or more ubiquitin (Ub) monomers. The inhibition of ubiquitination leads to reduction of inflammation, because only polyubiquitinated (IκB-κ is targeted for degradation by the 26 S proteasome, allowing NF-κB translocation to the nucleus and activation the transcription of effector genes (for example IL-8).
|
|
E. cloacae was described for the first time in 1890 by Jordan[201] as Bacillus cloacae, and then underwent numerous taxonomical changes, becoming 'Bacterium cloacae' in 1896 (Lehmann and Neumann), Cloaca cloacae in 1919 (Castellani and Chalmers), it was identified as 'Aerobacter cloacae' in 1923 (Bergey et al.), Aerobacter cloacae in 1958 (Hormaeche and Edwards) and E. cloacae in 1960 (Hormaeche and Edwards), by which it is still known today.[7] E. cloacae is ubiquitous in terrestrial and aquatic environments (water, sewage, soil and food). These strains occur as commensal microflora in the intestinal tracts of humans and animals[1] and play an important role as pathogens in plants and insects. This diversity of habitats is mirrored by the genetic variety of the nomenspecies E. cloacae.[6] E. cloacae is also an important nosocomial pathogen responsible for bacteremia and lower respiratory tract, urinary tract and intra-abdominal infections, as well as endocarditis, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis and skin and soft tissue infections.
|
|
Ctenogobiops tangaroai, the silver-spotted shrimp-goby, is a species of bony fish of the family Gobiidae, native to the reefs which is widespread in the Indo-West Pacific, from the Red Sea and Western Indian Ocean through northern Australia and Taiwan, southern Japan and Fiji. It occurs in fine-grained sand patches at depths of from where it is commensal with alpheid shrimps, with a fish and shrimp sharing a burrow. This species can reach a length of TL. It can also be found in the aquarium trade. It is pale in colour marked with four rows of brown spots or dashes along its flanks, three diagonal rows of short, dark stripes on the posterior of its head with larger dark spots on the lower flanks which are frequently surrounded by smaller blue spots and there is a small white stripe above the pectoral fin base with a longer white streak on the pectoral fin.
|
|
From Spanish tradition puchero, Uruguayan puchero differs not much from others of the region, it is like a rough soup where dry ingredients are separated from the broth after cooked to make two separate preparations, a new soup that is first consumed, and later the soup all the other succulent ingredients are consumed with bread. A typical puchero may contain all type of cuts with bones, skirt steak, ossobucco, bacon, cabbage, sweet corn, rape, onions, celery, carrot, sweet potato, squash, and potatoes. All these ingredients cut in big pieces are cooked and served, with the broth are made different soups containing small noodles, rice or any cereal of predilection. It is usual that each commensal makes their puree on his dish with all the cooked vegetables that have been served, aligning it with oil if desired, and also to take off the caracu (bone marrow) from the ossobucco bone and spread it over pieced bread.
|
|
The earliest sign of domestication in dogs was the neotonization of skull morphology and the shortening of snout length that results in tooth crowding, reduction in tooth size, and a reduction in the number of teeth, which has been attributed to the strong selection for reduced aggression. This process may have begun during the initial commensal stage of dog domestication, even before humans began to be active partners in the process. A mitochondrial, microsatellite, and Y-chromosome assessment of two wolf populations in North America combined with satellite telemetry data revealed significant genetic and morphological differences between one population that migrated with and preyed upon caribou and another territorial ecotype population that remained in a boreal coniferous forest. Although these two populations spend a period of the year in the same place, and though there was evidence of gene flow between them, the difference in prey–habitat specialization has been sufficient to maintain genetic and even coloration divergence.
|
|
The Australian salmon are very fast swimmers, and are sometimes seen mingling with ostensibly similar species of carangids, such as trevally; this is an example of mutualism. Together with the carangids, Australian salmon feed en masse by co-operatively bullying baitfish up to the surface; this herding technique is exploited by seabirds which are quickly attracted to, and feed upon, the foaming mass of fish at the surface. This commensal relationship between the Australian salmon and the birds is noted to be especially strong in such species as the white-fronted tern, (Sterna striata), fluttering shearwater, (Puffinus gavia), and Buller's shearwater, (Puffinus bulleri). The baitfish made available by the Australian salmon's herding behaviour may also be important to the reproductive success of winter-nesting birds; the decline of the Australians salmon stocks has evoked concern for these bird species, some of which – such as the fairy tern, (Sterna nereis) – are endangeredKahawai – Letter to Marine Conservation Unit www.option4.co.
|
|
In Colombia, the brown hairy dwarf porcupine was recorded from only two mountain localities in the 1920s, while the red crested soft-furred spiny rat is known only from its type locality on the Caribbean coast, so these species are considered vulnerable. The IUCN Species Survival Commission writes "We can safely conclude that many South American rodents are seriously threatened, mainly by environmental disturbance and intensive hunting". The "three now cosmopolitan commensal rodent pest species" 3–5 March 1992 (the brown rat, the black rat and the house mouse) have been dispersed in association with humans, partly on sailing ships in the Age of Exploration, and with a fourth species in the Pacific, the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), have severely damaged island biotas around the world. For example, when the black rat reached Lord Howe Island in 1918, over 40 percent of the terrestrial bird species of the island, including the Lord Howe fantail, became extinct within ten years.
|
|
Chronological dispersal of Austronesian peoples across the Indo-Pacific One of the major human migration events was the maritime settlement of the islands of the Indo-Pacific by the Austronesian peoples, believed to have started from at least 5,500 to 4,000 BP (3500 to 2000 BC). These migrations were accompanied by a set of domesticated, semi-domesticated, and commensal plants and animals transported via outrigger ships and catamarans that enabled early Austronesians to thrive in the islands of Maritime Southeast Asia, Near Oceania (Melanesia), and Remote Oceania (Micronesia and Polynesia), Madagascar, and the Comoros Islands. They include crops and animals believed to have originated from the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures in the hypothetical pre-Austronesian homelands in mainland China, as well as other plants and animals believed to have been first domesticated from within Taiwan, Island Southeast Asia, and New Guinea. Some of these plants are sometimes also known as "canoe plants", especially in the context of the Polynesian migrations.
|
|
Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities. Similarly, Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague. Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person. This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and human fleas during the second plague pandemic.
|
|
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies of Pterygodermatites peromysci have not been conducted yet, but might provide scientists with an understanding about how the it causes pathology in the gastrointestinal tract of the host, as worms have been found in vitro as large as 38 mm in a host mouse with a body length size of 90 mm. In a case where 8 of these adult worms were discovered in a mouse it was noted that the mouse had a very inflamed and damaged gut from the internal damage of pressure on host tissues (1). However, scanning electron microscopy studies have been conducted on Pterygodermatites bovieri in which the definitive host is bats (2) and on Pterygodermatites mesopectines which has been noted to parasitize a commensal rodent, Mastomys natalensis (3) so a comparison SEM study of the morphology of the head of P. peromysci with previously SEM studied species may present interesting results since SEM studies of the Pterygodermatites species which infects a rodent (Mastomys natalensis) has already been worked out.
|
|