A set of disparate elements comprise one or several complex wholes.
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Two halves don't make a whole, two wholes make a whole.
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Hutchinson's poems are prosy, often not quite wholes, just fragments of sensibility.
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Amazon and Wholes Foods just announced that two-hour delivery on groceries from Whole Foods Market is here.
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As united wholes, though, both solo discs feel gratuitously one-dimensional compared to what they're capable of together.
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So while neural nets may be good at low-level perception, they aren't as good at understanding integrated wholes.
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His work merges physical elements into composite wholes, thereby attempting to challenge the viewer's consciousness about the built environment.
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It's also misleading to treat most series, even the greats, like fully formed wholes set down according to careful design.
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The wholes and parts of bodies in Quarles's cheerfully orgiastic pictures entangle in alternating styles of line, stroke, stain, and smear.
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For Xie, the disintegrations of travel can be mended—"fixed"—in her work, where scattered impressions are gathered up into formal and rhetorical wholes.
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And like the theory of emergence, the constituent graphics coalesce into larger wholes, which move in mesmerizing patterns and at various depths within the video's frames.
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In it, he emphasized the anti-holistic aspects of French Post-Structuralist theory and their opposition to metaphysical wholes and grand narratives (theories that provide totalizing explanations).
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This post is mostly about what a script is and can be, and how to start putting things together into more complex and much more useful wholes.
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Throughout, a dark view of American life and power is offset by a passion for melding small bits and pieces of reality into unlikely, often ecstatic wholes.
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Students are given the root clause, and must complete the sentence with a new clause following each conjunction: Fractions are like decimals because they are all parts of wholes.
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I know that I live at the intersection of both identities, but sometimes it can feel like being black and gay is to live in between two mutually exclusive wholes.
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The CEO told investors it expects Amazon's decision to purchase Wholes will benefit the company as it highlights the value of Hain's brands and will allow the for greater penetration in the market.
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This is a pretty bare-bones, limiting, and ultimately misleading way to go about things, as the power of the Python language and any other language is in putting all of these pieces together into more powerful wholes.
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We cherish Downes's evidence that painting can be truer than photography to the ways that our eyes process the world: reaping patches of tone and color which our brains combine very rapidly, but not instantly, into seamless wholes.
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As an old saying goes "You may know by a handful the wholes sack", and the market also think so, some people warn that EU's position to data security means it's just a start for more comprehensive regulations to tech companies.
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Smuts went on to develop this approach as "holism," which he outlined in another treatise: Evolution pushed humans and societies to join ever larger wholes, from small local units to nations and commonwealths, culminating in global forms of association like the League.
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Like Cattelan and Ferrari today, Rosenquist in the '60s incorporated bland, everyday images into his bizarre, juxtapositional compositions, placing seemingly unrelated elements together to form wackily cohesive wholes that transmit how overloading the senses has become an everyday occurrence in an urban and highly industrialized society.
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I make some 11 or more mayonnaises — one yolk, one whole, three yolks no wholes, triple yolk no garlic, triple garlic no mustard, one whole two yolk, two yolks six cloves, dry mustard, wet mustard, saffron, Pernod, olive oil, grapeseed oil, blended neutral oil — and I'd guess you do, too.
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Spare and simple objects, such as leaves, vases, tubes, rocks, and dirt, agglutinate in her still life photographs into more complex, interrelated wholes; in the box sculptures, found industrial objects — for example, a mining axe; a car engine heating coil — are covered in tangles of rope that resemble a game of cat's cradle gone awry.
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There are a couple possibilities here: it could just be an album sampler for a record coming next year ("Serving and Portions" implies these chopped up parts are just bits of various wholes), or it could be that I'm too dumb to understand Jack White's larger project, and he's actually now redefining the concept of what a song is.
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In 2012–13, Shechet had residencies in the Meissen manufactory, during and after which she made three-dimensional porcelain collages by splicing together scavenged factory molds, semi-functional fragments and dissociated wholes: In "Idol," 2012, an asparagus dish, a kiln brick, the figure of a lamb crowned with a broken eggshell and a rosebud glazed in 24-karat gold.
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A partial ingredient list for laphet thoke, a dish commonly categorized as a salad (such are the limitations of the English language), includes mulchy fermented tea leaves with enough caffeine to twang the nerves like a harp, set against strips of fresh, crunchy cabbage; garlic in translucent teardrops and disks of green chile, flaunting their perilous seeds; a briny spoor of dried shrimp and fish sauce; tomatoes in skinny slurs, for just a squeeze of juice, and bright lashings of lime; and pops of sesame seeds and roasted peanuts, buttery wholes and halves alongside crunchier, roughly broken shards.
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I trust you will have read nothing like this title before on a museum wall: Viola, from New Orleans-ah, an African Woman, was the 19th century's rescue worker, a global business goods raker, combed, tilled the land of Commerce, giving America a certain extra extra excess culture, to cultivate it, making home for aliens not registered, made business of the finer, finer, had occupations, darning thread not leisure with reason and with luster in "peek a boo" racial disguises preoccupied in circulating commerce, entertaining white folks, pulling and punching holes in barriers, place that where was once barren, without them, white banks made of mustard and made friendly folks feel home, welcomed and married immigrants from far noted how they been also starved, fled from servitude and colonial dangers, ships like dungeons, pushing coal in termite wholes, churning fire, but always learning, folding, washing, welcomed as aliens.
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Since a holon is embedded in larger wholes, it is influenced by and influences these larger wholes. And since a holon also contains subsystems, or parts, it is similarly influenced by and influences these parts. Information flows bidirectionally between smaller and larger systems as well as rhizomatic contagion. When this bidirectionality of information flow and understanding of role is compromised, for whatever reason, the system begins to break down: wholes no longer recognize their dependence on their subsidiary parts, and parts no longer recognize the organizing authority of the wholes.
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Then, there is the identity theory which claims that there is no hierarchy or fundamentality to parts and wholes. Instead wholes are just (or equivalent to) their parts. There can also be a two-object view which says that the wholes are not equal to the parts—they are numerically distinct from one another. Each of these theories has benefits and costs associated with them.
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He concluded that, although it is easy to identify sub-wholes or parts, wholes and parts in an absolute sense do not exist anywhere. Koestler proposed the word holon to describe the hybrid nature of sub-wholes and parts within in vivo systems. From this perspective, holons exist simultaneously as self-contained wholes in relation to their sub-ordinate parts, and as dependent parts when considered from the inverse direction. Koestler also says that holons are self-reliant units that possess a degree of independence and can handle contingencies without asking higher authorities for instructions. I.e.
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They constitute units of meaning, and these units are stored as multi-part wholes in the lexicon.
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In L.L. Whyte (Ed.), Aspects of form. London and Bradford, England: Percy Lund Humphries&Co.; Similarly, when people represent imagery with graphic media, they naturally create figures and backgrounds. Then, they tend to recognize their own tendency toward completing wholes and effecting closure of unfinished parts of wholes.
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Koslicki is best known for her defense of a neo-Aristotelian, structure-based theory of parts and wholes.
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John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. (p. 5). “The systems paradigm is concerned with wholes and their properties. It is holistic, but not in the usual (vulgar) sense of taking in the whole; systems concepts are concerned with wholes and their hierarchical arrangement rather than with the whole.” Source: Checkland, P. (1993) Systems Thinking, Systems Practice.
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Unity is the metaproperty, indicated by +U, of classes all of whose individuals are wholes under the same relation. Like identity, OntoClean does not require that the relation itself be specified, often it is enough to know that the relation exists. Intuitively, a class has unity if all its instances are the same type of whole, and is typically true of classes of natural objects. Non-unity, indicated by -U, is the meta-property of classes whose instances are not all wholes, or not all wholes by the same relation.
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In Szondi's theory, each "need" (a link between genes and behavior) comprises a polarity of positive and negative tendencies. Needs also group together in polarities to form larger wholes called "instinctual drives." Together, behavior tendencies, needs, and drives combine to form patterned wholes. Szondi created a drive theory that determines that every drive has at least four genes.
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In metaphysics there are many troubling questions pertaining to parts and wholes. One question addresses constitution and persistence, another asks about composition.
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Compositional objects are wholes instantiated by collections of parts. If an ontology wishes to permit the inclusion of compositional objects it must define which collections of objects are to be considered parts composing a whole. Mereology, the study of relationships between parts and their wholes, provides specifications on how parts must relate to one another in order to compose a whole.
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"Of parts and wholes: International Relations beyond the human." Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 41(3), pp.430-450. explore the infrastructures of world politics,Barry, A., 2013.
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However, as Taylor's reliance on restitutive justice suggests, biocentric ethics may need the value of ecological wholes to solve its serious practical problems and compensate for harmed individuals.
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There are certain properties that only hold of individuals that are wholes. In formal ontology, wholes are often distinguished from mere sums, which are individuals whose boundaries are, in a sense, arbitrary. For example, consider the class clay. An instance of this class might be some amount of the material (this is only one possible meaning, of course), such that any (in fact, every) arbitrary subsection of the amount would be a different instance of the same class.
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At the time of Candrakīrti, the Prāsaṅgika discerned three levels of dependent origination:Just Another Word for Nothing Left to Lose: Freedom, Agency and Ethics for Mādhyamikas, by Jay Garfield Smith College (2013) in press. # Pratītyasamutpāda or 'dependent arising.' All things arise in dependence on causes and conditions and cease when those causes and conditions are no longer present. # All wholes are dependent upon their parts for existence, and all parts are dependent on their wholes for existence.
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Objects are not autonomous as we know them, but rather actual processes framing our reality.Manzotti, R., (2009), "No Time, No Wholes: A Temporal and Causal-Oriented Approach to the Ontology of Wholes." in Axiomathes, 19: 193-214. A more radical and sophisticated explanation was proposed by Roger Bartra with his theory of the exocerebrum. He explains that consciousness is both inside and outside the brain, and that the frontier that separates both realms is useless and a burden in the explanation of the self.
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This has been called a cosmic spiritually. It is cosmic consciousness because these new individuals will be fully aware of being members of a larger whole, as they themselves are the composite symphony of numerous smaller wholes.
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In formal ontology, a branch of metaphysics, and in ontological computer science, mereotopology is a first-order theory, embodying mereological and topological concepts, of the relations among wholes, parts, parts of parts, and the boundaries between parts.
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The law of good Gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness, which is what all of Gestalt theory is based on. A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as wholes rather than as the sums of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws. Gestalt psychologists attempted to discover refinements of the law of Prägnanz, and this involved writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws".
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The patient's ability to perceive multiple objects and identify global structures significantly improved as the size of the presented image decreased. Thus, complex stimuli could be processed as wholes so long as they occupied a small visual angle.
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The Left was at the time also called the "Wholes",Jörg-Detlef Kühne, Die Reichsverfassung der Paulskirche: Vorbild und Verwirklichung im späteren deutschen Rechtsleben, Frankfurt: Metzner, 1985, , p. 35 and consisted of a coalition of extreme and moderate republicans.
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Writing superheroes: Contemporary childhood, popular culture, and classroom literacy. New York: Teachers College Press. . she pulls together the pieces of her studies into meaningful wholes through the interpretation of triangulated data (e.g., field notes, tape recordings, interviews, artifacts, etc.).
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As the holons combine to form greater wholes via alphabetic combination, such holarchies also tend to become problem archetypes, which often precipitate out of natural phenomena modeling. Examples are boundary-value problems, solved by the combination of correlation and simulation holons.
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The one cannot be made up of parts, because then the one would be made of many. Nor can it be a whole, because wholes are made of parts. Thus the one has no parts and is not a whole.
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While in academia, Smuts pioneered the concept of holism, which he defined as "[the] fundamental factor operative towards the creation of wholes in the universe" in his 1926 book, Holism and Evolution. Smuts' formulation of holism has been linked with his political-military activity, especially his aspiration to create a league of nations. As one biographer said: > It had very much in common with his philosophy of life as subsequently > developed and embodied in his Holism and Evolution. Small units must develop > into bigger wholes, and they in their turn again must grow into larger and > ever-larger structures without cessation.
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Jardine et > al., Cultures of Natural History, p. 298 The study of vegetation and plant geography arose out of new concerns that emerged with Humboldtian science. These new areas of concern in science included integrative processes, invisible connections, historical development, and natural wholes.
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E. Fromm, The Changing Engineering Education Paradigm, J. Eng. Educ., vol. 92, April 2003. As one author described it, "Schools break knowledge and experience into subjects, relentlessly turning wholes into parts, flowers into petals, history into events, without ever restoring continuity."M.
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From the towns, from the counties as wholes, and from many of its ancient lordships, the crown was entitled to archaic dues in kind, such as honey. According to the Domesday Book, over ten percent of England's population in 1086 were slaves.
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Sokol is built on tall and steep rock. The fortification system consists of the citadel - the upper town. The citadel itself consists of two fortified wholes. On the tallest ridge, there is an irregular shaped wall built partly around the rock, with two towers.
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A further and more useful refinement of non-unity is anti-unity, indicated by ~U, the meta-property of classes all of whose instances are not wholes, such as classes of mere sums. +U and ~U (but not -U) are inherited down the class hierarchy.
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Lama Tsongkhapa, Ocean of Reasoning, pg. 67. Parts and wholes - being among the components that make up reality - are also merely designated by mind. Relationships between objects cannot exist without being validly designated into existence. This is the meaning of "conventional truth" in this system.
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However, biologist Peter Corning has asserted that "the debate about whether or not the whole can be predicted from the properties of the parts misses the point. Wholes produce unique combined effects, but many of these effects may be co-determined by the context and the interactions between the whole and its environment(s)". In accordance with his Synergism Hypothesis, Corning also stated: "It is the synergistic effects produced by wholes that are the very cause of the evolution of complexity in nature." Novelist Arthur Koestler used the metaphor of Janus (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs.
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Noun-noun phrases denoting wholes and parts occur in the order stated, with the latter serving as head of the phrase: wuwu lau 'betel pepper leaf', tina daba 'headwater', nima daba (lit. 'hand head') 'thumb', kapala lalo (lit. 'house inside') 'indoors', Buzina bubusu 'Buzina (Salamaua) point'.
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"On the Materialist Dialectic", 166–67. Althusser conceives of society as an interconnected collection of these wholes: economic practice, ideological practice, and politico-legal practice. Although each practice has a degree of relative autonomy, together they make up one complex, structured whole (social formation).Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970).
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Hoplunnis macrura tends to live in deeper waters in subtropical environments. These congers are non-burrowing organisms, nor do they live in wholes or cracks on sea floors or walls. They live in areas where the sea floor is soft. They are often found here the sea floor is soft.
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There are philosophers who are concerned with the question of fundamentality. That is, which is more ontologically fundamental the parts or their wholes. There are several responses to this question, though one of the default assumptions is that the parts are more fundamental. That is, the whole is grounded in its parts.
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Its subject matter are the structured wholes and bundles of relations, which we see outside mathematics only as embodied in the time-bound particulars of the manifest world. In this way, mathematics extends our problem solving powers as an extension of human insight, but it is not a part of the world.
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It is a collection of treatises or lessons that deal with the most general (philosophical) principles of natural or moving things, both living and non-living, rather than physical theories (in the modern sense) or investigations of the particular contents of the universe. The chief purpose of the work is to discover the principles and causes of (and not merely to describe) change, or movement, or motion (κίνησις kinesis), especially that of natural wholes (mostly living things, but also inanimate wholes like the cosmos). In the conventional Andronicean ordering of Aristotle's works, it stands at the head of, as well as being foundational to, the long series of physical, cosmological and biological treatises, whose ancient Greek title, τὰ φυσικά, means "the [writings] on nature" or "natural philosophy".
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The routes covered are mainly Anna Salai, LIC, D.M.S., Saidapet, Guindy, Tambaram, etc. Until 2002, mofussil bus services were operated from the eastern part. From the western part, buses are operated to all other routes not operated in the eastern part. Broadway is the place where large trade activities, both wholes sale and retail, flourish.
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MacLaury (1995), p. 240; MacLaury (1997), p. 143. By analogy, color categorization involves combining into coherent wholes the fixed coordinates of brightness, saturation or hue with the mobile coordinates of reciprocally balanced degrees of attention, on the part of the viewer, to similarity or difference between color stimuli. Categories are constructed as vantages, i.e.
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Holism (from Greek holos "all, whole, entire") is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts... The term "holism" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book Holism and Evolution."holism, n." OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2019, www.oed.com/view/Entry/87726.
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In philosophy, Mereological essentialism is a mereological thesis about the relationship between wholes, their parts, and the conditions of their persistence. According to mereological essentialism, objects have their parts necessarily. If an object were to lose or gain a part, it would cease to exist; it would no longer be the original object but a new and different one.
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In metaphysics, there are several puzzles concerning cases of mereological constitution. That is, what makes up a whole. We are still concerned with parts and wholes, but instead of looking at what parts make up a whole, we are wondering what a thing is made of, such as its materials: e.g. the bronze in a bronze statue.
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Kurt Koffka, 1886-1941. Psychological Review, 49(2). 97-101. doi:10.1037/h0054684 # Perceiving sensory experiences as a combination of individual parts does not align with the actual experience of perception. The school of Gestalt suggests that human sensory experience be viewed as a whole since wholes are more meaningful than the sum of its parts.
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Informal part-whole reasoning was consciously invoked in metaphysics and ontology from Plato (in particular, in the second half of the Parmenides) and Aristotle onwards, and more or less unwittingly in 19th- century mathematics until the triumph of set theory around 1910. Ivor Grattan- Guinness (2001) sheds much light on part-whole reasoning during the 19th and early 20th centuries, and reviews how Cantor and Peano devised set theory. It appears that the first to reason consciously and at length about parts and wholes was Edmund Husserl, in 1901, in the second volume of Logical Investigations – Third Investigation: "On the Theory of Wholes and Parts" (Husserl 1970 is the English translation). However, the word "mereology" is absent from his writings, and he employed no symbolism even though his doctorate was in mathematics.
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British philosopher C. D. Broad defended a realistic epistemology in The Mind and its Place in Nature (1925) arguing that emergent materialism is the most likely solution to the mind–body problem. Broad defined emergence as follows: > Put in abstract terms the emergent theory asserts that there are certain > wholes, composed (say) of constituents A, B, and C in a relation R to each > other; that all wholes composed of constituents of the same kind as A, B, > and C in relations of the same kind as R have certain characteristic > properties; that A, B, and C are capable of occurring in other kinds of > complex where the relation is not of the same kind as R; and that the > characteristic properties of the whole R(A, B, C) cannot, even in theory, be > deduced from the most complete knowledge of the properties of A, B, and C in > isolation or in other wholes which are not of the form R(A, B, C). This definition amounted to the claim that mental properties would count as emergent if and only if philosophical zombies were metaphysically possible. Many philosophers take this position to be inconsistent with some formulations of psychophysical supervenience.
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For Williams, ontology is the study of the categories of being. The subject matter of ontology is traditionally examined using an analytic mode of inquiry. An analysis of some X is in terms of X’s parts, whatever X might be. Analysis gets us the nature of X. Analysis in this sense is the classic decompositional sense, giving explanatory priority to parts over wholes.
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Yahgan emphasized interconnected parts over unanalyzed wholes (also reflected in their verb serialization). Body parts are finely differentiated, as are social relationships. The vocabulary contained a vast number of deverbalized nouns. Personal names often derived from the name of the place of birth- for instance a man born in Ushuaia (meaning 'bay (waia) in the upper back (ushsha)') might be Ushuaia-njiz.
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In her Biosculptures and other works, Brookner frequently uses imagery where parts of the body stand for the whole. This reflects the paradox of how humans consider themselves as independent wholes even though we are actually parts of an interdependent universe.Thomas W. Weaver, “Second Nature,” catalog for Drip, Blow, Burn/Forces of Nature in Contemporary Art, Hudson River Museum, 1999, p.
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Informed by the > work of John Ashbery (on whom she wrote her doctoral dissertation at Brown > University, where she also received her MA in creative writing), of Mei-Mei > Berssenbrugge, Emily Dickinson, and the English Metaphysicals (who, like > her, delighted in reuniting the disparate, torn pieces of this world into > unexpected wholes), she has forged a unique and unmistakable poetic idiom.
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This reflects at the organizational level: Holarchy functions first as autonomous wholes in supra-ordination to their parts, secondly as dependent parts in sub-ordination to controls on higher levels, and thirdly in coordination with their local environment. The SARL agent-oriented programming language is a language with native support for the concept of holon. The associated run-time environment Janus enables running the implemented holons.
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Two distinctions play a prominent role in his system. Firstly, the distinction between parts and wholes. For instance, words are parts of sentences, subjective ideas are parts of judgments, objective ideas are parts of propositions in themselves. Secondly, all objects divide into those that exist, which means that they are causally connected and located in time and/or space, and those that do not exist.
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New York: Greenwood Press, pg. 3 Blair defines a modular system as "one that gives more importance to parts than to wholes. Parts are conceived as equivalent and hence, in one or more senses, interchangeable and/or cumulative and/or recombinable" (pg. 125). Blair describes the emergence of modular structures in education (the college curriculum), industry (modular product assembly), architecture (skyscrapers), music (blues and jazz), and more.
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A sonnet sequence is a group of sonnets thematically unified to create a long work, although generally, unlike the stanza, each sonnet so connected can also be read as a meaningful separate unit. The sonnet sequence was a very popular genre during the Renaissance, following the pattern of Petrarch. This article is about sonnet sequences as integrated wholes. For the form of individual sonnets, see Sonnet.
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The focus of attention shifted from operations (circles) to linkages (arrows) – thus changing the process architecture itself. The reengineering of the process, re-integrating individual components into effective, more autonomous and even self-manageable wholes, has characterized this stage. The production process became a business process and therefore subject to qualitative redesign and reengineering (BPR). Discontinuous improvement and process innovation replaced the piecemeal continuous improvement.
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A Chinese (expression) written as a ligature. It reads () and means "to be as studious as Confucius and Mencius." Written Chinese has a long history of creating new characters by merging parts or wholes of other Chinese characters. However, a few of these combinations do not represent morphemes but retain the original multi- character (multiple morpheme) reading and are therefore not considered true characters themselves.
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Humans are intuitive, creative animals with cognitive-analytic reasoning abilities. We as human animals can grasp complex wholes from partial sets of facts. Boulding states that for most of us, education has been tied to the maxim "stick to the facts, no need for imaginative thinking." We are taught in school that imagination and intuition are virtues of the daydreamer, not the true student.
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The victors of this struggle come to set the terms of social interaction and transaction, which is then institutionalized through law. This emergent order Unger calls formative context. Under a particular formative context, routines are established and people come to believe and act as if their social words were coherent wholes that are perfectly intelligible and defensible. They come to see the existing arrangements as necessary.
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The concepts of collectivism and totality manage to explain phenomena of consciousness, and these anti-liberal concepts view the authors of these wholes as groups, classes, factions, and nations, not individuals. If we admit that consciousness is real, we must reject the principles of individualism and analysis, as unable to explain much of the world as we experience it. Unger contends that the implications of analytic thinking also give unmerited authority to the fact-value distinction; because the analytic thinker fragments forms of social consciousness, such as dividing beliefs into descriptive and normative beliefs, the analyst gives plausibility to the fact-value distinction which has been part of the damaging legacy of liberal doctrine. Because principles of analysis and individualism create obstacles for the understanding of mind and science, social theory has sought to escape these limitations and find a method of social study that respects the integrity of social wholes.
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To test this and further face superiority research in general, Tanaka and FarahTanaka JW, Farah MJ. Parts and Wholes in Face Recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1993;46A(2):225–245. conducted a study where they assessed individuals’ ability to recognize facial features holistically. Participants were given an allotment of time to study several faces and then were tested on their ability to recognize one feature of the face.
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The mountain has two imposing peaks, Štirovnik; and Jezerski vrh; . The mountain slopes are rocky, with numerous fissures, pits and deep depressions giving its scenery a specific look. Lovćen stands on the border between two completely different natural wholes, the sea and the mainland, and so it is under the influence of both climates. The specific connection of the life conditions has caused the development of the different biological systems.
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Part–whole theory is the name of a loose collection of historical theories, all informal and nearly all unwitting, relating wholes to their parts via inclusion. Part–whole theory has been overtaken by mereology. Metaphysics, especially ontology, has invoked part–whole concepts ever since Aristotle founded the subject. Husserl (1970) (German original first published in 1901) was the first to consciously elaborate a part–whole theory (on which see Tieszen 1995).
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For instance, she sought to disprove the validity of some of Husserlian theories through her investigations on dependency. In the paper, Zur Husserlschen Lehre von den Ganzen und den Teilen (On Husserl's Theory of Wholes and Parts), Ginsberg discussed six of Husserl's theories. She offered proofs to theorems 1 and 3, validated theorem 5, but countered the three others. She also developed theories on descriptive psychology based on Husserlian thought.
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It analyzes narratives as complete tapestries, organic wholes, and attends to the constitutive features of narratives such as characters, setting, plot, literary devices (for example, irony), point of view, narrator, implied author, and implied reader.James L. Resseguie, "A Glossary of New Testament Narrative Criticism with Illustrations" in Religions, 10 (3) 217), 1. The first book-length treatment of a gospel from a narrative-critical perspective is Mark as Story.Rhoads, David, and Donald Michie. 1982.
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"Mereology" can also refer to formal work in general systems theory on system decomposition and parts, wholes and boundaries (by, e.g., Mihajlo D. Mesarovic (1970), Gabriel Kron (1963), or Maurice Jessel (see Bowden (1989, 1998)). A hierarchical version of Gabriel Kron's Network Tearing was published by Keith Bowden (1991), reflecting David Lewis's ideas on gunk. Such ideas appear in theoretical computer science and physics, often in combination with sheaf theory, topos, or category theory.
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The Elements also include the following five "common notions": # Things that are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another (the Transitive property of a Euclidean relation). # If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal (Addition property of equality). # If equals are subtracted from equals, then the differences are equal (Subtraction property of equality). # Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another (Reflexive property).
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Structural information theory (SIT) is a theory about human perception and in particular about visual perceptual organization, which is the neuro-cognitive process that enables us to perceive scenes as structured wholes consisting of objects arranged in space. It has been applied to a wide range of research topics,Leeuwenberg, E. L. J. & van der Helm, P. A. (2013). Structural information theory: The simplicity of visual form. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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See also : Senary#finger counting In senary finger counting, one hand represents ones' place and the other hand represents six's place; it counts up to 55senary (35decimal). Two related representations can be expressed: wholes and sixths (counts up to 5.5 by sixths), sixths and thirty-sixths (counts up to 0.55 by thirty-sixths). For example, "12" (left 1 right 2) can represent eight (12 senary), four-thirds (1.2 senary) or two-ninths (0.12 senary).
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Acton's book is divided into chapters with brief, often single word titles such as "Fish". In a marked departure from eighteenth century English cookery books like Hannah Glasse's The Art of Cookery, these are written as connected wholes. The chapter on fish begins with an essay on how to choose fish for freshness; there follows some advice on how to bake fish, and on the kinds of fat best used for frying fish. Suitable pans are illustrated.
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The new style is called Plateresque, because of the extremely decorated facades, that brought to the mind the decorative motifs of the intricately detailed work of silversmiths, the "Plateros". Classical orders and candelabra motifs (a candelieri) combined freely into symmetrical wholes. Examples include the facades of the University of Salamanca and of the Convent of San Marcos in León. As decades passed, the Gothic influence disappeared and the research of an orthodox classicism reached high levels.
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An important part of the way Lewis’s worlds deliver possibilities is the use of the parthood relation. This gives some neat formal machinery, mereology. This is an axiomatic system that uses formal logic to describe the relationship between parts and wholes, and between parts within a whole. Especially important, and most reasonable, according to Lewis, is the strongest form that accepts the existence of mereological sums or the thesis of unrestricted mereological composition (Lewis 1986:211-213).
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The sky begins to lighten, and Addie tells Meryl, who is having the time of her life in battle, to run to the water and drink. While she is running, though, Addie is caught by an ogre unexpectedly and screams in pain. Meryl runs back to rescue her when the first rays of sunlight come, just as rain begins to fall. Addie is knocked unconscious, Meryl falls to the ground, and wholes of light fly down.
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The term holacracy is derived from the term holarchy, coined by Arthur Koestler in his 1967 book The Ghost in the Machine. A holarchy is composed of holons (Greek: ὅλον, holon neuter form of ὅλος, holos "whole") or units that are autonomous and self-reliant, but also dependent on the greater whole of which they are part. Thus a holarchy is a hierarchy of self- regulating holons that function both as autonomous wholes and as dependent parts.
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Hales and Johnson explain endurantism as follows: "something is an enduring object only if it is wholly present at each time in which it exists. An object is wholly present at a time if all of its parts co-exist at that time." Under endurantism, all objects must exist as wholes at each point in time. However, an object such as a rotting fruit will have the property of being not rotten one day and being rotten on another.
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Unger explains that the two main interpretations of the principle of totality are structuralism and realism. Structuralism finds it useful to regard certain things as totalities, but it errs in its conventionalist attitude toward totality; it doubts whether totalities correspond to real things. Realism is a more promising approach to totality because it regards unanalyzable wholes—totalities—as real things. But realism, too, falls short of the mark because it fails to resolve the antinomy of theory and fact.
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Law of continuity The law of continuity (also known as the law of good continuation) states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object.
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Goodman's argument was compelling to educators as a way of thinking about beginning reading and literacy more broadly. This led to the idea that reading and writing were ideas that should be considered as wholes, learned by experience and exposure more than analysis and didactic instruction. This largely accounts for the focus on time spent reading, especially independent reading. Many classrooms (whole language or otherwise) include silent reading time, sometimes called DEAR ("Drop Everything And Read") time or SSR (sustained silent reading).
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Although the grouping of local elements into perceptual wholes can be impaired, patients can remain sensitive to holistic visual representations. When determining whether a patient has form agnosia or integrative agnosia, an Efron shape test can be performed. A poor score on the Efron shape test will indicate form agnosia, as opposed to integrative agnosia. A good score on the Efron shape test, but a poor score on a figure-ground segmentation test and an overlapping figures test will indicate integrative agnosia.
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An example of the influence of affect on processing style is that of its influence on the use of a global versus a local focus. Positive affect is thought to induce a more global processing style (processing of wholes). Conversely, negative affect reduces global processing and enhances a more local processing style (processing of parts or details). Other research in this area has illustrated that the informative influence of affective valence is dependent on the accessibility of these global and local processing styles.
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By contrast, instances of the class Person are, typically, not decomposable in this fashion. For the purposes of OntoClean, wholes are individuals all of whose parts are related to each other, and only to each other, by some distinguished relation. This relation can be viewed as a generalized connection relation. Mere sums have no such relation since any decomposition of a mere sum is connected to any larger sum, which is not one of its parts, by the same relation.
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The most important and lasting influence, however, was Arnold J. Toynbee and his treatment of the great civilizations as organic wholes which were born, matured, grew old, and died. Lattimore's most influential book, The Inner Asian Frontiers of China (1940), used these theories to explain the history of East Asia not as the history of China and its influence on its neighbors, but as the interaction between two types of civilizations, settled farming and pastoral, each of which had its role in changing the other.
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The Gestaltists took issue with this widespread "atomistic" view that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. In contrast, the Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking psychological phenomena down into smaller parts would not lead to understanding psychology. The Gestalt psychologists believed, instead, that the most fruitful way to view psychological phenomena is as organized, structured wholes. They argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa.
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Integrative agnosia is a sub-disease of agnosia, meaning the lack of integrating perceptual wholes within knowledge. Integrative agnosia can be assessed by several experimental tests such as the Efron shape test, which determines the specificity of the disease being Integrative. This disease is often caused by brain trauma, producing medial ventral lesions to the extrastriate cortex. Affecting this region of the brain produces learning impairments: the inability to integrate parts such as spatial distances or producing visual images from short or long-term memory.
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Over the course of the 20th century, a number of Polish logicians and mathematicians contributed to this "Polish mereology." Even though Polish mereology is now only of historical interest, the word "mereology" endures as the name of a collection of first order theories relating parts to their respective wholes. These theories, unlike set theory, can be proved sound and complete. Nearly all work that has appeared since 1970 under the heading of mereology descends from the 1940 calculus of individuals of Henry Leonard and Nelson Goodman.
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Totum pro parte is Latin for "the whole for a part"; it refers to a kind of metonymy. The plural is tota pro partibus, "wholes for parts". When used in a context of language it means that something is named after something of which it is only a part (or only a limited characteristic, in itself not necessarily representative for the whole). A pars pro toto (in which a part is used to describe the whole) is the opposite of a totum pro parte.
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"What were wholes on one level become parts on a higher one." Small scale patterns do not necessarily explain large scale phenomena, otherwise captured in the expression (coined by Aristotle) 'the sum is greater than the parts'. "Complexity in ecology is of at least six distinct types: spatial, temporal, structural, process, behavioral, and geometric." From these principles, ecologists have identified emergent and self-organizing phenomena that operate at different environmental scales of influence, ranging from molecular to planetary, and these require different explanations at each integrative level.
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They argue that perdurantism is the superior view for its ability to take account of change in objects. On the whole, Presentists are also endurantists and Eternalists are also perdurantists (and vice versa), but this is not a necessary relation and it is possible to claim, for instance, that time's passage indicates a series of ordered realities, but that objects within these realities somehow exist outside of the reality as a whole, even though the realities as wholes are not related. However, such positions are rarely adopted.
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Lynn K. Nyhart is the Vilas-Bablitch-Kelch Distinguished Achievement Professor in the Department of the History of Science at the University of Wisconsin- Madison. She served as president of the History of Science Society from 2012 to 2013. Her main areas of interest are the history of biology, international transfer of ideas, relations between elite and popular science, and theories of individuality, parts, and wholes. Her book Modern Nature: The Rise of the Biological Perspective in Germany received the Susan E. Abrams Prize in 2009.
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To be more specific, the use of chunking would increase recall from 5 to 8 items to 20 items or more as associations are made between these items. Words are an example of chunking, where instead of simply perceiving letters we perceive and remember their meaningful wholes: words. The use of chunking increases the number of items we are able to remember by creating meaningful "packets" in which many related items are stored as one. The use of chunking is also seen in numbers.
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He also denied that pleasure is the sole good, maintaining instead (with T.H. Green) that experiences are good as wholes and that pleasure is not, strictly speaking, a separable element within such wholes. Disagreeing with G.E. Moore that the "naturalistic fallacy" is really a fallacy, he gave an entirely naturalistic analysis of goodness, holding that an experience is intrinsically good to the degree that it (a) fulfills an impulse or drive and (b) generates a feeling- tone of satisfaction attendant upon such fulfillment. He regarded the first of these factors as by far the more important and held that the major intrinsic goods of human experience answer to the basic drives of human nature; he maintained that these two factors together provide not merely a criterion for but the actual meaning of intrinsic goodness. (He defined all other ethical terms, including "right", in terms of intrinsic goodness, a right act, for example, being that act which tends to produce the greatest amount of intrinsic goodness under the relevant circumstances.) The little that Blanshard wrote on political theory (mainly in Reason and Goodness) owed much to Green and Bosanquet.
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Nagel describes the book as "an essay in the philosophy of science" concerned with "analyzing the logic of scientific inquiry and the logical structure of its intellectual products", adding that it was written for a larger audience than only "professional students of philosophy". He discusses branches of natural science such as physics and social sciences such as history. Topics discussed include the role of reduction in scientific theories and the relationship of wholes to their parts. Nagel also discusses the philosopher of science Henri Poincaré and criticizes the philosopher Isaiah Berlin.
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The exact meaning of "holism" depends on context. Smuts originally used "holism" to refer to the tendency in nature to produce wholes from the ordered grouping of unit structures. However, in common usage, "holism" usually refers to the idea that a whole is greater than the sum of its parts.J. C. Poynton (1987) SMUTS'S HOLISM AND EVOLUTION SIXTY YEARS ON, Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 46:3, 181-189, DOI:10.1080/00359198709520121 In this sense, "holism" may also be spelled "wholism", and it may be contrasted with reductionism or atomism.
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London: Macmillan & Co., Smuts describes "holism" as the tendency in nature to form wholes that are greater than the sum of the parts through creative evolution. Today, this work is recognized as the foundation theory for systems thinking, complexity theory, neural networks, semantic holism, holistic education, and the general systems theory in ecologyEls, C.J., du Toit, C. & Blignaut, A.S. (2009). A holistic learner-centred interpretation model for South African education as a interdisciplinary Social Science. Journal of Educational Studies, Volume 8 (3) (University of Venda, ISSN: 1680-7456).
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This was the first double-LP released on 4AD, and introduced the "DAD" (for double album) prefix into the label's catalogue. Watts-Russell took careful consideration in shaping the album's four sides so they flowed together as individual wholes. This is lost somewhat on compact disc, as the entire album fits on one CD. A remastered and repackaged CD edition of Filigree & Shadow was issued with the complete This Mortal Coil recordings in a self-titled box set, released in late November 2011. The CD was released individually shortly thereafter.
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Nelson, James. "Huntsville museum offers best contemporary art show in a while," The Birmingham News, Arts & Leisure, July 6, 1997. The individual paintings—often heavily scraped, sanded or repainted, with language fragments, indecipherable diagrams, thick smears of paint, or realistically rendered objects—were based on small, private memories, incidents or impressions that Klamen felt weren't fully formed enough to stand as individual artworks. He found that in concert they revealed surprises and formed wholes that David Pagel described as "multi-faceted, intimate panorama," in which reverie, intuition and dreaminess took precedence over rationality.
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His 1939 work on "The Structure of Wholes" was seen as a precedent to systems theory in books in the 1960s–1980s edited by Fred Emery. Angyal's biospheric model of personality was found to have greater generality beyond the domain of personality, to a broader range of systems. > Angyal ... coined the word biosphere. The word refers to both the individual > and the environment, "not as interacting parts, not as constituents which > have independent existence, but as aspects of a single reality which can be > separated only by abstraction".
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Mechanism is the belief that natural wholes (principally living things) are like complicated machines or artifacts, composed of parts lacking any intrinsic relationship to each other. The doctrine of mechanism in philosophy comes in two different flavors. They are both doctrines of metaphysics, but they are different in scope and ambitions: the first is a global doctrine about nature; the second is a local doctrine about humans and their minds, which is hotly contested. For clarity, we might distinguish these two doctrines as universal mechanism and anthropic mechanism.
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One question that is addressed by philosophers is which is more fundamental: parts, wholes, or neither? Another pressing question is called the special composition question (SCQ): For any Xs, when is it the case that there is a Y such that the Xs compose Y? This question has caused philosophers to run in three different directions: nihilism, universal composition (UC), or a moderate view (restricted composition). The first two views are considered extreme since the first denies composition, and the second allows any and all non-spatially overlapping objects to compose another object.
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Smuts suggests "rough and provisional" summary of the progressive grading of wholes that comprise holism is as follows: # Material structure, e.g. a chemical compound # Functional structure in living bodies # Animals, which exhibit a degree of central control that is primarily implicit and unconscious # Personality, characterized as conscious central control # States and similar group organizations characterized by central control that involve many people # Holistic Ideals, or absolute Values, distinct from human personality, that are creative factors in the creation of a spiritual world, for example Truth, Beauty and Goodness.
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Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes and causation and the relationship between mind and body. Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being. A major point of debate is between realism, which holds that there are entities that exist independently of their mental perception and idealism, which holds that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial. Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity.
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Holism in science, or holistic science, is an approach to research that emphasizes the study of complex systems. Systems are approached as coherent wholes whose component parts are best understood in context and in relation to one another and to the whole. This practice is in contrast to a purely analytic tradition (sometimes called reductionism) which aims to gain understanding of systems by dividing them into smaller composing elements and gaining understanding of the system through understanding their elemental properties. The holism-reductionism dichotomy is often evident in conflicting interpretations of experimental findings and in setting priorities for future research.
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Her studies suggest that even in cases where color or a dynamic activity are made salient to children, they will still interpret the new word as a label for whole objects. According to cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke, infants' perception of the physical world is guided by three constraints on the behavior of physical objects: objects must move as wholes, objects move independently of each other, and objects move on connected paths. These three constraints help guide children's interpretations of scenes, and, in turn, explains how the whole object bias reflects the non-linguistic status of objects.
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In three sections, "Wholes," "Bits & Pieces," and "Throw Aways," Damski writes free form, mini-portraits of those he knows, and describes what it's like in his first Chicago Winter as he slips and slides towards his 39th birthday and coming out. This is the first in Damski's "Coming Out Trilogy" about the 1970s Chicago scene. My Blue Monk: Poems from Blood and Sugar edited by John Vore from poems by Damski during 1977-1978. In the second book in the "Coming Out Trilogy" Damski falls in love with the man who would be his lifelong muse.
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"Leland H. Jenks(1939) Social Forces 18(3):436–441 Jenks considers the natural audience for it to be "best for students who are to apprehend the importance of political speculation in the history of social thought." Jenks admired Sabine's composition: "Sabine is most successful in integrating theories of successive writers as coherent wholes, and in discerning logical discrepancies. He provides an original and searching critique, from the explicit standpoint of Humean empiricism." The role of value systems in politics is acknowledged: "Sabine is especially effective in showing the relativity of social thought to general value systems in different societies.
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Then, by employing the technique of abstraction, the author can portray the character's experience of objective reality as the same kind of subjective, immediate experience that characterise totality's influence on non-fictional individuals. The best realists, he claims, "depict the vital, but not immediately obvious forces at work in objective reality." They do so with such profundity and truth that the products of their imagination can potentially receive confirmation from subsequent historical events. The true masterpieces of realism can be appreciated as "wholes" which depict a wide-ranging and exhaustive objective reality like the one that exists in the non-fictional world.
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The holistic processing of faces describes the perception of faces as wholes, rather than the sum of their parts. This means that facial features (such as the eyes or nose) are not explicitly represented in the brain on their own, rather, the entire face is represented. According to the configural information hypothesis of face recognition, recognising faces involves two stages that use configural information to form holistic representations of faces. A study demonstrated that face-selective activity in the brain was delayed when the configural information of faces was disrupted (for example, when faces were inverted).
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An alternative term for ontological reductionism is fragmentalism, often used in a pejorative sense. Anti-realists use the term fragmentalism in arguments that the world does not exist of separable entities, instead consisting of wholes. For example, advocates of this idea claim that: > The linear deterministic approach to nature and technology promoted a > fragmented perception of reality, and a loss of the ability to foresee, to > adequately evaluate, in all their complexity, global crises in ecology, > civilization and education. The term fragmentalism is usually applied to reductionist modes of thought, often with the related pejorative term scientism.
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Another distinction, similar to that between alienable and inalienable possession, is made between inherent and non-inherent possession. In languages that mark the distinction, inherently-possessed nouns, such as parts of wholes, cannot be mentioned without indicating their dependent status. Yagem of Papua New Guinea, for instance, distinguishes alienable from inalienable possession when the possessor is human, but it distinguishes inherent from non-inherent possession when the possessor' is not human. Inherently-possessed nouns are marked with the prefix ŋa-, as in (ka) ŋalaka '(tree) branch', (lôm) ŋatau '(men's house) owner' and (talec) ŋalatu '(hen's) chick'.
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When scaled in the opposite direction, Hughes- Jones makes the argument that "social groups that fight each other are self‐sustaining, self‐replicating wholes containing interdependent parts" indicating that the group as a whole can have self-preservation with the individuals acting as the cells. He makes an analogy between the survival practices such as hygiene and the ritual nature of within small human groups or the nations that engage in religious warfare with the complex survival mechanisms of multi-cellular organisms that evolved from the cooperative association of single cell organisms in order to better protect themselves.
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Genitive relations for other than humans are not marked by either the genitive pronouns (for alienables) or the genitive suffixes (for inalienables). Instead, inherent possession of nouns as progeny or parts of wholes is marked by a prefix ŋa-, as in (ka) ŋalaka '(tree) branch', (lôm) ŋatau '(men's house) owner', and (talec) ŋalatu '(hen's) chick'. The same is true of adjectives (attributes of other entities) when derived from nouns, as in ŋadani 'thick, dense' (< dani 'thicket') or ŋalemoŋ 'muddy, soft' (< lemoŋ 'mud'). Other genitive constructions Nouns denoting persons use a genitive suffix of -nê in the singular and -nêŋ.
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Conservation goals include conserving habitat, preventing deforestation, halting species extinction, reducing overfishing and mitigating climate change. Different philosophical outlooks guide conservationists towards these different goals. The principal value underlying many expressions of the conservation ethic is that the natural world has intrinsic and intangible worth along with utilitarian value – a view carried forward by parts of the scientific conservation movement and some of the older Romantic schools of the ecology movement. Philosophers have attached intrinsic value to different aspects of nature, whether this is individual organisms (biocentrism) or ecological wholes such as species or ecosystems (ecoholism).
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Holism and Evolution is a 1926 book by South African statesman Jan Smuts, in which he coined the word "holism", although Smuts' meaning differs from the modern concept of holism. Smuts defined holism as the "fundamental factor operative towards the creation of wholes in the universe." Smuts in 1947 The book was part of a broader trend of interest in holism in European and colonial academia during the early twentieth century. Smuts based his philosophy of holism on the thoughts behind his earlier book, Walt Whitman: A Study in the Evolution of Personality, written during his time at Cambridge in the early 1890s.
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While it is clearly formed of discrete parts, the work doesn't look beyond itself, it doesn't refer to other sounds or musical instruments, it is entirely conceived within the field of digital sound. And, like Donald Judd's three-dimensional objects, it is faithful to itself as a medium: the audio is self-sufficient. Chartier allows his pieces to be governed by their own internal dynamics,finding specific arrangements of sound that integrate the various sonic objects he chooses to work with into coherent wholes.... The music has tended to be categorised in terms of an exemplary austerity. It is easy to see why.
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The Abhidharmic project has been likened as a form of phenomenology or process philosophy.Nyanaponika, Abhidhamma studies, page 35Ronkin, Noa; Early Buddhist metaphysics Abhidharma philosophers not only outlined what they believed to be an exhaustive listing of dharmas, or phenomenal events, but also the causal relations between them. In the Abhidharmic analysis, the only thing which is ultimately real is the interplay of dharmas in a causal stream; everything else is merely conceptual (paññatti) and nominal. This view has been termed "mereological reductionism" by Mark Siderits because it holds that only impartite entities are real, not wholes.
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The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation is a 1961 book about the philosophy of science by the philosopher Ernest Nagel, in which the author discusses the nature of scientific inquiry with reference to both natural science and social science. Nagel explores the role of reduction in scientific theories and the relationship of wholes to their parts, and also evaluates the views of philosophers such as Isaiah Berlin. The book received positive reviews, as well as some more mixed assessments. It is considered a classic work, and commentators have praised it for Nagel's discussion of reductionism and holism, as well as for his criticism of Berlin.
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As a form of literary criticism, narrative criticism approaches scripture as story, focusing on the finished form of the texts. Christopher T. Paris says that, "narrative criticism admits the existence of sources and redaction but chooses to focus on the artistic weaving of these materials into a sustained narrative picture". Narrative criticism analyzes narratives as complete tapestries, organic wholes, and attends to the constitutive features of narratives such as characters, setting, plot, literary devices (for example, irony), point of view, narrator, implied author, and implied reader. According to James L. Resseguie, "of the three main components of a literary work—author, text, reader—narrative criticism is focused primarily on the text".
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100 Though being individuals, they are expressed by activity in various social entities and in the overall structure.Gil pursued a concept of dual relationship, as an individual is linked to groups he belongs to and to the entire society, Mariano García Canales, La teoría de la representación en la España del siglo XX: (de la crisis de la restauración a 1936), Madrid 1977, , p. 45, García Canales (2015), p. 25 Society is not a sum of individuals, but a structure made of these groups; comparison to a living body consisting of vital organic wholes gave rise to the term "organic society", a pluralist and gradualist structure.
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James Lockhart, who specializes in the historical description of the Nahua, said Aztec society was characterized by a "tendency to create larger wholes by the aggregation of parts that remain relatively separate and self-contained brought together by their common function and similarity".Lockhart qp(1992) p. 436 This understanding entails a social stratification that is built from the bottom – up, rather than from the top – down. Aztec hierarchy by this understanding was not of the type "where a unit of one type – the capital – controls subordinate units of another type" but instead a type where the main unit is composed out of several constituent parts.
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Since these holistic problem models could be independently automated and solved due to this closure, they could be blended into higher wholes by nesting one inside of another, in the manner of subroutines. And users could regard them as if they were ordinary subroutines. Yet semantically, this mathematical blending was considerably more complex than the mechanics of subroutines, because an iterative solution engine was attached to each problem model by its calling operator template above it in the program hierarchy. In its numerical solution process, this engine would take control and would call the problem model subroutine iteratively, not returning to the calling template until its system problem was solved.
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In North America, community studies drew inspiration from the classic urban sociology texts produced by the Chicago School, such as the works of Louis Wirth and William Foote Whyte. In Britain, community studies was developed for colonial administrators working in East Africa, particularly Kenya. It was further developed in the post-war period with the Institute of Community Studies founded by Michael Young in east London, and with the studies published from the Institute, such as Family and Kinship in East London. Community studies, like colonial anthropology, have often assumed the existence of discrete, relatively homogeneous, almost tribe-like communities, which can be studied as organic wholes.
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To wit (pp. 338–9): > We are not to evade, then, the eternity of free beings that is implied in > any serious demand for freedom. If the souls of men are really free, they > coexist with God in the eternity which God inhabits, and in the governing > total of their self-active being they are of the same nature as he, — they > too are self-put rational wholes of self-conscious life. As complete reason > is his essence, so is reason their essence—their nature in the > large—whatever may be the varying conditions under which their selfhood, the > required peculiarity of each, may bring it to appear.
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Patients with brain damage that impairs perception in specific ways, for example by damaging shape or color representations, seem to generally to have impaired mental imagery in similar ways. Studies of brain function in normal human brains support this same conclusion, showing activity in the brain’s visual areas while subjects imagined visual objects and scenes. The previously mentioned and numerous related studies have led to a relative consensus within cognitive science, psychology, neuroscience, and philosophy on the neural status of mental images. In general, researchers agree that, while there is no homunculus inside the head viewing these mental images, our brains do form and maintain mental images as image-like wholes.
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The studio focused on multi- disciplinary research and design, enabling architects, mathematicians, biologists and other scientists to apply ideas from biological systems to the ecological design of architecture. Using the organizational structures of cells as inspiration, Sabin designed networks of sheets, tubes, and larger forms based on simple mathematical rules, to explore the aggregation of parts in greater wholes. As of 2011, Sabin joined the Department of Architecture at Cornell University, and established the Sabin Design Lab at Cornell and the Jenny Sabin Studio in Ithaca. Sabin is the Arthur L. and Isabel B. Wiesenberger Professor and the Director of Graduate Studies in Architecture.
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In philosophy and mathematical logic, mereology (from the Greek μέρος meros (root: μερε- mere-, "part") and the suffix -logy "study, discussion, science") is the study of parts and the wholes they form. Whereas set theory is founded on the membership relation between a set and its elements, mereology emphasizes the meronomic relation between entities, which—from a set-theoretic perspective—is closer to the concept of inclusion between sets. Mereology has been explored in various ways as applications of predicate logic to formal ontology, in each of which mereology is an important part. Each of these fields provides its own axiomatic definition of mereology.
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Although visual stimuli are fundamentally multi-interpretable, the human visual system usually has a clear preference for only one interpretation. To explain this preference, SIT introduced a formal coding model starting from the assumption that the perceptually preferred interpretation of a stimulus is the one with the simplest code. A simplest code is a code with minimum information load, that is, a code that enables a reconstruction of the stimulus using a minimum number of descriptive parameters. Such a code is obtained by capturing a maximum amount of visual regularity and yields a hierarchical organization of the stimulus in terms of wholes and parts.
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Haraway takes issue with some traditional feminists, reflected in statements describing how "women more than men somehow sustain daily life, and so have a privileged epistemological (relating to the theory of knowledge) position potentially." The views of traditional feminism operate under the totalizing assumptions that all men are one way, and women another, whereas "a cyborg theory of wholes and parts," does not desire to explain things in total theory. Haraway suggests that feminists should move beyond naturalism and essentialism, criticizing feminist tactics as "identity politics" that victimize those excluded, and she proposes that it is better strategically to confuse identities. Her criticism mainly focuses on socialist and radical feminism.
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" The Observer said Xen is "one of those albums that elegantly restates the appeal of digital music, expressing hues and states of being that fall outside the analogue spectrum." Pitchfork stated: "Taken as a whole, it is an album about unstable unities, things that cannot easily hold together, wholes breaking to pieces and being put back together again in new and unfamiliar shapes." PopMatters said: "This is uncompromising stuff, with little holding back, and the end effect is one that wears not just its heart, but its soul, on its sleeve." Resident Advisor said "Xen remains as singular–and often as brilliant–as the rest of the Arca catalogue.
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Trujillo In Spain, Renaissance styles began to be grafted onto Gothic forms in the last decades of the 15th century. The forms that started to spread were made mainly by local architects: that is the cause of the creation of a specifically Spanish Renaissance that brought the influence of southern Italian architecture, sometimes from illuminated books and paintings, mixed with the gothic tradition and local idiosyncrasies. The new style was called Plateresque because of the extremely decorated façades that brought to the mind the decorative motifs of the intricately detailed work of silversmiths, the "plateros". Classical orders and candelabra motifs (a candelieri) were combined freely into symmetrical wholes.
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The Escorial (1563–1584), Madrid In Spain, Renaissance began to be grafted to Gothic forms in the last decades of the 15th century. The new style is called Plateresque, because of the extremely decorated façade, that brought to the mind the decorative motifs of the intricately detailed work of silversmiths, the Plateros. Classical orders and candelabra motifs (a candelieri) combined freely into symmetrical wholes. From the mid-sixteenth century, under such architects as Pedro Machuca, Juan Bautista de Toledo and Juan de Herrera there was a closer adherence to the art of ancient Rome, sometimes anticipating Mannerism, examples of which include the palace of Charles V in Granada and the Escorial.
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Critics argue that a reductionist analysis of the relationship between genes and behavior results in a flawed research program and a restricted interpretation of the evidence, creating problems for the creation of models attempting to explain behavior. Lewontin, Rose, and Kamin instead advocate a dialectical interpretation of behavior in which "it is not just that wholes are more than the sum of their parts, it is that parts become qualitatively new by being parts of the whole". They argue that reductionist explanations such as the hierarchical reductionism proposed by Richard Dawkins will cause the researcher to miss dialectical ones. Similarly, Hilary Rose criticizes evolutionary psychologists' explanations of child abuse as excessively reductionist.
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In such a complex dynamical system, non-linearities become salient: We can no longer expect outcomes to be simply proportional to inputs, or the properties of wholes to be wholly predictable from knowledge of their constituent parts. Nadin's 'civilization of illiteracy' is partly a description of the present, when literacy has become a much smaller fraction of the total mediation of our activity in society, and partly a projection for the future. He predicts that a much more heterogeneous mix of semiotic regimes and cultural styles will barely suffice to keep pace with the practical demands of life in a brave new world that he was the first to label post- literate.
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Alfred Adler believed that the individual (an integrated whole expressed through a self-consistent unity of thinking, feeling, and action, moving toward an unconscious, fictional final goal), must be understood within the larger wholes of society, from the groups to which he belongs (starting with his face-to-face relationships), to the larger whole of mankind. The recognition of our social embeddedness and the need for developing an interest in the welfare of others, as well as a respect for nature, is at the heart of Adler's philosophy of living and principles of psychotherapy. Edgar Morin, the French philosopher and sociologist, can be considered a holist based on the transdisciplinary nature of his work.
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Stedman, p. 160 Since Bond had little experience as an actress, Gilbert and Sullivan cut the dialogue out of the role, except for a few lines in the last scene, which they turned into recitative. Other new cast members were Emma Howson and George Power in the romantic roles, who were improvements on the romantic soprano and tenor in The Sorcerer.Stedman, p. 161 Gilbert acted as stage director for his own plays and operas. He sought realism in acting, just as he strove for realistic visual elements. He deprecated self-conscious interaction with the audience and insisted on a style of portrayal in which the characters were never aware of their own absurdity but were coherent internal wholes.
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They interact and interpenetrate to allow the viewer to make new, multiple connections and see new patterns. As in a half-tone photograph, the image appears to be more meaningful than the elements that make it up. This effect, says the critic Gloria Carnevali, can be seen as forming "a new third dimension, one that exists between the painting and the observer", even a "new pictorial space". The use in Steele's work of elements in balanced opposition, and the tilted axes arising from the diagonals, produce symmetrical wholes that are not static but dynamic, complex and full of apparent movement, especially rotational, the eye eventually returning to its starting point before beginning a new journey around the picture.
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He described their claim that sociobiologists believe in genetic determinism as a "simple lie", and wrote that they employed the term "biological determinism" without having a clear idea of what they meant by it, and used the words "determinist" and "reductionist" simply as terms of abuse. He argued that biologists practice an appropriate form of "reductionism" that involves explaining complex wholes in terms of their parts, and never practice the form of "reductionism" criticized by Lewontin et al., which involves the idea that "the properties of a complex whole are simply the sum of those same properties in the parts". He maintained that the anthropologists Marshall Sahlins and Sherwood Washburn, praised by Lewontin et al.
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Neuropsychological evidence based on PET scans suggests that the global aspect of visual situations activates and is processed preferentially by the right hemisphere, whereas the local aspect of visual situations activates and is processed preferentially by the left hemisphere. The classical view of Gestalt psychology also suggests the right hemisphere is involved in the perception of wholes and thus plays a stronger role in global processing, whereas the left hemisphere involves separate local elements and therefore plays a stronger role in local processing. However, hemispheric specialization is relative because it depends on the experimental setting as well as the individual’s “attentional set.” In addition, stimulus type may influence the neural structures underlying hemispheric specialization.
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James J. Gibson left a lasting impact on the way that psychologists and philosophers conceptualize perception and action. He rejected the behaviorists' assumptions that learning involves the formation of associations between stimuli and responses, adopting instead a holistic view related to that of the Gestalt psychologist Kurt Koffka with whom he had contact. He argued that the perceived environment is not composed by stitching together such elements as shapes and edges, but rather that the world is made up of meaningful features that are experienced continuously as wholes. He will perhaps be best remembered for his theory of affordances, which some theorists have suggested provides a fundamental way to understand the duality of mind and external reality.
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Unger offers a suggestion of how analytic and individualist ideas can be overthrown, and he explains why some efforts to do so (such as structuralism) have failed. As Unger explained earlier in Knowledge and Politics, analysis and individualism reflect belief in the principle of aggregation, while synthesis and collectivism reflect a belief in totality. Modern social theory has repeatedly tried to formulate a plausible account of the idea of totality; examples of these efforts include Chomsky's linguistic theory, gestalt psychology, structuralism, and Marxism. But these efforts have often stumbled in defining exactly what the difference is between wholes and parts, and exactly what the idea of “part” means if it is something different in kind from the totality.
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For example, when reading a list of words patients might read smiled as "smile" and wanted as "wanting"; the reason being that regularly inflected words are computed by rules as they are read, and that agrammatic patients have damage to the machinery that does the computing. However, when reading irregular past-tense forms and plurals, patients with impaired grammatical processing make fewer errors as they are still able to match irregular verbs against memory as wholes. The title, Words and Rules, refers to a model Pinker believes best represents how words are represented in the mind. He writes that words are either stored directly with their associated meanings in the lexicon (or "mental dictionary") or are constructed using morphological rules.
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Within the ecological and health spheres, Levins identifies a conflict "not between science and antiscience, but rather between different pathways for science and technology; between a commodified science- for-profit and a gentle science for humane goals; between the sciences of the smallest parts and the sciences of dynamic wholes... [he] offers proposals for a more holistic, integral approach to understanding and addressing environmental issues".Richard Levins, Whose Scientific Method? Scientific Methods for a Complex World, New Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy, Vol.13,3, 2003, 261–74 These beliefs are also common within the scientific community, with for example, scientists being prominent in environmental campaigns warning of environmental dangers such as ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect.
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Goldstein initially defined emergence as: "the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns and properties during the process of self-organization in complex systems". In 2002 systems scientist Peter Corning described the qualities of Goldstein's definition in more detail: > The common characteristics are: (1) radical novelty (features not previously > observed in systems); (2) coherence or correlation (meaning integrated > wholes that maintain themselves over some period of time); (3) A global or > macro "level" (i.e. there is some property of "wholeness"); (4) it is the > product of a dynamical process (it evolves); and (5) it is "ostensive" (it > can be perceived). Corning suggests a narrower definition, requiring that the components be unlike in kind (following Lewes), and that they involve division of labor between these components.
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School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape Architecture (APLA) was created in 2011, when four allied degree programs—Architecture/Interior Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Integrated Design and Construction were brought together under one head. The coalition of programs within APLA (and with the CADC) exemplifies interdisciplinary collaboration as a model of professional activity; insures that students have an overview of the various components in the design and building process; and promotes the connection among planning, landscape architecture, interior architecture, and architecture as interdependent practices. Further, APLA provides the students a context for understanding how these four elements of the building process integrate into the larger wholes of the community and urban context, and the planning, design, and construction industry. The relationship between the programs in the college also allows for joint degree programs that extend professional opportunities.
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He also began work to develop his own theory of pragmatist aesthetics; based on John Dewey's aesthetics but augmented by the argumentative methods and tools of analytic philosophy. His third book published, Pragmatist Aesthetics in 1992, brought a big breakthrough in Shusterman's academic career. The book's original approach to the problems of definition of art, organic wholes, interpretation, popular art, and the ethics of taste brought him international fame as the book was translated into 14 languages and several editions were published. Shusterman's position was further strengthened by three subsequent publications: Practicing Philosophy in 1997, Performing Live in 2000, and Surface and Depth in 2002; in which he continued the pragmatist tradition, raising significant interest, provoking numerous critiques and stimulating debates not only among professional philosophers, but in the areas of literary and cultural studies as well.
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Fritz Perls trained as a neurologist at major medical institutions and as a Freudian psychoanalyst in Berlin and Vienna, the most important international centers of the discipline in his day. He worked as a training analyst for several years with the official recognition of the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA), and must be considered an experienced clinician. Gestalt therapy was influenced by psychoanalysis: it was part of a continuum moving from the early work of Freud, to the later Freudian ego analysis, to Wilhelm Reich and his character analysis and notion of character armor, with attention to nonverbal behavior; this was consonant with Laura Perls's background in dance and movement therapy. To this was added the insights of academic Gestalt psychology, including perception, Gestalt formation, and the tendency of organisms to complete an incomplete Gestalt and to form "wholes" in experience.
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This has been applauded as "a very ambitious book that tries to do many things and does most of them quite well." Modern Nature: The Rise of the Biological Perspective in Germany (2009) examines the transition from a natural science of collecting and taxonomic classification to a dynamic examination of the interactions of organisms, with each other and within their environments. She looks at the transfer of ideas in museums and educational institutions, focusing on figures such as Philipp Leopold Martin, Friedrich Junge, and Karl August Möbius to understand the modernization of ideas. Described as "an exemplary book of historical scholarship", it received the Susan E. Abrams Prize in 2009. Nyhart was co-organizer (with Scott Lidgard) of the 2012 Gordon Cain Conference, “E pluribus unum: Bringing Biological Parts and Wholes into Historical and Philosophical Perspective” at the Chemical Heritage Foundation.
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Metaphysical Adlerians emphasise a spiritual holism in keeping with what Jan Smuts articulated (Smuts coined the term "holism"), that is, the spiritual sense of one-ness that holism usually implies (etymology of holism: from ὅλος holos, a Greek word meaning all, entire, total) Smuts believed that evolution involves a progressive series of lesser wholes integrating into larger ones. Whilst Smuts' text Holism and Evolution is thought to be a work of science, it actually attempts to unify evolution with a higher metaphysical principle (holism). The sense of connection and one-ness revered in various religious traditions (among these, Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, Buddhism and Baha'i) finds a strong complement in Adler's thought. The pragmatic and materialist aspects to contextualizing members of communities, the construction of communities and the socio-historical-political forces that shape communities matter a great deal when it comes to understanding an individual's psychological make-up and functioning.
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The notion of self-organizing systems is tied with work in nonequilibrium thermodynamics, including that pioneered by chemist and Nobel laureate Ilya Prigogine in his study of dissipative structures. Even older is the work by Hartree-Fock on the quantum chemistry equations and later calculations of the structure of molecules which can be regarded as one of the earliest examples of emergence and emergent wholes in science. One complex system containing humans is the classical political economy of the Scottish Enlightenment, later developed by the Austrian school of economics, which argues that order in market systems is spontaneous (or emergent) in that it is the result of human action, but not the execution of any human design.Friedrich Hayek, "The Results of Human Action but Not of Human Design" in New Studies in Philosophy, Politics, Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978, pp. 96–105.
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Tovey's belief that classical music has an aesthetic that can be deduced from the internal evidence of the music itself has influenced subsequent writers on music. In his essays, Tovey developed a theory of tonal structure and its relation to classical forms that he applied in his descriptions of pieces in his famous programme notes for the Reid Orchestra, as well as in more technical and extended writings. His aesthetic regards works of music as organic wholes, and he stresses the importance of understanding how musical principles manifest themselves in different ways within the context of a given piece. He was fond of using figurative comparisons to illustrate his ideas, as in this quotation from the Essays (on Brahms' Handel Variations, Op. 24, Tovey 1922): > The relation between Beethoven's freest variations and his theme is of the > same order of microscopical accuracy and profundity as the relation of a > bat's wing to a human hand.
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In the area of biblical law, Greenberg argued that "the law [is] the expression of underlying postulates or values of culture" and that differences between biblical and ancient Near Eastern laws were not reflections of different stages of social development but of different underlying legal and religious principles (Studies, 25-41). Analyzing economic, social, political, and religious laws in the Torah, he showed that they dispersed authority throughout society and prevented the monopolization of prestige and power by narrow elite groups (Studies, 51-61). In his commentaries on Exodus (1969) and Ezekiel (1983, 1997), Greenberg developed a "holistic" method of exegesis, redirecting attention from the text's "hypothetically reconstructed elements" to the biblical books as integral wholes and products of thoughtful and artistic design. Greenberg's studies of Jewish thought include studies of the intellectual achievements of medieval Jewish exegesis, investigations of rabbinic reflections on defying illegal orders (Studies, 395-403), and attitudes toward members of other religions (Studies, 369-393; "A Problematic Heritage").
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Indefinables are concepts so global that they cannot be defined; rather, in a sense, they themselves, and the objects to which they refer, define our reality and our ideas. Their meanings cannot be stated in a true definition, but their meanings can be referred to instead by being placed with their incomplete definitions in self- evident statements, the truth of which can be tested by whether or not it is impossible to think the opposite without a contradiction. Thus, the truth of indefinable concepts and propositions using them is entirely a matter of logic. An example of the above is that of the concepts "finite parts" and "wholes"; they cannot be defined without reference to each other and thus with some amount of circularity, but we can make the self-evident statement that "the whole is greater than any of its parts", and thus establish a meaning particular to the two concepts.
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Still Life with Watermelon, 1865, Princeton University Art Museum April 15, 1865: > sad news of the murder of President Lincon , he was shot while attending a > performance at Fords' Theater last night in Washington. The assassin entered > his private box and shot him in back of his head and then escaped, the > assassin's name is ______, April the 22nd: > The corpse arrived this afternoon from Harrisburg and it was dark, and > although the square was brilliantly illuminated with greek lights each side > of the great walk Red, Blue & White, which made a most brilliant appearance > and lighted up the wholes square & streets yet much of the procession near > lost to us. The crowd was so dense in Walnut Street that police could > scarcely keep the crowd back. April the 23rd: > a fine opportunity of viewing the corpse and decorations of the hall, which > was totally covered with black cloth except for the statue & portraits of > General Washington & wife.
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The means by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application of the Charter granted by Louis XVIII and the steady co-operation of the king with themselves to defeat the Ultra-royalists, a group of counterrevolutionaries who aimed at the complete undoing of the political and social work of the French Revolution. The Doctrinaires were ready to allow the king a large discretion in the choice of his ministers and the direction of national policy. They refused the principle of parliamentary responsibility, that is to allow that ministers should be removed in obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in fact was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results of the Revolution and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the advice of a chamber elected by a very limited constituency in which men of property and education formed, if not the wholes at least the very great majority of the voters.
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Shepard and Metzler 1971 Shepard and Metzler proposed that if we decomposed and then mentally re-imaged the objects into basic mathematical propositions, as the then-dominant view of cognition "as a serial digital computer"Gardner 1987 assumed, then it would be expected that the time it took to determine whether the object is the same or not would be independent of how much the object had been rotated. Shepard and Metzler found the opposite: a linear relationship between the degree of rotation in the mental imagery task and the time it took participants to reach their answer. This mental rotation finding implied that the human mind—and the human brain—maintains and manipulates mental images as topographic and topological wholes, an implication that was quickly put to test by psychologists. Stephen Kosslyn and colleaguesKosslyn 1995; see also 1994 showed in a series of neuroimaging experiments that the mental image of objects like the letter "F" are mapped, maintained and rotated as an image-like whole in areas of the human visual cortex.
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He also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later. While The National Academy of Sciences raised the possibility that Neel's procedure did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure which could bias the results. Overall, a statistically insignificant increase in birth defects occurred directly after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima when the cities were taken as wholes, in terms of distance from the hypocenters however, Neel and others noted that in approximately 50 humans who were of an early gestational age at the time of the bombing and who were all within about from the hypocenter, an increase in microencephaly and anencephaly was observed upon birth, with the incidence of these two particular malformations being nearly 3 times what was to be expected when compared to the control group in Kure, were approximately 20 cases were observed in a similar sample size. In 1985, Johns Hopkins University geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
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He then goes on to paraphrase da Vinci to the effect that movement gives shape to all forms and structure gives order to movement, but adds modern insight when he suggests that "a deeper and more extensive inner movement creates, maintains, and ultimately dissolves structure". (78). In another article from the same period, "On the Metaphysics and Movement of Universal Fitting", Bohm identifies some of the inadequacies of the mechanistic model, particularly the inability to predict the future movement of complex wholes from the initial conditions, and suggests instead a focus on a general laws of interaction governing the relationship of the parts within a whole: "What we are doing in this essay is to consider what it means to turn this prevailing metaphysics of science ‘upside down’ by exploring the notion that a kind of art — a movement of fitting together — is what is universal, both in nature and in human activities" (90). This movement of the whole is what he calls here the artamovement, which he defines as the "movement of fitting" (91), and which is clearly related to what he would later call the holomovement.
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