Numerous urnfield cemeteries have been unearthed in and around the town.
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Merrow play their home games at The Urnfield, Downside Road, Merrow, Guildford, Surrey, GU4 8PH.
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The subsequent Urnfield culture has been more often linked to proposed subgroups such as Italo-Celtic.
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The Middle-Danube Urnfield culture (c. 1300 BC – 800 BC) was a late Bronze Age culture of the middle Danube region.
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Ringwall Bürgstadter Berg. Reconstructed gate of the Urnfield-period fortification Ruin of the 17th-century Centgrafenkapelle The Bürgstadter Berg (hill) (see ) was inhabited as early as 3,200 BC by members of the Michelsberg culture. During the Urnfield period (ca. 1200 to 800 BC) a fortified settlement protected by a circular rampart was constructed on the hill.
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Bronze Age cultures (1200 BC): Urnfield culture (red), Lusatian culture (purple), Nordic Bronze Age (yellow)Pomeranian Coarsewool Sheep, traced back some 3,000 years.
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Merrow Football Club is a football club based in Merrow, near Guildford, Surrey, England. They are currently members of the and play at the Urnfield.
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825 BC. Five of the inscriptions occur on stelae with what has been interpreted as Late Bronze Age carved warrior gear from the Urnfield culture.
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Later deposits include Medieval pottery. A single Urnfield culture, i.e. pre-Celtic, pin has been found. The plateau and the ramparts are now partially covered by trees.
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The Piliny culture was a Bronze Age culture in northern Hungary and Slovakia that existed from about 1300 to 700 B.C. It was part of the urnfield culture.
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In China, the Zhou dynasty is in power. Bronze Age Europe continued with Urnfield culture. Japan was inhabited by an evolving hunter-gatherer society during the Jōmon period.
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The Urnfield culture which succeeded the Tumulus culture is also represented at the site. This culture was named after its method of burial as well, the burial of cremated remains in urnfields. An urnfield cemetery with 940 graves dating to the early Iron Age lies between the megalithic tomb and the tumulus tomb. The graves are covered by heterogeneous stone pavement of up to four meters in diameter next to a standing stone.
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Around 1000 BC, new settlers moved to the Maribor area. An urnfield cemetery was found from that period in today's Mladinska ulica and another necropolis was also found in Pobrežje.
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Inside the former town gate, a local landmark, is the Stadtormuseum Wehrheim ("Wehrheim Town Gate Museum"), where visitors can see the Bronze-Age archaeological finds from the Urnfield culture (see History).
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1300 BC to 750 BC) had replaced the Bell Beaker, the Unetice and Tumulus cultures in central Europe. The Hallstatt culture, which had developed from the Urnfield culture was the predominant Western and Central European culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and during the early Iron Age (8th to 6th centuries BC). The people, who had adopted these cultural characteristics are regarded as Celts. How and if the Celts are related to the Urnfield culture remains disputed.
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K. Kristiansen - Europe Before History p. 388. This is further confirmed by the fact that the subsequent Latial culture, Este culture and Villanovan culture, which introduced iron- working to the Italian peninsula, were so closely related to the Central European Urnfield culture (c. 1300–750 BC), and Hallstatt culture (which succeeded the Urnfield culture), that it is not possible to tell them apart in their earlier stages.Pontecagnano finds are conserved in the Museum of Agro Picentino.
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In 1913-1914, there was the discovery of a Bronze Age urnfield cemetery with the excavation of 14 Deverel-Rimbury cinerary urns. These and other Bronze Age items have been cataloged at the British Museum.
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4500–4000 BC, Beaker culture of c. 2800–1900 BC, Tumulus culture of c. 1600–1200 BC, Urnfield culture of c. 1300–800 BC, and, in a transition to the Iron Age, Hallstatt culture of c.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, s. v. "Latium". In particular various authors, like Marija Gimbutas, had noted important similarities between Proto-Villanova, the South-German Urnfield culture of Bavaria-Upper AustriaM.Gimbutas – Bronze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe pp.
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The stone plates were later resused as grave borders in the Urnfield period (1200–800 BC). Once investigated in 1913, it was found that the burial mound in Kosbach contained finds from the urnfield time as well as from the Hallstatt and La Tène period. Next to the hill, the so-called "Kosbacher Altar", which was originated in the late Hallstatt period (about 500 BC), was constructed. The altar is unique in this form and consists of a square stone setting with four upright, figural pillars at the corners and one under the center.
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It soon spread over the central area of the Southern Alps, encompassing South and East Tyrol, Trentino north of Rovereto and the Lower Engadine; the northern part of Tyrol came under the influence of the Urnfield culture.Gleirscher 1992. Distinguishing factors include its characteristic richly decorated pottery, while the metal- working is strongly influenced by adjacent cultures. As in the Urnfield culture, Laugen-Melaun-people cremated their dead, placing their ashes in urns, and worshipping their gods in sanctuaries sometimes situated in remote areas, on mountain-tops or close to water.
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The Proto-Villanovan culture was a late Bronze Age culture that appeared in Italy in the first half of the 12th century BC and lasted until the 10th century BC, part of the central European Urnfield culture system.
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In Europe, there are traces of cremation dating to the Early Bronze Age (c. 2000 BCE) in the Pannonian Plain and along the middle Danube. The custom became dominant throughout Bronze Age Europe with the Urnfield culture (from c. 1300 BCE).
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A mtDNA study published in 2013 concluded that the Etruscans appear very similar based on their mtDNA to a Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other Tuscan populations. This coincides with the Rhaetic language, which was spoken south and north of the Alps in the area of the Urnfield culture of Central Europe. The Villanovan culture, the early period of the Etruscan civilization, derives from the Proto-Villanovan culture that branched from the Urnfield culture around 1200 BC. An autochthonous population that diverged genetically was previously suggested as a possibility by Cavalli-Sforza.Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., P. Menozzi, A. Piazza. 1994.
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It is possible that these people brought the first Indo-European languages to Belgium. As in other areas of Europe where this culture arrived, the Urnfield culture was followed by the Iron Age Halstatt and La Tène cultures, both associated with Celtic languages and culture. It has been suggested that the original Urnfield population of the area stayed, and that the Halstatt and La Tène cultures were the result of new elites moving in, with new dialects of early Indo-European. Rich La Tène urn burials have been found in Eigenbilzen in Haspengouw and Wijshagen (Meeuwen-Gruitrode) in the Kempen.
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The power and control seemed to be in the hand of kings or reguli. Iberian funerary customs are dominated by cremation necropolis, that are partly due to the persistent influences of the Urnfield culture, but they also include burial customs imported from the Greek cultural area (mudbrick rectangular mound). Urbanism was important in the Iberian cultural area, especially in the south, where Roman accounts mention hundreds of oppida (fortified towns). In these towns (some quite large, some mere fortified villages) the houses were typically arranged in contiguous blocks, in what seems to be another Urnfield cultural influx.
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The Latins belonged to a group of Indo-European-speaking (IE) tribes, conventionally known as the Italic tribes, that populated central and southern Italy during the Italian Iron Age, which began around 900 BC. The most widely accepted theory suggests that Latins and other proto-Italic tribes first entered Italy in the late Bronze Age proto-Villanovan culture, then part of the central European Urnfield culture system.Encyclopædia Britannica Latium In particular various authors, such as Marija Gimbutas, had noted important similarities between the proto-Villanovan culture, the South-German Urnfield culture of Bavaria-Upper Austria M.Gimbutas - Bronze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe p.339-345 and Middle-Danube Urnfield culture.John M. Coles - The Bronze Age in Europe: An Introduction to the Prehistory of Europe C. 2000–700 BC, p.422Massimo Pallottino-Etruscologia p. 40. According to David W. Anthony proto-Latins originated in today's eastern Hungary, kurganized around 3100 BC by the Yamna culture,David W. Anthony - The Horse, The Wheel and Language pg.
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Many versions of the abacus, such as the soroban, use a biquinary system to simulate a decimal system for ease of calculation. Urnfield culture numerals and some tally mark systems are also biquinary. Units of currencies are commonly partially or wholly biquinary.
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Proto-Villanovan culture was part of the central European Urnfield culture system. Similarity has also been noted with the regional groups of Bavaria- Upper AustriaM. Gimbutas Bronze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe pp. 339–345 and of the middle-Danube.
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It is paralleled by the Poldar industries in Scotland and the Roscommon industries in Ireland as well as being linked with the Urnfield A2-B1 in South Germany. It is preceded in Britain by the Penard Period, and followed by the Blackmoor Period.
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Neolithic cemeteries are sometimes referred to by the term "grave field". They are one of the chief sources of information on ancient and prehistoric cultures, and numerous archaeological cultures are defined by their burial customs, such as the Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age.
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Leather shoe from the Hallstatt culture, 800–400 B. C. The Iron Age in Austria is represented by the Hallstatt culture, which succeeded the Urnfield culture, under influences from the Mediterranean civilizations and Steppe peoples. This gradually transitioned into the Celtic La Tène culture.
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His main contributions were on the "Urnfield Culture", the "Hallstatt Princely Phenomenon" in the Celtic territory in the North of the Alps, the origin of the Celts, the social meaning of funerary and non-funerary remains, along with the task specialization and the growing complexity of the european societies.
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Late Bronze and Iron Age sites in the Basque Country During the Iron Age in the 1st millennium BCE, with the arrival of Urnfield culture (proto-Celts) to the southern edge of the Basque Country (Ebro valley), there are some findings of iron tools and weapons. In the rest of the country it seems, from the few remains found, that the people remained in the cultural context of the Atlantic Bronze Age for some time. Urnfield influence is limited to the Ebro valley, penetrating the Basque Country specially in Araba, where a peculiar facies of this culture, influenced as well by pre-Indo-European cultures of Aquitaine and the Iberian plateau (Cogotas I), exists.F. Jordá Cerdá et al.
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According to archaeologists the poles probably had a ritual function. One of the hills is surrounded by a ditch. To the east and south of the Vorstengraf an urnfield was found dating back to the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Cremated remains are interred in an urn or cloth.
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Essentially only the cremation cemeteries with their rich burial goods remained. Situla of Vače, Slovenia Este culture existed next to the Villanovan Culture in the Bologna area and the Golasecca culture in the West of the Po Valley. It was influenced by the urnfield culture parallel to the Hallstatt period.
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A subsequent migration of Urnfield culture signature around 1250 BC is said to have caused this ethnic group to expand south in a general movement of people. This is equated with the upheaval of the Sea Peoples and the overthrow of an earlier Italic substrate at the onset of the "Etruscan" Villanovan culture.
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The South-German Urnfield culture developed in the regions of Southern Germany in the Bronze Age. The culture existed as early as 1000 B.C.E. The culture made Late Bronze Age pottery, including storage pots with "bulging body, more or less everted rim, and constricted neck". It was a largely male-dominated warrior culture.
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The name of this Iron Age civilization derives from a locality in the frazione Castenaso of Bologna, in Emilia, where a necropolis was discovered by Giovanni Gozzadini in 1853-1856. It succeeded the Proto-Villanovan culture during the Iron Age in the territory of Tuscany and northern Lazio and spread in parts of Romagna, Campania and Fermo in the Marche The main characteristic of the Villanovans (with some similarities with the so-called Proto-Villanovan period of the late Bronze Age) were the cremation burials, in which the deceased's ashes were housed in bi-conical urns and buried. The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture (c. 1300–750 BC), and Hallstatt culture (which succeeded the Urnfield culture).
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In the 1980s and 1990s, more systematic studies of the artefacts revealed a more gradual development over the period covering the 9th to 7th centuries, so that the term "Thraco-Cimmerian" is now rather used by convention and does not necessarily imply a direct connection with either the Thracians or the Cimmerians. Archaeologically, Thraco-Cimmerian artifacts consist of grave goods and hoards. The artifacts labelled Thraco-Cimmerian all belong to a category of upper class, luxury objects, like weapons, horse tacks and jewelry, and they are recovered only from a small percentage of graves of the period. They are metal (usually bronze) items, particularly parts of horse tacks, found in a late Urnfield context, but without local Urnfield predecessors for their type.
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This simple method of burial was used often by prehistoric peoples. It was used during the Funnelbeaker culture and Corded Ware culture. It was characteristic of the Urnfield culture which stored cremated remains in urns and buried them in flat graves. Burial customs did not always follow a pattern of continuously increasing sophistication in history.
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Burrén and Burrena, known popularly as Las Dos Teticas, are twin hills in Aragon, Spain. They are located in the Fréscano municipal limits, near the road between this town and Mallén. Burrén has an elevation of and Burrena of above sea level. There are two ancient Iron Age Urnfield culture archaeological sites beneath the hills.Burrén.
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There is archeological evidence of a hill fort on the Weinberg in Oberpreilipp from the time of the late Urnfield culture and the early Iron Age.Michael Köhler: Thüringer Burgen und befestigte vor- und frühgeschichtliche Wohnplätze. Jenzig-Verlag Köhler, Jena 2001, , S. 270. A Celtic settlement followed the Germanic one and the affiliation with the Duchy of Thuringia.
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The population of Belgium started to increase permanently with the late Bronze Age from around 1750 BCE. Three possibly related European cultures arrived in sequence. First the Urnfield culture arrived (for example, tumuli are found at Ravels and Hamont- Achel in the Campine). Then, coming into the Iron Age, the Hallstatt culture, and the La Tène culture.
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When the old Wolfskirche was torn down, it was suggested to the pastor that he turn all Roman artifacts, which were still being kept there, over to Speyer. In 1825, a hundred Roman copper coins were found near Bosenbach. These came from an urnfield. A grave hollow with five urns was hewn into a cliffside near the village.
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Dünsberg is a hill slightly northwest of Gießen in Hesse, Germany. At 498 meters in height, it is the highest mountain in the Gießen and Wetzlar area. On the southern slope of the hill, grave mounds were found from the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Fortification systems of the hill are detectable from the Urnfield period (8th century BC).
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Archaeological finds from the Urnfield culture and Roman coins have been found in the Zaka Valley, and there is a prehistoric Celtic burial site between Upper and Lower Ak. During the Second World War, members of the Carinthian People's League () renovated two ski jumps in the Zaka Valley."Iz domovine." 1941. Karawanken-Bote 1(35): 4.
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City gate The first traces of settlement go back to the Bronze Age. In Wehrheim, a burying ground from the early to middle Urnfield culture (11th to 10th century BC) was discovered. Wehrheim im Taunus itself had its first documentary mention in 1046. In 1372, the village was granted town rights, which it however lost again in 1814.
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Rijkevorsel, Vaishak, Voirssele, Forsela in 1194. Recent archaeological finds at the Willow Street attest to human presence in the late stone age, the bronze and Iron Age and the Roman times. A large cemetery with cremation (urnfield) on the Helhoekheide may point to a first settlement being present here already before the beginning of our era.
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2000–1300 BC) it was constantly settled. In the Urnfield time (approx. 1200–750 BC) the colony at the plateaus was surrounded with curtain walls, and moats. Even today the 5 km long remains of the border walls around the Osterwiese, the Ehinger mountain, and the Gerolfinger mountain provide an idea of the importance of these fortifications.
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339–345 and Middle-Danube Urnfield culture.John M. Coles, The Bronze Age in Europe: An Introduction to the Prehistory of Europe C. 2000–700 BC, p. 422.Massimo Pallottino, Etruscologia, p. 40. According to David W. Anthony, proto-Latins originated in today's eastern Hungary, kurganized around 3100 BCE by the Yamnaya culture,David W. Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language, pp.
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On the sickle blades are patterns. Von Brunn interpreted them as marks or pictograms identifying the sickle-maker. By contrast Sommerfeld (1994) suggested that the patterns represent numeral signs. Sommerfeld further suggested that beyond their obvious usefulness as a tool (as indicated by the traces of use), bronze sickles during the Urnfield period had acquired a secondary function as commodity money.
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Hundreds of artifacts from the Paleolithic (Mousterian) and Mesolithic ages have been found in Lumeau. Several remains of early farmer settlements, tumuli, megalithes from the Neolithic age have been discovered and studied, with influence from both the Atlantic Bronze Age and urnfield culture. Strong expansion is correlated with La Tène culture. Lumeau has roots as a Gaulish village in the Carnutes territory.
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Two spotted flintstones were found. An urnfield of possibly Bronze Age has been found on Lotterberg. In addition, there was probably an Iron Age settlement on Lotterberg from the 4th to the 1st centuries BC. Remains of the settlement cannot be found, but archeologists have found a large number of Iron Age pottery fragments. They are layered and contain grains of quartz.
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The local area has been inhabited at least since the late Bronze Age, based on archaeological findings. In 1876, four barrows from the Bronze Age (roughly 1550–1250 BC) were discovered. In 1981, two typical Urnfield culture graves from the time about 1000–800 BC were found. In the 1st century AD, the Roman Empire reached all the way to the Main.
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The Lichtenstein Cave, discovered in 1972, is an archaeological cave site near Dorste, Lower Saxony, Germany with a length of . The skeletal remains of 21 female humans and 19 males, dated to the Bronze Age, about 3,000 years ago were discovered. In addition, around 100 bronze objects (ear rings, bracelets, and finger rings) and ceramic parts from the Urnfield Culture were found.
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2800–2600 BCE, may have aided in spreading Yamna dialects into Austria and southern Germany in the west, where Proto-Celtic may have developed. Pre-Italic may have developed in Hungary,l and spread toward Italy via the Urnfield culture and Villanovan culture. According to Anthony, Slavic and Baltic developed in the Middle Dniepr (Ukraine) in c. 2800 BCE, spreading north from there.
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Axe-hoards are common as well: the hoard of Dieskau (Saxony) contained 293 flanged axes. Thus, axes might have served as ingots as well. After about 2000BC, this hoarding tradition dies out and is only resumed in the urnfield period. These hoards have formerly been interpreted as a form of storage by itinerant bronze-founders or as riches hidden because of enemy action.
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The sickle remained common in the Bronze Age, both in the Ancient Near East and in Europe. Numerous sickles have been found deposited in hoards in the context of the European Urnfield culture (e.g. Frankleben hoard), suggesting a symbolic or religious significance attached to the artifact. In archaeological terminology, Bronze Age sickles are classified by the method of attaching the handle. E.g.
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The mild climate, the rolling hills and fertile loess soil made the region attractive for settlers from an early period. The first signs of settlement in the Alzey area can already be found from the Neolithic period (Linear Pottery culture). Later, peoples of the Michelsberg culture settled here. Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Illyrians (Urnfield culture) immigrated to the area around Alzey.
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The Frankleben hoard is a significant hoard deposit of the European Bronze Age, associated with the Unstrut group (associated with the Tumulus or early Urnfield culture (ca. 1500-1250 BC). The site is in the Geisel valley, formed by a minor tributary of the Saale River. It was discovered in 1946 in a brown coal pit near Frankleben, now a part of Braunsbedra municipality, Saxony- Anhalt, Germany.
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Ancient settlement of the area is testified by the discovery of the remains of a Hallstatt- or Roman-era fortress on Tržišče Hill above the village. The site included a large cache of weapons. An Urnfield burial site was discovered on the southeast slope of the hill and was excavated in 1877. Southwest of this there was a second fortress, the embankments of which are well preserved.
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Gaulish culture developed from the Celtic cultures over the first millennium BC. The Urnfield culture (c. 1300 BC – c. 750 BC) represents the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European- speaking people. The spread of iron working led to the Hallstatt culture in the 8th century BC; the Proto-Celtic language is often thought to have been spoken around this time.
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Altar in the Burkhardusgrotte. Schloss Homburg. A burial site near Trennfeld is attributed to the urnfield culture (1200 to 750 BC) and nearby there is a group of 15 burial mounds from the Iron Age (700 to 450 BC). Archeological evidence points to Iron Age fortifications on a rocky outcropping on the right bank of the Main, north of where the monastery stands today.
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Goloring Reconstruction The Goloring is an ancient earthworks monument located near Koblenz, Germany. It was created in the Bronze Age era, which dates back to the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BCE.). During this time a widespread solar cult is believed to have existed in Central Europe. The Goloring consists of a circular ditch of 175 metres in diameter with an outside embankment extending to 190 metres.
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The plateau above the Wiesent valley was already in use in prehistoric times as a settlement area. Archaeologically, traces of settlement of the Urnfield, the late Hallstatt and early La Tène cultures, the early Roman Empire and Great Migration period have been documented. The unusual size of the medieval castle and its two vast outer baileys with their deep ditches could indicate an early medieval hillfort.
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This describes it as "a halt", i.e. a defensive position called an der Flöß.Hellmut Kunstmann: Die Burgen der südwestlichen Fränkischen Schweiz, p. 238 View of the Haidhofer Schloßberg with the castle rock seen from the east The castle stood on the site of a prehistorical fortification, probably a hill settlement of the Urnfield culture of the late Hallstatt era or early La Tène period.
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The oldest objects were needles, but swords and sickles are found as well. Bronze continued to be used during the whole period but was mostly used for decoration. The traditions were a continuity from the Nordic Bronze Age, but there were strong influences from the Hallstatt culture in Central Europe. They continued with the Urnfield culture tradition of burning corpses and placing the remains in urns.
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By the beginning of the Bronze Age fortifications were appearing, protecting the commercial centers of the mining, processing, and trading of copper and tin. This flourishing culture is reflected in the grave artifacts, such as at Pitten, in Nußdorf ob der Traisen, Lower Austria. In the late Bronze Age appeared the Urnfield culture, in which salt mining commenced in the northern salt mines at Hallstatt.
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The first significant habitation on the hill was established during the late Urnfield culture period around 800 BC, when hilltop settlements became common in continental Europe. Although the name "Burgstallkogel" (a generic German popular term for a hill fortification) suggests that historical knowledge of the hill persisted until the Middle Ages, very little was known to archaeological science until 1982-1984 when an exploratory dig established facts which led to significant improvements of our conception of the "Sulm Valley Subgroup" of the Eastern Hallstatt culture. A reconstruction of a Hallstatt-era bakery in the Burgstallkogel settlement Four cultural layers were identified containing pottery ranging from the late Urnfield culture to the mid-Hallstatt culture period (Ha B2/3 to Ha B3/C1). Erosion has destroyed the youngest layers of the late Hallstatt period, especially on the summit where nobility is likely to have resided.
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He was the son of Godfrey II and Lutgarde of Sulzbach.Frans Theuws and Nico Roymans, Land and Ancestors: Cultural Dynamics in the Urnfield Period and the Middle Ages in the Southern Netherlands, (Amsterdam University Press, 1999), 331. He was still an infant at his succession (therefore called dux in cunis) of which a few Brabantian vassals sought to take advantage to become independent of the duke (Wars of Grimbergen, 1141–1159).
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The non-League football club, Merrow F.C., nicknamed "The Robins", was established in 1922. Their home ground is The Urnfield, Downside Road, in Merrow (). The club was among the founding members of the Surrey Premier League in 1982. In the 2012–13 season the club achieved a league-and-cup double when they finished top of the Surrey County Intermediate League (Western) Premier Division, and won the Surrey Intermediate Cup.
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The burials associated with these Alentejanas often have a circular or sub-circular pavement at the surface with the burial in a stone cist cut through the middle. #Horizon of Santa Vitória (c. 1100-700 BCE): that reaches the early Iron Age. Imitations of early Urnfield rilled-ware vessels are found in Late Bronze Age burials in southern Portugal, for example, lovely funerary pottery urns at Santa Vitória in Beja Municipality.
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However, Guido's own excavations mostly focused on the Bronze Age. The first excavation she directed (in 1937) at the age of 25 was the Middle Bronze Age barrow and urnfield cemetery at Latch Farm (Hampshire); its publication the following year also added significantly to the gazetteer of cremation urns known for the period.Pope, R and Davies, M. (forthcoming) Piggott, Cecily Margaret [Peggy Guido] (1912–1994). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
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The Villanovan culture in 900 BC The Urnfield culture might have brought proto-Italic people from among the "Italo-Celtic" tribes who remained in Hungary into Italy. These tribes are thought to have penetrated Italy from the east during the late second millennium BC through the Proto-Villanovan culture. They later crossed the Apennine Mountains and settled central Italy, including Latium. Before 1000 BCE several Italic tribes had probably entered Italy.
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Occupation of the area continued to grow through the Bronze Age. Two bronze hoards have been discovered on Crooksbury Hill,Crooksbury Hill, Farnham and further artefacts have been found, particularly at sites in Green Lane and near the Bourne spring in Farnham Park. A significant number of Bronze Age barrows occur in the area, including a triple barrow at Elstead and an urnfield cemetery at Stoneyfield, near the Tilford road.
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Traces of Neolithic settlement on Castle Hill attest to settlement during the Urnfield culture. Later finds indicate that there may have been a small Roman settlement here. The Parish of Gornja Radgona belonged to the Diocese of Salzburg and was founded under the Spanheims in the first half of the 12th century. The parish church in Gornja Radgona is dedicated to Saint Peter and was built in 1813 and extended in 1890.
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Examined individuals overwhelmingly carry types of the paternal haplogroup R-M269, while the maternal haplogroups H and U are frequent. These lineages are associated with steppe ancestry. The spread of Celts into Iberia and the emergence of the Celtiberians is associated with an increase in north-central European ancestry in Iberia, and may be connected to the expansion of the Urnfield culture. The paternal haplogroup haplogroup I2a1a1a has been detected among Celtiberians.
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In ancient Egypt, customs developed during the Predynastic period. Round graves with one pot were used in the Badarian Period (4400-3800 B.C.E.), continuing the tradition of Omari and Maadi cultures. Prehistoric cemeteries are referred to by the more neutral term grave field. They are one of the chief sources of information on prehistoric cultures, and numerous archaeological cultures are defined by their burial customs, such as the Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age.
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A Bronze Age urnfield exists on the moor top, north of Mytholmroyd. It is a burial ground with cremation urns, dating between the 16th and 11th centuries BC of national importance. Evidence of pre-historic farming is apparent because they cleared the upland forests for cattle grazing and created the peat moorlands. Most of the Celtic Iron Age settlements were concentrated on the hillside terraces which avoided the wooded and poorly drained valley floors.
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It inspired a body of contemporary philological research, as well as some archaeological work. The Celto-Ligurian hypothesis became associated with the Funnelbeaker culture and "expanded to cover much of Central Europe".See, in particular Julius Pokorny adapted the Celto-Ligurian hypothesis into one linking the Ligures to the Illyrians, citing an array of similar evidence from Eastern Europe. Under this theory the "Ligures-Illyrians" became associated with the prehistoric Urnfield peoples.
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These axes were of high material value at that time and were probably imported from the Maritime Alps. From the time of the hill grave culture (1600-1300/1200 BC) there are some grave finds from hill graves in Gonsenheim; the settlements belonging to them could not yet be located. Traces of human settlements in Gonsenheim can be dated for the first time to the Late Bronze Age (Urnfield Period, ca. 1200 to 750 BC).
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Hertlein also coined the name Elsachstadt based on the nearby source of the Elsach. Excavations at the burial site near the Burrenhof since the mid-19th century and in particular after 1983 have yielded significant numbers of findings, pointing to a use by some nearby settlement from the Urnfield period (after 1200 BC) to the late Hallstatt period (6th century BC). Valuable funerary goods indicate the presence of a social elite at that time.
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However, in the late Bronze Age, a warrior elite of the so-called Urnfield culture (1200-800 BC) began to establish themselves on hilltops like the Ehrenbürg, the Hesselberg or the Marienberg above Würzburg. A particularly large site from this period was located on the Heunischenburg near Kronach in Upper Franconia. In nearby Thonberg, a helmet has been found dating to this period. Another helmet of this era was discovered at Ebing near Bamberg.
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During the construction of the Austrian Southern Railway, Urnfield culture artifacts were discovered in Studenec, testifying to early settlement of the area. In the first half of the 16th century, a district council with six halls belonging to the lesser nobility stood in Studenec. In 1875, at the initiative of the physician Karel Bleiweis (1834–1909), the Carniolan Assembly purchased the Krisper Menagerie (, Leksikon občin kraljestev in dežel zastopanih v državnem zboru, vol. 6: Kranjsko. 1906.
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The initial phase was characterized by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia, and were apparently related to the Tumulus culture (1600–1200 BC) in central Europe. This phase was followed by a subsequent change featuring Urnfield (cremation) burial customs (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the Hilversum culture (1800–800), which apparently inherited the cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.
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The Penard Period is a metalworking phase of the Bronze Age in Britain spanning the period c. 1275 BC to c. 1140 BC. It is named after the typesite of Penard in West Glamorgan, where a hoard of bronze tools from the period was found in 1827. The period is characterised by a flowering in experimentation in bronze working, spurred by increased contact with the Urnfield culture of Continental Europe from where early sword and shield imports came.
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The burials are skeletal, as opposed to the cremation practices of the later Urnfield cultures. There are no substantial settlements left by the Burial Mound people, whose agricultural practices were apparently limited mostly to animal husbandry. They developed bronze metallurgy to a large extent, satisfying their own needs for weapons and richly designed and executed decorations. Their dominant social class were the warriors, who were equal and were the only men entitled to a tumulus burial.
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The Heunischenburg near Gehülz (Kronach) Front view of the Heunischenburg The Heunischenburg with a view through the gateway looking east View from above the reconstructed wall The Heunischenburg is a stone fortification of the late Urnfield period near the Upper Franconian town of Kronach in Germany. Its heyday was in the 9th century BC, making it the oldest stone fortification north of the Alps that is known and archaeologically investigated.Kronach at www.bauen-bayern.de. Retrieved 6 Nov 2019.
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The archaeological dating of the site is based on numerous bronze finds, about 70 per cent of which are weapons. There are also needles, rings, razors, decorative discs, fragments of wrought lead, pieces of swords, lance points and arrowheads. Because many arrowheads were found that had not been deburred, it is suspected that there were times when there was an extremely high consumption of munitions in the garrison. A helmet of the Urnfield period was found at nearby Thonberg.
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In a later NZZ article (21 August 2008), the date is revised to c.4500BC instead of c.3000BC In the 3rd millennium BC, Switzerland lay on the south- western outskirts of the Corded Ware horizon, entering the early Bronze Age (Beaker culture) in step with Central Europe, in the late centuries of the 3rd millennium. The first Indo-European settlement likely dates to the 2nd millennium, at the latest in the form of the Urnfield culture from c.
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There is also evidence of the Urnfield culture (roughly 1300–750 BC). Evidence of the La Tène culture (roughly 450–100 BC, during the Iron Age) has also been found; as has evidence of the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture from about the same period. Towards the end of that time, Tyrol began to be noted in Roman written records. The inhabitants may have been Illyrians, in the process of being displaced by Celts (perhaps themselves displaced from Noricum by Slavs).
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In the late 19th and early 20th century many archaeological artifacts of the Stone Age period were found, remains of settlements and places of burial from the times of Bronze Age (Urnfield culture) and Ancient Rome on the urban area. Most of the objects are exhibited at the National Museum of the town.Felix Milleker, Geschichte der Stadt Pančevo, Pančevo 1925, p. 5-7.Virtual visit at the National Museum on the Website by National Museum of Pančevo .
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Characteristic of the remaining bronze periods were the Urnfield cultures, in which skeletal burials were replaced by cremation throughout much of Europe. In Poland, the Lusatian culture settlements dominated the landscape for nearly a thousand years, continuing into the Early Iron Age. A series of Scythian invasions beginning in the 6th century BC, precipitated their demise. The Hallstatt Period D was a time of expansion for the Pomeranian culture, while the Western Baltic Kurgan culture dominated Poland's Masuria-Warmia region.
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In pre-Roman times, circular ramparts were built on the Greinberg above Miltenberg and on the Bürgstadter Berg (also known as Wannenberg) northeast of Bürgstadt. These were in use as early as the Neolithic (Michelsberg culture) but mostly date from the late Bronze Age (Urnfield culture). In the 150s, the Roman Empire pushed outwards its fortified border in Germania, establishing the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes which replaced the Odenwald-Neckar-Limes. From Miltenberg on northwards, the river Main became the border.
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The Bleibeskopf is a hill in Hesse, Germany, about 6 km northwest of Bad Homburg. In the late Bronze Age (about 800 BC), a pre-Celtic hillfort of the Urnfield culture was on the Bleibiskopf. The circular rampart, which was once 3 to 3.5 metres thick, about 1.8 metres tall and 490 metres long, is still recognisable today. Numerous bronze objects have been found on the Bleibeskopf: a hatchet, a decorated lance tip, a knife, a needle, a razor and leg rings.
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Proto-Lusatian Tumulus or Burial Mound culture of Danubian origin thrived in western Polish lands during the 1700–1400 BC period, and contributed to the birth and rise of the Urnfield cultures.Jerzy Wyrozumski – Historia Polski do roku 1505, p. 62 Around 1400 BC it was replaced by the most important of them – the Lusatian culture. Burial Mound culture again was a complex of cultures, which replaced the Unetice culture and had an earth and stone mound grave as their common trait.
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The Piliny culture (1500–1200 BC, roughly the third or middle period of the Bronze Age) of Hungary and Slovakia, and also southern Lesser Poland, where like others they left bronze treasures, is an early example of the Urnfield cultures. These cultures' burial customs involved cremation of bodies and placing the ashes in urns (often with small apertures, presumably for the soul to escape). The urns were buried without a mound, sometimes forming huge cemeteries with thousands of such graves.U źródeł Polski, p.
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The Epipaleolithic was centered in Lower Aragon, occupying the epoch between the 7th and the 5th millennium. In the first half of the 5th millennium BCE, Neolithic remains are found in the Huescan Outer Ranges and in Lower Aragon. The Eneolithic was characterized in the province of Huesca presenting two important megalithic nuclei: the Pre- Pyrenees of the Outer Ranges and the High Pyrenean valleys. The Late Bronze Age begins in Aragon around 1100 BCE with the arrival of the Urnfield culture.
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In the Iron Age, inhumation again becomes more common, but cremation persisted in the Villanovan culture and elsewhere. Homer's account of Patroclus' burial describes cremation with subsequent burial in a tumulus, similar to Urnfield burials, and qualifying as the earliest description of cremation rites. This may be an anachronism, as during Mycenaean times burial was generally preferred, and Homer may have been reflecting the more common use of cremation at the time the Iliad was written, centuries later. The Aztec emperor Ahuitzotl being cremated.
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Haplogroup R1a has later been found in ancient fossils associated with the Urnfield culture; Summary in English of . as well as the burial of the remains of the Sintashta, Andronovo, the Pazyryk, Tagar, Tashtyk, and Srubnaya cultures, the inhabitants of ancient Tanais,Корниенко И. В., Водолажский Д. И. Использование нерекомбинантных маркеров Y-хромосомы в исследованиях древних популяций (на примере поселения Танаис)//Материалы Донских антропологических чтений. Ростов- на-Дону, Ростовский научно-исследовательский онкологический институт, Ростов- на-Дону, 2013. in the Tarim mummies, and the aristocracy Xiongnu.
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Alloying metal with lead became a common practice during the period and numerous hoards date to this period. In common with the continental Hallstatt culture, horse harnesses and vehicle fittings were developed and links with the late Urnfield Culture and Hallstatt early C are apparent. Recently, the Ewart Park Phase, and related Atlantic phases, have come to be seen as the probable point of origin of some developments in metalwork, that then spread widely across inland continental Europe. This reverses the previously assumed direction of travel.
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One of the best-known grave sites, that like almost all of them dates to the New Stone Age, lies in a small area of restored heathland and is known today as the Oldendorfer Totenstatt. Here several of the different types of grave are located together(tumuli, Urnfield gravesites and dolmens) and may still be viewed today. The name of the village is derived from Bishop Amelung of Verden. Amelung was supposed to have venerated Hippolytus of Rome and named the church after him.
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During the late Bronze Age (1200 BC), Farther Pomerania and Pomerelia were under the influence of the Lusatian culture, the north-eastern subgroup of the Urnfield culture. People of this culture burned their dead and buried the ashes in urns, which were typically placed in urnfields but also in tumuli. The Pomeranian variant of the Lusatian culture can further be divided into an eastern and the Göritz group. The sun is assumed to have played a prominent role in their religion, which also included cannibalism.
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Alzenau Castle The area was settled quite early on. There are traces of settlement and graves from Hallstatt times (Iron Age), graves from the Beaker culture (2600 BC) and crematory graves from the Old Urnfield times (about 1000 BC). In 950 the community of Wilmundsheim on the Kahl's left bank had its first documentary mention. In the 12th century, the Freigericht (“Free Court”) was established by Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa comprising the settlements of Wildmundsheim, Hörstein, Mömbris and Somborn and it was excused taxes and obligatory service.
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The Gáva-Holigrady culture was a late Bronze Age culture of Eastern Slovakia, Western Ukraine (Zakarpats'ka Oblast and Dnister river basin), Northwestern Romania and Northeastern Hungary. It is considered a subtype of the Urnfield culture. Gava-Holigrady culture is named after an archaeological settlement Gava in Northeastern Hungary and an archaeological site Holigrady (Голігради) in Ukrainian Ternopil Oblast. In Slovakia, the culture has originated in the early twentieth century BC. Gáva people lived in settlements and castles that they built in the Slovakian and Transylvanian uplands.
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Trundholm sun chariot, Denmark, c.1400 BC The Bronze Age in Northern Europe spans the entire 2nd millennium BC (Unetice culture, Urnfield culture, Tumulus culture, Terramare culture, Lusatian culture) lasting until BC. The Northern Bronze Age was both a period and a Bronze Age culture in Scandinavian pre-history, –500 BC, with sites that reached as far east as Estonia. Succeeding the Late Neolithic culture, its ethnic and linguistic affinities are unknown in the absence of written sources. It is followed by the Pre-Roman Iron Age.
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Leese was one of the earliest settlements in the Middle Weser Region. Around 20 tumulus graves are found, the oldest dating to about 1800 BCE. The urnfield graves in the so-called "small field" of Leese were excavated under the auspices of the Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (Lower Saxony Bureau for Cultural Heritage) between 1978 and 1980 turned out to be the largest graveyard of urn burials in the pre-Roman Iron Age of northern Germany, with 1100 burials. An urn is represented in the lower part of the town's coat of arms.
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In the late Neolithic era the use of copper spread and villages were built over piles near lakes. In Sardinia, Sicily and part of Mainland Italy the Beaker culture spread from Western and Central Europe. During the Late Bronze Age the Urnfield Proto-Villanovan culture appeared in Central and Northern Italy, characterized by the typical rite of cremation of dead bodies originating from Central Europe, and the use of iron spread. Culture del bronzo recente in Italia settentrionale e loro rapporti con la "cultura dei campi di urne" In Sardinia, the Nuragic civilization flourished.
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Protection against cattle raids would fit the circumstances—proven by grave goods, rock engravings and hoards—of a strong martial ideology in this era (Fokkens 1999). These complicated cultural-economic networks that preclude precise ethnic (and thus linguistic) differentiation, supports the maintenance of late contacts between the languages ancestral to Germanic and Celtic, assuming a position of Proto-Celtic to the north of the Hallstatt culture – as supported by the known homelands of La Tène culture.Butler, J.J., S. Arnoldussen, and H. Steegstra. 2011/2012. Single-edged socketed Urnfield knives in the Netherlands and western Europe.
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Among the deposits of this final Bronze, it is worth mentioning that of the Cabezos de Sancharancón. This town is located on the road from Caspe to Zaragoceta. On a conical hill with a large number of sandstone blocks that accumulate on the slopes, the quadrangular houses are distributed. The ceramic materials collected on the surface typologically fit with those of the advanced Middle Bronze, although there are also very few remains of vessels that can be attributed to the culture of the Urnfield culture, in addition to flint-carved products.
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Charlemagne supposedly resettled deported Saxons in the area. Archaeological excavations have produced Celtic leftovers as well as remains from the Urnfield culture and the Bronze Age giving proof of settlement as early as 1300 BC. The first official mentioning in modern times occurred in a private charter Urkunde HU Bamberg 335 - Hauptstaatsarchiv München on April 6, 1178 as bintlvke. Being part of the Prussian Principality of Bayreuth, Bindlach was ceded to France in 1807 following the Treaties of Tilsit. In 1810 it became part of the Kingdom of Bavaria.
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1, 2008, pp. 17–33. The Chalcolithic period developed in Catalonia between 2500 and 1800 BC, with the beginning of the construction of copper objects. The Bronze Age occurred between 1800 and 700 BC. There are few remnants of this era, but there were some known settlements in the low Segre zone. The Bronze Age coincided with the arrival of the Indo-Europeans through the Urnfield Culture, whose successive waves of migration began around 1200 BC, and they were responsible for the creation of the first proto-urban settlements.
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The Wahnwegen area is rich in prehistoric archaeological finds going back to the New Stone Age. On the Heidenhübel north of the village, a heavily weathered stone axe was found, and unearthed south of the village was a red stone arrowhead. Also on the Heidenhübel may once have lain, for many centuries, a prehistoric settlement. A burying ground belonging to this site contains archaeological sites from several epochs stretching from the time of the Urnfield culture (about 1200 BC) to Gallo- Roman times (50 BC to AD 400).
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The skulls were arranged concentrically with their faces turned towards the setting sun. They were all covered with a thick layer of red ochre. The skulls have been dated to the 7th millennium BC. In the area around Nördlingen, additional sites dating to almost all of the subsequent prehistoric epochs have been discovered. Particularly important was an area on the eastern edge of the district Baldingen, where settlements have been found belonging to the Neolithic Linear Pottery culture, the Bronze Age Urnfield culture, and the Celtic Iron Age Hallstatt and La Tène cultures.
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The earliest direct evidence of cheesemaking is now being found in clay sieves (holed pottery) over seven thousand years old, for example in Kujawy, Poland, and the Dalmatian coast in Croatia, the latter with dried remains which chemical analysis suggests was cheese. Shards of holed pottery were also found in Urnfield pile-dwellings on Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland and are hypothesized to be cheese-strainers,Toussaint-Samat 2009:103. they date back to 6,000 BCE (8,000 years ago). For preservation purposes, cheese-making may have begun by the pressing and salting of curdled milk.
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Due to its convenient location at the mouth of the Fils into the Neckar, people have been living in the area since the earliest times, which is attested by finds from the Stone Age. Finds of weapons and grave goods from the Bronze Age give evidence of a settlement belonging to the Urnfield culture. Also from the Hallstatt period grave mounds indicate that there might have been a continuous Celtic settlement up to the Roman period. In classical antiquity the Romans and in the early Middle Ages the Alamanni settled in the area.
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These indicate intensive use as a settlement during the late Hallstatt to the late La Tène periods (6th/5th century to 1st century BC). The oppidum likely served as a nexus for the region where Celtic and Germanic cultures met. It was the largest circular rampart in the Rhön region. Other findings show that the hill was inhabited or at least visited during earlier periods: a bronze spearhead from the Urnfield culture (1200 to 800 BC) and a shard from the Corded Ware culture (roughly 2500 to 1800 BC).
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German "Beer boot" Boot- and shoe-shaped drinking vessels have been found at archaeological sites dating back to the bronze-age Urnfield cultures. Modern beer boots (or ') have over a century of history and culture behind them. It is commonly believed that a general somewhere promised his troops to drink beer from his boot if they were successful in battle. When the troops prevailed, the general had a glassmaker fashion a boot from glass to fulfill his promise without tasting his own feet and to avoid spoiling the beer in his leather boot.
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Harrespil of Okabe Harrespil is the Basque name, that can be translated by "stone circle", given to small megalithic monuments which abounds on mountains of the Basque Country in particular. They are also called baratz, a basque word meaning "garden" and traditionally applied to the prehistoric necropoles. Gathered in necropoles of 5 to 20 monuments, they appeared during the late Bronze Age (from approximately -1200) but remained used during the Iron Age. These burials are distinguished from the preceding ones by the recourse to cremation, like in the urnfield culture.
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Those were replaced in their respective territories, for the duration of the second, the Older Bronze Period, by the (pre-Lusatian) Tumulus culture and the Trzciniec culture. Characteristic of the remaining bronze periods were the Urnfield cultures; within their range skeletal burials had been replaced by cremation of bodies throughout much of Europe. In Poland the Lusatian culture settlements dominated the landscape for nearly a thousand years, continuing into and including the Early Iron Age. A series of Scythian invasions, beginning in the 6th century BC, precipitated the demise of the Lusatian culture.
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During the early and middle Bronze Age, Belgian Limburg is often considered to have been in the zone where the Hilversum culture lived, but finds are not in Belgian Limburg itself. This was a culture found in the southern and central Netherlands, and the Belgian coast, and is considered to be related to the contemporary Wessex culture of southern England. During the late Bronze Age, Belgian Limburg received immigrants belonging to the Urnfield culture. These cremation practicing farmers caused a population increase which included the sandy north of Limburg, where pastoralism was also practiced.
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Nina Günster: Von Brunnen, Eseln und anderem: Wasserversorgung auf Höhenburgen am Beispiel des Karstgebietes Nördliche Frankenalb. Published by the European Castles Institute, 2013, , pp. 129-137. The castle site is classified by the Bavarian State Office for Monument Protection (BLfD) as a hillfort of the Urnfield period, the late Hallstatt and early La Tène periods, the early Roman Empire and the migration period and listed as monument number D-4-6133-0110. The subterranean parts of the ruins of the medieval and early modern castle are also a protected monument.
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Bleasdale Circle In 1932, Varley worked under V. Gordon Childe at the Old Kieg Stone Circle, near Alford, Aberdeenshire, Scotland – an example of a recumbent stone circle, with a large recumbent stone between two standing pillars – carrying out surveying and assisting with the preliminary excavation.Burl, p. 105 Maiden Castle on the summit of Bickerton Hill One of his early independent excavations was carried out between 1933 and 1935 at the Bronze Age Bleasdale Circle, near Bleasdale, Lancashire,Varley 1938, p. 154 now considered to be an urnfield with a mound ringed by oak posts and enclosed in a palisade.
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Several cultural groups can be singled out (the Gradina (hillfort) culture in Istria, the Urnfield culture in northern Croatia, the Cetina culture in Dalmatia, etc.), which arose through the symbiosis of earlier cultural traditions and the various influences of strong neighbouring cultures. The Iron Age left traces of the Hallstatt culture (proto-Illyrians) and the La Tène culture (proto- Celts). The arrival of the systematic production and use of iron tools marked the beginning of the Iron Age (c. 800 BC – early 1st century), during which the first ethnic communities appeared in the area which is present-day Croatia.
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800 BC are found in the South-West of the Iberian peninsula. Early Western Urnfield Group C1 crested helmets are depicted on some of these LBA stelae, for example at Valencia de Alcantara and Santa Ana de Trujillo. There are examples of stones with both images of human figures and elements of the warrior panoply (shields, spears, swords, helmets, chariots, brooches, mirrors, combs, lyres, etc.) together with Southwestern (SW) writing in the Tartessian language. The warrior stelae of Capote with inscription J.54.1 and Cabeza del Buey IV with inscription Majada Honda, J.110 are examples of stelae with such writing.
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In the Iron Age, bearers of the late Urnfield culture followed the Ebro upstream as far as the southern fringes of the Basque Country, leading to the incorporation of the Hallstatt culture; this corresponds to the beginning of Indo-European, notably Celtic influence in the region. In the Basque Country, settlements now appear mainly at points of difficult access, probably for defensive reasons, and had elaborate defense systems. During this phase, agriculture seemingly became more important than animal husbandry. It may be during this period that new megalithic structures, the (stone circle) or cromlech and the megalith or menhir, made their appearance.
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In the area of the church St. Lubentius, archaeologists have discovered traces of a cult site from the Copper Age (2000 to 4000 BC), as well as the remains of a settlement assigned to the Urnfield culture (1300 to 800 BC). Excavations in the Basilica suggest that before the Church was constructed the site on the limestone bluff had been a pagan cult and gathering place. The Reckenforst, a judicial meeting place which exercised high jurisdiction over the wider environs in at least in the Early Middle Ages, was nearby. It was mentioned as early as 1217.
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Cinerary urns of the Villanovan culture The pre-Etruscan history of the area in the middle and late Bronze parallels that of the archaic Greeks. The Tuscan area was inhabited by peoples of the so-called Apennine culture in the second millennium BC (roughly 1400–1150 BC) who had trading relationships with the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations in the Aegean Sea, and, at the end of the Bronze Age, by peoples of the so-called Proto-Villanovan culture (c. 1100-900 BC) part of the central European Urnfield culture system. Following this, at the beginning of the Iron Age, the Villanovan culture (c.
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Enclosed cremation cemetery is a term used by archaeologists to describe a type of cemetery found in north western Europe during the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. They are similar to urnfield burial grounds in that they consist of a concentration of pits containing cremated remains which have usually also been placed into pottery vessels. However they are also surrounded by a circular or oval bank and outer ditch which gives them their name. The most famous example is Stonehenge which functioned as such a cemetery during its early use when it was a simple earthwork enclosure.
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The east-west cultural disparity continued: For example, the use of metal objects was less common in the eastern regions, while in the western zone besides the urns the burials contained often many other vessels. The western zone ceramics of the early Lusatian period had very prominent protuberances around the lower part of the container. These regional differences became even more pronounced with time. A number of smaller Lusatian subcultures are distinguished, such as the one in Upper Silesia, where after a 250-year hiatus, beginning at about 900 BC, atypically for the Urnfield cultural sphere, skeletal burials are found again.
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The origins of the Germanic people's powerful ascent, leading them to displace the Celts, are not easy to discern. For example, we do not know to what degree Pomeranian culture gave way to Przeworsk culture by internal evolution, external population influx, or just permeation by the new regional cultural trends. The early Germanic Jastorf cultural sphere was in the beginning an impoverished continuation of the North German Urnfield culture and the Nordic circle cultures. It formed around 700–550 BCE in Northern Germany and Jutland under Hallstatt influence; in its early stages, its funeral customs strongly resembled those of the contemporary Pomeranian culture.
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Hildesheim Cathedral Castle Artist's impression of a pincer gate (information board at the Oppidum Finsterlohr). Reconstruction of Celtic pincer gate (1st century BC) in Zeme Keltu, Nasavrky, Czech Republic A pincer gate () is a gate in a fortification that is deeply embedded between two inward angled exterior walls. Those wishing to enter the fort have to approach what is in effect a sunken road and, if hostile, can be attacked from both side walls in a pincer fashion. Pincer gates were already being used in Urnfield and Celtic fortification in Central Europe and may also be seen in Early Medieval circular ramparts.
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The helmet's horns are also 'S'-shaped, with a twist recalling both a bull's horns and the twist in a pair of lurs. Fittings between horns and crest held bird's feathers, and it has been suggested that the crest was originally adorned with a hair. The helmet has a human appearance coupled with select zoomorphic elements. Overall the design takes cues from both Urnfield and Nordic culture, though some elements, such as bulls' horns are found elsewhere - such as Iberia, and Sardinia, and horned helms are also seen in contemporary descriptions of the Sea Peoples in the Mediterranean and near East.
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The indigenous people were Danubian farmers, and the invading people of the BC 3rd millennium were Kurgan warrior-herders from the Ukrainian and Russian steppes. Indo-Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. The people of that time are best described as proto-Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian-Carpathian Geto-Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula. Between BC 15th–12th century, the Dacian-Getae culture was influenced by the Bronze Age Tumulus-Urnfield warriors who were on their way through the Balkans to Anatolia.
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The area of Wels has been settled since the Neolithic era (between 3500 and 1700 B.C.E.), as evidenced by archaeological finds of simple tools, especially from around the banks of the Traun River in what is now the city center. A Bronze Age (after 1700 B.C.E.) cemetery was found in the area of the current airport and dated to the time of the Urnfield Culture (1100–750 B.C.E.). It contained 60 graves with such items as bronze jewelry and food. Swords from the Halstatt Period (750–400 B.C.E.) have been found in the area of Pernau.
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Still higher, and outside the old town, is the fine new parish church of St Michael, consecrated in 1902. The business quarter is on the rising ground north of the old town, near the railway station. Several fine modern buildings rise on or close to the shore in the town and to its south, whilst to the southwest is a convent of Capuchin nuns, who manage a large girls' school and several other educational establishments. The Museum of Prehistory Zug houses an important collection of archaeological remains, especially from the late Bronze Age (urnfield culture) settlement of Zug-Sumpf.
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Based on archaeological discoveries, the Jenzig was a fortified hilltop settlement during the time of the Urnfield culture (about 1300 BC to 800 BC), offering protection to the surrounding population. It was examined between 1856 and 1891 by Friedrich Klopfleisch, who performed several excavations. In 1936, a hoard was discovered while quarrying, which can now be found in the prehistoric collection of the University of Jena. The nearly 3.5 kg complex consists of 28 bronze objects such as neck and arm rings, spirals, a bejeweled disc, two sickles, a knife, a hatchet and a spiral plate fibula.
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It was especially at the end of the Bronze Age that they left very important remains (1250-950 BC): numerous tombs with cremation urns and animal offerings have been found in crevices and under boulders in a large part of the cave. It is an underground necropolis of the Urnfield culture, now well-known to European specialists for its wealth of ceramic vases from a full scientific publication.La Grotte de la Balme Part of the archaeological material from all eras is displayed in the Heritage House at Hières-sur-Amby where it was sent in 1985 by the excavators.
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Romance languages in Europe The Italic languages are a subfamily of the Indo-European language family originally spoken by Italic peoples. They include the Romance languages derived from Latin (Italian, Sardinian, Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, French, Romanian, Occitan, etc.); a number of extinct languages of the Italian Peninsula, including Umbrian, Oscan, Faliscan, South Picene; and Latin itself. At present, Latin and its daughter Romance languages are the only surviving languages of the Italic language family. The most widely accepted theory suggests that Latins and other proto-Italic tribes first entered in Italy with the late Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture, then part of the central European Urnfield culture system.Cornell (1995) 44.
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A further complication is that the population of the Eburones may have been made up of different components. As mentioned above, archaeological evidence implies continuity going back to Urnfield times, but with signs that militarized elites had moved in more than once, bringing forms of the Celtic- associated cultures known as Hallstatt and later La Tène. No clear archaeological evidence has been found to confirm Caesar's account that the Eburones came specifically from over the Rhine. However, these Celtic cultures were also present there, and in the period when Caesar supposes that they arrived, the peoples immediately over the Rhine were most likely not speakers of a Germanic language.
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The Culture of Golasecca (9th to 4th centuries BC) spread between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age in the areas of northwestern Lombardy and Piedmont, and the Canton Ticino . At the end of the prehistoric period, this was an area where travelers frequently stopped and had contact with the Hallstatt culture to the west, the Urnfield culture to the north and with the Villanova culture to the south. The Golasecca culture was initially concentrated in the foothills area south of the Alps. It later spread throughout the lakes area, and established many settlements representing this original culture.
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A first settling of the region took place at the time of the Linear Pottery culture between 6000 and 4000 BC, as evidenced by archeological findings at the Altersberg, Ameisenberg and in the Hochstatt. For the time after that, no findings are known. Another settlement at the Roth was established at the time of the Urnfield culture between 1200 and 750 BC. During the development of the Roth between 1999 and 2000 AD, excavations were conducted in the area, and numerous shard and pole pit findings were recorded. The existing settlement then grew in size between 750 and 450 BC, at the time of the Hallstatt culture.
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Around 1000 BC, a Celtic refuge castle was built on the site by members of the Urnfield culture. Archaeological findings indicate that the locals of the later Hallstatt culture had trade contacts with Ancient Greece and marked an extreme northern point on the wine trade network of the time circa 500 BC. The hill may have been a Fürstensitz, the seat of a "prince". From 100 AD onwards control of the area changed hands several times between different "tribes" (Suevi, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Burgundians), before the area was taken by the Franks in the 6th century. Würzburg became the occasional seat of a Franconian-Thuringian duke under the Merovingians.
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An in-situ preserved Ancient Roman well in the museum Several archeological excavations have taken place at the site of the museum itself. Excavations were conducted between 2000 and 2003 during renovations on the Palace (in the basement and in the inner courtyard) under the direction of the City Museum curator. These revealed many historical artifacts and remains from the Urnfield Culture, the Late Hallstatt period, the Middle and Late La Tène period, the Roman Imperial period, the Late Medieval period and the Early Modern periods. Of note were two graves of La Tène warriors that were discovered in an Early Roman in-fill deposit during the investigation in 2002.
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The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (c. 1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia, and were apparently related to the Tumulus culture in central Europe. The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC).
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The earth inside the chamber contained numerous disarticulated human bones. Although the minimum number of individuals is as low as 27, the broken and mixed state of the remains suggests severe disturbance. Thus, it is possible that the number of persons buried here was originally higher. The discovery of an Urnfield period burial above the original depositions indicates that the destruction of the grave, disturbance of its contents and removal of the roof must have taken place before the 10th/9th century BC. Charcoal and ashes were found in a number of locations, especially with human remains near the doorstone and near the southwest terminal slab.
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They were the largest, organized and belligerent tribe of the Umbrians and populated compactly across the basin of Nera River. This people are quoted for 7 times in the Iguvine Tablets. This is confirmed not only by the Iguvine Tablets, Latin historians and by the important and privileged role played by this city in Roman times, but also by the discovery, at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, of one of the mixed burial necropolis (Urnfield culture and burial fields) larger of Europe, about 3000 tombs (Necropoli delle Acciaierie di Terni). Assisi, called Asisium by the Romans, was an ancient Umbrian site on a spur of Mount Subasio.
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The Iberian script evolved from the Tartessian one with Greek influences that are noticeable in the transformation of some characters. In a few cases a variant of Greek alphabet (Ibero-Ionian script) was used to write Iberian as well. The transformation from Tartessian to Iberian culture was not sudden but gradual and was more marked in the East, where it begins in the 6th century BC, than in the south- west, where it is only noticeable since the 5th century BC and much more tenuous. A special case is the north-east where the Urnfield culture was Iberized but keeping some elements from the Indo-European substrate.
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This phase was followed by a subsequent change featuring Urnfield (cremation) burial customs (1200–800 BCE). Part of the "Nordwestblock", it is situated to the north and east of the Rhine and the IJssel (named after the village of Elp in Drenthe province), bordering the Hilversum culture to the south and the Hoogkarspel culture in West Friesland that, together with Elp, all derive from the Barbed Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BCE) and, forming a culture complex at the boundary between the Atlantic and the Nordic horizons. First the dead were buried in shallow pits and covered by a low barrow. At the end of the Bronze Age they were cremated and the urns were gathered in low barrows.
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In the late Bronze Age, from the late 2nd millennium to the early 1st millennium BC, a fourth wave, the Proto-Villanovan culture, related to the Central European Urnfield culture, brought iron-working to the Italian peninsula. Proto-villanovans practised cremation and buried the ashes of their dead in pottery urns of distinctive double-cone shape. Generally speaking, Proto- Villanovan settlements were centered in the northern-central part of the peninsula. Further south, in Campania, a region where inhumation was the general practice, Proto-villanovan cremation burials have been identified at Capua, at the "princely tombs" of Pontecagnano near Salerno (finds conserved in the Museum of Agro Picentino) and at Sala Consilina.
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700 to 500 BC). Proto- Celtic, the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic languages, is considered by this school of thought to have been spoken at the time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures, in the early 1st millennium BC. The spread of the Celtic languages to Iberia, Ireland and Britain would have occurred during the first half of the 1st millennium BC, the earliest chariot burials in Britain dating to c. 500 BC. Other scholars see Celtic languages as covering Britain and Ireland, and parts of the Continent, long before any evidence of "Celtic" culture is found in archaeology. Over the centuries the language(s) developed into the separate Celtiberian, Goidelic and Brittonic languages.
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For example, the Iron Age of Prehistoric Ireland begins around 500 BC, when the Greek Iron Age had already ended, and finishes around 400 AD. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia.John Collis, "The European Iron Age" (1989) The start of the Iron Age is marked by new cultural groupings, or at least terms for them, with the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Greece collapsing in some confusion, while in Central Europe the Urnfield culture had already given way to the Hallstatt culture. In north Italy the Villanovan culture is regarded as the start of Etruscan civilization. Like its successor La Tène culture, Hallstatt is regarded as Celtic.
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The community of Waldbrunn is largely coëxtensive with the former parish and tithing area of Lahr, one of four that once belonged to the Amt of Ellar. The three other parishes were the tithing areas of Frickhofen, Elsoff and Niederzeuzheim (known collectively as the Vier Centen). Until 1815, the centre of Waldernbach (nowadays part of the community of Mengerskirchen) also belonged to the parish of Lahr along with the now forsaken centres of Wehnaue/Winnau, Wenigen-Reynderroytchen, Brotelbach, Brechtelbach, Gralshofen and Oberhof. The oldest trace of man in what is now the community is an urnfield grave from the Bronze Age near Fussingen. After the Ubii migrated from the area in 38 BC, it was settled by the Usipeti.
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Statue of Ambiorix in the main square of Tongeren. The first wave of people with farming and pottery technology in northern Europe was the LBK culture which originated in central Europe and reached a geographical limit in the fertile southern Haspengouw part of Limburg about 5000 BC, only to die out about 4000 BC. A later wave from central Europe, the Michelsburg culture arrived about 3500 BC and shared a similar fate. Pottery technology had however apparently been taken up by local tribes of the Swifterbant culture, who remained present throughout. The area became permanently agricultural only in the Bronze Age with the Urnfield culture, followed by the possibly related Halstatt and La Tène material cultures, which are generally associated with Celts.
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The Lusatian culture developed as the preceding Trzciniec culture experienced influences from the Tumulus culture of the Middle Bronze Age, essentially incorporating the local communities into the socio-political network of Iron Age Europe.(Dolukhanov 1996:113) It formed part of the Urnfield systems found from eastern France, southern Germany and Austria to Hungary and the Nordic Bronze Age in northwestern Germany and Scandinavia. It was followed by the Billendorf culture of the Early Iron Age in the West. In Poland, the Lusatian culture is taken have spanned part of the Iron Age as well (there is only a terminological difference) and was succeeded in Montelius VIIbc in the northern ranges around the mouth of Vistula by the Pomeranian culture spreading south.
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The oldest known remnants of settlement in the Maribor area date back to the 5th millennium BC, at the time of the Chalcolithic. With the construction of Maribor's western bypass, larger settlements were discovered dating from the 44th to 42nd century BC. Another settlement from around the same period was also discovered in Spodnje Hoče, a town right next to Maribor and another below Melje Hill near Malečnik. Another settlement below Melje Hill was also found dating to the 4th millennium BC. A more intense period of settlement of the Maribor area occurred in the 3rd millennium BC with the advent of the Bronze Age. In the 13th to 12th century BC, in the age of the Urnfield culture, new settlements were found in Pekel.
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Rich burial objects show that from the 13th to 11th century BC, the Laugen-Melaun culture (Laugen-Melaun A) flourished, due to the mining of copper, the source material for the alloy bronze. Around 500 BC, the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture, also known as culture of the Raeti, after the goddess Raetia who according to Roman authors was the main deity of the people inhabiting the region, succeeded both the Laugen- Melaun culture of the southern and the Urnfield culture of the northern part of Tyrol.Gleirscher 1991. As in the preceding culture, the richly ornamented pottery is very characteristic, while many aspects such as the metal-working, burial customs and religion are strongly influenced by its neighbours, primarily the Etruscans and Celts.
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The Mold cape from Wales, somewhat earlier than the hats and similarly a gold version of an organic item of apparel The hats are associated with the Bronze Age Urnfield culture. Their close similarities in symbolism and techniques of manufacture are testimony to a coherent Bronze Age culture over a wide-ranging territory in eastern France and western and southwestern Germany. A comparable golden pectoral was found at Mold, Flintshire, in northern Wales, but this appears to be of somewhat earlier date. The cone-shaped golden hats of Schifferstadt type are assumed to be connected with a number of comparable cap or crown-shaped gold leaf objects from Ireland (Comerford Crown, discovered in 1692) and the Atlantic coast of Spain (gold leaf crowns of Axtroki and Rianxo).
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Map of Roman Gaul (Droysens Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas, 1886) There is little written information concerning the peoples that inhabited the regions of Gaul, save what can be gleaned from coins. Therefore, the early history of the Gauls is predominantly a work in archaeology, and the relationships between their material culture, genetic relationships (the study of which has been aided, in recent years, through the field of archaeogenetics) and linguistic divisions rarely coincide. Before the rapid spread of the La Tène culture in the 5th to 4th centuries BC, the territory of eastern and southern France already participated in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture (c. 12th to 8th centuries BC) out of which the early iron-working Hallstatt culture (7th to 6th centuries BC) would develop.
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Prehistoric artifacts have been found in the settlement, testifying to early habitation of the site. In 1955 and 1956, excavations were carried out at the Špik promontory () in the Zarice Gorge on the Sava, revealing material from the end of the Neolithic and from the early and middle Chalcolithic. Many of the stone tools and pottery fragments belong to the Alpine facies of the Lengyel culture or the older layers of the Lasinja culture, from the first quarter of the third millennium BC. In 1987, additional studies east of the site yielded not only stone tools and weapons but also pottery from the late Bronze Age (the Urnfield culture). A bronze ax from a burial mound on the western edge of the village is also associated with this time.
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Modern linguists use the word "germanic" to refer to languages but it is not known for sure whether even the Belgian Germani spoke a Germanic language, and their tribal and personal names are clearly Celtic. This is in fact also true of the possibly related tribes across the Rhine from them at this time. Archaeologists have also had difficulty finding evidence of the exact migrations from east of the Rhine which Caesar reports and more generally there has been skepticism about using him in this way due to the political motives of his commentaries. But the archaeological record gives the impression that the classical Belgian Germani were a relatively stable population going back to Urnfield times, with a more recently immigrated elite class who would have been of more interest to Caesar.
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Venus of Hohle Fels, 35,000 to 40,000 BP, the oldest known figurative work of art (true height ). The area of modern Germany is rich in finds of prehistoric art, including the Venus of Hohle Fels. This appears to be the oldest undisputed example of Upper Paleolithic art and figurative sculpture of the human form in general, from over 35,000 years BP, which was only discovered in 2008;Venus figurine sheds light on origins of art by early humans Los Angeles Times, May 14, 2009, accessed December 11, 2009 the better-known Venus of Willendorf (24–22,000 BP) comes from a little way over the Austrian border. The spectacular finds of Bronze Age golden hats are centred on Germany, as was the "central" form of Urnfield culture, and Hallstatt culture.
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The museum houses the Bavarian state collection of prehistory, represented by mostly local exhibits of the Paleolithic, the Neolithic, the Bronze Age, the Urnfield culture, the Hallstatt culture, the era of the Celts, the Roman Empire, the Migration Period and the Early Middle Ages with some items from later periods. For example, it has on permanent exhibit Mesolithic finds from Speckberg, near Eichstätt, artifacts from the Celtic oppidum of Manching and parts of a Roman bath found in the Tegelberg settlement near Schwangau, and in addition the bog body of a 20-year-old girl dating to the 16th century and models of dugouts from various periods. The collection has been structured in a chronological exhibition, which is continued by the collection of the adjoining Bavarian National Museum.
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A 5th century BC burial field was destroyed when the Üetliberg railway was built in 1874. The fortified area was at a height of between 820 and 873 metres above sea level, surrounded by a system of earth walls extending to a maximal width of up to 2 km. Outside the settlement area the so-called Fürstengrab Sonnenbühl, a rich burial of a 5th-century BC female. The toponym Uetliberg itself may continue the Celtic name of the site, although its exact derivation remains uncertain. The top of mount Uetliberg was settled from at least the Neolithic, amply documented in a total of some 60,000 small finds, the oldest artefacts dating to about 4000 BC. There was a village-like settlement on the site by the late Bronze Age (Urnfield culture).
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The Fritzens-Sanzeno culture is attested in the late Iron Age, from the sixth to the first century BC, in the Alpine region of Trentino and Tyrol; in the period of maximum expansion it reached also the Engadin region. It take its name from the two towns of Fritzens (Austria) and Sanzeno (Trentino), where important archaeological excavations were carried out at the beginning of the 20th century. The Fritzens-Sanzeno culture replaced the Luco-Meluno culture in Alto Adige and Trentino and the Urnfield culture in the Austrian Tyrol. This cultural facies ceased to exist in the period following the conquest of the Alps and Rezia by Augustus, at the end of the first century BC, that also mark the end of the Iron Age in the region.
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Bronze Age "wheel pendants" in the shape of the "sun cross" (Urnfield culture, 2nd millennium BC). Due to the simplicity of the design (two intersecting lines), cross-shaped incisions make their appearance from deep prehistory; as petroglyphs in European cult caves, dating back to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, and throughout prehistory to the Iron Age. Also of prehistoric age are numerous variants of the simple cross mark, including the crux gammata with curving or angular lines, and the Egyptian crux ansata with a loop. Speculation has associated the cross symbol – even in the prehistoric period – with astronomical or cosmological symbology involving "four elements" (Chevalier, 1997) or the cardinal points, or the unity of a vertical axis mundi or celestial pole with the horizontal world (Koch, 1955).
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These findings have been concentrated in the valley of the Kinzig, around Aschaffenburg, as well as in the valleys of the Bieber, the Lohr and the Sinn rivers. Near Goldbach, early Iron Age artifacts have been found, attributed to the Hallstatt culture. Hill forts attributed inter alia to Celts of the La Tène culture have been found on the Schanzenkopf near Wasserlos, on the Schloßberg near Soden/Sulzbach, on the Schanzkopf near Klingenberg and close to Miltenberg (Greinberg and Bürgstadter Berg, although the latter dates to the Urnfield period and/or even earlier Michelsberger culture). These fortified refuges or defended hill-top settlements were mostly built between 500 and 100 BC. Since the Spessart proper was not part of the Roman territory, the Romans left traces only in the northwest of the region.
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Generally speaking, Proto-Villanovan settlements have been found in almost the whole Italian peninsula from Veneto to eastern Sicily, although they were most numerous in the northern-central part of Italy. The most important settlements excavated are those of Frattesina in Veneto region, Bismantova in Emilia-Romagna and near the Monti della Tolfa, north of Rome. The Latino-Faliscans, the Veneti, and possibly the Osco-Umbrians too, have been associated with this culture. In the 13th century BCE, Proto-Celts (probably the ancestors of the Lepontii people), coming from the area of modern-day Switzerland, eastern France and south-western Germany (RSFO Urnfield group), entered Northern Italy (Lombardy and eastern Piedmont), starting the Canegrate culture, who not long time after, merging with the indigenous Ligurians, produced the mixed Golasecca culture.
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It is likely that the various peoples and languages that the Romans found in the region had to a large extent arrived during the Bronze and Iron Ages. The Eburones who were in this area when Caesar conquered it, are associated by archaeologists with a material culture which has its roots in local variations of the Urnfield culture. It is during the late Iron Age that there is archaeological evidence for the development of a "Celtic field" system in the less fertile Campine, and increasingly social stratification and centralization, even though the area remained relatively un-developed compared to other nearby parts of Europe. Compared to surrounding areas of Europe, one remarkable thing about this pre-Roman period is the lack of hill forts, a pattern throughout all of Flanders.
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The economy and environment of the 4th and 3rd millennia BC in the northern Alpine foreland based on studies of animal bones. Environmental Archaeology 11(1): 49-65 making Chur one of the oldest settlements in Switzerland. Remains and objects from the Bronze and Iron Ages have also been found in the eastern sector of the current city's centre. These include Bronze Age Urnfield and Luco-Meluno settlements from 1300-800 BC and Iron Age settlements from the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. The Roman Empire conquered the area that then came to be known as the Roman province of Raetia in 15 BC. Under emperor Diocletian (late 3rd century AD), the existing settlement of Curia Raetorum (later Chur) was made the capital of the newly established province of Raetia prima.
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As archaeological finds show, the lands around what is now Dorsheim were settled quite early on. From the Old Stone Age (100,000–10,000 BC) comes a whole series of various artefacts, which are now in private ownership. Known to be from the New Stone Age (4000–1800 BC) are a great many small hatchets and points, the 12 flint blades from the hoard on the street “Am Rebstock” and Rössen finds (ceramic) from the countryside lying east of Dorsheim. Unearthed from the Hallstatt times that followed have been all kinds of bronze rings from former barrows on the Dorsheim Heath, as well as ceramics from not only the Hallstatt culture but also the Urnfield culture and the Hunsrück-Eifel culture, once again in the countryside lying east of Dorsheim.
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It has been known that Haunstetten is a long-settled area since the construction of a Siemens AG factory in 1896 uncovered several sites of archaeological interest. Dating of materials from these sites have revealed the settlement of the Haunstetten area stretched back as far as the Neolithic period, but also date more recently to the Bronze Age and the time of the Urnfield culture. In Roman times, Haunstetten was located on a trade route which ran from Augsburg, founded in 15 BC as a Roman outpost, to Füssen, through Bolzano, and eventually to Rome. This was the Augustus road, also known as the Via Claudia Augusta, which itself had been laid between 47 and 46 BC. Although Haunstetten is not historically known from Roman times, finds of Roman coins imply some level of settlement.
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With the exception of the Aegean and mainland Greece (Linear A, Linear B, Cretan hieroglyphs), the early writing systems of the Near East did not reach Bronze Age Europe. The earliest writing systems of Europe arise in the Iron Age, derived from the Phoenician alphabet. However, there are number of interpretations regarding symbols found on artefacts of the European Bronze Age which amount to interpreting them as an indigenous tradition of proto-writing. Of special interest in this context are the Central European Bronze Age cultures derived from the Beaker culture in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. Interpretations of the markings of the bronze sickles associated with the Urnfield culture, especially the large number of so-called "knob-sickles" discovered in the Frankleben hoard, are discussed by Sommerfeld (1994).
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Map of the pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe showing cultures associated with Proto-Germanic, 500 BC. The red shows the area of the preceding Nordic Bronze Age in Scandinavia; the magenta-colored area towards the south represents the Jastorf culture of the North German Plain. The Italo-Celtic branch of the Indo-European languages split off in Central and Southern Europe, diverging into the Italic languages (which includes Latin and all subsequent Romance languages) and the Celtic languages. The Urnfield Culture that appeared around 1300 BCE is believed to be the first Proto-Celtic culture followed by the Hallstatt culture in Austria in 800 BC. Celtic languages spread throughout Central Europe, to central Anatolia, western Iberia, the British Isles and current day France, diverging into Lepontic, Gaulish, Galatian, Celtiberian and Gallaecian. Distribution of Celtic languages.
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The Gosteli surname is typically linked to the Haplogroup R-U152 (also known as Haplogroup R1b-S28), a R1b branch typically found throughout much of Western Europe. The R-U152 branch is often called the Italo-Celtic branch, due to its probable origins in the Alpine regions of Southern Europe during the Bronze and Iron Ages. The Alps were key to the European transition from the age of stone to the ages of metal - the valuable ores that lie deep within the mountains were intrinsically linked to the rise of the people often referred to as the ancient Celts. Cultures such as the Urnfield Culture, Hallstatt Culture, and La Tène Culture formed the basis for a series of mass migrations that saw Celtic culture exported as far as Britain in the north, and Anatolia in the east.
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Though the use of iron was known to the Aegean peoples about 1100 BC, it failed to reached Central Europe before 800 BC, when it gave way to the Hallstatt culture, an Iron Age evolution of the Urnfield culture. Around then, the Phoenicians, benefitting from the disappearance of the Greek maritime power (Greek Dark Ages) founded their first colony at the entrance of the Atlantic Ocean, in Gadir (modern Cádiz), most likely as a merchant outpost to convey the many mineral resources of Iberia and the British Isles. Nevertheless, from the 7th century BC onwards, the Greeks recovered their power and started their own colonial expansion, founding Massalia (modern Marseilles) and the Iberian outpost of Emporion (modern Empúries). That occurred only after the Iberians could reconquer Catalonia and the Ebro valley from the Celts, separating physically the Iberian Celts from their continental neighbours.
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Impression of the city seal of 1319 Woodcut depicting Würzburg from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493) Panorama of Würzburg with castle Marienberg. Matthäus Merian in Cornelis Danckerts, "Historis", 1642. A Bronze Age (Urnfield culture) refuge castle, and later a Roman fort, stood on the hill known as the Leistenberg, the site of the present Fortress Marienberg. The former Celtic territory was settled by the Alamanni in the 4th or 5th century, and by the Franks in the 6th to 7th. Würzburg was the seat of a Merovingian duke from about 650. It was Christianized in 686 by Irish missionaries Kilian, Kolonat and Totnan. The city is mentioned in a donation by Duke Hedan II to bishop Willibrord, dated 1 May 704, in castellum Virteburch. The Ravenna Cosmography lists the city as Uburzis at about the same time.
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It was people of the Linear Pottery culture of the New Stone Age who, about 5000 BC, founded the first settlement of any great size at what is now Bretzenheim. A wealth of archaeological finds establish that even in the later epochs of this level of civilization as well as in the time of the Urnfield culture (Bronze Age) and Hallstatt or La Tène times (Iron Age), this place was prized as a good place for a settlement. Later, the Romans came to settle here, bearing witness to whose presence are remnants of several buildings as well as finds of coins and various other things. The Franks might first have appeared here beginning in the 6th century. They introduced a lasting phase of settlement and gave the place its name, meaning “Brezzo’s Home” or “Brizzo’s Home” (although nobody now knows who he was).
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The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Western and Central European culture of Late Bronze Age (Hallstatt A, Hallstatt B) from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and Early Iron Age Europe (Hallstatt C, Hallstatt D) from the 8th to 6th centuries BC, developing out of the Urnfield culture of the 12th century BC (Late Bronze Age) and followed in much of its area by the La Tène culture. It is commonly associated with Proto-Celtic and Celtic populations in the Western Hallstatt zone and with (pre-)Illyrians in the eastern Hallstatt zone. It is named for its type site, Hallstatt, a lakeside village in the Austrian Salzkammergut southeast of Salzburg, where there was a rich salt mine, and some 1,300 burials are known, many with fine artifacts. Material from Hallstatt has been classified into 4 periods, designated "Hallstatt A" to "D".
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Agris Helmet From the Proto-Celtic Urnfield and Hallstat cultures, a continental Iron Age Celtic art developed; mainly associated with La Tène culture, which flourished during the late Iron Age from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the first century BC. This art drew on native, classical and perhaps, the Mediterranean, oriental sources. The Celts of Gaul are known through numerous tombs and burial mounds found throughout France. Celtic art is very ornamental, avoiding straight lines and only occasionally using symmetry, without the imitation of nature nor ideal of beauty central to the classical tradition, but apparently, often involves complex symbolism. This artwork includes a variety of styles and often incorporates subtly modified elements from other cultures, an example being the characteristic over-and-under interlacing which arrived in France only in the sixth century, although it was already used by Germanic artists.
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Two helmets were found, almost identical in design - the primary material was a high tin bronze (16.8%) with small amounts of lead, arsenic, antimony, and nickel (all 0.1 to 1%) and traces of silver (~0.05%). Stylistically the hemispherical main part resembles the plain textile hats of the period as well as Urnfield metal helmets - the hemispheres were made from two hammered pieces joined with rivets in a seam running front to back across the top, with a heavy joining rim or crest across the top - either end of the crest ended in a downpointing 'hook' possibly intended to recall the beak of a raptor. Ornamentation included bosses across the surface of various sizes, including two larger 'eye' positioned bosses, together with eyebrows. A row of bosses along the lower rim each terminate in a 'S'-shaped (or Swan shaped) ornamentation - thus resembling double-sterned-ships. (Vogelsonnenbarken).
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The study of the so-called Lepontic inscriptions,Raccolte organicamente da Joshua Whatmough (1933). written in the alphabet of Lugano utilized by Golaseccans of the 6th and 5th centuries BC, led Michel Lejeune (1971) to establish definitively the membership of the language conveyed by this writing to the family of Celtic languages.Quei fenomeni fonetici che costituivano la peculiarità del leponzio secondo Giacomo Devoto, in realtà documentati soltanto a livello onomastico e toponomastico, devono essere quindi ascritti all'Antico ligure propriamente detto, che sarebbe stato anch'esso una Lingua indoeuropea. It is then proved the existence of a pre-Gallic celticity in the North-Western Italy, preceding the 4th century BC, whose origin must be sought long before the 600s BC, date of the invasion of Bellovesus, that is, at least at the time of Canegrate culture (13th century BC), which presents in the pottery and bronze artifacts many points in common with the most western groups of the Urnfield culture (Rhine- Switzerland-eastern France, 13th - 8th centuries BC).
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Mostly breast-shaped hills are connected with local ancestral veneration of the breast as a symbol of fertility and well- being. It is not uncommon for very old archaeological sites to be located in or below such hills, as on Samson, Isles of Scilly, where there are large ancient burial grounds both on the North Hill and South Hill,Samson, South Hill Chambered Cairn - The Megalithic PortalSamson, North Hill - The Megalithic Portal or Burrén and Burrena, Aragon, Spain, where two Iron Age Urnfield culture archaeological sites lie beneath the hills.Burrén. Parque Arqueológico de la Primera Edad del Hierro en Frescano The "Breasts of Aphrodite" in Mykonos, Greece. Also the myths surrounding these mountains are ancient and enduring and some have been recorded in the oral literature or written texts; for example, in an unspecified location in Asia, there was a mountain known as "Breast Mountain" with a cave in which the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma (Da Mo) spent a long time in meditation.
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From that point, there was a gradual Illyrianization of the western Balkans leading to historic Illyrians, with no early Iron Age migration from northern Europe. He did not deny a minor cultural impact from the northern Urnfield cultures, however "these movements had neither a profound influence on the stability.. of the Balkans, nor did they affect the ethnogenesis of the Illyrian ethnos". Aleksandar Stipčević raised concerns regarding Benac's all-encompassing scenario of autochthonous ethnogenesis, raising the following questions: "can one negate the participation of the bearers of the field-urn culture in the ethnogenesis of the Illyrian tribes who lived in present-day Slovenia and Croatia" or "Hellenistic and Mediterranean influences on southern Illyrians and Liburnians?". He concludes that Benac's model is only applicable to the Illyrian groups in Bosnia, western Serbia and a part of Dalmatia, where there had indeed been a settlement continuity and 'native' progression of pottery sequences since the Bronze Age.
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During that period and until the Roman invasions, the Castro culture (a variation of the Urnfield culture also known as Urnenfelderkultur) was prolific in Portugal and modern Galicia.Estos se establecieron en el norte de Portugal y el área de la Galicia actual, introduciendo en esta región la cultura de las urnas, una variante de las Urnenfelder que evolucionaría después en la cultura de los castros o castreña This culture, together with the surviving elements of the Atlantic megalithic culture and the contributions that come from the more Western Mediterranean cultures, ended up in what has been called the Cultura Castreja or Castro Culture. This designation refers to the characteristic Celtic populations called 'dùn', 'dùin' or 'don' in Gaelic and that the Romans called castrae in their chronicles. Based on the Roman chronicles about the Callaeci peoples, along with the Lebor Gabála Érenn narrations and the interpretation of the abundant archaeological remains throughout the northern half of Portugal and Galicia, it is possible to infer that there was a matriarchal society, with a military and religious aristocracy probably of the feudal type.
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The most marked and radical change that has been archaeologically attested in the area is the adoption, starting in about the 12th century BC, of the funeral rite of incineration in terracotta urns, which is a Continental European practice, derived from the Urnfield culture; there is nothing about it that suggests an ethnic contribution from Asia Minor or the Near East. Painted terracotta Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa, about 150–130 BC. A 2012 survey of the previous 30 years’ archaeological findings, based on excavations of the major Etruscan cities, showed a continuity of culture from the last phase of the Bronze Age (11th–10th century BC) to the Iron Age (9th–8th century BC). This is evidence that the Etruscan civilization, which emerged around 900 BC, was built by people whose ancestors had inhabited that region for at least the previous 200 years. Based on this cultural continuity, there is now a consensus among archeologists that Proto-Etruscan culture developed, during the last phase of the Bronze Age, from the indigenous Proto- Villanovan culture, and that the subsequent Iron Age Villanovan culture is most accurately described as an early phase of the Etruscan civilization.
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The Scamozzina culture (Italian Cultura della Scamozzina), which takes its name from the necropolis found in Cascina Scamozzina of Albairate, was a prehistoric civilization of Italy that developed between the end of the middle Bronze Age and the beginning of the late Bronze Age (14th and 13th century BC), in western Lombardy and Piedmont. It was located in an area that is generally defined as ethnically Ligurian and it introduced some cultural characteristics more specific to the subsequent proto-Celtic Culture of Canegrate. Among the evidences of this culture there is a cremation tomb, dating to the late Bronze Age (13th century BC.) found at Guado di Gugnano, Casaletto Lodigiano in February 1876, during the flatworks in a field near the Lisone. The Scamozzina culture, clearly distinct from the coeval Terramare culture, saw the establishment of the funeral rite of cremation in which also a set of ornaments was deposed with the bones in the cinerary urn, an early phenomenon, ahead of other Italian regions but also of most of Europe who knew of this development only from the earliest phases of the Urnfield culture.
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The most marked and radical change that has been archaeologically attested in the area is the adoption, starting in about the 12th century BC, of the funeral rite of incineration in terracotta urns, which is a Continental European practice, derived from the Urnfield culture; there is nothing about it that suggests an ethnic contribution from Asia Minor or the Near East. Painted terracotta Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa, about 150–130 BC. A 2012 survey of the previous 30 years’ archaeological findings, based on excavations of the major Etruscan cities, showed a continuity of culture from the last phase of the Bronze Age (11th–10th century BC) to the Iron Age (9th–8th century BC). This is evidence that the Etruscan civilization, which emerged around 900 BC, was built by people whose ancestors had inhabited that region for at least the previous 200 years. Based on this cultural continuity, there is now a consensus among archeologists that Proto-Etruscan culture developed, during the last phase of the Bronze Age, from the indigenous Proto- Villanovan culture, and that the subsequent Iron Age Villanovan culture is most accurately described as an early phase of the Etruscan civilization.
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