If the cancer is only found in the testis, then removal of testis (called an orchidectomy) is often the only treatment required.
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Less common symptoms include a change in the size and shape of a testis, a feeling of heaviness in the scrotum, an aching or pain in the lower abdomen/testis/scrotum.
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In primates, testis size is inversely correlated with harem formation.
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One of these approaches is to extract the testis or epididymis surgically.
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The doctors also discovered cysts in the patient's right eye and right testis.
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A physical exam revealed that he had tenderness in the right testis and was feeling confused.
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As the name suggests, this method involves inserting a needle into the testis and drawing out some sperm.
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If the testis cannot be felt at all, the surgeons may do a laparoscopic procedure, putting a camera in through the baby's belly button, and if they find the testes in the abdomen, there may be a two-stage operation, first freeing up the testis and then, six months later, in another procedure, bringing it down into the scrotum.
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Testosterone is essential in the development of primary sexual characteristics (like the testis and prostate) and secondary ones (like body hair and muscle mass) during puberty.
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" In general, he said, the boys with unilateral cryptorchidism — one testis descends, the other doesn't — do very well, but "the bilaterals take more of a hit.
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Connected to each testis, cupping it from above, is the epididymis, the tube in which sperm mature and are transported from the testes to the vas deferens.
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"Our published study on testis implants showed that they were not simply cosmetic in nature," Turek says, which helps to make me feel a little less vain.
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Each testis, which the researchers described as "a massive tangle of spaghetti," contains up to 1,310 feet (400 meters) of interwoven tubes in which the sperm are produced.
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For a testis of a given size, producing bigger sperm thus means it cannot produce as many of them (producing big sperm takes more resources, energy and time).
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If the cancer has spread beyond the testis to lymph nodes or organs (such as the lungs, liver, or brain), then chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy may be required.
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The cells were able to sense whether they were in an ovary or testis, and "not only hear but obey the signals" coming from that foreign environment, she added.
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"Despite the fact that providers and insurers must discuss breast implants with patients undergoing mastectomy for breast cancer, no such similar requirement exists for men and testis cancer," he says.
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"We wanted to understand what happened after exposure (to ibuprofen) going from the global human physiology over to the specific organ (the testis) down to the endocrine cells producing testosterone," Kristensen said.
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The scientists in this study found they could make mature egg cells from mouse skin if they encased it in cells taken from a part of a mouse fetus where it develops ovaries or testis.
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And I think the pendulum went back to the other side, of, 'Wow, we really — we can cure a few things — leukemia, lymphoma, testis cancer — but we are not really able to cure most advanced solid tumors.
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If they are up above the scrotum but still palpable, the surgeon will make a small incision in the groin, free the testis, and then another small incision in the scrotum, where it will be anchored in place.
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First, despite the lack of a relationship between baculum size and testis size, there was a clear one between the bone's length (scaled for the size of the animal in question) and a species' promiscuity: more promiscuous species had longer bacula.
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"Testis implants are very popular among single adult men, both gay and straight, as it reduces the need for having to explain what happened down there to curious folk in the bedroom or locker room," he says, adding that married men don't get them as often as their single counterparts.
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More from Tonic: Fisch explains that when pregnancies do occur post-vasectomy, there are two usual explanations: early unprotected intercourse prior to obtaining a sperm-negative semen analysis, or the recanalization of the vas deferens—meaning the two cut ends of the tubes somehow finding each other, reconnecting, and allowing sperm to travel from the testis to the prostate.
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Among the more than 10,000 American adults diagnosed with testicular cancer between 2007 and 2011 included in the study, the researchers saw the same insurance survival advantage: The uninsured patients had an 88 percent greater chance of dying of testis cancer compared with the insured, while Medicaid patients had a 58 percent greater chance of dying than the privately insured.
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In leading a five-year study that began in 1997, Turek helped develop the first and only implant approved by the FDA for use in the US. Had Jamie's diagnosis come a year later, he would have been given the option of having the silicone-shell, salt-water filled testis prosthesis fitted but he tells me he'd still have passed.
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"Beyond providing additional evidence that underwear choices may impact fertility, our study provides evidence, for the first time, that a seemingly random lifestyle choice could have profound impacts on hormone production in men at both the level of the testis and the brain," senior author Jorge Chavarro, an associate professor of nutrition and epidemiology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, said in a statement.
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C6orf201 is primarily expressed in the testis of humans and is also expressed in the testis of adult mice and rats. GEO microarray data also supports expression of C6orf201 in the testis of humans and mouse. Expression of C6orf201 in various human tissues showing highest expression in the testis. Expression of C6orf201 in various mouse tissues showing highest expression in the testis.
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The blood–testis barrier is likely to contribute to the survival of sperm. However, it is believed in the field of testicular immunology that the blood–testis barrier cannot account for all immune suppression in the testis, due to (1) its incompleteness at a region called the rete testis and (2) the presence of immunogenic molecules outside the blood–testis barrier, on the surface of spermatogonia. The Sertoli cells play a crucial role in the protection of sperm from the immune system. They create the Sertoli cell barrier, which complements the blood-testis barrier.
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Micrograph of the rete testis. H&E; stain. The rete testis is the network of interconnecting tubules where the straight seminiferous tubules (the terminal part of the seminiferous tubules) empty. It is located within a highly vascular connective tissue in the mediastinum testis.
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Via the rete testis, the seminiferous tubules become connected with outgrowths from the mesonephros, which form the efferent ducts of the testis. The descent of the testes consists of the opening of a connection from the testis to its final location at the anterior abdominal wall, followed by the development of the gubernaculum, which subsequently pulls and translocates the testis down into the developing scrotum. Ultimately, the passageway closes behind the testis. A failure in this process causes an indirect inguinal hernia.
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Scrotal ultrasonography of undescended testis: (a) Normal testis in the scrotum (b) Atrophic and decreased echogenicity of the contralateral testis of the same patient seen in the inguinal region The most common diagnostic dilemma in otherwise normal boys is distinguishing a retractile testis from a testis that will not descend spontaneously into the scrotum. Retractile testes are more common than truly undescended testes and do not need to be operated on. In normal males, as the cremaster muscle relaxes or contracts, the testis moves lower or higher ("retracts") in the scrotum. This cremasteric reflex is much more active in infant boys than older men.
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Just as often, intra-abdominal exploration discovers that the testis is nonexistent ("vanished"), or dysplastic and not salvageable. The principal major complication of all types of orchiopexy is a loss of the blood supply to the testis, resulting in loss of the testis due to ischemic atrophy or fibrosis.
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Neutrophil activity in the testis is an inflammatory response which needs to be tightly regulated by the body, since inflammation- induced damage to the testis can lead to infertility. It is assumed that the role of the immunosuppressive environment of the testis is to protect developing sperm from inflammation.
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Ultrasound image showing tubular ectasia of the rete testis as an incidental finding in an 81 year old male Rete tubular ectasia , also known as cystic transformation of rete testis is a benign condition, usually found in older men, involving numerous small, tubular cystic structures within the rete testis.
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One testis is typically lower than the other, which is believed to function to avoid compression in the event of impact; in humans, the left testis is typically lower than the right. An alternative view is that testis descent asymmetry evolved to enable more effective cooling of the testicles.
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The descent of the testes consists of the opening of a connection from the testis to its final location at the anterior abdominal wall, followed by the development of the gubernaculum, which subsequently pulls and translocates the testis down into the developing scrotum. Ultimately, the passageway closes behind the testis.
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In embryogenesis, the sex cords, (primitive sex cords or gonadal cords) are structures that develop from the gonadal ridges. After sexual differentiation, at day 49, the sex cords in males become the testis cords by the action of the testis-determining factor protein, which helps to develop and nourish the Sertoli cells. The testis cords are precursors to the rete testis. They play several different roles in the development of the male genitals.
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C12Orf24 is primarily expressed in the brain, spinal cord, and testis of humans. Within the testis C12Orf24 is expressed in Sertoli cells. Within the brain C12Orf24 is expressed within neuropils.
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RAI14 is predicted to play a role in cell-cell adhesion sites, particularly the cell-cell interactions of Sertoli cells from within the testis. Sertoli cells are involved in the creation of the blood testis barrier and provides a specialized, protected environment within the seminiferous tubules of the testis for germ cell development.
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The periphery of the testes are converted into the tunica albuginea. Cords of the central mass run together and form a network which becomes the rete testis, and another network, which develops the seminiferous tubules. Via the rete testis, the seminiferous tubules become connected with outgrowths from the mesonephros, which form the efferent ducts of the testis. In short, the descent of the testes consists of the opening of a connection from the testis to its final location at the anterior abdominal wall, followed by the development of the gubernaculum, which subsequently pulls and translocates the testis down into the developing scrotum.
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Although tissue-level expression is ubiquitous, C1orf112 is expressed highest in the testes, lymph nodes, brain marrow, and cerebellum, with samples from 97 individual in 27 different tissues. In-situ hybridization of the human transcriptome indicates expression is highest in the atrioventricular node, followed by the testis, testis germ cells, and testis interstitial tissue.
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The formation of cysts in the rete testis is associated with the obstruction of the efferent ducts, which connect the rete testis with the head of the epididymis. They are often bilateral.
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Radial spoke head 1 homolog (RSPH1), also known as cancer/testis antigen 79 (CT79) or testis-specific gene A2 protein (TSGA2), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RSPH1 gene.
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SMYD3 is predominantly expressed in skeletal muscles and the testis.
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A testicular nubbin is the residual tissue of the human testis after a supposed perinatal vascular accident involving the testicular blood supply. The blood supply of the testis twists (called torsion) thereby cutting off the blood supply to the testis and results in testicular atrophy (shrinking). The nubbin is usually identified in childhood by the absence of a palpable testis in the scrotal sac. The tissue remnant usually includes fibrous tissue and signs of old infarction with hemosiderin deposition identified histologically.
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The function of the C-terminal domain is known to be vital for maintaining levels of selenium in brain and testis but not for the maintenance of whole body selenium. Brain and testis tissue.
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The testis-enhanced gene transcript (TEGT) family includes the testis-enhanced gene transcript proteins of mammals, which are expressed at high levels in the testis, the putative glutamate/aspartate binding proteins of plants and animals, the YccA protein of Escherichia coli and the YetJ protein of Bacillus subtilis. These proteins are about 200-250 residues in length and exhibit 7 TMSs.
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This has been demonstrated in the rat after injection with bacterial cell wall components to produce an immune reaction. Neutrophils also enter the rat testis after treatment with hormones that increase the permeability of blood vessels. In humans, neutrophils have been found in the testis when associated with some tumors. In rat experiments, testicular torsion leads to neutrophil entry into the testis.
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PRR23C Homo sapiens is expressed in the testis. Ottolini et al. (2014) discussed the PRR23 family to which they revealed that through RNA sequencing data, that PRR23A, PRR23B and PRR23C are testis-specific genes. Ottolini et al.
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At nine weeks, male differentiation of the gonads and the testes is well underway. Internal changes include the formation of the tubular seminar Chris tubules in the Rete testis from the primary sex cord. Developing on the outside surface of each testis is a Phibro muscular cord called the gubernaculum. This structure attaches to the inferior portion of the testis and extends to the labial sacral fold of the same side at the same time, a portion of the embryonic mesonephric duct adjacent to the testis becomes attached and convoluted informs the epididymis.
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Segmental testis infarction in a patient presenting with right testis pain. Many other less common conditions can lead to testicular pain. These include inguinal hernias, injury, hydroceles, disc herniations, and varicoceles among others. Testicular cancer is usually painless.
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B-lymphocytes take part in the adaptive immune response and produce antibodies. These cells are not normally found in the testis, even during inflammatory conditions. The lack of B-lymphocytes in the testis is significant, since these are the antibody-producing cells of the immune system. Since anti-sperm antibodies can cause infertility, it is important that antibody-producing B-lymphocytes are kept separated from the testis.
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Curiously, the testis contains factors such as cytokines, which are usually only produced upon infections and tissue damage. The cytokines interleukin-1α (IL-1α), IL-6 and Activin A are found in the testis, often at high levels. In other tissues, these cytokine would promote inflammation, but here they control testis function. They regulate the development of sperm by controlling their cell division and survival.
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In humans, FHAD1 is expressed in testis, fallopian tube and uterine tissues in females, nasopharynx and bronchi of lungs based on studies found on the Human Protein Atlas. NCBI's EST Profile also showed that FHAD1 is highly expressed in the testis, with some expression in the trachea and esophagus. In mice, the gene was also expressed in the testis, along with the pituitary gland, lung and brain.
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Unlike cystic neoplasms, they don't present specific tumor markers. Another distinguishing feature is that tubular ectasia of the testes are confined only to the mediastinum, unlike testicular cancer such as cystic teratoma of testis which spreads throughout the testis.
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Transverse section through the left side of the scrotum and the left testis.
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Urea transporter 5 is not expressed in the kidney but in the testis.
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This wound healed without fungous growth from the remaining portion of the testis.
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Each lobule of the testis is contained in one of the intervals between the fibrous septa which extend between the mediastinum testis and the tunica albuginea, and consists of from one to three, or more, minute convoluted tubes, the tubuli seminiferi.
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In males, a few of the more caudal tubules will survive and give rise to the efferent ductules of the testis, the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, as well as vestigial structures such as the appendix testis, appendix epididymis, and paradidymis.
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Evidence suggests that, among the great apes, relative testis size is associated with the breeding system of each primate species.Harcourt, A.H.; Harvey, P.H.; Larson, S.G.; Short, R.V. (1981). “Testis weight, body weight and breeding system in primates”. Nature 293: 55-57.
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The stroma of the ovary may contain interstitial cells resembling those of the testis.
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The cremaster muscle is a muscle that covers the testis and the spermatic cord.
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One theory about the etymology of the word testis is based on Roman law. The original Latin word testis, "witness", was used in the firmly established legal principle "Testis unus, testis nullus" (one witness [equals] no witness), meaning that testimony by any one person in court was to be disregarded unless corroborated by the testimony of at least another. This led to the common practice of producing two witnesses, bribed to testify the same way in cases of lawsuits with ulterior motives. Since such "witnesses" always came in pairs, the meaning was accordingly extended, often in the diminutive (testiculus, testiculi).
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The scrotal ligament is actually the remnant of gubernaculum in a fetus. This ligament secures the testis to the most inferior portion of the scrotum, tethering it in place and limiting the degree to which the testis can move within the scrotum.
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SPEF2 has been shown to interact with the intracellular transport protein IFT20 in the testis.
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EVI5L has ubiquitously low expression, with slightly higher expression in the testis and fetal brain.
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Testis expressed 11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TEX11 gene.
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Testis specific 10 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TSGA10 gene.
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Rete tubular ectasia is a disorder of the rete testis characterized by multiple benign cysts.
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Testis expressed 19 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TEX19 gene.
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Mallidis C, Gordon Baker HW. Fine needle tissue aspiration biopsy of the testis. Fertil Steril 1994;61:367-375. testis FNA has not been widely used in U.S. to evaluate male infertility. Recently however, testicular FNA has gained popularity as both a diagnostic and therapeutic tool for the management of clinical male infertility for several reasons: #The testis is an ideal organ for evaluation by FNA because of its uniform cellularity and easy accessibility.
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Most male fish have two testes of similar size. In the case of sharks, the testis on the right side is usually larger. The primitive jawless fish have only a single testis located in the midline of the body, although even this forms from the fusion of paired structures in the embryo. Under a tough membranous shell, the tunica albuginea, the testis of some teleost fish, contains very fine coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules.
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The visceral lamina (lamina visceralis) covers the greater part of the testis and epididymis, connecting the latter to the testis by means of a distinct fold. From the posterior border of the gland it is reflected on to the internal surface of the scrotum.
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On the other hand, the seminiferous tubules are developed from the cords distal to the hilum, and between them connective-tissue septa extend. Via the rete testis, the seminiferous tubules become connected with outgrowths from the mesonephros, which form the efferent ducts of the testis.
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Testis anion transporter 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC26A8 gene.
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Cancer/testis antigen 83 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CT83 gene.
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English uses the New Latin name for the structure, which simply means "network of the testis".
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Cancer/testis antigen 55 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CT55 gene.
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The gross and histologic features of this tumour are similar to that seen in the testis.
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FAM216A is highly expressed in Sertoli cells of the testis as well as different stage spermatids.
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Fetal and Adult Testis-Expressed 1, encoded by the FATE1 gene in humans, is a protein identified as a cancer-testis antigen (CTA) in hepatocellular carcinomas and gastric and colon cancers. It is testis-specific in the fetus (aged 6 – 11 weeks). In adults, it is expressed predominantly in the testis and adrenal glands, with some expression in the lungs, heart, kidneys and throughout the brain. FATE1 is member of the Miff protein family, with its C-terminal domain, consisting of a transmembrane domain with a coiled-coil domain, showing high similarity to the mitochondrial fission factor (MFF) protein which is involved in mitochondrial and peroxisomal fission.
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The initial treatment for testicular cancer is surgery to remove the affected testicle (orchiectomy). While it may be possible, in some cases, to remove testicular cancer tumors from a testis while leaving the testis functional, this is almost never done, as the affected testicle usually contains pre-cancerous cells spread throughout the entire testicle. Thus removing the tumor alone without additional treatment greatly increases the risk that another cancer will form in that testicle. Since only one testis is typically required to maintain fertility, hormone production, and other male functions, the afflicted testis is almost always removed completely in a procedure called inguinal orchiectomy.
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The tunica albuginea is the fibrous covering of the testis. It is a dense blue-grey membrane, composed of bundles of white fibrous connective tissue, from which it derives its name albuginea, which interlace in every direction. The tunica albuginea is covered by the tunica vaginalis, except at the points of attachment of the epididymis to the testis, and along its posterior border, where the spermatic vessels enter the gland. The tunica albuginea is applied to the tunica vasculosa over the glandular substance of the testis, and, at its posterior border, is reflected into the interior of the gland, forming an incomplete vertical septum, called the mediastinum testis (corpus Highmori).
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Also, in the inguinal crest a structure, the gubernaculum testis, makes its appearance. This is at first a slender band, extending from that part of the skin of the groin which afterward forms the scrotum through the inguinal canal to the body and epididymis of the testis. As development advances, the peritoneum enclosing the gubernaculum forms two folds, one above the testis and the other below it. The one above the testis is the plica vascularis, and contains the upper part of the gubernaculum, and ultimately also the internal spermatic vessels; the one below, the plica gubernatrix, contains the lower part of the gubernaculum.
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Spermatocytic tumor, previously called spermatocytic seminoma, is a neoplasm of the testis (i.e. a tumour of the testis), and classified as a germ cell tumour. The name of the tumour comes from the similarity (under the microscope) between the small cells of the tumour and secondary spermatocytes.
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"Expression of CXorf67 during human preimplantation embryonic development"Expression of CXorf67 in humans is generally low in all tissues. Higher RNA expression has been reported in the testis and placenta and relatively higher nuclear protein expression has been observed in the placenta, testis and ovarian follicles.
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Other distinguishing characteristics are that Perophora has a horizontal gut loop with a short rectum and a testis with usually one, but up to four lobes, situated in the gut loop. In Ecteinascidia the gut loop is curved, the rectum long and the testis multi-lobed.
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Testis specific serine kinase 1B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TSSK1B gene.
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Testis-expressed sequence 10 protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TEX10 gene.
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3D anatomy of the layers surrounding the testis. Many anatomical features of the adult testis reflect its developmental origin in the abdomen. The layers of tissue enclosing each testicle are derived from the layers of the anterior abdominal wall. Notably, the cremasteric muscle arises from the internal oblique muscle.
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These are somewhat cone-shaped, being broad at their bases at the surface of the gland, and becoming narrower as they converge to the mediastinum. The mediastinum supports the rete testis and blood vessels of the testis in their passage to and from the substance of the gland.
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The purpose of cryopreserving testis tissue is to generate viable sperm. There have not yet been sperm generated using human cryopreserved testis tissue so we do not know if this would be successful. We have however generated functional sperm capable of fertilising oocytes using animal models including primates.
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'Adult'-type Leydig cells differentiate in the post-natal testis and are quiescent until puberty. They are preceded in the testis by a population of 'fetal'-type Leydig cells from the 8th to the 20th week of gestation, which produce enough testosterone for masculinisation of a male fetus.
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Testis expressed 15 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TEX15 gene. The TEX15 gene displays testis-specific expression, maps to chromosome 8, contains four exons and encodes a 2789-amino acid protein. The TEX15 gene encodes a DNA damage response factor important in meiosis.
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In the inguinal crest of a peculiar structure, the gubernaculum testis, makes its appearance. This is at first a slender band, extending from that part of the skin of the groin which afterward forms the scrotum through the inguinal canal to the body and epididymis of the testis.
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Testicular Immunology is the study of the immune system within the testis. It includes an investigation of the effects of infection, inflammation and immune factors on testicular function. Two unique characteristics of testicular immunology are evident: (1) the testis is described as an immunologically privileged site, where suppression of immune responses occurs; and, (2) some factors which normally lead to inflammation are present at high levels in the testis, where they regulate the development of sperm instead of promoting inflammation.
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Calmegin is a testis-specific endoplasmic reticulum chaperone protein. CLGN may play a role in spermatogeneisis and infertility.
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In 2012, mature spermatozoa capable of fertilization was isolated from in vitro culture of immature mouse testis tissue.
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Fatty acid binding protein 9, testis is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FABP9 gene.
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C2orf27 is ubiquitously expressed in most tissues but with increased expression in the brain, pancreas, kidneys, and testis.
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Testicular torsion is a condition of physical twisting of the testis which results in cutting off the blood supply. It leads to damage that, if not treated within a few hours, causes the death of testicular tissue, and requires removal of the testis to prevent gangrene, and therefore can cause infertility.
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The sisters had complete pubic hair maturation (i.e., Tanner stage V), while the brother had Tanner stage II pubic hair development and Tanner stage I gonadal maturation. The right testis of the brother was cryptorchid, while the left testis was severely hypoplastic, with a volume of less than 1 mL.
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Hendricks FB, Lambird PA, Murph GP. Percutaneous needle biopsy of the testis. Fertil Steril.1969; 20:478-81 Although recognized as a reliable, and informative technique,Gottschalk-Sabag S, Glick T, Weiss DB. Fine needle aspiration of the testis and correlation with testicular open biopsy. Acta Cytol 1993;37:67-72.
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Testis-specific Y-encoded-like protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TSPYL1 gene.
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Testis-specific serine/threonine-protein kinase 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the TSSK2 gene.
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Dual specificity testis-specific protein kinase 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the TESK2 gene.
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Testis-specific Y-encoded-like protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TSPYL2 gene.
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Dual specificity testis-specific protein kinase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the TESK1 gene.
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Fascin-3 also known as testis fascin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FSCN3 gene.
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From a contemporary search of the English literature, it is apparent that the diagnostic testis biopsy has been used to study the pathological basis of male infertility for 60 years.Firket J and Damiean- Gillet M. Value and importance of testicular biopsies in Klinefelter's syndrome. Acta Clin Belg 1951; 6:80-1. The surgically obtained testis biopsy accurately describes testis architecture, is the best technique to detect in situ neoplasia or cancer, and allows for the overall assessment of the interstitium (Leydig cell number and hypertrophy).
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46,XY gonadal dysgenesis is characteristic of male hypogonadism with karyotype 46,XY. In embryogenesis, the development of the male gonads is controlled by the testis determining factor located on the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY). The male gonad is dependent on SRY and the signalling pathways initiated to several other genes to facilitate testis development. The aetiology of 46,XY gonadal dysgenesis can be caused by mutations in the genes involved in testis development such as SRY, SOX9, WT1, SF1, and DHH.
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Research has shown that a positive correlation exists between the number of sperm ejaculated and testis size. Larger testes have also been shown to predict higher sperm quality, including a larger number of motile sperm and higher sperm motility. Research has also demonstrated that evolutionary adaptations of testis size are dependent on the breeding system in which the species resides. Single-male breeding systems—or monogamous societies—tend to show smaller testis size than do multi-male breeding systems or extra-pair copulation (EPC) societies.
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Normal spermatogenesis, testis biopsy. High-power view of a seminiferous tubule with normal spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid spermatozoa develop from germ cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. This process starts with the mitotic division of the stem cells located close to the basement membrane of the tubules.
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Immune cells of the human testis are not as well characterized as those from rodents, due to the rarity of normal human testes available for experiment. The majority of experiments have studied the rat testis due to its convenience: it is of relatively large size and is easily extracted from experimental animals.
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The condition can be detected with ultrasonography. Cystic lesions us usually found at the mediastinum testis with elongated shaped lesion displacing the mediastinum. It is commonly associated with epididymal abnormalities, such as spermatocele, epididymal cyst, and epididymitis. The condition shares a common location with cystic dysplasia of the testis and intratesticular cysts.
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The protein encoded by this gene contains a classical signature of the insulin superfamily and is significantly similar to relaxin and relaxin-like factor. This gene is preferentially expressed in testis. Its expression in testis is restricted to interstitial cells surrounding seminiferous tubules, which suggests a role in sperm development and fertilization.
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Sections of testicular tissue from rat revealed positive immunoreactivity against anti-inhibin intensely appeared in Leydig cells. In adult animals, binding of 125I inhibin was localized primarily to the interstitial compartment of the testis. Also, Jin et al., (2001) reported that Leydig cells showed strong positive staining for the inhibin βA subunit in pigs testis.
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Orchitis is a condition of testicular pain involving swelling, inflammation and possibly infection. Orchitis can be caused by an autoimmune reaction (autoimmune orchitis) leading to a reduction in fertility. Autoimmune orchitis is rare in humans, compared to anti-sperm antibodies. To study orchitis in the testis, autoimmune orchitis has been induced in the rodent testis.
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At ultrasound, the undescended testis usually appears small, less echogenic than the contralateral normal testis and usually located in the inguinal region. With color Doppler ultrasonography, the vascularity of the undescended testis is poor. A karyotype can confirm or exclude forms of dysgenetic primary hypogonadism, such as Klinefelter syndrome or mixed gonadal dysgenesis. Hormone levels (especially gonadotropins and AMH) can help confirm that hormonally functional testes are worth attempting to rescue, as can stimulation with a few injections of human chorionic gonadotropin to elicit a rise of the testosterone level.
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Macrophages are directly involved in the fight against invading micro- organisms as well as being antigen-presenting cells which activate lymphocytes. Early studies demonstrated the presence of macrophages in the rat testis Testicular macrophages are the largest population of immune cells in the rodent testis. Macrophages have also been found in the testes of humans, guinea pigs, hamsters, boars, horses and bulls. They originate from blood monocytes which move into the testis then mature into macrophages. In the rat, testicular macrophages have been described as either “resident” or “newly arrived” from the blood supply.
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Cancer/testis antigen 1 also known as LAGE2 or LAGE2B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CTAG1B gene. It is most often referenced by its alias NY-ESO-1. Cancer/Testis Antigen 1B is a protein belonging to the family of Cancer Testis Antigens (CTA) that are expressed in a variety of malignant tumours at the mRNA and protein levels, but also restricted to testicular germ cells in normal adult tissues. A clone of CTAG gene was originally identified by immunological methods in oesophageal carcinoma using patient serum.
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Identification of a novel human cancer/testis gene MAEL that is regulated by DNA methylation. Molecular Biology Reports. 37: 2355-2360.
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Ultimately, the passageway closes behind the testis. A failure in this process can cause indirect inguinal hernia or an infantile hydrocoele.
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The glandular structure of the testis consists of numerous lobules. Their number, in a single testis, is estimated by Berres at 250, and by Krause at 400. Anatomic studies have demonstrated figures of 250-290 for the same. They differ in size according to their position, those in the middle of the gland being larger and longer.
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Adults are hermaphroditic. The reproductive organ include a single ovary and a single testis. As in all diplectanids, the ovary (or germarium) is anterior to the testis and loops around the right intestinal caecum. Species of Pseudorhabdosynochus are characterized by a sclerotized male copulatory organ, or "quadriloculate organ", which has the shape of a bean with four internal chambers.
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Other immune factors found in the testis include the enzyme inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and its product nitric oxide (NO), transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), the enzyme cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and its product prostaglandin E2, and many others. Further research is required to define the functional roles of these immune factors in the testis.
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The rete testis ( ) is an anastomosing network of delicate tubules located in the hilum of the testicle (mediastinum testis) that carries sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the efferent ducts. It is the counterpart of the rete ovarii in females.Definition: Rete ovarii from Online Medical Dictionary Its function is to provide a site for fluid reabsorption.
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Histopathology image of inflamed epididymis and testis Epididymitis can be classified as acute, subacute, and chronic, depending on the duration of symptoms.
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Though expression of CXorf49 is very low in human cells, is it somewhat higher in connective tissues, testis and uterus(NCBI-Unigene ).
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The words "testimony" and "testify" both derive from the Latin word testis, referring to the notion of a disinterested third-party witness.
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A hydrocele testis is not generally thought to affect fertility. However, it may be indicative of other factors that may affect fertility.
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Germ cell tumors of the testis are the most common cancer in young men between the ages of 15 and 35 years.
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SF1 (gene) has been shown to interact with Ewing sarcoma breakpoint region 1, U2AF2, Testis determining factor, and Transcription elongation regulator 1.
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This gene product is a serine/threonine protein kinase that contains an N-terminal protein kinase domain that is structurally similar to the kinase domains of testis-specific protein kinase-1 and the LIM motif-containing protein kinases (LIMKs). Its overall structure is most related to the former, indicating that it belongs to the TESK subgroup of the LIMK/TESK family of protein kinases. This gene is predominantly expressed in testis and prostate. The developmental expression pattern of the rat gene in testis suggests an important role for this gene in meiotic stages and/or early stages of spermiogenesis.
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The ANT4 protein is a mitochondrial ADP/ATP carrier that catalyzes the exchange of ADP and ATP between the mitochondrial matrix and cytoplasm during ATP synthesis. In addition, ANT4 stabilizes the mitochondrial membrane potential and decreases the permeability transition pore complex (PTPC) opening in order to prevent nuclear chromatin fragmentation and resulting cell death. In humans, the protein localizes to the liver, brain and testis, though in adult males, it is expressed primarily in the testis. Studies on Ant4-deficient mice reveal increased apoptosis in the testis leading to infertility, thus indicating that Ant4 is required as for spermatogenesis.
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The other extremity of the testis suddenly contracts into an equally slender duct, but very much shorter, and is joined by this duct to the oviduct. The spermoviduct leaves the anterior border of the ovary as a slender tube, but, almost immediately dilating, equals the diameter of the testis. This dilated portion of the spermoviduct rests between the lobes of the mucous gland, and is at first somewhat sacculated and convoluted. Spermoviduct then passes forward and suddenly contracts to its original diameter, and then advances to the anterior border of the mucous gland and receives the duct from the testis as before described.
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The testis is developed in much the same way as the ovary, originating from mesothelium as well as mesonephros. Like the ovary, in its earliest stages it consists of a central mass covered by a surface epithelium. In the central mass a series of cords appear, and the periphery of the mass is converted into the tunica albuginea, thus excluding the surface epithelium from any part in the formation of the tissue of the testis. The cords of the central mass run together toward the future hilum and form a network which ultimately becomes the rete testis.
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The lobules are conical in shape, the base being directed toward the circumference of the organ, the apex toward the mediastinum testis. Each lobule is contained in one of the intervals between the fibrous septa which extend between the mediastinum testis and the tunica albuginea, and consists of from one to three, or more, minute convoluted tubes, the tubuli seminiferi.
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Vasography is absolutely indicated if 1) azoospermia (low sperm) is present, 2) testis biopsy shows complete spermatogenesis and many mature spermatids, and 3) there is at least one palpable vas. Vasography may be indicated if there is severe oligospermia (few sperm) with a normal testis biopsy, high levels of sperm-bound antibodies, or low semen volume and poor sperm motility.
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This image shows the difference in process between organ culture and cell culture. In fragment cultures, the testis is removed and fragments of tissue are cultured in supplemental media containing different growth factors to induce spermatogenesis and form functional gametes. The development of this culture technique has taken place mainly with the use of animal models e.g. mice or rat testis tissue.
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During a bacterial infection, testosterone levels and the amount of testicular interstitial fluid are reduced. Neutrophils enter the testis about 12 hours after infection. Importantly, there is damage to the developing sperm, which start to die under severe infections. Despite all the data on the effects of bacteria on normal testis parameters, there is little experimental data regarding its effect on rodent fertility.
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It carries with it the ductus deference, that is testicular vessels and nerves, a portion of the abdominal muscle, and lymph vessels. All of the structures remain attached to the testis and form what is known as the spermatic cord by the time the testis is in the scrotal sac, the gubernaculum is no more than a remnant of scar like tissue.
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LY6/PLAUR Domain Containing 6B, also known under the name Cancer/Testis Antigen 116 (CTA116) and LYPD7 is encoded by the LYPD6B gene. LYPD6B is a member of the lymphocyte antigen 6 (LY6) protein family. It is expressed in the testis, lungs, stomach and the prostate and in the nervous system where it acts as a modulator of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor activity.
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The blood-testis barrier separates the immune system and the developing spermatozoa. The tight junction between the Sertoli cells form the blood- testis barrier but it is usually breached by physiological leakage. Not all sperms are protected by the barrier because spermatogonia and early spermatocytes are located below the junction. They are protected by other means like immunologic tolerance and immunomodulation.
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In the male, the position of testis from juvenile to adult is different. The position of testis moved backward until it reached the final position at the hinder end of the body during the adult stage. Fully mature male octopus consist of fully- formed spermatophores in the Needham’s sac. They usually had up to 13 spermatophores in the Needham’s sac.
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TSSK1 belongs to a family of serine/threonine kinases highly expressed in testis (Hao et al., 2004 [PubMed 15044604]).[supplied by OMIM, Mar 2008].
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SLC26A2 is expressed at high levels in developing and mature cartilage, as well as being expressed in lung, placenta, colon, kidney, pancreas and testis.
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AMY-1-associating protein expressed in testis 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MAATS1 (formerly known as C3orf15) gene.
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The most common tumor developing in an undescended testis is a seminoma (65%); in contrast, after orchiopexy, seminomas represent only 30% of testicular tumors.
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Micrograph of a spermatocele. The characteristic sperm are present (black dots - left of image). H&E; stain.Dilated rete testis containing spermatozoa within cyst lumen.
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Very rare complications include compartment syndrome or deep venous thrombosis from prolonged positioning, testis atrophy due to damaged blood supply, and reactions to anesthesia.
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Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, spermatogenic or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, testis-specific is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the GAPDHS gene.
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The expression of AhRR is high in testis, lung, ovary, spleen and pancreas in adults, whereas expression is low in all tissues in fetuses.
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Primary follicular lymphoma of the testis (PFLT), also termed testicular follicular lymphoma, was classified as a distinct form of FL by the World Health Organization in 2016. It is an extremely rare disease that has been recognized as occurring primarily in children and adolescents but also has been reported in 5 adults. PFLT differs from cases of typical follicular lymphoma that involve the testis in that it more often occurs in children and adolescents; involves malignant B-cells that do have the t(14:18)q32:q21) translocation; and presents with disease that is strictly limited to the testis. While similar to pediatric-type follicular lymphoma in not involving cells that bear the t(14:18)q32:q21) translocation, PFLT differs from the former disease in that it is limited to the testis and involves malignant cells that do not express Bcl2.
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This gene is intronless and encodes a testis/sperm- specific member of the histone H2B family. Transcripts from this gene contain a palindromic termination element.
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LRRIQ1 is lowly expressed (0.6 times the average gene) in lung, testis, epithelial tissue, pooled germ cell tumors, brain tissues, embryonic tissues, and adipose tissues.
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Although ITPKA is expressed physiologically in neurons and testis, it sometimes becomes expressed in cancer cells, and the expression usually makes the cancer more aggressive.
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A potential testicular rupture should be evaluated with ultrasound imaging. Testicular rupture is treated with surgery, though the procedure performed depends on the magnitude of the injury and the salvageability of the tissue. An orchiectomy – removal of the affected testis – is done when the testis is not salvageable and leads to reduced semen quality and higher rates of endocrine dysfunction than repair of salvageable tissue.
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Therefore, since sperm are antigenically different from self tissue, a male animal can react immunologically to his own sperm. In fact, he is capable of making antibodies against them. Injection of sperm antigens causes inflammation of the testis (auto-immune orchitis) and reduced fertility. Thus, the blood–testis barrier may reduce the likelihood that sperm proteins will induce an immune response, reducing fertility and so progeny.
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Dendritic cells initiate adaptive immune responses. Relatively small amounts of dendritic cells have been found in the testes of humans, rats and mice. The functional role of dendritic cells in the testis is not well understood, although they have been shown to be involved in autoimmune orchitis during animal experiments. When autoimmune orchitis is induced in rats, the dendritic cell population of the testis greatly increases.
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Beyond these immunological methods, some gene expression techniques, including mRNA pools comparison, differential display, cDNA oligonucleotide array analysis and bioinformatic analysis, identified a multitude of tumor genes with a cancer/testis restricted expression profile. As the growing of this family, this type of tumor antigens, the genes of which expressing limitedly in malignancies of various histotypes, but not in normal tissue except testis and placenta, was named cancer testis antigen (CT antigens) by Old (1997) and Chen (1998). So far, at least 70 families of CT antigens with over 140 members have been identified and listed in a database established by the Ludwing Institute for Cancer Research.
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In other words, sperm cell flagella and Fallopian tube cilia are homologous structures. The testis- specific proteins that show the highest level of expression are protamines.
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HORMA domain-containing protein 1 (HORMAD1) also known as cancer/testis antigen 46 (CT46) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HORMAD1 gene.
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Mumps is generally not serious in children, but in adults, where sperm have matured in the testis, it can cause more severe complications, such as infertility.
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The occluding junctions of Sertoli cells form the blood-testis barrier, a structure that partitions the interstitial blood compartment of the testis from the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules. Because of the apical progression of the spermatogonia (sperm stem cells), the occluding junctions must be dynamically reformed and broken to allow the immunoidentical spermatogonia to cross through the blood-testis barrier so they can become immunologically unique. Sertoli cells control the entry and exit of nutrients, hormones and other chemicals into the tubules of the testis as well as make the adluminal compartment an immune-privileged site. The cell is also responsible for establishing and maintaining the spermatogonial stem cell niche, which ensures the renewal of stem cells and the differentiation of spermatogonia into mature germ that progress stepwise through the long process of spermatogenesis, ending in the release of spermatozoa in a process known as spermiation.
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Generally, central lamellae are circles, but peripheral lamellae may be circles or semicircles. Adults are hermaphroditic. The reproductive organ include a single ovary and a single testis.
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C18orf63 has high expression in the testis. The gene shows low expression in the kidneys, liver, lung, and pelvis. There is no phenotype associated with this gene.
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LOC101059915 is a protein, which in humans is encoded by the LOC101059915 gene. It is located on the X chromosome and has restricted expression in the testis.
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The spermatic plexus (or testicular plexus) is derived from the renal plexus, receiving branches from the aortic plexus. It accompanies the internal spermatic artery to the testis.
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Male copulatory organ 72 µm long. Testis 65 µm long, 61 µm wide. Germarial bulb 41 µm wide. Egg 86–87 µm long, 35–36 µm wide.
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It seems certain also that the gubernacular cord becomes shortened as development proceeds, and this assists in causing the testis to reach the bottom of the scrotum.
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The process of spermatogenesis occurs in male mammals within the testis. This is the process of rounded spermatocytes developing into elongating spermatozoa with a flagellum. Spermatogenesis has two successive phases, one being spermiogenesis within the Sertoli cells of the testis and the other being maturation within the epididymis. The adherens junctions in the Sertoli cells is one of the only epithelial cell-cell junction that lacks the expression of vezatin.
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FOXM1 is then recruited in G2 to further promote gene expression (e.g. AURKA). During late S phase BMYB is degraded via CUL1 (SCF complex), while FOXM1 is degraded during mitosis by the APC/C. The DREAM complex regulates cytokinesis through GAS2L3. In Drosophila melanogaster there is a testis-specific paralog of the Myb-MuvB/DREAM complex known as tMAC (testis-specific meiotic arrest complex), which is involved in meiotic arrest.
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The mediastinum testis is a network of fibrous connective tissue that extends from the top to near the bottom of each testis. It is wider above than below. Numerous imperfect septa are given off from its front and sides, which radiate toward the surface of the testes and are attached to the tunica albuginea. These divide the interior of the testes into a number of incomplete spaces called lobules.
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The retina of catfish are composed of single cones and large rods. Many catfish have a tapetum lucidum which may help enhance photon capture and increase low-light sensitivity. Double cones, though present in most teleosts, are absent from catfish. The anatomical organization of the testis in catfish is variable among the families of catfish, but the majority of them present fringed testis: Ictaluridae, Claridae, Auchenipteridae, Doradidae, Pimelodidae, and Pseudopimelodidae.
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Scrotal ultrasonography of an 85-year-old man with hydrocele, making the appendix of the testicle clearly distinctive as a 4 mm outpouching at upper left in image. Doppler shows some blood flow. The appendix testis (or hydatid of Morgagni) is a vestigial remnant of the Müllerian duct, present on the upper pole of the testis and attached to the tunica vaginalis. It is present about 90% of the time.
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Transcription factor assessment indicates many potential TATA-binding protein and CCAAT-enhancer-binding proteins sites, along with transcription factors associated with the testis, thymus, kidneys, and cardiac tissue.
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This protein is most highly expressed in the testis and ovary, but also has significant expression in the thyroid and parathyroid. Other names for this protein include: LOC84167.
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In Drosophila, vasa expression is seen in germ cells, specifically the germline stem cells (GSC's) of female ovaries and in the early stages of spermatogensis in the male testis.
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The type 2 cystatin proteins are a class of cysteine proteinase inhibitors found in a variety of human fluids and secretions. The cystatin locus on chromosome 20 contains the majority of the type 2 cystatin genes and pseudogenes. This gene is located in the cystatin locus and encodes a protein similar to mouse cystatin 9. Based on its testis-specific expression, it is likely to have a role in tissue reorganization during early testis development.
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In the development of the urinary and reproductive organs, the testis is developed in much the same way as the ovary, originating from mesothelium as well as mesonephros. Like the ovary, in its earliest stages it consists of a central mass covered by a surface epithelium. In the central mass, a series of cords appear. These cords run together toward the future hilum and form a network that ultimately becomes the rete testis.
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When complexed with the SF1 protein, TDF acts as a transcription factor that causes upregulation of other transcription factors, most importantly SOX9. Its expression causes the development of primary sex cords, which later develop into seminiferous tubules. These cords form in the central part of the yet-undifferentiated gonad, turning it into a testis. The now- induced Leydig cells of the testis then start secreting testosterone, while the Sertoli cells produce anti-Müllerian hormone.
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Levin described a qualitative method of assessing testis histologic patterns that is commonly used clinically to assess testis pathology in male infertility. Recognized patterns include: normal spermatogenesis, hypoplasia or hyposperm¬ato¬genesis, complete or early maturation arrest, Sertoli cell-only or germ cell aplasia, incomplete or late maturation arrest, and sclerosis.Levin HS. Testicular biopsy in the study of male infertility: its current usefulness, histologic techniques, and prospects for the future. Hum Pathol 1979;10:569-84.
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During embryogenesis, the testis descends through the inguinal canal, drawing a diverticulum of peritoneum into the scrotum as it descends. This peritoneal tissue is known as the processus vaginalis. Normally, the communication between the processus vaginalis and the peritoneum is obliterated, and the tunica vaginalis is the tissue that remains overlying the testis and the epididymis. Congenital hydrocele results when the processus vaginalis remains, allowing fluid from the peritoneum to accumulate in the scrotum.
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The testicular artery (the male gonadal artery, also called the internal spermatic arteries in older texts) is a branch of the abdominal aorta that supplies blood to the testis. It is a paired artery, with one for each of the testes. It is the male equivalent of the ovarian artery. Because the testis is found in a different location than that of its female equivalent, it has a different course than the ovarian artery.
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The normal response is an immediate contraction of the cremaster muscle that pulls up the testis ipsilaterally (on the same side of the body). The reflex utilizes sensory and motor fibers from two different nerves. When the inner thigh is stroked, sensory fibers of the ilioinguinal nerve are stimulated. These activate the motor fibers of the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve which causes the cremaster muscle to contract and elevate the testis.
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The blood–testis barrier is a physical barrier between the blood vessels and the seminiferous tubules of the animal testes. The name "blood-testis barrier" is misleading in that it is not a blood-organ barrier in a strict sense, but is formed between Sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubule and as such isolates the further developed stages of germ cells from the blood. A more correct term is the "Sertoli cell barrier" (SCB).
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Expression data from expressed sequence tag mapping, microarray and in situ hybridization shows EVI5L has ubiquitously low expression. However, it has slightly higher expression in the testis and fetal brain.
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Microarray data show that CAD28476 is highly expressed in tissue where meiosis occurs like in testis and ovaries. Moreover, it is also highly expressed in the brain around the hypothalamus.
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TMEM255A is predicted to be most abundantly expressed in nerve, brain, testis, ovary, thymus and kidney. The protein is expressed in a variety of tissues, but at relatively moderate levels.
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Distribution of STAT4 is restricted to myeloid cells, thymus and testis. In resting human T cells it is expressed at very low levels, but its production is amplified by PHA stimulation.
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This gene is highly expressed in testis and spleen, which suggests active roles in meiotic and mitotic recombination. Homozygous mutations of this gene were observed in primary lymphoma and colon cancer.
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The protection is ensured by tight junctions, which appear between two neighboring Sertoli cells. Another mechanism which is likely to protect sperm is the suppression of immune responses in the testis.
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Tumours of the testis and adjacent structures. Fourth series fascicle 18, Silver Spring, Maryland: ARP Press, 2013, p. 271–286. These crystals are named after the German anatomist Friedrich Berthold Reinke.
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At some sites such as the testis, macrophages have been shown to populate the organ through proliferation. Unlike short- lived neutrophils, macrophages survive longer in the body, up to several months.
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GT198 is also required for meiosis. Knockout GT198 mice, the genetically modified mice with the GT198 gene inactivated, showed sterile phenotype with defects in testis and ovary without able to reproduce.
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A failure in this process can cause indirect inguinal hernia or an infantile hydrocoele.The testes descend into the scrotal sac between the sixth and 10th week. Dissent into this not occur until about the 28th week when compared and we know canals form and the abdominal wall to provide openings from the pelvic cavity to the scrotal sac. The process by which a testis to send is not well understood but it seems to be associated with the shortening of the gubernaculum, which is attached to the testis and extends to the inguinal canal to the wall of the scrotum as a testis to sense it passes to the side of the urinary bladder and anterior to the symphysis pubis.
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Cancer/testis antigen family 45, member A5 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the CT45A5 gene. This gene represents one of a cluster of six similar genes located on the q arm of chromosome X. The genes in this cluster encode members of the cancer/testis (CT) family of antigens, and are distinct from other CT antigens. These antigens are thought to be novel therapeutic targets for human cancers. Alternative splicing results in multiple transcript variants.
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It is sutured to the scrotal tissue or enclosed in a "subdartos pouch". The associated passage back into the inguinal canal, an inguinal hernia, is closed to prevent reascent. In patients with intra-abdominal maldescended testis, laparoscopy is useful to see for oneself the pelvic structures, position of the testis and decide upon surgery (single or staged procedure ). Surgery becomes more complicated if the blood supply is not ample and elastic enough to be stretched into the scrotum.
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Johnsen proposed a more quantitative analysis of testis cellular architecture based on the concept that testis damage causes a successive disappearance of the most mature germ cell type.Johnsen SG. Testicular biopsy score count--a method for registration of spermatogenesis in human testes: normal values and results in 335 hypogonadal males. Hormones 1970;1:2-25. The Johnsen scoring system involves a quantitative assessment of individual germ cell types that is very detailed and relatively laborious for routine clinical use.
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No direct interactions between LIM domain and DNA have been reported. Instead, extensive evidence points towards the functional role of FHL2 in supporting protein-protein interactions of LIM- containing proteins and its binding partners. Thus far, five members have been categorized into the FHL subfamily, which are FHL1, FHL2, FHL3, FHL4 and activator of CREM in testis (ACT) in human. FHL1, FHL2 and FHL3 are predominantly expressed in muscle, while FHL4 and FHL5 are expressed exclusively in testis.
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Testis-specific basic protein Y 2 also known as basic charge, Y-linked 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BPY2 gene which resides on the Y chromosome.
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Image 1: Post-Transcriptional Modifications to C11orf54 protein See image one. The protein is highly expressed in the kidneys and moderately expressed in the adrenal gland, colon, liver, testis and thyroid gland.
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Using Immunohistochemistry of human testis, Ramasamy et al. (2015) found the presence of NPAS2 protein in both germ cells within the tubules of the testes and in the interstitial space of Leydig cells.
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G protein-coupled receptor 148, also known as GPR148, is a human orphan receptor from GPCR superfamily. It is expressed primarily in nervous system and testis. Is may be implicated in prostate cancer.
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In humans, testis size relative to body weight is intermediate between monogamous primates (such as gorillas) and promiscuous primates (such as chimpanzees), indicating an evolutionary history of moderate selection pressures for sperm competition.
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The protein is post translationally glycosylated and expressed in all tissue with the apparent exception of skeletal muscle. The highest levels are found in the liver, heart, testis, spleen, lung, kidney and brain.
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Its expression has also been detected in developing CNS and testis, therefore, PAX5 gene product may not only play an important role in B-cell differentiation, but also in neural development and spermatogenesis.
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For example, claudin 11 has been shown to be a necessary component of these tight junctions as mice lacking this gene have a defective blood testis barrier and do not produce mature spermatozoa.
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BET inhibitors such as JQ1 block the region of BRDT responsible for chromatin binding, and cause a reversible reduction of sperm production, sperm quality, and size of the testis in mice. The mechanism of action of JQ1 could be explained by considering Brdt’s functions as a driver of testis-specific gene expression and post-meiotic chromatin reorganization. As BET inhibitors also inhibit other BET proteins BRD2, BRD3, and BRD4, they are likely to have effects in people beyond temporary male sterility.
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In these cases, the supply may be divided, some vessels sacrificed with expectation of adequate collateral circulation. In the worst case, the testis must be "autotransplanted" into the scrotum, with all connecting blood vessels cut and reconnected (anastomosed). When the testis is in the abdomen, the first stage of surgery is exploration to locate it, assess its viability, and determine the safest way to maintain or establish the blood supply. Multistage surgeries, or autotransplantation and anastomosis, are more often necessary in these situations.
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Two emasculators of different sizes. An emasculator is a tool used in the castration of livestock. Its function is to simultaneously crush and cut the spermatic cord, preventing hemorrhaging while still detaching the testis from the animal. The blade is always on the side of the emasculator with the nut that holds the blades in place, and should always be placed adjacent to the testis ("nut against nut") so that the crushing clamp occludes the spermatic artery, preventing life-threatening blood loss.
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Thus, the products of most oncogenes such as Jun, Fos, Myc,Hinton GE and Nowlan SJ. How learning can guide evolution. Complex Syst. 1 495–502 (1987). the Yamanaka factors namely, OCT3/4, SOX2, MYC, NANOG, and KLF4 that induce reprogramming of pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, and >90% of the Cancer/Testis Antigens several of which are implicated in EMTYang P, Huo Z, Liao H, Zhou Q. Cancer/testis antigens trigger epithelial-mesenchymal transition and genesis of cancer stem- like cells.
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They secrete androgen-binding protein, a binding protein which increases the concentration of testosterone inside the seminiferous tubules. Embryologically, they also secrete the anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) necessary for the female Müllerian ducts to regress. There are two types: convoluted and straight, convoluted toward the lateral side, and straight as the tubule comes medially to form ducts that will exit the testis. The seminiferous tubules are formed from the testis cords that develop from the primitive gonadal cords, formed from the gonadal ridge.
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Most species of marsupial (metatherian) and placental (eutherian) mammals have evolved extra-gonadal testes, although a limited number of these mammals remain testicond or exhibit differing degrees of testicular descent. As a result of the epididymis being attached to the testis, and the cauda epididymis extending below the lower extremity of the testis (Figure 1C), it was proposed that the epididymis was the prime mover in the evolution of testicular decent, whereby the cauda epididymis preceded the testis into a scrotal location. The epididymis of marsupials (metatherians) and placental mammals (eutherians) has undergone further structural differentiation compared to that observed in prototherian mammals (Figure 1). In scrotal mammals, an initial segment is nearly always observed, however, additional histologically distinct regions have developed between the initial segment and the distal sperm storage region (terminal segment).
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The function of protein MGC50722 is unknown. Given that it is preferentially expressed in the testis and appears to be subcellularly localized in the nucleus, it could play an important role in gamete cells.
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Chimpanzees have high promiscuity and large testes compared to body weight (0.3%). Human testicular size falls between these extremes (0.08%). Testis weight also varies in seasonal breeders like red foxes, golden jackals and coyotes.
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26: 483-489. Secombes, C.J., Lewis, A.E., Laird, L.M., Needham, E.A. and Priede, I.G. (1985). The role of autoantibodies in the autoimmune response to testis in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Immunology 56: 409-415.
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These tumors can be benign or malignant. On arrival at the gonad, primordial germ cells that do not properly differentiate may produce germ cell tumors of the ovary or testis in a mouse model.
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The neonatal and juvenile alligators present in this lake have been extensively studied and observed to have altered plasma hormone concentrations, decreased clutch viability, increased juvenile mortality, and morphological abnormalities in the testis and ovary.
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Pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) alpha 2, also known as pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component subunit alpha, testis-specific form, mitochondrial or PDHE1-A type II, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PDHA2 gene.
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C3orf67 is prominently expressed in the liver, tonsils, trachea, ovaries, testis, placenta, and colon. In other tissues it is expressed at low levels. An increase in expression has been linked to small cell lung cancer.
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Chromosome 6 open reading frame 201, C6orf201, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C6orf201 gene. In humans this gene encodes for a nuclear protein that is primarily expressed in the testis.
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FAM227A is experimentally determined to be highly expressed in the testis, epididymis, pituitary gland, and the fallopian tubes. This protein is not predicted to be ubiquitous as the rate of expression varies across tissue types.
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The testes are covered by a tough membranous shell called the tunica albuginea. Within the testes are very fine coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules. The tubules are lined with a layer of cells (germ cells) that develop from puberty through old age into sperm cells (also known as spermatozoa or male gametes). The developing sperm travel through the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis located in the mediastinum testis, to the efferent ducts, and then to the epididymis where newly created sperm cells mature (see spermatogenesis).
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The adrenals become markedly enlarged (hyperplastic) by the accumulated lipid. Lipid accumulation is thought to damage the cells further (“second hit hypothesis”). Because P450scc and StAR are also essential for sex steroid synthesis in the testis and ovary, the production of testosterone by Leydig cells in the testis and androgens (which leads to estrogen production by granulosa cells) and progesterone by ovarian theca cells and luteal cells, respectively, can also be impaired. Similar to the adrenal gland, cholesterol accumulation damages the Leydig cells of the testes.
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The cremasteric fascia is a fascia in the scrotum. As the cremaster descends, it forms a series of loops which differ in thickness and length in different subjects. At the upper part of the cord the loops are short, but they become in succession longer and longer, the longest reaching down as low as the testis, where a few are inserted into the tunica vaginalis. These loops are united together by areolar tissue, and form a thin covering over the cord and testis, the cremasteric fascia.
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Spermatogenesis is a complex process regulated by extracellular and intracellular factors as well as cellular interactions among interstitial cells of the testis, Sertoli cells, and germ cells. This gene is expressed in the testis in Sertoli cells but not germ cells. The protein encoded by this gene contains plant homeodomain (PHD) finger domains, also known as leukemia associated protein (LAP) domains, believed to be involved in transcriptional regulation. The protein, which localizes to the nucleus of transfected cells, has been implicated in the transcriptional regulation of spermatogenesis.
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It appears the function of the rete testis is to mix the sperm as they leave the seminiferous tubules. Sperm leave the seminiferous tubules in the dilute secretions of Sertoli cells. The rete testis does modify the luminal fluids with a limited amount of secretion and reabsorption, but their primary function is to mix and transport the sperm into the efferent ductules, where the major function is reabsorption of about 95% of the fluid, which increases the sperm concentration prior to entering the epididymis.
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Turek PJ, Ljung B-M, Cha I, Conaghan J. Diagnostic findings from testis fine needle aspiration mapping in obstructed and non-obstructed azoospermic men. J Urol 2000;163:1709-1716 Indeed, this combination of techniques has allowed men with even the severest forms of infertility, including men who are azoospermic after chemotherapy for cancer, to become fathers.Damani MN, Master V, Meng MV, Turek PJ, Oates RM. Post- chemotherapy ejaculatory azoospermia: Fatherhood with sperm from testis tissue using intracytoplasmic sperm injection. J Clin Oncology 2002; 20: 930-936.
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Regardless of methodology, the analysis of testis biopsy histology lacks clinical value in cases of infertility because there is no clear correlation between histologic patterns or Johnsen score and the underlying etiology of infertility. That is to say, the clinical utility of understanding the histology pattern is low, because biopsy patterns do not correlate well with specific and correctable diseases. In addition, the interobserver variability in testis biopsy readings for infertility is significant. This was aptly demonstrated in a study by Cooperberg et al.
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The volume of sperm in ejaculates scales proportionately with testis size and, consistent with the intermediate weight of human males testis, ejaculate volume is also intermediate between primates with high and low levels of sperm competition. Human males, like other animals, exhibit prudent sperm allocation, a physiological response to the high cost of sperm production as it relates to the actual or perceived risk of sperm competition at each insemination.Wedell, Nina; Gage, Matthew J.G.; Parker, Geoffrey A. (2002). “Sperm competition, male prudence, and sperm-limited females”.
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The SRY (Sex-determining Region of the Y chromosome) directs male development in mammals by inducing the somatic cells of the gonadal ridge to develop into a testis, rather than an ovary. Sry is expressed in a small group of somatic cells of the gonads and influences these cells to become Sertoli cells (supporting cells in testis). Sertoli cells are responsible for sexual development along a male pathway in many ways. One of these ways involves stimulation of the arriving primordial cells to differentiate into sperm.
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394(1):65-77Wilhelm D, Washburn LL, Truong V, Fellous M, Eicher EM, Koopman P. Antagonism of the testis- and ovary- determining pathways during ovotestis development in mice. Mechanisms of Development. 2009;126(5-6):324-336.
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CBX2 (gene) has been shown to interact with RYBP. It also interacts with the testis determining factor encoded by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome, as both proteins are necessary components of the male cascade.
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A testis which can readily move or be moved between the scrotum and canal is referred to as retractile. Cryptorchidism, hypospadias, testicular cancer, and poor semen quality make up the syndrome known as testicular dysgenesis syndrome.
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C7orf61 has high levels of expression in the testis and lower levels in the brain and connective tissues. Through the assessment of microarray experiments available on NCBI Geo, it's inferred that c7orf61 is under negative regulation.
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No cases of primary follicular lymphoma of the testis have been reported to progress to t-FL. Surgery followed by less strenuous or even no chemotherapy may prove to be the optimal treatment for this disease.
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Pagetoid spread of GCNIS into the rete testis is common. Immunostaining with placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP) highlights GCNIS cell membranes in 95 percent of cases. OCT3/4 is a sensitive and specific nuclear stain of GCNIS.
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There are multiple alpha and beta tubulin genes and they are highly conserved among and between species. This gene encodes an alpha tubulin that is a highly conserved homolog of a rat testis-specific alpha tubulin.
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In rare cases, the gubernaculum may fail to contract adhesions to the uterus, and then the ovary descends through the inguinal canal into the labium majus; under these circumstances, its position resembles that of the testis.
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CFAP157 is expressed in many human body tissues such as cervix, lung, testis, and uterus. People who have uterine tumor are likely to have an expression in CFAP157. This gene is expressed in both adults and fetuses.
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The anatomical term "test" derives from the Latin testa (which means a rounded bowl, amphora or bottle). It is distinct from the term "test" as in "examination", which derives from testis, related to the idea of testimony.
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The Abacetini is a rare animal in terms of its symmetry, due to it having a complete absence of a organ that is usually in a bilateral pair, which just happens to be one of its testis.
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It has been shown, however, that SOX9, in the presence of PDG2, acts directly on Amh (encoding anti-Müllerian hormone) and is capable of inducing testis formation in XX mice gonads, indicating its vital to testes development.
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Dr. Raveenthiran of SRM Hospital, Kattankulathur described a new syndrome in which Spigelian hernia and cryptorchidism (undescended testis) occur together. Some common complications of this distinct syndrome cryptorchidism are testicular torsion, and its link to testicular cancer.
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This is the process whereby males unwittingly invest their resources into offspring of another male and, evolutionarily speaking, should be avoided. The most researched human penis adaptations are testis and penis size, ejaculate adjustment and semen displacement.
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In addition to juxtaglomerular cells, prorenin is also synthesised by other organs, such as the adrenal glands, the ovaries, the testis and the pituitary gland, which is why it is found in the plasma of anephric individuals.
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KLK9 belongs to the kallikrein subgroup of serine proteases, which have diverse physiologic functions in many tissues. KLK9 is primarily expressed in thymus, testis, spinal cord, cerebellum, trachea, mammary gland, prostate, brain, salivary gland, ovary, and skin.
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Expression of C16orf96 when different hypoxia-inducible factors are reduced C16orf96 expression is generally low in cells. in situ hybridization experiments suggest that C16orf96 RNA is only expressed in the testis while the EST profile for C16orf96 shows gene expression is low in testis and skin only.The Human Protein Atlas of C16orf96EST profile Hs.684212 Expression of the C16orf96 gene is modulated by the depletion of both hypoxia induced factor 1/2α (HIF1/2α). When only one of the factors is depleted expression does not change suggesting that there is redundancy with these two HIF.
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Animation of the migration of spermatozoa from their origin as germ cells to their exit from the vas deferens. A.) Blood vessels; B.) Head of epididymis; C.) Efferent ductules; D.) Seminiferous tubules; E.) Parietal lamina of tunica vaginalis; F.) Visceral lamina of tunica vaginalis; G.) Cavity of tunica vaginalis; H.) Tunica albuginea; I.) Lobule of testis; J.) Tail of epididymis; K.) Body of epididymis; L.) Mediastinum; M.) Vas deferens. Testicle or testis (plural testes) is the male reproductive gland or gonad in all animals, including humans. It is homologous to the female ovary.
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Class III β-tubulin, otherwise known as βIII-tubulin (β3-tubulin) or β-tubulin III, is a microtubule element of the tubulin family found almost exclusively in neurons, and in testis cells. In humans, it is encoded by the TUBB3 gene. It is possible to use monoclonal antibodies and immunohistochemistry to identify neurons in samples of brain tissue, separating neurons from glial cells, which do not express Class III β-tubulin. Class III β-tubulin is one of the seven β-tubulin isotypes identified in the human genome, predominantly in neurons and the testis.
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Using the EST abundance profile through Unigene, NBEAL1 expression was discovered based on both body sites and health states. NBEAL1 shows expression in the brain, embryonic tissue, eye, intestine, kidney, liver, lung, mammary glands, ovaries, pancreas, pharynx, placenta, prostate, skin, stomach, testis, thyroid, and trachea. Based on transcripts per million, expression is highest in the stomach at 62 transcripts per million, with pancreas and trachea being next with their transcripts per million being 37 and 38, respectively. The lowest transcripts per million in the brain, eye, placenta and testis, all at 4 per million.
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He was able to see that location of the testes do not matter. He then wanted to see if it was a genetic factor that was involved in the testes that provided these functions. He transplanted a testis from another rooster to a rooster with one testis removed, and saw that they had normal behavior and physical anatomy as well. Berthold determined that the location or genetic factors of the testes do not matter in relation to sexual organs and behaviors, but that some chemical in the testes being secreted is causing this phenomenon.
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One of the strongest arguments for early orchiopexy is reducing the risk of testicular cancer. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develops testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The peak incidence occurs in the third and fourth decades of life. The risk is higher for intra-abdominal testes and somewhat lower for inguinal testes, but even the normally descended testis of a man whose other testis was undescended has about a 20% higher cancer risk than those of other men.
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However, recent data have shown a paradigm shift. The New England Journal of Medicine published in 2007 that orchidopexy performed before puberty resulted in a significantly reduced risk of testicular cancer than if done after puberty. The risk of malignancy in the undescended testis is four to 10 times higher than that in the general population, and is about one in 80 with a unilateral undescended testis and one in 40 to one in 50 for bilateral undescended testes. The peak age for this tumor is 15–45 years old.
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Another portion of the mesonephritic duct becomes the ductus deferens. The seminal vesicles form from lateral outgrowths of the caudal and of each mesonephritic duct the prostate gland arises from an Indo dermal outgrowth of the urogenital sinus the bulbourethral glands develop from outgrowths in the membrane-like portion of the urethra. The descent of the testes to its final location at the anterior abdominal wall, followed by the development of the gubernaculum, which subsequently pulls and translocates the testis down into the developing scrotum. Ultimately, the passageway closes behind the testis.
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This increased sensitivity in sperm detection is likely due to sampling a larger volume of the testis. There was also an intratesticular (site-to-site within the same testis) variation in sperm presence in 25% of cases and an intertesticular (side-to-side in the same individual) discordance rate of 19%. This suggests that bilateral examinations are crucial to fully informing men with nonobstructive azoospermia about opportunities for fatherhood.,Weiss DB, Gottschalk-Sabag S, Bar-On E, Zukerman Z, Gat Y, Bartoov B. Seminiferous tubule cytological pattern in infertile, azoospermic men in diagnosis and therapy.
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A hydrocele testis is an accumulation of clear fluid within the cavum vaginale, the potential space between the layers of the tunica vaginalis of the testicle. A primary hydrocele causes a painless enlargement in the scrotum on the affected side and is thought to be due to the defective absorption of fluid secreted between the two layers of the tunica vaginalis (investing membrane). A secondary hydrocele is secondary to either inflammation or a neoplasm in the testis. A hydrocele usually occurs on one side, but can also affect both sides.
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The tubules are lined with a layer of cells (germ cells) that from puberty into old age, develop into sperm cells (also known as spermatozoa or male gametes). The developing sperm travel through the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis located in the mediastinum testis, to the efferent ducts, and then to the epididymis where newly created sperm cells mature (see spermatogenesis). The sperm move into the vas deferens, and are eventually expelled through the urethra and out of the urethral orifice through muscular contractions. However, most fish do not possess seminiferous tubules.
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The gene encodes a 180-amino acid polypeptide, expressed from 18 weeks during embryonic development until birth in human fetal testis. It is also strongly expressed in spermatogonia and in primary spermatocytes of adult testis, but not in post-meiotic cells or testicular somatic cells. Structurally, CTAG1B features a glycine-rich N-terminal region, as well as a hydrophobic C-terminal region with a Pcc-1 domain. The protein has been shown to be homologous to two other CTAs located in the same region: LAGE-1 and ESO3.
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A male typically inherits an X chromosome from ovum and a Y chromosome from spermatozoon. The presence of the sex-determining-region of the Y chromosome, or SRY gene, determines the embryo being a male. Internal and external male genitalia development from bipotential gonad in embryo. SRY gene encodes testis-determining SRY factor (TDF) protein that promotes expression of several other genes such as SRY-box 9 (SOX-9) gene and steroidogenic factor-1 (SF1) gene, causing differentiation of the medulla of bipotential gonad into testis by week six.
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Gummas are most commonly found in the liver (gumma hepatis), but can also be found in brain, heart, skin, bone, testis, and other tissues, leading to a variety of potential problems including neurological disorders or heart valve disease.
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In birds, sex reversal has been documented in natural and experimental conditions. Sex steroid manipulation can induced sex reversal in birds. Aromatase inhibitors injected into chicken eggs before the gonadal differentiation stage induce testis development in ZW embryos.
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The prevalence of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease for donors is at most one in a million, and if the donor was a carrier, the infectious proteins would still have to cross the blood-testis barrier to make transmission possible.
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The expression of TEX9 is highest in the testis, followed by the thyroid, duodenum, and kidney, although other tissues have been shown to express TEX9. TEX9 is expected to have a subcellular localization in the cytoplasm or nucleus.
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In species that have external testes (such as human), the artery to the testis is surrounded by a mesh of veins called the pampiniform plexus. This cools the blood heading to the testes, while reheating the returning blood.
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As in all diplectanids, the ovary (or germarium) is anterior to the testis and loops around the right intestinal caecum. Species of Calydiscoides are characterized by a sclerotized male copulatory organ, which is used in systematics to differentiate species.
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A Sertoli cell nodule is a benign proliferation of Sertoli cells that arises in association with cryptorchidism (undescended testis). They are not composed of a clonal cell population, i.e. neoplastic; thus, technically, they should not be called an adenoma.
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This isoform of 17β-HSD is expressed predominantly in the testis and catalyzes the conversion of androstenedione to testosterone. It preferentially uses NADP as cofactor. Deficiency can result in impaired virilization of genetically male infants, formerly termed male pseudohermaphroditism.
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Its structure is similar to that of the ductus deferens. Occasionally it is found unconnected with the epididymis. A second tube, the ductulus aberrans superior, occurs in the head of the epididymis; it is connected with the rete testis.
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In Milan he founded the laboratory of experimental physiology. Sertoli is remembered for his 1865 discovery of the eponymous Sertoli cell. These cells line the tubuli seminiferi contorti of the testis, and provide nourishment and support for developing sperm.
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PLoS Pathogens 1(3): e38. Figure 1. Griphobilharzia amoena are dioecious and are found in the circulatory system of their definitive host, Crocodylus johnstoni. The male has a gynecophoric chamber that extends two-thirds of the acetabulum to testis.
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Studies using knockout mice have shown cellular defects in oligodendrocytes, alveolar smooth muscle cells, and Leydig cells in the testis; knockout mice die either as embryos or shortly after birth. Two splice variants have been identified for this gene.
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Elongin A2 is specifically expressed in the testis and is capable of forming a stable complex with elongins B and C. The von Hippel–Lindau tumor suppressor protein binds to elongins B and C and thereby inhibits transcription elongation.
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Humans express two 3β-HSD isozymes, HSD3B1 (type I) and HSD3B2 (type II). The type I isoenzyme is expressed in placenta and peripheral tissues, whereas the type II 3β-HSD isoenzyme is expressed in the adrenal gland, ovary, and testis.
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PMC4526203 Tissue distribution High gene expression was described for colonic mucosa, small bowel mucosa, liver and spleen. Moderate gene expression was found in blood, lymph node, thymus, testis and prostate. Deng HK, Unutmaz D, KewalRamani VN and Littman DR. (1997).
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This gene is localized in the DSS (dosage-sensitive sex reversal) critical region. It is expressed in testis and placenta, and in a significant fraction of tumors of various histological types. The MAGEB genes are clustered on chromosome Xp22-p21.
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TTC39B is well expressed in muscles, internal organs, secretory organs, reproductive organs, the immune system, and the nervous system. TTC39B is expressed in a multitude of tissues: testis, lung, islets of langerhans, pancreas, kidney, pooled germ cell tumors, breast carcinoma, etc.
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In the male the Müllerian ducts atrophy, but traces of their anterior ends are represented by the appendices testis (hydatids of Morgagni of the male), while their terminal fused portions form the utriculus in the floor of the prostatic urethra.
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There is distant conservation seen in organisms such as zebra finches and anoles. SOGA2 is ubiquitously expressed in humans, with especially high expression in brain (especially the cerebellum and hippocampus), colon, pituitary gland, small intestine, spinal cord, testis and fetal brain.
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Eosinophils directly fight parasitic infections and are involved in allergic reactions. They have been found in relatively low numbers in the rat, mouse, dog, cat, bull and deer testes. Almost nothing is known about their significance or function in the testis.
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The high expression of QRICH2 gene in testis may suggest that QRICH2 protein has some functions related to hormone production in males. QRICH2 protein has some sequence similarities with the spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyl-like protein 1 in several species.
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In testis, the antibody was observed in spermatocytes and spermatids, but not in sperm. In spermatocytes, it was also seen that ATAT1 was located around the Golgi apparatus, which indicates that this protein might play an important paper in spermatogenesis.
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Homer1 is expressed widely in the central nervous system as well as peripheral tissue including heart, kidney, ovary, testis, and skeletal muscle. Subcellularly in neurons, Homer1 is concentrated in postsynaptic structures and constitutes a major part of the postsynaptic density.
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OSP/Claudin 11 is occurred in a myelin of nerve cells and between Sertoli cells, so it forms tight junctions in the CNS. This protein in a cooperation with the second loop of occludin maintains the blood-testis barrier and spermatogenesis.
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Other signs and symptom may include haematuria; loin pain; abdominal mass; malaise, which is a general feeling of unwellness; weight loss and/or loss of appetite; anaemia resulting from depression of erythropoietin; erythrocytosis (increased production of red blood cells) due to increased erythropoietin secretion; varicocele, which is seen in males as an enlargement of the pampiniform plexus of veins draining the testis (more often the left testis) hypertension (high blood pressure) resulting from secretion of renin by the tumour; hypercalcemia, which is elevation of calcium levels in the blood; sleep disturbance or night sweats; recurrent fevers; and chronic fatigue.
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The protein encoded by this gene is similar to proacrosin binding protein sp32 precursor found in mouse, guinea pig, and pig. This protein is located in the sperm acrosome and is thought to function as a binding protein to proacrosin for packaging and condensation of the acrosin zymogen in the acrosomal matrix. This protein is a member of the cancer/testis family of antigens and it is found to be immunogenic. In normal tissues, this mRNA is expressed only in testis, whereas it is detected in a range of different tumor types such as bladder, breast, lung, liver, and colon.
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The process starts when the transcription factor Testis determining factor (encoded by the sex-determining region SRY of the Y chromosome) activates SOX-9 activity by binding to an enhancer sequence upstream of the gene. Next, Sox9 activates FGF9 and forms feedforward loops with FGF9 and PGD2. These loops are important for producing SOX-9; without these loops, SOX-9 would run out and the development of a female would almost certainly ensue. Activation of FGF9 by SOX-9 starts vital processes in male development, such as the creation of testis cords and the multiplication of Sertoli cells.
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The ZC3H11B protein is expressed in various tissues including those of the testis, heart, leg, and adrenal. ZC3H11B is predicted to be involved in metal ion binding, a mechanism that involves combination of a metal ion or chelation, as inferred from Electronic Association.
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NTERA-2 cells were originally isolated from a lung metastasis from a 22-year-old male patient with primary embryonal carcinoma of the testis. The tumor was xenografted onto a mouse, and from this cells were cloned into the NTERA-2 cell line.
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TSBP1 is ubiquitously expressed at low levels in the adult human genome. In adults, expression of this gene is highest in the testis. C6orf10 is expressed at higher levels in fetal and embryonic tissues. This indicates C6orf10 may play a role in development.
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They have been shown to secrete 25-hydroxycholesterol, a sterol that can be converted to testosterone by Leydig cells. Their presence is necessary for the normal development and function of the Leydig cells, which are the testosterone-producing cells of the testis.
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Portman, A. (1952). Animal Forms and Patterns, Faber & Faber, London. A scrotal location also exposes the testes to a reduced temperature below that of the body,Moore C.R. (1923). On the relationship of the germinal epithelium to the position of the testis.
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The testis is single, and its duct opens into the intestine and is provided with two chitinous spicules. The ovary is also single, opening independently and anterior to the anus. The nervous system is as yet unknown. Genera include Desmoscolex, Greeffiella, and Tricoma.
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C1orf127 is suggested to interact with two different proteins, CCT3, a molecular chaperone, and CCT6B, also a molecular chaperone found in the testis. Because these interacting proteins are both molecular chaperones, it is possible that C1orf127 must undergo chaperone-assisted folding or unfolding.
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RNA-seq experiments from the GTEx project found that TMEM81 is ubiquitously expressed in humans but shows enhanced expression in the cerebellum and cerebellar hemisphere.GTEx portal entry on TMEM81 Other tissues and organs showing somewhat enhanced mRNA expression include the testis and spleen.
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The atomic nuclei of the actinide and lanthanide elements are shaped like prolate spheroids. In anatomy, near-spheroid organs such as testis may be measured by their long and short axes.Page 559 in: Many submarines have a shape which can be described as prolate spheroid.
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Most insects reproduce oviparously, i.e. by laying eggs. The eggs are produced by the female in a pair of ovaries. Sperm, produced by the male in one testis or more commonly two, is transmitted to the female during mating by means of external genitalia.
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Most insects reproduce oviparously, i.e. by laying eggs. The eggs are produced by the female in a pair of ovaries. Sperm, produced by the male in one testis or more commonly two, is transmitted to the female during mating by means of external genitalia.
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Furthermore, the TMEM39B protein been found to interact with the SARS-CoV-2 ORF9C (also known as ORF14) protein. TMEM39B is expressed at moderate levels in most tissues, with higher expression in the testis, placenta, white blood cells, adrenal gland, thymus, and fetal brain.
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The testicular vein (or spermatic vein), the male gonadal vein, carries deoxygenated blood from its corresponding testis to the inferior vena cava or one of its tributaries. It is the male equivalent of the ovarian vein, and is the venous counterpart of the testicular artery.
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SRY expression is expressed exclusively in the developing gonad, lacking a presence in any other tissue in embryos or adults. The presence of SRY in the genital ridge results in testis formation by directing the differentiation of Sertoli cells in a bipotential genital ridge.
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The absence of Fgf9 causes an individual, even an individual with X and Y chromosomes, to develop into a female, as it is needed to carry out important masculinizing developmental functions such as the multiplication of Sertoli cells and creation of the testis cords.
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This gene is highly expressed in testis and the protein is localized to the nucleus. This gene may play important roles in the mechanisms of cytodifferentiation and/or DNA recombination. Multiple alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been found for this gene.
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C->U-editing enzyme APOBEC-4, also known as Apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 4, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the APOBEC4 gene. It is primarily expressed in testis and found in mammals, chicken, but not fishes.
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Immunologically detected ALOXE3 and ALOX12B in humans and Aloxe3 and Alox12b in mice have a similar tissue distribution in being highly expressed in the outer, differentiated layers of the epidermis; they co-localize at the surface of keratinocytes in the stratum granulosum of mouse skin and during mouse embryogenesis appear concurrently at the onset of skin development at day 15.5. ALOXE3 mRNA in humans was also detected at low levels in the pancreas, ovary, brain, testis, placenta, and some secretory epithelia. Aloxe3 and Alox12b mRNA was detected in the tongue, forestomach, trachea, brain, testis, and adipose tissue of mice and in the spinal cord of rats.
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In normal tissues, CT antigens are exclusively expressed in testis, making it no access to the immune system. Besides, the existence of blood-testis barrier and the lack of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I expression on the surface of germ cells prevent the immune system interacting with CT antigens proteins and recognizing it as invading structures. Thus, CT antigens can be regarded as essentially tumor-specific targets when they are expressed in cancers. Distinct CT antigens encode for different antigenic peptides presented to the immune system in association with various HLA class I or HLA class II allospecificities, eliciting both CTL and humoral immune responses.
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Graves, in conjunction with her then PhD student Andrew Sinclair, was instrumental in providing evidence that the ZFY gene, at the time proposed to be the testis-determining factor, was not required for sex determination in mammals. Sex determination in placental mammals (including marsupials) results from a testis-determining gene on the Y chromosome. Via comparative genomics, Graves and Sinclair showed that ZFY is found on chromosome 5 in kangaroos and chromosome 3 in the fat-tailed dunnart rather than the Y chromosome, and therefore could not be involved in determining sex. Sinclair later showed that SRY was in fact the gene responsible for sex determination in mammals.
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The tubuli seminiferi recti (also known as the tubuli recti, tubulus rectus, or straight seminiferous tubules) are structures in the testicle connecting the convoluted region of the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis, although the tubuli recti have a different appearance distinguishing them from these two structures. They enter the fibrous tissue of the mediastinum, and pass upward and backward, forming, in their ascent, a close network of anastomosing tubes which are merely channels in the fibrous stroma, lined by flattened epithelium, and having no proper walls; this constitutes the rete testis. Only Sertoli cells line the terminal ends of the seminiferous tubules (tubuli recti).
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Rat studies investigating the carcinogenicity of PFASs reported significant correlation with liver adenomas, Leydig cell tumors of the testis and pancreatic acinar cell tumors and dietary PFOA consumption. Naturally, The C8 Science Panel investigated the potential relationship between PFAS exposure and these three cancer types as well as 18 other cancer types in their epidemiological studies. Contrary to the animal studies, the C8 studies did not find a probable link between elevated C8 exposure and liver adenomas or pancreatic acinar cell tumors; however, a probable link was found with regards to testis and kidney cancer. Two mechanisms have been proposed linking PFOA to Leydig cell tumors.
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It is likely that most of the adult population of testicular macrophages in adult rats are a result of very rapid proliferation of early precursors that entered the testis during postnatal maturation Testicular macrophages can respond to infectious stimuli and become activated (undergo changes enabling the killing of the invading micro- organism), but do so to a lesser extent than other types of macrophages. An example is production of the inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-1β by activated rat testicular macrophages: these macrophages produce significantly less TNFα and IL-1β than activated rat peritoneal macrophages. Aside from responding to infectious stimuli, testicular macrophages are also involved in maintaining normal testis function.
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The HK1 gene spans approximately 131 kb and consists of 25 exons. Alternative splicing of its 5’ exons produces different transcripts in different cell types: exons 1-5 and exon 8 (exons T1-6) are testis-specific exons; exon 6, located approximately 15 kb downstream of the testis-specific exons, is the erythroid-specific exon (exon R); and exon 7, located approximately 2.85 kb downstream of exon R, is the first 5’ exon for the ubiquitously expressed HK1 isoform. Moreover, exon 7 encodes the porin- binding domain (PBD) conserved in mammalian HK1 genes. Meanwhile, the remaining 17 exons are shared among all HK1 isoforms.
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Human males live largely in monogamous societies like gorillas, and therefore testis size is smaller in comparison to primates in multi-male breeding systems, such as chimpanzees. The reason for the differentiation in testis size is that in order to succeed reproductively in a multi-male breeding system, males must possess the ability to produce several fully fertilising ejaculations one after another. This, however, is not the case in monogamous societies, where a reduction in fertilising ejaculations has no effect on reproductive success. This is reflected in humans, as the sperm count in ejaculations is decreased if copulation occurs more than three to five times in a week.
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This protein is localized in germ cells of the testis at all stages of spermatogenesis and is localized to the acrosomal region of mature spermatozoa. Alternatively spliced variants that encode different protein isoforms have been described but the full-length sequences of only two have been determined.
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In molecular biology, ZNRD1 antisense RNA 1 (non-protein coding), also known as ZNRD1-AS1 or HTEX4, is a long non-coding RNA. In humans, it is located in the MHC class I region of chromosome 6. It is expressed in testis and is alternatively spliced.
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Lesions observed in the testis of precociously maturing male Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. J.Fish Biol. 17, 343-348. Laird L.M., Wilson, AR & Holliday, FGT (1980). Field trials of a method of induction of autoimmune gonad rejection in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) Reprod. Nutr. Develop.
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TTC16 is found in high numbers in the testis, followed by the lung, pituitary gland, and tonsil. Evidence shows the omental adipose tissue of obese children have higher expression of TTC16 in comparison to non-obese children. Expression is also relatively high and constant CD8+ cells.
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61, No. 2 (Apr., 1942), pp141–155 The worms are hermaphroditic, containing both male and female organs. Each worm has reproductive organs such as vas deferens, testis, uterus, vitelline duct, ovary, and vitellaria. They also have flame cells that function as a kidney and remove waste material.
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There is some evidence for RNA editing of human WT1 mRNA. As with alternative splicing of the gene RNA editing increases the number of isoforms of this protein. Editing is tissue specific and developmentally regulated. Editing shown to be restricted in testis and kidney in the rat.
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Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide receptor 1 also known as VPAC1, is a protein, that in humans is encoded by the VIPR1 gene. VPAC1 is expressed in the brain (cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdala), lung, prostate, peripheral blood leukocytes, liver, small intestine, heart, spleen, placenta, kidney, thymus and testis.
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The appendix of testis can, occasionally, undergo torsion (i.e. become twisted), causing acute one-sided testicular pain and may require surgical excision to achieve relief. One third of patients present with a palpable "blue dot" discoloration on the scrotum. This is nearly diagnostic of this condition.
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Evidence suggests that a DM domain gene, DMRT1, is involved in sexual development. This gene is located on chromosome 9. Its location suggests that it is required for the development of testis. XY humans hemizygous for the chromosome 9p, where DMRT1 is located, are often feminized.
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NT5C3 was first discovered in red blood cells, but its expression has been observed in multiple tumors (lung, ovary, colon, bladder), fetal tissues (lung, heart, spleen, liver), adult testis, and the brain. In particular, the 297-residue isoform of this enzyme is highly expressed in lymphoblastoid cells.
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H2B histone type is known to have a limited number of variants at least in mammals, apicomplexa and sea urchins. H2B.1 is a testis, oocyte and zygote specific variant that forms subnucleosomal particles, at least, in spermatids. It can dimerize with H2A.L and H2A.1. H2B.
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This gene belongs to a family of genes that are expressed in a variety of tumors but not in normal tissues, except for the testis. Unlike the other gene family members, this gene does not encode an antigenic peptide. Nothing is presently known about the function of this protein.
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C16orf46 is broadly expressed in the testis and thyroid as well as 18 other tissues. These tissue expression patterns are found to be low to moderate (25-50%). When looking at tissue profiles, the highest expression is in the adult mammalian kidney, liver, prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, heart, and brain.
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GLUT8 is expressed mostly in neurons and testis, although expression in most other tissues has also been shown at lower levels. GLUT8 is expressed at moderate levels in the brain, most strikingly in hippocampus. Whether the glucose transporter plays any role in these cells remains to be shown.
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Nardilysin (, N-arginine dibasic convertase, NRD-convertase) is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Hydrolysis of polypeptides, preferably at -Xaa-Arg-Lys-, and less commonly at -Arg-Arg-Xaa-, in which Xaa is not Arg or Lys This enzyme is present rat brain and testis.
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BRD7, a transcription regulatory protein, is normally highly expressed in the testis. Absent or reduced expression of BRD7 protein was observed in the testes of azoospermia patients exhibiting spermatogenesis arrest. Homozygous knockout mice [BRD7(-/-)] are infertile and have higher levels of apoptosis and DNA damage in their germline cells.
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The promoter region of LOC101059915 is located on the sense strand of DNA, and between base pair 71666098 and 71667904 on the X chromosome. It spans up to 1.806 bp.Genomatix’s ElDorado Expression of LOC101059915, however, is relatively low in human cells, and is primarily limited to the testis.
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Allen was born in Greencastle, Indiana on July 4, 1877. He received a bachelor's degree from DePauw University, followed by a doctorate from the University of Chicago in 1903 with a dissertation titled "The development of the ovary and the testis in the mammals" working under Charles Otis Whitman.
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The follicle-stimulating hormone receptor or FSH receptor (FSHR) is a transmembrane receptor that interacts with the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and represents a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). Its activation is necessary for the hormonal functioning of FSH. FSHRs are found in the ovary, testis, and uterus.
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Spermatogenesis is the production of sperm cells in the testis. In mature testes primordial germ cells divide mitotically to form the spermatogonia, which in turn generate spermatocytes by mitosis. Then each spermatocyte gives rise to four spermatids through meiosis. Spermatids are now haploid and undergo differentiation into sperm cells.
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The disease starts with the appearance of testicular antibodies, then movement of macrophages and lymphocytes from the blood stream into the testis, breaking of the physical interactions between the developing sperm and Sertoli cells, entry of neutrophils or eosinophils, and finally death of the developing sperm, leading to infertility.
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Testis has two major functions: To produce sperm by meiotic division of germ cells within the seminiferous tubules, and to synthesize and secrete androgens that regulate the male reproductive functions. The site of production of androgens is the Leydig cells that are located in the interstitium between seminoferous tubules.
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Micropia: a retrotransposon of Drosophila combining structural features of DNA viruses, retroviruses and non-viral transposable elements. J Mol Biol 204:233-46. 3\. Lankenau, S., V. G. Corces, and D. H. Lankenau. 1994. The Drosophila micropia retrotransposon encodes a testis-specific antisense RNA complementary to reverse transcriptase.
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Spermatogenesis as the cells progress from spermatogium, to primary spermatocytes, to secondary spermatocytes, to spermatids and to Sperm. Spermatocytes are a type of male gametocyte in animals. They derive from immature germ cells called spermatogonia. They are found in the testis, in a structure known as the seminiferous tubules.
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The size of male testis was also positively correlated with female spermathecae size. Additionally, females with larger spermathecae are better able to produce spermicidal secretion. This cryptic female choice betters their ability to influence paternity over their offspring. These covariances are an example of an “evolutionary arms race”.
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ROCK1 has a ubiquitous tissue distribution, but subcellularly it is thought to colocalize with the centrosomes. This is consistent with its function as a key modulator of cell motility, tumor cell invasion, and actin cytoskeleton organization. In rats, ROCK1 is expressed in the lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and testis.
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Ethane dimethanesulfonate (EDS) is an organic compound with formula (CH2OSO2CH3)2. It can be regarded as the esterification product of one glycol and two Methanesulfonic acids. EDS can eliminate all adult Leydig cells in testis of adult male rats, after which Leydig cells will regenerate from stem cells.
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The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the dpy-19 (developmental pluripotancy-associated) family. It is highly expressed in testis, and is required for sperm head elongation and acrosome formation during spermatogenesis. Mutations in this gene are associated with an infertility disorder, spermatogenic failure type 9 (SPGF9).
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A study of sperm competition revealed that there was a positive relationship between testis size and levels of sperm competition within groups. Higher levels of sperm competition were correlated to larger accessory reproductive glands, seminal vesicles, and interior prostates. Larger mating plugs were less likely to be removed.
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Male genitalia of Lepidoptera The main component of the male reproductive system is the testis, suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body. The more primitive apterygote insects have a single testis, and in some lepidopterans the two maturing testes are secondarily fused into one structure during the later stages of larval development, although the ducts leading from them remain separate. However, most male insects have a pair of testes, inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous sac. The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens, and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside.
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The most common type of testicular cancer occurring in undescended testes is seminoma. It is usually treatable if caught early, so urologists often recommend that boys who had orchiopexy as infants be taught testicular self-examination, to recognize testicular masses and seek early medical care for them. Cancer developing in an intra-abdominal testis would be unlikely to be recognized before considerable growth and spread, and one of the advantages of orchiopexy is that a mass developing in a scrotal testis is far easier to recognize than an intra-abdominal mass. Orchidopexy was originally thought to result in easier detection of testicular cancer, but did not lower the risk of actually developing cancer.
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The main component of the male reproductive system is the testis, suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body. The more primitive apterygote insects have a single testis, and in some lepidopterans the two maturing testes are secondarily fused into one structure during the later stages of larval development, although the ducts leading from them remain separate. However, most male insects have a pair of testes, inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous sac. The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens, and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside.
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Expression levels of human MGC50722 appear to low/absent in most cell types, with the highest and most abundant expression shown to be in the testis (GEO Profile IDs: 48997768 and 49895282). A lung cancer study also showed that MGC50722 was expressed in CD4+ T-Cells of normal human tissue samples.
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A hydrocele feels like a small fluid-filled balloon inside the scrotum. It is smooth, and is mainly in front of the testis. Hydroceles vary greatly in size and are typically painless and harmless. However, as the fluid continues to accumulate and the scrotum further enlarges, more discomfort can be expected.
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Choriocarcinoma is a malignant, trophoblastic cancer, usually of the placenta. It is characterized by early hematogenous spread to the lungs. It belongs to the malignant end of the spectrum in gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD). It is also classified as a germ cell tumor and may arise in the testis or ovary.
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In addition, there are two other isoforms of the catalytic subunit of PKA called Cβ and Cγ arising from different genes but have similar functions as Cα. Cβ is found abundantly in the brain and in lower levels in other tissues, while Cγ is most likely expressed in the testis.
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This gene encodes a member of a group of membrane-anchored chymotrypsin (S1)-like serine proteases. The encoded protein is primarily expressed in the Leydig and Sertoli cells of the testis and may be involved in male fertility. Alternate splicing results in multiple transcript variants. [provided by RefSeq, Sep 2010].
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Spermatocytic tumors are diagnosed based on tissue from orchiectomy (or partial orchiectomy), done for a lesion suspicious for cancer on medical imaging. The macroscopic appearance of the tumour is of a mutinodular grey-white to tan coloured mass with gelatinous, haemorrhagic and necrotic areas. The tumour may extend beyond the testis.
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The distribution of the different laminin isoforms is tissue-specific.Durbeej, M. (2010). Laminins. Cell and Tissue Research, 339(1): 259-268. Laminin–111 is predominantly expressed in the embryonic epithelium, but can also be found in some adult epithelium such as the kidney, liver, testis, ovaries, and brain blood vessels.
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The expression levels of TTC39A found throughout the human body There are 17 splice variants for TTC39A. TTC39A is a highly expressed protein in the human body. The highest levels of expression are located in mammary glands and testis. The lowest levels of expression are found in the immune system.
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According to AceView, this gene is well expressed, 0.5 times the average gene in this release. According to PSORT II C1orf94 is 69.6 % nuclear. Data from NCBI shows that C1orf94 is primarily expressed in the testis tissues. According to the human protein Atlas, C1orf94 is slightly expressed in the brain tissue.
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This gene encodes a trypsin inhibitor. The protein shares similarity to insect venom allergens, mammalian testis-specific proteins and plant pathogenesis-related proteins. It is frequently expressed in human neuroblastoma and glioblastoma cell lines, and thus may play a role in the central nervous system. [provided by RefSeq, Jul 2008].
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T. canis is dioecious, having morphology distinctly different between the male and female. Male worms measure 4–6 cm, typically smaller than female worms who measure at 6.5 cm –15 cm. The male's posterior end is curved ventrally and the tail is bluntly pointed. The male has a single tubular testis.
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Low back pain may occur after metastasis to the retroperitoneum. Some cases of seminoma can present as a primary tumour outside the testis, most commonly in the mediastinum. In the ovary, the tumor is called a dysgerminoma, and in non- gonadal sites, particularly the central nervous system, it is called a germinoma.
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Polyorchidism can also occur in conjunction with infertility, inguinal hernia, testicular torsion, epididymitis, hydrocele testis and varicocele. However, it is not clear whether polyorchidism causes or aggravates these conditions, or whether the existence of these conditions leads sufferers to seek medical attention and thus become diagnosed with a previously undetected supernumerary testicle.
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In men, obesity and metabolic syndrome both increase estrogen and adipokine production. This reduces gonadotropin- releasing hormone, in turn reducing both luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. The result is reduction of the testis' production of testosterone and a further increase in adipokine levels. This then feeds back to cause further weight gain.
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The Bok gene is activated and produces protein in different tissues. In mice, elevated Bok levels were detected in the ovary, the testis, and the uterus. Nevertheless, it also exists in the brain and at low levels in most other tissues. However, the expression pattern of the Bok gene varies among species.
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In the male reproductive system the NR4A1 gene is a promoter of insulin-like 3 in Leydig cells. Leydig cells are located in the testis and known for the function as a support cell in spermatogenesis. Along with other things they secrete testosterone. In females, INSL3 is also involved in the reproductive system.
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An unusual little skate specimen found off Fishers Island, New York contained a developed testis, vas deferens, and functional clasper on its left side and an adolescent ovary, shell gland, oviduct, and abortive clasper on its right. This example of hermaphroditism (a bilateral gynandromorph) is one of very few known for elasmobranch fishes.
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File:GEO Profile of A1BG tissue expression.jpg#filelinks A1BG is expressed at high levels in the adult and fetal liver. Additionally, the mammary gland shows roughly half as much expression as the liver. Trace amounts of A1BG expression can be found in the blood, brain, lung, lymph node, ovary, testis, pancreas, and pancreas.
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This can cause side-effects including muscle weakness, decreased sexual function, anxiety, leading to sleep deficiency. The blood supply to the testis can also be altered during this procedure, potentially reducing supply. Long-term follow-ups are often recommended to prevent these complications. Micro-TESE has limited postoperative complications compared with TESE.
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Testicular cancer is cancer that develops in the testicles, a part of the male reproductive system. Symptoms may include a lump in the testicle, or swelling or pain in the scrotum. Treatment may result in infertility. Risk factors include an undescended testis, family history of the disease, and previous history of testicular cancer.
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Males: Outline of lip region is more flattened at the sides than in females but arrangement of lobes is similar. The testis is outstretched. Spicules are arcuate with ventral flanges and the distal ends pointed with small apical notches. The gubernaculum is well developed and there is a bursa enveloping the tail.
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Dohle concludes that Dillema was an intersex individual who had ovotesticular DSD. She had an operation on her glands in 1952. During the operation, testes or ovotestes were removed. The SRY-gene on the Y is the testis determining factor, so Dillema may have had infertile testes or ovotestes palpable in her groin.
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Within the cell, C12orf40 is predicted to be present in the nucleus based on signals within its sequence.Kenta Nakai, Human Genome Center, Institute for Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Japan. An analysis of normal human tissues shows that C12orf40 expression occurs primarily in the testis, suggesting importance to the male reproductive system.
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NLRP1 is highly expressed in neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells, B and T cells. NLRP was found in high density in T-cell region of the spleen, but not found in B cell regions. Both the brain and the testis expressed NLRP1 but not NLRP3. NLRP1 was found in the neurons of the brain.
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This gene is found on chromosome 20, approximately 20 kbp downstream of the gene encoding cellular prion protein, to which it is biochemically and structurally similar. The protein encoded by this gene is a membrane glycosylphosphatidylinositol- anchored glycoprotein that is found predominantly in testis. Mutations in this gene may lead to neurological disorders.
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Ombrédanne's primary field of research was development of new methods of surgery. In 1906 he was the first to describe the use of the pectoralis minor muscle for breast reconstruction following mastectomy. He also introduced transscrotal orchiopexy for surgical repair of an undescended testis. Ombrédanne's anesthesia mask; Musée des Hospices civils de Lyon.
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Once they have reached the gonadal ridge they are called oogonia. Development proceeds and the oogonia become fully surrounded by a layer of connective tissue cells (pre-granulosa cells). In this way, the rudiments of the ovarian follicles are formed. In the testis, a network of tubules fuse to create the seminiferous tubules.
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This digestive pathway is observed to be continuous throughout the entire worm. The worms are hermaphroditic, containing both male and female organs. Each worm has reproductive organs such as vas deferens, testis, uterus, vitelline duct, ovary, and vitellaria. They also have flame cells that function as a kidney and remove waste material.
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4 The abdomen, p.99 The tunica vaginalis, the serous membrane covering the male testis, is derived from the vaginal process, an outpouching of the parietal peritoneum. The inner layer, the visceral peritoneum, is wrapped around the visceral organs, located inside the intraperitoneal space for protection. It is thinner than the parietal peritoneum.
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Pseudohermaphroditism (also spelled pseudo-hermaphroditism) is an old clinical term for an organism that is born with primary sex characteristics of one sex but develops the secondary sex characteristics that are different from what would be expected on the basis of the gonadal tissue (ovary or testis). It can be contrasted with the term true hermaphroditism, which described a condition where testicular and ovarian tissue were present in the same individual. This language has fallen out of favor due to misconceptions and pejorative connotations associated with the terms, and also a shift to nomenclature based on genetics. The term male pseudo-hermaphrodite was used when a testis is present, and the term female pseudo-hermaphrodite was used when an ovary is present.
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GJA1 is also largely involved in embryonic development. For instance, transforming growth factor- beta 1 (TGF-β1) was observed to induce GJA1 expression via the Smad and ERK1/2 signaling pathways, resulting in trophoblast cell differentiation into the placenta. Furthermore, GJA1 is expressed in many immune cells, such as eosinophils and T cells, where its gap junction function promotes the maturation and activation of these cells and, by extension, the cross- communication necessary to mount an inflammatory response. In addition, GJA1 can be found in the Leydig cells and seminiferous tubules between Sertoli cells and spermatogonia or primary spermatocytes, where it plays a key role in spermatogenesis and testis development through controlling the tight junction proteins in the blood-testis barrier.
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The anatomy of the male reproductive system was described by Fabre (1855): A pair of fusiform testis open by way of four vasa efferentia, one leaving from each end of each testis; they fuse to form a much-coiled vas deferens, in which the sperm are stored. The vas deferens divides two thirds of the way along its length to pass round the gut, and fuses again before opening ventrally on a sub-terminal penis. Two pairs of tubular accessory glands lie alongside the gut and open posteriorly into the genital atrium. In maturus males there is a gradual buildup of sperm in the vas deferens beginning in August, when small groups of sperm appear at intervals along its length.
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They also reduce the mitochondrial membrane potential in mammalian cells. Tissue specificity occurs for the different UCPs and the exact methods of how UCPs transfer H+/OH- are not known. UCPs contain the three homologous protein domains of MACPs. This gene is widely expressed in many tissues with the greatest abundance in brain and testis.
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This protein localizes to the plasma membrane of germ cells in the testis and to the post-acrosomal plasma membrane of mature spermatozoa. Recombinant polypeptide binds GTP and exhibits GTPase activity. Thus, this protein may regulate GTP signal transduction pathways involved in spermatogenesis and fertilization. Two transcript variants of this gene encode the same protein.
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Fossils of the genus have also been found in the Paleocene (Tiupampan) Santa Lucía Formation of Bolivia. P. testis was a freshwater fish with an oval outline, a small head, and a slightly pointed snout. Its dorsal and anal fins were situated posteriorly, with the anal fin being larger. Its caudal fin was slightly forked.
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C9ORF3 Messenger RNA has been detected in human pancreas, placenta, liver, testis, and heart. The expression in the heart suggests this enzyme may also play a role in the regulating the physiology of cardiac muscle. Several ApO isoforms are expressed predominantly in blood vessels suggesting that ApO plays a role in vascular cell biology.
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Mast cells are regulators of immune responses, particularly those against parasites. They are also involved in the development of autoimmune diseases and allergies. Mast cells have been found in relatively low numbers in the testes of humans, rats, mice, dogs, cats, bulls, boars and deer. In the mammalian testis mast cells regulate testosterone production.
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3% are excreted through the urinary tract while 55–66% is excreted in feces. The drug is highly lipophilic and able to cross the blood brain barrier at higher doses. COL-3 accumulates in higher concentration in heart tissue and testis. In clinical trials plasma protein binding has been shown to be high (~94,5%).
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One peculiar feature of the anterior chamber is dampened immune response to allogenic grafts. This is called anterior chamber associated immune deviation (ACAID), a term introduced in 1981 by Streilein et al. This phenomenon is relevant to the fact that the eye is considered an "immune privileged site", like the brain and the testis.
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TEAD2 is selectively expressed in a subset of embryonic tissues including the cerebellum, testis, and distal portions of the forelimb and hindlimb buds, as well as the tail bud, but it is essentially absent from adult tissues. TEAD2 has also been shown to be expressed very early during development, i.e. from the 2-cell stage.
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Ploidy Diversity and the Reproduction of Balanced Gametes in Male Twist-Necked turtles (Platemys platycephala). Copeia, 3: 724-727. The authors examined multiple tissues (spleen, liver, blood, testis) of six specimens (five males, one female) and found cells contained various ploidy levels within and among individuals. One male individual even consisted of triploid-tetraploid cells.
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The ratchet (visible on the handle) allows the emasculator to be locked in the "closed" position for the 2–3 minutes required for primary hemostasis to occur. The ends of the "clamp" are rounded and guarded to allow the emasculator to be placed over the testis and spermatic cord without cutting, until pressure is applied.
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H1 histone family, member N, testis-specific is a member of the histone family of nuclear proteins which are a component of chromatin. In humans, this protein is encoded by the H1FNT gene. The H1FNT protein is essential for nuclear formation in spermatozoa, and is involved in the replacement of histones with protamines during spermiogenesis.
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The cirrus is long and is 65% of seminal vesicle length. The testis is seen to be single, medial, looped, lacking lobed marginal and is found posterior to the intestine. The post ovary space comprises 1/3rd the body length. The uterus post-gonadal is found dorsal to posterior-most end of the seminal vehicle.
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Physiological evidence, including testis size relative to body weight and the volume of sperm in ejaculations, suggests that humans have experienced a low- to-intermediate level of selection pressure for sperm competition in our evolutionary history. Nevertheless, there is a large body of research that explores the physiological adaptations males do have for sperm competition.
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Expression of KIAA1107 does not appear to be ubiquitous in Homo sapiens. KIAA1107 is found to be expressed mostly in the brain, with lower levels of expression occurring in the bladder, mammary gland, muscle, prostate, and testis. Within the brain, KIAA1107 is expressed highest in the pineal gland, prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, and subthalamic nucleus.
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Before E10.5, Dmrt1 is expressed at similar levels in the genital ridges of XX as well as XY embryos. By E12.5 and E13.5, DMRT1 is expressed deferentially as sex specific structures start to form. By E14.5 and E15.5, DMRT1 expression is maintained in the testis while it has begun to decrease in the ovary.
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In humans, GADD45G is expressed most in the skeletal muscle, kidney and liver. This gene has a low expression in the heart, brain, spleen, lung and testis. GADD45G is highly expressed in the placenta. In the embryonic mouse, Gadd45g is expressed in the neural tube, cranial and dorsal root ganglia and the dorsal midbrain.
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In polygynous species, where one male controls sexual access to females, the testes tend to be small. One male defends exclusive sexual access to a group of females and thereby eliminates sperm competition. Studies of primates support the relationship between testis size and mating system.T. R. Birkhead (2000), Promiscuity: an evolutionary history of sperm competition.
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There are at least four distinct but related alkaline phosphatases: intestinal, placental, placental-like, and liver/bone/kidney (tissue non-specific). The product of this gene is a membrane bound glycosylated enzyme, localized to testis, thymus and certain germ cell tumors, that is closely related to both the placental and intestinal forms of alkaline phosphatase.
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Sperm cells that are motile are spermatozoa. Spermatozoa are protected from the male's immune system by the blood-testis barrier. However, spermatozoa are deposited into the female in semen, which is mostly the secretions of the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands. In this way antibodies generated by the male are deposited into the female along with spermatozoa.
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Some signs and symptoms of testicular cancer found during the TSE are common to other disorders of the male urinary tract and reproductive organs, some of which require prompt medical attention to preserve reproductive and urinary function. These include hydrocele testis, a varicocele, a spermatocele, genitourinary system cancers, urinary tract infections, sexually transmitted infections, or testicular torsion.
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Average length at sexual maturity was estimated at 215.1 cm and 214.7 cm in males and 201.1 cm and 199.8 cm in females. The mass of mature testis was between 117.4 g to 1300 g. Gestation period was 12.1 to 12.3 years and calving seemed to peak during summer (July/ August). The minimum calving interval was 2 years.
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The testes grow in response to the start of spermatogenesis. Size depends on lytic function, sperm production (amount of spermatogenesis present in testis), interstitial fluid, and Sertoli cell fluid production. After puberty, the volume of the testes can be increased by over 500% as compared to the pre-pubertal size. Testicles are fully descended before one reaches puberty.
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Members of the 'frizzled' gene family encode 7-transmembrane domain proteins that are receptors for Wnt signaling proteins. The FZD9 gene is located within the Williams syndrome common deletion region of chromosome 7, and heterozygous deletion of the FZD9 gene may contribute to the Williams syndrome phenotype. FZD9 is expressed predominantly in brain, testis, eye, skeletal muscle, and kidney.
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Melanoma-associated antigen C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MAGEC2 gene. This gene is related to members of the MAGEC gene family. It is not expressed in normal tissues, except for testis, and is expressed in tumors of various histological types. This gene and the MAGEC genes are clustered on chromosome Xq26-q27.
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Melanoma-associated antigen D2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MAGED2 gene. This gene is a member of the MAGED gene family. While the MAGEA and MAGEB genes are silent in normal tissues with the exception of testis and placenta, the MAGED genes are expressed ubiquitously. The MAGED genes are clustered on chromosome Xp11.
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The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified 3-MCPD as Group 2B, "possibly carcinogenic to humans". 3-MCPD is carcinogenic in rodents via a non-genotoxic mechanism. It is able to cross the blood-testis barrier and blood–brain barrier. The oral of 3-chloro-1,2-propanediol is 152 mg/kg bodyweight in rats.
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In Methods for the Assessment of Fish Production in freshwaters. Ed Bagenal, T. 84-100. Laird L.M., Ellis, AE, Wilson, AR & Holliday, FGT (1978). The development of the gonadal and immune systems of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and a consideration of the possibility of inducing autoimmune destruction of the testis. Ann. Biol. Anim. Bioch. Biophys.
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Coiled-coil domain containing 74A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCDC74A gene. The protein is most highly expressed in the testis and may play a role in developmental pathways. The gene has undergone duplication in the primate lineage within the last 9 million years, and its only true ortholog is found in Pan troglodytes.
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PTCH2 is expressed at much higher levels in the testis and mediates desert hedgehog signaling there. It appears to have a distinct downstream signaling role from PTCH1. In the absence of ligand binding PTCH2 has a decreased ability to inhibit the activity of SMO. Furthermore, overexpression of PTCH2 does not replace mutated PTCH1 in basal cell carcinoma.
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The pampiniform plexus (from Latin pampinus, a tendril, + forma, form) is a venous plexus – a network of many small veins found in the human male spermatic cord, and the suspensory ligament of the ovary. In the male, it is formed by the union of multiple testicular veins from the back of the testis and tributaries from the epididymis.
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The pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative method of oxidizing glucose. It occurs in the liver, adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, testis, milk glands, phagocyte cells, and red blood cells. It produces products that are used in other cell processes, while reducing NADP to NADPH. This pathway is regulated through changes in the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.
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Telogaster opisthorchis reproduce via sexual and asexual reproduction. Males have testis which produce sperm and have a very primitive vas deferens. During copulation, sperm is ejaculated out of the male and into the female uterus where it is stored in the seminal receptable and fertilization of the eggs occur. After fertilization, meiosis occurs and development begins.
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Cryptorchidism is the absence of one or both testes from the scrotum. The word is from the Greek κρυπτός, kryptos, meaning hidden, and ὄρχις, orchis, meaning testicle. It is the most common birth defect of the male genital tract. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis.
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It has been proven to reduce the weight of testis, epididymis and seminal vesicle by the rats. They also found a reduction of the epididymal sperm count, the level of testosterone, LH and FSH. These changes disappeared after some time. By the female rats, a decrease of the weight from the ovary and uterus was seen.
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DHEA is further converted to DHEA-sulfate via a sulfotransferase, SULT2A1. These precursors are not further converted in the adrenal cortex if the cells lack 17Beta Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Instead, they are released into the blood stream and taken up in the testis and ovaries to produce testosterone and the estrogens respectively. ACTH partially regulates adrenal androgen secretion, also CRH.
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The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile.
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They produce large numbers of eggs which are shed in the faeces. If eaten by various prosobranch snails, larvae hatch in the stomach, and—depending on the species of snail—stay there or migrate to the digestive gland where they grow up to the preadult stage which has all the characteristics of the adult including a testis and ovary.
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This gene is similar to a mouse gene that encodes a TATA box binding protein-associated factor, and shows testis-specific expression. The encoded protein could be a spermatogenesis- specific component of the DNA-binding general transcription factor complex TFIID. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene. [provided by RefSeq, Dec 2009].
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Once proper SOX9 levels are reached, the bipotential cells of the gonad begin to differentiate into Sertoli cells. Additionally, cells expressing TDF will continue to proliferate to form the primordial testis. While this constitutes the basic series of events, this brief review should be taken with caution since there are many more factors that influence sex differentiation.
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Mutations associated with disease are usually found in exons 8, 10 and 16. The gene is expressed in fetal tissues including the aorta, brain, eye, kidney, liver, lung, olfactory bulb, pancreas, skeletal muscle, spleen and testis. The protein is found in the cytoplasm, centrosome, cell projections and cilium basal body. During mitosis it localizes to both spindle poles.
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5α-R1 and 5α-R2 appear to be expressed in the prostate in male fetuses and throughout postnatal life. In adulthood, 5α-R1-3 is ubiquitously expressed. 5α-R1 and 5α-R2 are also expressed, although to different degrees in liver, genital and nongenital skin, prostate, epididymis, seminal vesicle, testis, ovary, uterus, kidney, exocrine pancreas, and the brain.
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CCDC198 is primarily expressed in the kidneys, liver and pancreas, and also shows minor but significant expression in the fallopian tubes based on general NCBI profile data. Based on NCBI GEO microarray data on diverse cell tissue, it is expressed in the bladder, lung, midgut, gallbladder and fallopian tube as well, with minor expression in the testis and prostate.
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The use of the surgical microscope allows for small specific incisions to retrieve seminiferous tubules and evade damaging blood vessels by avoiding regions with no vasculature. If TESE needs to be repeated due to insufficient sperm recovery, patients are usually advised to wait 6–12 months in order to allow adequate healing of the testis before further surgery.
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Adult T. canis are found only within dogs and foxes and the males are 4–6 cm in length, with a curved posterior end. The males each have spicules and one “tubular testis.” Females can be as long as 15 cm, with the vulva stretching one third of their bodylength. The females do not curve at the posterior end.
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In the male the paramesonephric ducts atrophy (but traces of their anterior ends are represented by the appendix of testis of the male), while their terminal fused portions form the prostatic utricle in the floor of the prostatic urethra. This is due to the production of Anti-Müllerian hormone by the Sertoli cells of the testes.
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Ceramide synthase 1 (CerS1) is a ceramide synthase that catalyzes the synthesis of C18 ceramide in a fumonisin B1-independent manner, and is primarily expressed in the brain. It can also be found in low levels in skeletal muscle and the testis. Within the cell, CerS1 is located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and golgi apparatus membrane.
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Dixson demonstrated that increased baculum length is associated with primates who live in dispersed groups, while small bacula are found in primates who live in pairs. Those primates that have multi-male mating systems tend to have bacula that are larger in size, in addition to prolongation of post- ejaculatory intromission and larger relative testis size.
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A Sertoli cell tumour, also Sertoli cell tumor (US spelling), is a sex cord- gonadal stromal tumor of Sertoli cells. They can occur in the testis or ovary. They are very rare and generally peak between the ages of 35 and 50. They are typically well-differentiated, and may be misdiagnosed as seminomas as they often appear very similar.
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Spermatocytic tumor is not considered a subtype of seminoma and, unlike seminoma and most other germ cell tumours, it does not arise from intratubular germ cell neoplasia. It has not been described as arising in locations outside the testis, and does not occur in association with other germ cell tumours.Mills, S (ed.) 2009.Sternberg's Diagnostic Pathology.
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The macaque genome has 33 major histocompatibility genes, three times those of human. This has clinical significance because the macaque is used as an experimental model of the human immune system. In humans, the preferentially expressed antigen of melanoma (PRAME) gene family is expanded. It is actively expressed in cancers, but normally is testis-specific, possibly involved in spermatogenesis.
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The AIF1 gene is located within a segment of the major histocompatibility complex class III region. It has been shown that this gene is highly expressed in testis, spleen, and brain but weakly expressed in lung, and kidney. Among brain cells, the Iba1 gene is strongly and specifically expressed in microglia. Circulating macrophages also express Iba1.
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The appendix of the epididymis (or pedunculated hydatid) is a small stalked appendage (sometimes duplicated) on the head of the epididymis. It is usually regarded as a detached efferent duct. This structure is derived from the Wolffian duct (Mesonephric Duct) as opposed to the appendix testis which is derived from the Müllerian duct (Paramesonephric Duct) remnant.
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The tunica vasculosa is the vascular layer of the testis, consisting of a plexus of blood vessels, held together by delicate areolar tissue. It clothes the inner surface of the tunica albuginea and the different septa in the interior of the gland, and therefore forms an internal investment to all the spaces of which the gland is composed.
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DYRK1B is a member of the DYRK family of protein kinases. DYRK1B contains a bipartite nuclear localization signal and is found mainly in muscle and testis. The protein is proposed to be involved in the regulation of nuclear functions. Three isoforms of DYRK1B have been identified differing in the presence of two alternatively spliced exons within the catalytic domain.
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The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation.
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GT198 protein expression pattern is similar to the cancer-testis antigens. In human tumor tissues, however, GT198 overexpression is mostly found in tumor microenvironment, also called tumor stroma. Low level of GT198 is present in normal ovary, bone marrow, spleen, and thymus. In human breast cancer, GT198 is a marker for mutant tumor stroma where breast cancer develops.
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A testis absent from the normal scrotal position may be: #Anywhere along the "path of descent" from high in the posterior (retroperitoneal) abdomen, just below the kidney, to the inguinal ring #In the inguinal canal #Ectopic, having "wandered" from the path of descent, usually outside the inguinal canal and sometimes even under the skin of the thigh, the perineum, the opposite scrotum, or the femoral canal #Undeveloped (hypoplastic) or severely abnormal (dysgenetic) #Missing (also see anorchia). About two-thirds of cases without other abnormalities are unilateral; most of the other third involve both testes. In 90% of cases, an undescended testis can be felt in the inguinal canal. In a small minority of cases, missing testes may be found in the abdomen or appear to be nonexistent (truly "hidden").
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Although their exact pathways are not fully understood, they have been proven to be essential for the continued expression of SOX9 at the levels necessary for testes development. SOX9 and TDF are believed to be responsible for the cell- autonomous differentiation of supporting cell precursors in the gonads into Sertoli cells, the beginning of testes development. These initial Sertoli cells, in the center of the gonad, are hypothesized to be the starting point for a wave of FGF9 that spreads throughout the developing XY gonad, leading to further differentiation of Sertoli cells via the up-regulation of SOX9. SOX9 and TDF are also believed to be responsible for many of the later processes of testis development (such as Leydig cell differentiation, sex cord formation, and formation of testis-specific vasculature), although exact mechanisms remain unclear.
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A prosthetic testicle is an artificial replacement for a testicle lost through surgery or injury. Consisting of a plastic ovoid manufactured from silicone rubber filled with a salt solution and implanted in the scrotum, a prosthetic testicle provides the appearance and feel of a testis and prevents scrotum shrinkage. It is commonly used in female-to-male sex reassignment surgery.
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Hypothetical protein structure of CFAP47 produced by I-Tasser. CXorf59 is a protein coding gene that is confirmed to be expressed in 27 different tissues. The liver, testis, thyroid, brain, and endometrium were higher in reads per kilobase of transcript (RPKM). While this gene is associated with cilia and flagella, there is no current functional information available on this protein.
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The female carrot cyst nematode is white and lemon-shaped, averaging 400 μm by 300 μm, with a pair of ovaries occupying most of the body cavity. The male is threadlike, short with a rounded tail and a single testis averaging 60% of the body length. The mature cyst is lemon-shaped, white at first later becoming reddish-brown, with a distinct neck.
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Testes follow the "path of descent" from high in the posterior fetal abdomen to the inguinal ring and beyond to the inguinal canal and into the scrotum. In most cases (97% full-term, 70% preterm), both testes have descended by birth. In most other cases, only one testis fails to descend (cryptorchidism) and that will probably express itself within a year.
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CCDC37 protein is widely expressed in mus musculus but only minimally so. Most areas that express CCDC37 have an expression level of 20-40%. Expression levels in the trigeminal nerve, testis, medial olfactory epithelium, dorsal root ganglia, and trachea are the highest with almost 75% expression. CCDC37 is expressed in the cerebellum, medulla, and hippocampal formation in the brain of mus musculus.
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Some lines of iPSCs have the potentiality to differentiate into male germ cells and oocyte- like cells in an appropriate niche (by culturing in retinoic acid and porcine follicular fluid differentiation medium or seminiferous tubule transplantation). Moreover, iPSC transplantation make a contribution to repairing the testis of infertile mice, demonstrating the potentiality of gamete derivation from iPSCs in vivo and in vitro.
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Cancer/testis (CT) antigens are a group of proteins united by their importance in development and in cancer immunotherapy. In general, expression of these proteins is restricted to male germ cells in the adult animal. However, in cancer these developmental antigens are often re-expressed and can serve as a locus of immune activation. Thus, they are often classified as tumor antigens.
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The surgeon moves one or both testes, with blood vessels, from an abdominal or inguinal position to the scrotum. If the inguinal canal is open it must be closed to prevent hernia. Potential surgical problems include maintaining the blood supply. If vessels cannot be stretched into the scrotum, or are separated and cannot be reconnected, a testis will die and atrophy.
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Transcription factors of interest predicted to bind to the regulatory sequence include p53 tumor suppressors, SRY testis determining factors, Y-box binding transcription factors, and glucocorticoid responsive elements. The JUN protein was found to interact with C18orf63 through antibait co-immunoprecipitation. The JUN protein binds to the USP28 promoter in colorectal cancer cells and is involved in the activation of these cancer cells.
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In mice, GDF10 mRNA is abundant in the brain, inner ear, uterus, prostate, neural tissues, blood vessels and adipose tissue with low expression in spleen and liver. It is also present in bone of both adults and neonatal mice. Human GDF10 mRNA is found in the cochlea and lung of foetuses, and in testis, retina, pineal gland, and other neural tissues of adults.
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The external spermatic fascia (intercrural or intercolumnar fascia) is a thin membrane, prolonged downward around the surface of the spermatic cord and testis. It is separated from the dartos tunic by loose areolar tissue. It is occasionally referred to as 'Le Fascia de Webster' after an anatomist who once described it. It is derived from the aponeurosis of the abdominal external oblique muscle.
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FAM76B is a paralog of FAM76A. It is estimated that FAM76A and FAM76B diverged from each other around 17.5 MYA. Structural similarities that are conserved between FAM76A/B include a coiled coil domain as well as a poly serine compositional bias. FAM76A and FAM76B both exhibit high expression in tissues such as lymph node, whole blood, testis, ovary, brain, kidney, liver, and lung.
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17β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 14 also known as 17β-HSD type 14 or 17βHSD14 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HSD17B14 gene. 17βHSD14 catalyzes the stereospecific oxidation and reduction of the 17β carbon atom of androgens and estrogens using NAD(P)(H) as a cofactor. It is primarily expressed in glandular epithelial tissues of breast, ovary, and testis.
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Testis-specific chromodomain protein Y 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CDY1 gene. This gene encodes a protein containing a chromodomain and a histone acetyltransferase catalytic domain. Chromodomain proteins are components of heterochromatin-like complexes and can act as gene repressors. This protein is localized to the nucleus of late spermatids where histone hyperacetylation takes place.
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Another version of this condition is a chronic illness called intermittent testicular torsion (ITT) which is characterized by recurrent rapid acute onset of pain in one testis which will temporarily assume a horizontal or elevated position in the scrotum similar to that of a full torsion followed by eventual spontaneous detortion and rapid solution of pain. Nausea or vomiting may also occur.
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The steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, commonly referred to as StAR (STARD1), is a transport protein that regulates cholesterol transfer within the mitochondria, which is the rate-limiting step in the production of steroid hormones. It is primarily present in steroid-producing cells, including theca cells and luteal cells in the ovary, Leydig cells in the testis and cell types in the adrenal cortex.
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G antigen family D member 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the XAGE1D gene. This gene is a member of the XAGE subfamily, which belongs to the GAGE family. The GAGE genes are expressed in a variety of tumors and in some fetal and reproductive tissues. This gene is strongly expressed in Ewing's sarcoma, alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma and normal testis.
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The chemical compound Bisphenol A found in can linings "...is associated with organizational changes in the prostate, breast, testis, mammary glands, body size, brain structure and chemistry, and behavior of laboratory animals",Vogel, S. (2009). "The Politics of Plastics: The Making and Unmaking of Bisphenol A 'Safety'" . American Journal of Public Health 99 (S3): 559–566. unborn children and adults.
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There are three known promoters for BZW2. It is regulated by numerous transcription factors, including an estrogen receptor transcription factor (ESR2, ES3), leucine zipper transcription factor (RRFIP1), and Y sex-determining transcription factors (SRY). With these transcription factors, BZW2 has regulated expression in organs that contribute to cellular functions. The Y sex-determining transcription factor works to regulate BZW2 expression in the testis.
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Neutrophils are white blood cells which are present in the blood but not normally in tissues. They move out from the blood into tissues and organs upon infection or damage. They directly fight invading pathogens such as bacteria. Neutrophils are not found in the rodent testis under normal conditions but can enter from the blood supply upon infection or inflammatory stimulus.
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A varicocele is an abnormal enlargement of the pampiniform venous plexus in the scrotum. This plexus of veins drains blood from the testicles back to the heart. The vessels originate in the abdomen and course down through the inguinal canal as part of the spermatic cord on their way to the testis. Varicoceles occur in around 15% to 20% of all men.
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CFAP299 is widely expressed in a variety of normal tissue in Homo sapiens . CFAP299 is highly expressed in testis, trachea, lung, fetal lung and epididymis. In terms of health state, CFAP299 has a decreased expression level in glioma, germ cell tumors and chondrosarcoma. An even higher expression of CFAP299 is shown in condition of soft tissue tumor and muscle tissue tumor.
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The Mammalian Testis. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Since descent of the testes into a scrotal pouch subjects the animal to enhanced risk of accidental damage and/or vulnerability from predators and rivals, presumably there must be some evolutionary adaptive advantage to testicular descent. It has been proposed that the scrotum may act as a form of sexual decoration.
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This glucocorticoid-inactivating enzyme is also expressed in tissues that do not express the mineralocorticoid receptor, such as the placenta and testis, as well as parts of the developing brain, including the rhombencephalic progenitor cells that proliferate into cerebellar granule cells. In these tissues, HSD11B2 protects cells from the growth-inhibiting and/or pro- apoptotic effects of cortisol, particularly during embryonic development.
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CXorf38 has the lowest expression in the fetal brain, testis, and pancreas. CXorf38 is also expressed at all stages of development. Microarray analysis shows evidence of CXorf38 expression in blood at all life stages, amniotic fluid during the late embryonic stage, oviduct epithelium in 25-44 year old women, and vaginal epithelium in 25-44 year old and 65-79 year old women.
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C19orf44 is shown to be expressed at low levels in various tissues throughout the body as shown by NCBI's EST Profile. It most highly expressed in the testis and ovary, but also has significant expression in the thyroid and parathyroid. C19orf44 is expressed in all stages of development, except for in infants. There is an increased expression of C19orf44 in a developing fetus.
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The C19MC miRNA cluster is a microRNA cluster consisting of 46 genes. These 46 genes encode 59 mature miRNAs. The C19MC miRNA cluster is only found in primate (including human) genomes and expresses miRNAs almost exclusively in the placenta, but also in testis, embryonic stem cells, and some tumors. They are also expressed highly in trophoblast-derived vesicles, including exosomes.
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A man with one remaining testis may maintain fertile. However, sperm banking may be appropriate for men who still plan to have children, since fertility may be adversely affected by chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. A man who loses both testicles will be infertile after the procedure, though he may elect to bank viable, cancer-free sperm prior to the procedure.
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Two mouse ROCK isoforms ROCK1 and ROCK2 have been identified. ROCK1 is mainly expressed in the lung, liver, spleen, kidney and testis. However, ROCK2 is distributed mostly in the brain and heart. Protein kinase C and Rho-associated protein kinase are involved in regulating calcium ion intake; these calcium ions, in turn stimulate a myosin light chain kinase, forcing a contraction.
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Little is known about the chronic toxicity of diethyl phthalate, but existing information suggests only a low toxic potential. Studies suggest that some phthalates affect male reproductive development via inhibition of androgen biosynthesis. In rats, for instance, repeated administration of DEP results in loss of germ cell populations in the testis. However, diethyl phthalate doesn't alter sexual differentiation in male rats.
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Expressed Sequence Tag and microarray data suggests that Morn1 is expressed predominantly in the brain, eyes, lungs, parathyroid, salivary gland, testis, kidneys, trachea, and to a lesser extent the ovaries, prostate, thymus and the trachea. It is expressed in adults and in fetuses. By health state, Morn1 appears to be expressed in the normal state, as well as germ cell and kidney tumors.
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A peritubular myoid (PTM) cell is one of the smooth muscle cells which surround the seminiferous tubules in the testis. These cells are present in all mammals but their organisation and abundance varies between species. The exact role of PTM cells is still somewhat uncertain and further work into this is needed. However, a number of functions of these cells have been established.
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These protein products have homology in seven conserved helicase motifs. Purified hRAD54 has been shown to specifically exhibit DNA-dependent ATPase and supercoiling activities. hRAD54 transcripts are expressed primarily in the testis and thymus, with lower levels being found also in the small intestines, colon, breast, and prostate. Mutants of hRAD54 are extremely sensitive to x-rays, as well as methyl methanesulfonate (MMS).
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This gene encodes an antigen that is predominantly expressed in human melanomas and that is recognized by cytolytic T lymphocytes. It is not expressed in normal tissues, except testis. This expression pattern is similar to that of other CT antigens, such as MAGE, BAGE and GAGE. However, unlike these other CT antigens, this gene is also expressed in acute leukemias.
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ITPKA protein is highly enriched in dendritic spines. ITPKA participates in learning and memory process in neuronal cells, both via its catalytic activity and its interaction with filamentous actin. Although ITPKA is expressed physiologically in neurons and testis, the gene becomes expressed in a number of cancer cell types. In most cases, ITP3K expression causes the cancer to be more aggressive.
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ADXR gene is expressed in all tissues that have mitochondrial P450s. The highest levels of the enzyme are found in the adrenal cortex, granulosa cells of the ovary and leydig cells of the testis that specialize in steroid hormone synthesis. Immmunofluorescent staining shows that enzyme is localized in mitochondria. The enzyme is also expressed in the liver, the kidney and the placenta.
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BRD7 protein is a transcription regulator that is normally highly expressed in the testis, particularly in meiotic pachytene and diplotene spermatocytes and in round spermatids. However, in the testes of patients exhibiting spermatogenesis arrest and azoospermia, BRD7 protein expression is observed to be absent or reduced. Homozygous knockout mice [BRD7(-/-)] are infertile and have increased DNA damage and apoptosis in their germline.
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C12Orf24 (Chromosome 12, Open Reading Frame 24) is a gene in humans (Homo sapiens) that encodes a protein known as FAM216A. This gene is primarily expressed in the testis and brain, but has constitutive expression in 25 other tissues. FAM216A is an intracellular protein that has been predicted to reside within the nucleus of cells. The exact function of C12Orf24 is unknown.
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The human Y chromosome is particularly exposed to high mutation rates due to the environment in which it is housed. The Y chromosome is passed exclusively through sperm, which undergo multiple cell divisions during gametogenesis. Each cellular division provides further opportunity to accumulate base pair mutations. Additionally, sperm are stored in the highly oxidative environment of the testis, which encourages further mutation.
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They also found that mPer1–3 are widely expressed in tissues outside the brain, including the liver, skeletal muscles, and testis. To determine the function of mPER1–3, Reppert and colleagues disrupted the three genes encoding them. Using double-mutant mice, they showed that mPER3 functions outside the core circadian clockwork, whereas both mPER1 and mPER2 are necessary for rhythmicity.
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Ankycorbin is an ankyrin repeat and coiled-coil domain containing protein that in humans is encoded by the RAI14 gene. It is expressed in a variety of human tissues and is thought to play a role in actin regulation of ectoplasmic specialization, establishment of sperm polarity and sperm adhesion. It may also promote the integrity of Sertoli cell tight junctions at the blood testis barrier.
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MGC50722, also known as uncharacterized protein LOC399693, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MGC50722 gene (Mammalian Gene Collection Project Gene 50722). This 965 amino acid human protein has a molecular weight of 104.495 kDa and one domain of unknown function (DUF390). Generally conserved across mammals, this quickly evolving gene shows relatively low expression in most human tissues except in the testis.
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It has been shown that male mice lacking in the H-Y antigen, hence lacking in the gene producing it, have also lost genetic information responsible for spermatogenesis. This result also identified a gene on the mouse Y chromosome, distinct from the testis-determining gene, that was essential for spermatogenesis, thus raising the possibility that the very product of this "spermatogenesis gene" is the H-Y antigen.
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Piwi is an abbreviation of _P_ -element _I_ nduced _WI_ mpy testis in Drosophila. Piwi proteins are highly conserved RNA-binding proteins and are present in both plants and animals. Piwi proteins belong to the Argonaute/Piwi family and have been classified as nuclear proteins. Studies on Drosophila have also indicated that Piwi proteins have slicer activity conferred by the presence of the Piwi domain.
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At Necker he succeeded Georges Marion (1869-1960). In 1938 he became a member of the Académie nationale de médecine, being chosen its vice-president in 1955. In 1951-52 he was president of the Société française d'histoire de la médecine (French Society of Medical History).BNF.fr Notice d'autorité personne Biographies - BIU Santé, Paris In 1906 he published Tumeurs du testicule (tumors of the testis),IDREF.
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In males, meiosis occurs during spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules of the testicles. Meiosis during spermatogenesis is specific to a type of cell called spermatocytes, which will later mature to become spermatozoa. Meiosis of primordial germ cells happens at the time of puberty, much later than in females. Tissues of the male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid, proposed to be a stimulator of meiosis.
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Some studies suggest that retinoic acid derived from the primitive kidney (mesonephros) stimulates meiosis in embryonic ovarian oogonia and that tissues of the embryonic male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid. However, genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is not required for initiation of either female meiosis which occurs during embryogenesis or male meiosis which initiates postnatally.
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Under a tough membranous shell called the tunica albuginea, the testis of amniotes, as well as some teleost fish, contains very fine coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules. Amphibians and most fish do not possess seminiferous tubules. Instead, the sperm are produced in spherical structures called sperm ampullae. These are seasonal structures, releasing their contents during the breeding season, and then being reabsorbed by the body.
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OST-beta together with OST- alpha is able to transport estrone sulfate, taurocholate, digoxin, and prostaglandin E2 across cell membranes. The Ost-alpha / Ost-beta heterodimer, but not the individual subunits, stimulates sodium-independent bile acid uptake. The heterodimer furthermore is essential for intestinal bile acid transport. OST-alpha and OST-beta have high expression in the testis, colon, liver, small intestine, kidney, ovary, and adrenal gland.
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Bromodomain testis-specific protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BRDT gene. It is a member of the Bromodomain and Extra-terminal motif (BET) protein family. BRDT is similar to the RING3 protein family. It possesses 2 bromodomain motifs and a PEST sequence (a cluster of proline, glutamic acid, serine, and threonine residues), characteristic of proteins that undergo rapid intracellular degradation.
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G. humanis is unique among helminths because it was first discovered and described from a human infection. The worm was discovered and described by two British medical doctors, Timothy Richard Lewis and James McConnell, in 1876, from the caecum of an Assamese man in India. Their description of the internal structure was inaccurate and incomplete. They claimed that the parasite had one testis and one ovary.
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This gene is located in the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome, and expressed specifically in testis. The encoded protein interacts with ubiquitin protein ligase E3A and may be involved in male germ cell development and male infertility. Three nearly identical copies of this gene exist on chromosome Y; two copies are part of a palindromic region. This record represents the copy outside of the palindromic region.
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The tissue specific expression of the δ-subunit is very different from that of the other three subunits encoded by SCNN1A, SCNN1B, and SCNN1G. While the α, β, and γ subunits are expressed mainly in the kidney tubular epithelia, the respiratory airway, the female reproductive tract, colon, salivary and sweat glands, the δ-subunit is expressed mainly in the brain, pancreas, testis and ovary.
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Spermatogonial stem cells are the precursors to spermatozoa, which are produced through a series of differentiation steps. This is the alternative SSC outcome to self-renewal. SSCs survive within microenvironments, termed niches, which provide extrinsic stimuli that drive stem cell differentiation or self-renewal. The SSC niche is found in the seminiferous epithelium of mammalian testis, and is primarily constituted of Sertoli and peritubular myoid cells.
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The gene seems to be ubiquitously expressed at low levels throughout the body but has prominent expression in the adult human testis, followed by lower expression levels in the sperm, oocyte, and brain. Age does not have an effect on its expression in the skeletal muscle of males or females. Its expression is elevated prior to the differentiation of embryonic stem cells into pancreatic islet-like cells.
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ALOX12B protein has been detected in humans that in the same tissues the express ALOXE3 and ALOX15B viz., upper layers of the human skin and tongue and in tonsils. mRNA for it has been detected in additional tissues such as the lung, testis, adrenal gland, ovary, prostate, and skin with lower abundance levels detected in salivary and thyroid glands, pancreas, brain, and plasma blood leukocytes.
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V1 receptors (V1Rs) are found in high density on vascular smooth muscle and cause vasoconstriction by an increase in intracellular calcium via the phosphatidyl–inositol- bisphosphate cascade. Cardiac myocytes also possess V1R. Additionally V1R are located in brain, testis, superior cervical ganglion, liver, blood vessels, and renal medulla. V1R is present on platelets, which upon stimulation induces an increase in intracellular calcium, facilitating thrombosis.
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The cremaster reflex (elevation of the testicle in response to stroking the upper inner thigh) is typically present in epididymitis but absent in testicular torsion as the testis is already elevated. Prehn's sign (the relief of pain with elevation) though a classic physical exam finding has not been found to be reliable in distinguishing torsion from other causes of testicular pain such as epididymitis.
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This gene product belongs to the tektin family of proteins. Tektins comprise a family of filament-forming proteins that are coassembled with tubulins to form ciliary and flagellar microtubules. This gene is predominantly expressed in the testis and in mouse, tektin 1 mRNA was localized to the spermatocytes and round spermatids in the seminiferous tubules, indicating that it may play a role in spermatogenesis.
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The protein encoded by this gene contains a nuclear localization signal and shares a sequence similarity with other GAGE/PAGE proteins. Because of the expression pattern and the sequence similarity, this protein also belongs to a family of CT (cancer-testis) antigens. Alternative splicing of this gene generates 3 transcript variants, and one of which includes 2 transcripts generated from alternate transcription initiation sites.
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The greater part of the known Silurian fauna of Britain comes from Wenlock rocks; J. Davidson and G. Maw obtained no fewer than 25,000 specimens of brachiopods from seven tons of the shale. Not only are there many different genera and species but individually certain forms are very numerous. The three principal zonal graptolites are, from above downwards: Monograptus testis, Cyrtograptus linnarssoni, and Cyrtogra murchisoni.
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OST-alpha together with OST-beta is able to transport estrone sulfate, taurocholate, digoxin, and prostaglandin E2 across cell membranes. The Ost-alpha / Ost-beta heterodimer, but not the individual subunits, stimulates sodium-independent bile acid uptake. The heterodimer furthermore is essential for intestinal bile acid transport. OST-alpha and OST-alpha have high expression in the testis, colon, liver, small intestine, kidney, ovary, and adrenal gland.
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Androstenedione Androstenedione is produced in the testis, as well as the adrenal cortex. Androstenedione is created from dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) or 17-hydroxyprogesterone. A deficiency in the HSD17B3 gene is characterized biochemically by decreased levels of testosterone and increased levels of androstenedione as a result of the defect in conversion of androstenedione into testosterone. This leads to a clinically important higher ratio of androstenedione to testosterone.
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There are two lines of evidence that restriction of mast cell activation in the testis could be beneficial during treatment of inflammatory conditions; (1) In experimental models of testicular inflammation, mast cells were present in 10-fold greater numbers and showed signs of activation, and (2) Treatment with drugs which stabilize mast cell activation has proved beneficial in treating some types of male infertility.
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The tolerable daily intake (TDI) of ESBO defined by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) of the EU is 1 mg/kg body weight. This value is based on a toxicological assessment performed by the British Industrial Biological Research Association (BIBRA) in the late 1997. Repeated oral administration had been shown to affect the liver, kidney, testis and uterus of rats.Epoxidised soya bean oil, Bibra-information.co.
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In mice, disruption of an ortholog of the TEX15 gene caused a drastic reduction in testis size and meiotic arrest in males. TEX15, in mice, is required for chromosome synapsis, meiotic recombination and DNA double-strand break repair. Furthermore, TEX15 regulates the loading of recombination proteins (RAD51 and DMC1) onto sites of DNA double-strand breaks, and its absence causes a failure of meiotic recombination.
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Spermatozoa that fail to incorporate themselves into mobile trains are less likely to engage in fertilization. Other evidence suggests no link between sperm competition and sperm hook morphology. Selection to produce more sperm can also select for the evolution of larger testes. Relationships across species between the frequency of multiple mating by females and male testis size are well documented across many groups of animals.
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There indication of multiple sources that suggest, in humans, C5orf34 protein is expressed non- ubiquitously in select tissues at low/moderate levels, with the most abundant expression in the tissues of the stomach, small intestine, testis, skeletal muscle and heart muscle. A study of Rho kinase inhibitor effect on primary cell lines also showed that C5orf34 is expressed in dermal fibroblasts of normal human tissue samples.
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Testis-expressed protein 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded the TEX9 gene. TEX9 that encodes a 391-long amino acid protein containing two coiled- coil regions. The gene is conserved in many species and encodes orthologous proteins in eukarya, archaea, and one species of bacteria. The function of TEX9 is not yet fully understood, but it is suggested to have ATP-binding capabilities.
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Stages of the trematode life-cycle Adult worms are characterized by a flesh-colored body containing an egg-filled uterus that appears black by reflected light. The worms contain a cuticula with a subterminal oral sucker. They also contain a muscular pharynx, ventral sucker, and ceca. The gonads of the worm are arranged in a triangle, containing an ovary with an anterior and posterior testis.
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Conventional TESE is usually performed under local, or sometimes spinal or general, anaesthesia. An incision in the median raphe of the scrotum is made and continued through the dartos fibres and the tunica vaginalis. The testicle and epidydymis are then visible. From here incision/s are through the outer covering of the testis to retrieve biopsies of seminiferous tubules, the structures which contain sperm.
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Adenomatoid tumors are rare and benign mesothelial tumors, which arise from the lining of organs. It mainly presents in the genital tract, in regions such as the testis and epididymis. Because of this, researchers had a difficult time concluding that type of tumor has a mesothelial origin. Immunihistochemisty staining of tumor samples show that it is indeed positive for mesothelial-markers (calretinin, WT1, and CK6).
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The parietal lamina (lamina parietalis) is far more extensive than the visceral, extending upward for some distance in front and on the medial side of the cord, and reaching below the testis. The inner surface of the tunica vaginalis is smooth, and covered by a layer of simple squamous mesothelial cells. The interval between the visceral and parietal laminæ constitutes the cavity of the tunica vaginalis.
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In mice, the genital ridge houses the transcript for SRY, the Y-chromosomal gene responsible for sex determination in mammals. The urogenital ridge is made up of the gonadal anlage and the mesonephros. The mesonephros is involved in the development of the testis, but its role is in differentiation, and not determination. This is indicated by the absence of SRY expression in the mesonephros.
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AKR1A1 gene is found highly expressed in kidney and liver, and moderately expressed in cerebrum, small intestine and testis. Small amounts of AKR1A1 are present in lung, prostate and spleen. However, it is not observed in heart or skeletal muscle. AKR1A1 belongs to the AKR superfamily, which are predominantly monomeric, soluble, NADPH-dependent oxidoreductases involved in the reduction of aldehydes and ketones into primary and secondary alcohols.
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Ventral bar with deep medial constriction, tapered ends, longitudinal ventral groove. Paired dorsal bar with spatulate medial end. Hook with depressed thumb, delicate point, uniform shank; FH loop about shank length. Testis subspherical; proximal vas deferens not observed; seminal vesicle a slight dilation of vas deferens; distal vas deferens entering elongate thick-walled ejaculatory bulb; ejaculatory duct entering male copulatory organthrough portal of proximal chamber.
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Males of Drosophila melanogaster each have two testes – long, tubular, coiled structures – and at the anterior most tip of each lies the GSC niche. The testis GSC niche is built around a population of non-mitotic hub cells (a.k.a. niche cells), to which two populations of stem cells adhere: the GSCs and the somatic stem cells (SSCs, a.k.a. somatic cyst stem cells/cyst stem cells).
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In tissues that do not express the mineralocorticoid receptor, such as the placenta and testis, it protects cells from the growth-inhibiting and/or pro-apoptotic effects of cortisol, particularly during embryonic development. Mutations in this gene cause the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess and hypertension. The 11-Beta Dehydrogenase enzyme has been researched and has been found to affect various tissues and body functions.
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Discovered in 1996 in beans, its homologues have been identified in plants, protozoa, vertebrates, and helminths. The enzyme has been implicated in several human diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis and inflammation . It can be detected in spleen, liver, brain, testis tissue and heart and the protein is mostly localised to lysosomes and endosomes. It is also interesting that AEP is activated in age- dependent manner.
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Zinc finger Y-chromosomal protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ZFY gene of the Y chromosome. This gene encodes a zinc finger-containing protein that may function as a transcription factor. This gene was once a candidate gene for the testis-determining factor (TDF) and was erroneously referred to as TDF. Humans express a single ZFY gene with two splice variants.
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W is a plant specific variant with SPKK motifs at the N-terminus with a putative minor-groove-binding activity. H2A.1 is a mammalian testis, oocyte and zygote specific variant. It can preferentially dimerize with H2B.1. It is so far characterized only in mouse, but a similar gene in human is available which is located at the end of the largest histone gene cluster.
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GT198 expression is specific to reactive or angiogenic tumor stromal cells which occur at the early stage of tumor. GT198 expression in tumor tissues can be a biomarker for early cancer detection.New Biomarker Identified as Cause of Breast Cancer and Early Indicator. March 2016 These include human solid tumors in breast, ovary, uterus, fallopian tube, prostate, bladder, testis, lung, brain, melanoma, kidney, oral cavity, thyroid, and colon.
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This gene encodes a protein that lacks the normal DNA-binding domain contained in other nuclear receptors. The encoded protein acts as a dominant- negative regulator of transcription of other nuclear receptors including steroidogenic factor 1. This protein also functions as an anti-testis gene by acting antagonistically to SRY. Mutations in this gene result in both X-linked congenital adrenal hypoplasia and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.
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Trimma caudomaculatum, the blotch-tailed pygmygoby , is a species of goby from the Western Pacific. Like other members of the genus, they are usually found in large schools in the sloping or vertical drop-offs at coral reef edges. Similar to other species of Trimma this species consists of multiple cases of bidirectional sex change, meaning that if a group is lacking in a specific sex a partial amount of the group can change their undeveloped gonad structure of the opposite sex in order to accommodate. This sex change is made possible due to the females having a developed set of ovaries with female hormones that are developed, and a set of testis and male hormones that are underdeveloped; The males follow a similar set up in vice versa, so their testis and male hormones are developed, while the ovaries and female hormones are underdeveloped.
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PROSER2 interacts most strongly with the following transcription factors: Vertebrate TATA binding protein factor, ZF5 POZ domain zinc finger, CTCF and BORIS gene family transcriptional regulators, E2F-myc activator/cell cycle regulator, MYT1 C2HC zinc finger protein, SOX/SRY– sex/testis determining and related HMG box factors, CCAAT binding factors, HOX-PBX complexes, and C2HC zinc finger transcription factors 13.Genomatix. ElDorado. The SRY gene is the primary factor in determining testicular formation during development, so it is logical that PROSER2's association with androgens would be controlled by transcription factors in the SOX/SRY-sex/testis determining and related HMG box factors family. The E2F-myc activator/cell cycle regulator is also important because Myc has been implicated in cancer pathways, so this relationship with its transcription factor provides supplementary evidence of PROSER2's role as a potential biomarker of cancer.Pawlowski,T.,Yeatts, K., and Akhavan, R. (2012).
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RAI14 is expressed within a wide range of human tissues. Some areas of the highest expression by TPM (transcripts per million) include tissues of the endometrium, smooth muscle, cervix, cervix, testis, and spleen. Within the human brain, RAI14 expression is abundant in the area around the brain stem and medulla. The highest expression levels came from the myelencephalon, a region of the embryonic brain that would later become the medulla oblongata.
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Human protein MGC50722 ortholog in mice, 4932418E24Rik protein, has experimentally determined phosphorylation sites at S588, S591, and S670 in the testis (pTestis ID: PT-MM-02686). Prediction servers at ExPASy also predict more phosphorylation sites (NetPhos 2.0 Server), a N-termnial acetylation site (NetAcet 1.0 Server), glycation sites (NetGlycate 1.0 Server), and a GalNAc O-glycosylation site (NetOGlyc 4.0 Server) at conserved residues in the human MGC50722 protein.
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IFT20 subunit of the particle is localized to the Golgi complex in addition to the basal body and cilia where all previous IFT particle proteins had been found. In living cells, fluorescently tagged IFT20 is highly dynamic and moves between the Golgi complex and the cilium as well as along ciliary microtubules. IFT20 has been shown to interact with SPEF2 in the testis, and plays a role in sperm motility.
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Opsins are members of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. In addition to the visual opsins, mammals possess several photoreceptive non- visual opsins that are expressed in tissues outside the eye. The opsin-3 gene is strongly expressed in brain and testis and weakly expressed in liver, placenta, heart, lung, skeletal muscle, kidney, and pancreas. The gene is expressed in the skin and may also be expressed in the retina.
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The highest level of the cholesterol side-chain cleavage system is found in the adrenal cortex and the corpus luteum. The system is also expressed at high levels in steroidogenic theca cells in the ovary, and Leydig cells in the testis. During pregnancy, the placenta also expresses significant levels of this enzyme system. P450scc is also present at much lower levels in several other tissue types, including the brain.
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CCDC 113 is expressed at low levels in nearly all tissues of the body by RNA-seq including blood, lymph node, brain, heart, skeletal muscle, kidney, liver, colon, lung, thyroid, prostate, ovary, breast, adrenal gland, and adipocyte. The gene is also expressed in embryonic tissues and stem cells. There are high levels of expression in the cerebellum and in the testis and surrounding tissues. CCDC113 expression in human tissues.
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During foetal development, gonocytes develop from primordial germ cells and following this SSCs develop from gonocytes in the testis. SSCs are the early precursor for spermatozoa and are responsible for the continuation of spermatogenesis in adult mammals. The stem cells are capable of dividing into more SSCs which is vital for maintaining the stem cell pool. Alternatively, they go on to differentiate into spermatocytes, spermatids and finally spermatozoa.
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D-amino acid oxidase activator (DAOA, also known as G72) is a protein enriched in various parts of brain, spinal cord, and testis. DAOA is thought to interact with D-amino acid oxidase, a peroxisomal enzyme, and its gene was associated with schizophrenia in a number of studies.Gene Overview of All Published Schizophrenia-Association Studies for DAOA , schizophreniaforum.org In separate studies it has been shown to confer susceptibility to bipolar disorder.
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Van Wagenen and Morris reported their successes with monkeys and with women, respectively, at the 1966 annual meeting of the American Fertility Society. Her monographs included Embryology of the Ovary and Testis in Homo sapiens and Macaca mulatta (Yale University Press 1965), and Postnatal Development of the Ovary in Homo sapiens and Macaca mulatta and Induction of Ovulation in the Macaque (Yale University Press 1973, co-authored with Miriam E. Simpson).
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In medieval Latin, a vogue for scholarly obscenity led to a perception of the dactyl, a metrical unit of verse represented as an image of the penis, with the long syllable (longum) the shaft and the two short syllables (breves) the testicles.Adams, p. 39. The apparent connection between Latin testes, "testicles," and testis, plural testes, "witness" (the origin of English "testify" and "testimony")Adams, p. 67. may lie in archaic ritual.
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The term "germinoma" most often refers to a tumor in the brain that has a histology identical to two other tumors, dysgerminoma in the ovary and seminoma in the testis. Since 1994, MeSH has defined germinoma as "a malignant neoplasm of the germinal tissue of the gonads, mediastinum, or pineal region" and within its scope included both dysgerminoma and seminoma. Collectively, these are the seminomatous or germinomatous tumors.
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1700 (2007), p. 130. Francis Rous defended double predestination against Montagu in Testis Veritatis (1626).Francis J. Bremer, Tom Webster, Puritans and Puritanism in Europe and America: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia (2006), p. 2231. The House of Commons took up the matter, and accused the author of dishonouring the late King (James I). A debate on the matter was followed by Montagu's committal to the custody of the serjeant-at-arms.
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A-kinase anchor protein 4 is a scaffold protein that in humans is encoded by the AKAP4 gene. It involves in the intracellular signalling of protein kinase -A. AKAP4 is called as cancer /testis antigen (CTA), it belongs to a class of tumour linked antigens categories by high expression in germ cells and cancer than normal tissues. AKAP4 is not normally expressed in mRNA and protein level in MM cell line.
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Male ostracods have two penises, corresponding to two genital openings (gonopores) on the female. The individual sperm are often large, and are coiled up within the testis prior to mating; in some cases, the uncoiled sperm can be up to six times the length of the male ostracod itself. Mating typically occurs during swarming, with large numbers of females swimming to join the males. Some species are partially or wholly parthenogenetic.
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However, about 80% of cryptorchid testes descend by the first year of life (the majority within three months), making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall. Cryptorchidism may develop after infancy, sometimes as late as young adulthood, but that is exceptional. Cryptorchidism is distinct from monorchism, the condition of having only one testicle. Though the condition may occur on one or both sides, it more commonly affects the right testis.
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He died of lung cancer in 2002 when he was preparing the exhibition of orchids Por huevos (by eggs, Orchis means testis in Latin). He was married to the lawyer Dolores Neria and they had two children. Cáceres City Council gave his name to a garden he designed, Jardín Diosdado Simón, which is located between the museums, Museo de Pedrilla and Museo de Guayasamín, which hosted his last exhibition Por huevos.
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Vesicular appendages of the epoöphoron are small pedunculated vesicles of the fimbriae of the uterine tube, or connected to the broad ligament. They were described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni and are remnants of the cranial part of the mesonephric duct. Typically they are asymptomatic. In the male remnants of the paramesonephric duct may be present as well and are also known as appendix of testis or hydatid of Morgagni.
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The protein exerts its cellular effects by interacting with the glycoprotein 130 (gp130)/leukemia inhibitory factor receptor beta (LIFR) heterodimer. In addition, CT-1 activates phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI-3 kinase) in cardiac myocytes and enhances transcription factor NF-κB DNA -binding activities. CT-1 is highly expressed in the heart, skeletal muscle, prostate and ovary and to lower levels in lung, kidney, pancreas, thymus, testis and small intestine.
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In cartilaginous fishes, the part of the archinephric duct closest to the testis is coiled up to form an epididymis. Below this are a number of small glands secreting components of the seminal fluid. The final portion of the duct also receives ducts from the kidneys in most species. In amniotes, however, the archinephric duct has become a true vas deferens, and is used only for conducting sperm, never urine.
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As was common at that time, Janaki continued to stay at her maternal home for three years after marriage, till she reached puberty. In 1912, she and Ramanujan's mother joined Ramanujan in Madras. After the marriage, Ramanujan developed a hydrocele testis. The condition could be treated with a routine surgical operation that would release the blocked fluid in the scrotal sac, but his family could not afford the operation.
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The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the neutral endopeptidase (NEP) or membrane metallo-endopeptidase (MME) family. Family members play important roles in pain perception, arterial pressure regulation, phosphate metabolism and homeostasis. This protein is a type II transmembrane protein and is thought to be expressed as a secreted protein. This gene is expressed mainly in testis with weak expression in the brain, kidney, and heart.
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Gonocytes are long-lived precursor germ cells responsible for the production of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs). Gonocytes relate to both fetal and neonatal germ cells from the point at which they enter the testis primordial until they reach the base membrane at the seminiferous cords and differentiate. At the time of gasturalation, certain cells are set aside for later gamete development. These cells are called post migratory germ cells (PGCs).
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Agouti-related protein is expressed primarily in the adrenal gland, subthalamic nucleus, and hypothalamus, with lower levels of expression in the testis, kidneys, and lungs. The appetite-stimulating effects of AgRP are inhibited by the hormone leptin and activated by the hormone ghrelin. Adipocytes secrete leptin in response to food intake. This hormone acts in the arcuate nucleus and inhibits the AgRP/NPY neuron from releasing orexigenic peptides.
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The usual level of gene expression in the peripheral tissues (e.g. spleen, kidney, liver etc.) reaches about 60% of the mouse coding genome. Some peripheral tissues, including lungs, brain and testis, reveal the repertoire of expressed genes about 10% broader. Importantly, PGE in the thymus, which is mediated by unique subset of epithelial cells called mTECs, triggers expression of vast majority of the genes from the whole genome (~85%).
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Cengage Learning; 10 October 2011 [cited 17 June 2013]. . p. 64–66. Chromosomal sex is determined at the time of fertilization; a chromosome from the sperm cell, either X or Y, fuses with the X chromosome in the egg cell. Gonadal sex refers to the gonads, that is the testis or ovaries, depending on which genes are expressed. Phenotypic sex refers to the structures of the external and internal genitalia.
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In 1958 he became senior registrar to the Regius Professor of Clinical Surgery, Sir John Bruce. He was invited at this stage to become editor of the popular textbook Emergency Surgery, previously written by Henry Hamilton Bailey. McNair edited the 8th and 9th editions. He was awarded the MD degree for his thesis "On observations on visceral pain, with special reference to the pain originating in the testis" in 1960.
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The dysgenic testis can have adequate functional tissue to produce satisfactory levels of testosterone to cause masculinisation. Mixed gonadal dysgenesis is poorly understood at the molecular level. The loss of the Y chromosome can occur from deletions, translocations, or migration failure of paired chromosomes during cell division. The chromosomal loss results in partial expression of the SRY gene, giving rise to abnormal development of the reproductive tract and altered hormones levels.
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The protein encoded by c2orf81 is expressed highly in testis, kidneys, and about 18 other tissues in humans.Seow, W. J., Kile, M. L., Baccarelli, A. A., Pan, W.-C., Byun, H.-M., Mostofa, G., Quamruzzaman, Q., Rahman, M., Lin, X. and Christiani, D. C. (2014), Epigenome-wide DNA methylation changes with development of arsenic- induced skin lesions in Bangladesh: A case–control follow-up study. Environ. Mol. Mutagen.
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Studies in mice have shown other adverse health effects due to DEHP exposure. Ingestion of 0.01% DEHP caused damage to the blood-testis barrier as well as induction of experimental autoimmune orchitis. There is also a correlation between DEHP plasma levels in women and endometriosis. DEHP is also a possible cancer causing agent in humans, although human studies remain inconclusive, due to the exposure of multiple elements and limited research.
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QRICH1 is expressed at a high level, 3.3 times the average gene. It is expressed ubiquitously throughout the human body, although EST Profile data reveal that QRICH1 is expressed particularly high in tissues such as the thymus, testis, cerebellar cortex and other areas of the brain, trachea, and in embryonic tissue. Health states such as germ cell tumors, leukemia, lymphoma, and chondrosarcoma have also reported high QRICH1 expression.
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Endocrine disruption and a presence of phthalate residue is highly likely to be observable in these sewage fed fish. This is the case as waste water from various industries and garbage containing DEP are released into these waters. Through a DEP treatment with Cyprinus carpio, liver size was observed to increase and testis size decreased. In fish, muscle ALT and AST activities decreased as it was effected by DEP treatment.
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A major risk factor for the development of testis cancer is cryptorchidism (undescended testicles). It is generally believed that the presence of a tumor contributes to cryptorchidism; when cryptorchidism occurs in conjunction with a tumor then the tumor tends to be large. Other risk factors include inguinal hernias, Klinefelter syndrome, and mumps orchitis. Physical activity is associated with decreased risk and sedentary lifestyle is associated with increased risk.
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The goal of males is to displace the sperm of other males as much as possible. Larger males tend to have longer copulation times and greater rates of sperm displacement. The fertilization success of males that were secondary mates increased as their body size relative to the first male increased. Traits such as body size, testis size, and sperm length are variable, as well as heritable in S. stercoraria males.
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9 (3): 468-476. Humans have low to intermediate levels of sperm competition, as seen by humans’ intermediate relative testis size, ejaculate volume, and sperm midpiece size, compared with other primates. This suggests that there has been a relatively high degree of monogamous or polygynous behavior throughout our evolutionary history. Additionally, the lack of a baculum in humansDixson, Alan F. (1987). “Baculum length and copulatory behavior in primates”.
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ICAM-2 molecules regulate spermatid adhesion on Sertoli cell on the apical side of the blood-testis barrier (towards the lumen), thus playing a major role in spermatogenesis. This protein may also play a role in lymphocyte recirculation by blocking LFA-1-dependent cell adhesion. It mediates adhesive interactions important for antigen-specific immune response, NK-cell mediated clearance, lymphocyte recirculation, and other cellular interactions important for immune response and surveillance.
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Exon 2 is where its translation start codon occurs. VPS13B is a large gene; It spans a genomic DNA sequence region of about 864 kilobase pairs, or 846,000 base pairs. The VPS13B gene is widely expressed, especially in prostate, testis, ovary, and colon with transcripts of about 12 to 14 kilobase pairs. It is also expressed in fetal brain, liver, and kidney, with transcripts of about 2.0 to 5.0 kilobase pairs.
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Testis-specific Y-encoded protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TSPY1 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is found only in testicular tissue and may be involved in spermatogenesis. Approximately 35 copies of this gene are present in humans, but only a single, nonfunctional orthologous gene is found in mice. Two transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene.
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60% to 70% of detected cases, both testes will lie in the normal position for the ovaries; about 20% to 30% of the time, one of the testis will lie within the inguinal hernial sac while in other cases both testes will lie within the same inguinal hernia sac. However whenever an individual exhibits persistent müllerian duct syndrome, the ductus deferens will run along the lateral sides of the uterus.
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They discovered that fish treated with aromatase inhibitors showed decreased gonodal weight, plasma estrogen level and spermatogonial proliferation in the testis as well as increased androgen levels. Their results suggest that estrogens are important in the regulation of spermatogenesis in this protogynous hermaphrodite. Previous studies have also investigated sex reversal mechanisms in teleost fish. During sex reversal, their whole gonads including the germinal epithelium undergoes significant changes, remodeling, and reformation.
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Vasoepididymostomy or epididymovasostomy is a surgery by which vasectomies are reversed. It involves connection of the severed vas deferens to the epididymis and is more technically demanding than the vasovasostomy. For a vasectomy reversal that involves a vasoepididymostomy, there are two microsurgical approaches. The procedure involves a similar surgical incision as vasovasostomy; however, unlike with a vasovasostomy, the testis is usually delivered into the field for this more complex microsurgery.
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Despite this, its testis size is small compared with similar sized promsimians, which is indicative of monogamy. In the wild the mating system of the Sunda slow loris is thought to vary between populations. Sexual maturity is reached between the ages of 18 and 24 months in females, and can be reached by 17 months in males. It is polyestrous, having many periods of sexual receptivity during a year.
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Chloride channel CLIC-like 1 also known as CLCC1 is a human gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a chloride channel which is related in sequence to the S. cerevisiae MID-1 stretch-activated channel. CLCC1 is located in the membranes of intracellular compartments including endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. It is highly expressed in the testis and moderately in the spleen, liver, kidney, heart, brain, and lung.
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This gene encodes a member of the junctional adhesion molecule (JAM) family. The encoded protein contains multiple glycosylation sites at the N-terminal region, and multiple phosphorylation sites and glutamic acid/proline (EP) repeats at the C-terminal region. The gene is expressed in a normal stomach and testis, as well as in gastric, esophageal, and ovarian cancers. Alternatively spliced transcript variants, encoding different isoforms, have been found for this gene.
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FAM227A is a protein that in humans is encoded by FAM227A gene. Current studies have determined the location of this gene to be in the nuclear region of the cell. FAM227A is most highly expressed in the tissues of the fallopian tube, testis, and pituitary gland. FAM227A is present in species of mammals, birds and reptiles, and gene alignment sequences have shown that FAM227A is a rapidly evolving gene.
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One testis is typically lower than the other to avoid compression in the event of impact. The scrotum is biologically homologous to the labia majora in females. Although present in most mammals, the external scrotum is absent in streamlined marine mammals, such as whales and seals, as well as in some lineages of land mammals, such as the afrotherians, xenarthrans, and numerous families of bats, rodents, and insectivores.
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This is a testis in the male and an ovary in the female. At first, the mesonephros and gonadal ridge are continuous, but as the embryo grows the gonadal ridge gradually becomes pinched off from the mesonephros. However, some cells of mesonephric origin join the gonadal ridge. Furthermore, the gonadal ridge still remains connected to the remnant of that body by a fold of peritoneum, namely the mesorchium or mesovarium.
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Sexuality is related to family structure and partly shapes it. The involvement of fathers in education is quite unique to humans, at least when compared to other Homininae. Concealed ovulation and menopause in women both also occur in a few other primates however, but are uncommon in other species. Testis and penis size seems to be related to family structure: monogamy or promiscuity, or harem, in humans, chimpanzees or gorillas, respectively.
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Adult human testicle with epididymis: A. Head of epididymis, B. Body of epididymis, C. Tail of epididymis, and D. Vas deferens Those ages 15 to 35 are most commonly affected. The acute form usually develops over the course of several days, with pain and swelling frequently in only one testis, which will hang low in the scrotum. There will often be a recent history of dysuria or urethral discharge. Fever is also a common symptom.
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Gametes are produced within the gonads through a process known as gametogenesis. This occurs when certain types of germ cells undergo meiosis to split the normal diploid number of chromosomes (n=46) into haploid cells containing only 23 chromosomes.Development of sex cells in Reproductive system, Body Guide. Adam. Anatomy of the testis In males, this process is known as spermatogenesis, and takes place only after puberty in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
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USP26 is a peptidase enzyme. The USP26 gene is an X-linked gene exclusively expressed in the testis and it codes for the ubiquitin-specific protease 26. The USP26 gene is found at Xq26.2 on the X-chromosome as a single exon. The enzyme that this gene encodes comprises 913 amino acid residues and it is 104 kilodalton in size, which is transcribed from a sequence of 2794 nucleotide base-pairs on the X-chromosome.
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The USP26 enzyme is a deubiquitinating enzyme that places a very significant role in the regulation of protein turnover during spermatogenesis. It is a testis-specific enzyme that is solely express in spermatogonia and can prevent the degradation of ubiquitinated USP26 substrates. Recent research has suggested that defects in USP26 may be involved in some cases of male infertility, specifically Sertoli cell-only syndrome, and an absence of sperm in the ejaculate (azoospermia).
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The monophyly of Catenulida is supported by molecular studies and by at least 3 synapomorphies: the unpaired protonephridium, the unpaired and anterodorsally located testis and the nonmobile sperm. Although there are no known synapomorphies connecting Catenulida to other flatworms (Rhabditophora), molecular studies indicate that they are sister-groups. All characters common to both clades, such as the internal fertilization and the simple gut with a single opening, are found in other groups as well.
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Leydig cell hypoplasia type II can display either a pronounced rise of testosterone levels or no rise. In any case, the diagnosis is confirmed on biopsy of the testes, revealing either absent or hypoplastic Leydig cells. The inside of the testis will be grayish and mucous, displaying arrested spermatogenesis and the presence of Sertoli cells. The diagnosis can also be confirmed by looking for mutations in the gene for the LH receptor.
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In the same study it was concluded that DEPDC1A may contribute to the plasmablast features of MM cells, blocking differentiation. Study of DEPDC1A in bladder carcinogenesis revealed the gene as a possible antigen for the formation of bladder cancer cells. Using microarray and northern blotting confirmed the presence of unsubstantial amounts of the protein within the normal tissues, excluding the testis. Currently the gene is a potential target molecule for therapeutic treatment of bladder carcinogenesis.
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He also had a group with their testes surgically removed, and noticed that their secondary sexual organs were decreased in size, had a weak crow, did not have sexual attraction towards females, and were not aggressive. He realized that this organ was essential for these behaviors, but he did not know how. To test this further, he removed one testis and placed it in the abdominal cavity. The roosters acted and had normal physical anatomy.
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Newborns measure in length. Males reach sexual maturity at a length of , and females at a length of . A study of brown lanternsharks in Suruga Bay by Yano and Tanaka (1989) found a 23% prevalence of hermaphroditism within the population. Of the 16 hermaphrodites examined, 15 were functional females (and some were pregnant) that also possessed well- developed claspers (male intromittent organs), while one was a functional male with ovarian tissue in the left testis.
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The A-kinase anchor proteins (AKAPs) are a group of structurally diverse proteins, which have the common function of binding to the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (PKA) and confining the holoenzyme to discrete locations within the cell. This gene encodes a member of the AKAP family. The encoded protein is expressed at high levels throughout spermatogenesis and in mature sperm. It binds the RI and RII subunits of PKA in testis.
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VSPs are found across animals and choanoflagellates, though lost from nematodes and insects. Humans contain two members, TPTE and TPTE2, which result from a primate-specific duplication . Most reports indicate that VSPs are found primarily in reproductive tissue, especially the testis. Other VSPs discovered include: Dr-VSP (zebrafish Danio rerio, 2008), Gg-VSP (chicken Gallus gallus domesticus, 2014), Xl-VSP1, Xl-VSP2, and Xt-VSP (frogs: X. laevis and X. tropicalis, 2011), TPTE (mouse), etc.
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G. neoplasticum completes its life cycle in two hosts, rats as definitive hosts, and cockroaches (Periplaneta) as intermediate hosts. It is hermaphrodite, and has both male and female reproductive organs in the same body. The male reproductive system consists of a single testis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct, two spicules, gubernaculum and bursa. Female reproductive organs include a pair of ovaries, oviducts, seminal receptacle, uteri and a long oviduct, vagina and vulva.
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PTPIP51 is a member of the RMDN protein family and localizes to the outer mitochondrial membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. This protein is involved in cellular differentiation, proliferation, motility, cytoskeleton formation, and apoptosis. These biological functions thus serve to facilitate mammalian development through processes such as placental villi formation and angiogenesis. In particular, it is expressed in differentiated cells and tissues, such as follicular and inter-follicular epidermis, epithelia, skeletal muscle, testis, and nervous tissue.
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The primary management of cryptorchidism is watchful waiting, due to the high likelihood of self-resolution. Where this fails, orchiopexy is effective if inguinal testes have not descended after 4–6 months. Surgery is often performed by a pediatric urologist or pediatric surgeon, but in many communities still by a general urologist or surgeon. When the undescended testis is in the inguinal canal, hormonal therapy is sometimes attempted and very occasionally successful.
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The luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor (LHCGR), also lutropin/choriogonadotropin receptor (LCGR) or luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) is a transmembrane receptor found predominantly in the ovary and testis, but also many extragonadal organs such as the uterus and breasts. The receptor interacts with both luteinizing hormone (LH) and chorionic gonadotropins (such as hCG in humans) and represents a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). Its activation is necessary for the hormonal functioning during reproduction.
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The p21-activated protein kinase 6 gene was found to be highly expressed in testis and prostate tissues and the encoded protein was shown to cotranslocate into the nucleus with AR in response to androgen. Genetic deletion of PAK6 alone in mice leads to increased body mass. However, PAK6 deletion along with PAK5 impairs the ability of animals to learn and move. PAK6 expression is increased in a rat model of spinal cord injury.
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Males with Klinefelter syndrome, who have an extra X chromosome, will also undergo X inactivation to have only one completely active X chromosome. Y-linked inheritance occurs when a gene, trait, or disorder is transferred through the Y chromosome. Since Y chromosomes can only be found in males, Y linked traits are only passed on from father to son. The testis determining factor, which is located on the Y chromosome, determines the maleness of individuals.
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Experiments in rats have examined, in fine detail, the course of testicular events during a bacterial infection. In the short term (3 hours) multiple inflammatory factors are produced and released by testicular macrophages. Examples are prostaglandin E2, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), TNFα and IL-1β, although at lower levels than other tissues. Non-immune cells of the testis such as Sertoli cells and Leydig cells also able to respond to bacteria.
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Spectrometric studies identify androsterone as the main backdoor androgen in the human male fetus. Circulating levels are sex dependent, DHT being essentially absent in the female, in which titres of backdoor intermediates also are very low. In males, backdoor intermediates occur mainly in the liver and adrenal of the fetus, and in the placenta -- hardly at all in the testis. Instead, progesterone in the placenta is the main backdoor substrate for androgen synthesis.
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The reproductive organ include a single ovary and a single testis. The sclerotized male copulatory organ, or "quadriloculate organ", has the shape of a bean with four internal chambers, as in other species of Pseudorhabdosynochus. The vagina also includes a sclerotized part, which is a complex structure. The sclerotised vagina comprises an anterior trumpet, followed by a primary canal, a primary chamber, a secondary canal, a secondary chamber and an accessory structure.
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This gene represents one of several duplicated family members that are located on chromosome X. This gene family encodes proteins that play a role in spermiogenesis. These proteins represent a specific subgroup of cancer/testis-associated antigens, and they may be candidates for tumor vaccines. This family member belongs to a subgroup of related genes that are present in all primates and rats and mice, and thus, it represents one of the ancestral family members.
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Male PGCs become known as gonocytes once they cease migration and undergo mitosis. The term gonocyte is generally used to describe all stages post PGC until the gonocytes differentiate into spermatogonia. Anatomically, gonocytes can be identified as large, euchromatic cells that often have two nucleoli in the nucleus. In the male genital ridge, transient Sry expression causes supporting cells to differentiate into Sertoli cells which then act as the organizing center for testis differentiation.
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Common defects include atrial septal defect, tetralogy of Fallot, ventricular septal defect, patent ductus arteriosus, pulmonary stenosis, and coarctation of the aorta. Defects of the endocrine system, digestive system, and genitourinary system are also common. These include underdevelopment or agenesis of the pancreas, adrenal glands, thymus, gallbladder, and thyroid; Hirschsprung's disease; gastric reflux, imperforate anus, retention testis, ectopic kidney, renal agenesis, and hydronephrosis. A variety of brain abnormalities are also associated with 13q deletion.
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QRICH2 protein is 1663 amino acids long, and 10.9% of the amino acids are Glutamine (Q). 38% of the QRICH2 protein secondary structure is alpha-helix, 39% is beta-sheet and 13% is turning. The human tissue type with the highest level of QRICH2 expression is testis, and this result is confirmed by the Gene Expression Profile for mouse and dog too. The subcellular location of QRICH2 protein is in the nucleus.
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As they pass across the subcutaneous inguinal ring, they are connected together by delicate fibrous tissue, forming a fascia, called the intercrural fascia. This intercrural fascia is continued down as a tubular prolongation around the spermatic cord and testis, and encloses them in a sheath; hence it is also called the external spermatic fascia. The subcutaneous inguinal ring is seen as a distinct aperture only after the intercrural fascia has been removed.
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FNA Mapping is an application of fine-needle aspiration (FNA) to the testis for the diagnosis of male infertility. FNA cytology has been used to examine pathological human tissue from various organs for over 100 years.Posner C. Die diagnostische Hodenpunktion. Berl Klin Wochenschr 1905;42b:1119-1121 As an alternative to open testicular biopsy for the last 40 years, FNA Mapping has helped to characterize states of human male infertility due to defective spermatogenesis.
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P. lateolabracis can be distinguished from the former by the lateral caudal mounds separated dorsally, narrower lamella-like structures on its gubernaculum, shorter spicules, and by the testis extending anteriorly. Other gonad-infecting species differ from this one by possessing a smooth gubernaculum, and their spicules being of different lengths. Seven gonad- infecting species of Philometra can be distinguished from P. priacanthi by their host types, as well as by geographical distribution.
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Its amphids are outlined; its oesophagus forms about 9–14% of its body length, and is slightly inflated at its anterior end; its posterior part (oesophagus) is overlapped by a large oesophageal gland with a substantial cell nucleus in the middle. Its excretory pore is located posterior to its nerve ring. Its testis slightly exceeds anteriorly the posterior end of the oesophagus. The posterior end of its body counts with two lateral U-shaped mounds.
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RNA sequencing data show that TMEM39B is expressed in all tissues types, with higher levels in the testis, placenta, white blood cells, adrenal gland, thymus, and fetal brain. Microarray data show that TMEM39B is expressed at moderate levels in most tissues, on average in the 58th percentile of genes expressed in a given tissue sample.NCBI GEO (National Center for Biotechnology Gene Expression Omnibus) GDS596. TMEM39B. Su AI, Wiltshire T, Batalov S, Lapp H et al.
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Cancer cells in humans may result in the patient's death if the aggressive cancer cell grows and metastasizes. However, researchers utilize these cells to study the development of cancer cells in order to find more specific treatments. For developmental biologists, embryonal carcinoma, which is derived from teratocarcinoma, is a good object for developmental study. In 1982, McBurney and Rogers transplanted a 7.5 day mouse embryo into the testis to induce tumor growth.
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C11orf42 is expressed in a total of seventy-four organs. In a study of ninety-five individuals, twenty-seven different tissues had RNA sequencing completed to determine the tissue-specificity of the protein-coding genes. C11orf42 is expressed in a variety of tissues, although it is most broadly expressed in the skin as well as the testes. According to the EST Profile of C11orf42, the protein is abundant in the bladder, brain, and testis.
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Four eyespots immediately anterior to pharynx, lacking lenses; members of posterior pair slightly larger, closer together than those of anterior pair; accessory chromatic granules small, irregular in outline, usually absent in cephalic region. Pharynx ovate, muscular; esophagus short to nonexistent; intestinal ceca blind, extending posteriorly to peduncle, diverging posterior to testis. Peduncle broad. Haptor subtriangular, with dorsal and ventral anteromedial lobes containing respective squamodiscs and lateral lobes having hook pairs 2–4, 6, 7.
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In the testis pure embryonal carcinoma is also uncommon, and accounts for approximately ten percent of testicular germ cell tumours. However, it is present as a component of almost ninety percent of mixed nonseminomatous germ cell tumours. The average age at diagnosis is 31 years, and typically presents as a testicular lump which may be painful. One fifth to two thirds of patients with tumours composed predominantly of embryonal carcinoma have metastases at diagnosis.
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Using a random cDNA sequencing approach, He et al. cloned a novel prostate-specific gene that encoded a homeobox-containing protein. The gene which they symbolized NKX3-1 encoded a 234-amino acid polypeptide with greatest homology to the Drosophila NK3 gene. Northern blot analysis showed that NKX3.1 had a uniquely restricted tissue expression pattern with mRNA being abundant in the prostate, lower levels in the testis and absent from all other tissues tested.
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Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (abbreviated GAPDH) () is an enzyme of about 37kDa that catalyzes the sixth step of glycolysis and thus serves to break down glucose for energy and carbon molecules. In addition to this long established metabolic function, GAPDH has recently been implicated in several non-metabolic processes, including transcription activation, initiation of apoptosis, ER to Golgi vesicle shuttling, and fast axonal, or axoplasmic transport. In sperm, a testis-specific isoenzyme GAPDHS is expressed.
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It has been demonstrated that endogenous HOOK3 binds to Golgi membranes, whereas both HOOK1 and HOOK2 are localised to discrete but unidentified cellular structures. In mice the Hook1 gene is predominantly expressed in the testis. Hook1 function is necessary for the correct positioning of microtubular structures within the haploid germ cell. Disruption of Hook1 function in mice causes abnormal sperm head shape and fragile attachment of the flagellum to the sperm head.
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Nerves can become trapped in the fibrous tissue caused by vasectomy. This pain is often heightened during sexual intercourse and ejaculation because, with arousal and ejaculation, muscles elevate the testis. There are several nerves that run parallel to the vas deferens that may be cut or damaged during vasectomy. One study found that the vas deferens exhibits two periodic forms of electrical activity on an electrovasogram, slow pacesetter potentials and fast action potentials.
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The first crystal structure of human testis ACE was solved in the year 2002 by R. Natesh in the lab of K. Ravi Acharya and the work was published in the journal Nature in January 2003. It is located mainly in the capillaries of the lungs but can also be found in endothelial and kidney epithelial cells. Other less known functions of ACE are degradation of bradykinin, substance P and amyloid beta- protein.
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In humans, LSMEM1 is very highly expressed in skeletal muscle. In humans, LSMEM1 also shows high expression in nerve tissue, moderate expression in the uterus, testis, bone marrow, heart, and intestines, and low expression in the brain and pancreas. It also shows expression in both the fetal and adult stages of life in humans. LSMEM1 is predicted to have a 615 base pair promoter in humans just upstream of its transcriptional start site.
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There are multiple alpha and beta tubulin genes and they are highly conserved among and between species. This gene is an alpha tubulin gene that encodes a protein 99% to the mouse testis-specific Tuba3 and Tuba7 gene products. This gene is located in the 13q11 region, which is associated with the genetic diseases Clouston hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia and Kabuki syndrome. Alternative splicing has been observed for this gene and two variants have been identified.
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J Neurosci. 2010 Sep 8;30(36):12210-8. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1520-10.2010. Proteomics of tissues affected by hereditary neuromuscular diseases in the mouse model; analysis of the testis in the wobbler ALS mouse modelJockusch H, Holland A, Staunton L, Schmitt-John T, Heimann P, Dowling P, Ohlendieck K. Pathoproteomics of testicular tissue deficient in the GARP component VPS54: The wobbler mouse model of globozoospermia. Proteomics. 2013 Sep 30. doi: 10.1002/pmic.201300189.
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SGEF was discovered during a screen for androgen-responsive genes in human prostate cancer cells. Subsequent northern blot analysis revealed expression of SGEF in tissues of the heart, brain, placenta, lung, liver, kidney, pancreas, prostate, testis, small intestine and colon. SGEF is also expressed in endothelial cells of the vasculature. Several widely used cell lines express this protein, these include A431, HeLa, HUT78, HEK-293, Jurkat, THP, PC12, RAJI, U937 and Meg-01.
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As a biomarker, GJA1 could also be used to screen young males for risk of testis cancer. Currently, only rotigaptide, an antiarrhythmic peptide-based drug, and its derivatives, such as danegaptide, have reached clinical trials for treating cardiac pathologies by enhancing GJA1 expression. Alternatively, drugs could target complementary connexins, such as Cx40, which function similarly to GJA1. However, both approaches still require a system to target the diseased tissue to avoid inducing developmental abnormalities elsewhere.
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The Society for Basic Urologic Research (SBUR) is a US-based basic urological researcher's society with ~600 active members in the US, Europe and Asia, including laboratory and physician scientists (Ph.D.'s, M.D.'s, M.D.-Ph.D.'s, and trainees) in academia, industry and the government. The major research interest areas are normal physiology and pathophysiology of the organs in the genitourinary system including the kidney, the bladder, the prostate, the testis and the penis.
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Thus, Zfy performs three functions at the mid-pachytene checkpoint: (1) promote MSCI, (2) monitor MSCI progress, and (3) execute cells, via apoptosis, that fail to undergo MSCI. In humans, ZFY is most broadly expresses in the testis and prostate. However, 20 other tissues also express ZFY, such as esophagus, urinary bladder, bone marrow, small intestine, appendix and gall bladder. Disorders associated with the ZFY gene include campomelic dysplasia, cystadenofibroma, and Frasier syndrome.
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Based on human expressed sequence tag (EST) profiles, TMEM239 appears to be expressed in the testis and the brain. According to PaxDb, the abundance of TMEM239 falls within the bottom 10% relative to all other proteins in both mice and humans. Overall, expression of TMEM239 is limited. TMEM239 appears to be expressed at moderate levels in the testes, with low expression in a variety of other tissues, including the brain and submaxillary gland.
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In male mammals, AMH prevents the development of the Müllerian ducts into the uterus and other Müllerian structures. The effect is ipsilateral, that is each testis suppresses Müllerian development only on its own side. In humans, this action takes place during the first 8 weeks of gestation. If no hormone is produced from the gonads, the Müllerian ducts automatically develop, while the Wolffian ducts, which are responsible for male reproductive parts, automatically die.
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C16orf82 is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the C16orf82 gene. C16orf82 encodes a 2285 nucleotide mRNA transcript which is translated into a 154 amino acid protein using a non-AUG (CUG) start codon. The gene has been shown to be largely expressed in the testis, tibial nerve, and the pituitary gland, although expression has been seen throughout a majority of tissue types. The function of C16orf82 is not fully understood by the scientific community.
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Expression of the distinct proteins from this gene has been found to be tissue specific and the proteins may be involved in postnatal development of specific tissues. A protein encoded by the upstream ORF was found in skeletal muscle, whereas the encoded protein from the downstream ORF was found only in testis. In mouse, a similar pattern of expression was found. Multiple alternatively spliced transcript variants were described, but the full-length sequence of only some were determined.
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In sharks, the testicle on the right side is usually larger, and in many bird and mammal species, the left may be the larger. The primitive jawless fish have only a single testis, located in the midline of the body, although even this forms from the fusion of paired structures in the embryo. In seasonal breeders, the weight of the testes often increases during the breeding season. The testicles of a dromedary camel are long, deep and in width.
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Serine/threonine-protein kinase VRK2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the VRK2 gene. This gene encodes a member of the vaccinia-related kinase (VRK) family of serine/threonine protein kinases. This gene is widely expressed in human tissues and has increased expression in actively dividing cells, such as those in testis, leukocytes, fetal liver, and carcinomas. Its protein localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum and has been shown to phosphorylate casein and undergo autophosphorylation.
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There is a record of a hermaphroditic specimen with an ovary on its right side and a testis on its left. Early in development, the embryos are sexually undifferentiated, unpigmented, and possess filamentous external gills; the external yolk sac in this stage weighs . Recognizable sex organs develop by an embryonic length of , and tissue differentiation is complete by a length of . Body pigmentation appears when the embryo is long; the external gills regress at around the same time.
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Traditionally, the breakdown of the blood-testis barrier had been established as the cause of ASA production. This mechanism had been advocated in testicular trauma and surgery, orchitis (mumps), varicocele, bacterial infections (epididymitis, prostatitis), testicular cancer, and unprotected anal intercourse. However, the association between aforementioned conditions and ASA production is controversial. Only chronic obstruction, most typically represented by vasectomy followed by vasectomy reversal, is the only one condition leading constantly to high and permanent ASA titers.
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Hormone-sensitive lipase (, HSL), also previously known as cholesteryl ester hydrolase (CEH), sometimes referred to as triacylglycerol lipase, is an enzyme that, in humans, is encoded by the LIPE gene. HSL is an intracellular neutral lipase that is capable of hydrolyzing a variety of esters. The enzyme has a long and a short form. The long form is expressed in steroidogenic tissues such as testis, where it converts cholesteryl esters to free cholesterol for steroid hormone production.
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Zinc finger protein basonuclin-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BNC1 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a zinc finger protein present in the basal cell layer of the epidermis and in hair follicles. It is also found in abundance in the germ cells of testis and ovary. This protein is thought to play a regulatory role in keratinocyte proliferation and it may also be a regulator for rRNA transcription.
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The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) complex must be tightly regulated due to its central role in general metabolism. Within the complex, there are three serine residues on the E1 component that are sites for phosphorylation; this phosphorylation inactivates the complex. In humans, there have been four isozymes of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase that have been shown to phosphorylate these three sites: PDK1, PDK2, PDK3, and PDK4. The PDK3 protein is primarily found in the kidney, brain, and testis.
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The mouth opens into an oesophagus which passes into an intestine; this opens by a ventral anus situated a little in front of the posterior end. The testis is single, and its duct opens with the anus, and is provided with a couple of spicules. The ovary is double, and the oviducts open by a median ventral pore about the middle of the body; in this region there is a second swelling. both in Chaetosoma and in Rhabdogaster.
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In a male, it develops into a system of connected organs between the efferent ducts of the testis and the prostate, namely the epididymis, the vas deferens, and the seminal vesicle. The prostate forms from the urogenital sinus and the efferent ducts form from the mesonephric tubules. For this it is critical that the ducts are exposed to testosterone during embryogenesis. Testosterone binds to and activates androgen receptor, affecting intracellular signals and modifying the expression of numerous genes.
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For example, the gene CYP19 codes for aromatase P450, an important enzyme for estrogen synthesis, that is normally expressed in the brain and reproductive organs of most mammals. However, in primates, an LTR-promoted transcriptional variant confers expression to the placenta and is responsible for controlling estrogen levels during pregnancy. Furthermore, the neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP), normally widespread, has an LTR of the HERV-P family acting as a promoter that confers expression to the testis and prostate.
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LAMP3 is a Type I integral membrane protein consisting of about 416 amino acid residues with about 90% of the protein located within the lumen of the lysosomes. LAMP3 has been shown to be highly expressed in dendritic cells during cell differentiation and maturation. During human fetal development, between weeks 10 and 20, LAMP3 is highly expressed in the lungs, while in normal adult tissue cells LAMP3 is expressed in the lungs, appendix, testis and lymph nodes.
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Serine/threonine-protein kinase MAK is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MAK gene. The product of this gene is a serine/threonine protein kinase related to kinases involved in cell cycle regulation. It is expressed almost exclusively in the testis, primarily in germ cells. Studies of the mouse and rat homologs have localized the kinase to the chromosomes during meiosis in spermatogenesis, specifically to the synaptonemal complex that exists while homologous chromosomes are paired.
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In contrast, mutation of other genes unrelated to the tumor formation may lead to synthesis of abnormal proteins which are called tumor- associated antigens. Other examples include tissue differentiation antigens, mutant protein antigens, oncogenic viral antigens, cancer-testis antigens and vascular or stromal specific antigens. Tissue differentiation antigens are those that are specific to a certain type of tissue. Mutant protein antigens are likely to be much more specific to cancer cells because normal cells shouldn't contain these proteins.
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Water Research, 7, 987–993. In fathead minnows exposed to cattle feedlot effluent, the males are feminized and the females are defeminized. The male fathead minnows have reduced testicular testosterone synthesis, altered head morphometrics, and smaller testis size, while the females have a decreased estrogen:androgen ratio, which is defeminized sex hormone ratio.Orlando, E. F., Kolok, A. S., Binzcik, G. A., Gates, J. L., Horton, M. K., Lambright, C. S., Gray, L. E., & Soto, A. M. (2004).
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The repertoire of TRAs involved in Fezf2-driven PGE is nonoverlapping with that of Aire and comprises genes previously defined as Aire-independent, e.g. Fabp9 (TRA of testis). This fact is also bolstered by different manifestations of autoimmunity in Fezf2 knouckout mouse (KO), in comparison with Aire KO mouse. The expression of Fezf2 was found to be independent on Aire however, was found to be triggered also by the receptor of NF-κB signaling pathway, namely by LtβR.
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Males: The SRY gene when transcribed and processed produces SRY protein that binds to DNA and directs the development of the gonad into testes. Male development can only occur when the fetal testis secretes key hormones at a critical period in early gestation. The testes begin to secrete three hormones that influence the male internal and external genitalia: they secrete anti-müllerian hormone (AMH), testosterone, and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Anti-müllerian hormone causes the paramesonephric ducts to regress.
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The reported cases have occurred in patients with a history of cryptorchidism, which is associated with an elevated risk of neoplasm. Splenogonadal fusion occurs with a male-to-female ratio of 16:1, and is seen nearly exclusively on the left side. The condition remains a diagnostic challenge, but preoperative consideration of the diagnosis may help avoid unnecessary orchiectomy. On scrotal ultrasound, ectopic splenic tissue may appear as an encapsulated homogeneous extratesticular mass, isoechoic with the normal testis.
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Thyonicola dogieli is a parasite of sea cucumbers such as Cucumaria miniata. It inhabits the gut of the sea cucumber, being attached at the anterior end. It has no digestive tract and absorbs nutrients through its cuticle. It is a hermaphrodite; the testis is located near the anterior end and the ovary near the posterior end (this enables the sperm to be carried to the eggs amid the flow of the contents of the host's gut).
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AR belongs to the aldehyde-keto reductase superfamily, with a widely expression in human organs including the kidney, lens, retina, nerve, heart, placenta, brain, skeletal muscle, testis, blood vessels, lung, and liver. It is a reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-dependent enzyme catalyzing the reduction of various aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding alcohol. It also participates in glucose metabolism and osmoregulation and plays a protective role against toxic aldehydes derived from lipid peroxidation and steroidogenesis.
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Whereas hPLSCR1, -3, and -4 are expressed in a variety of tissues with few exceptions, expression of hPLSCR2 is restricted only to the testis. hPLSCR4 is not expressed in peripheral blood lymphocytes, whereas hPLSCR1 and -3 were not detected in the brain. However, the functional significance of this differential gene expression is not yet understood. While the gene and the mRNA of hPLSCR5 provide evidence of its existence, the protein has yet to be described in the literature.
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We may consider it four distinct portions, which are going from top to bottom, the testis, vas deferens, seminal reservoir and the penis.'' .Baudelot E (1863) Recherches sur l'appareil générateur des Mollusques Gastéropodes (Thèse de zoologie), Imprimerie de L. Martinet. The male is distinguished by a shorter and round tipped right tentacle, which also serves as a penis during fertilization:the female is usually slightly larger than the male at the same age, and it has two identical tentacles.
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As in other squid, these glands produce a gelatinous material used to keep the eggs together once they are laid. In males, as with most other cephalopods, the single, posterior testis produces sperm that move into a complex system of glands that manufacture the spermatophores. These are stored in the elongate sac, or Needham's sac, that terminates in the penis from which they are expelled during mating. The penis is prehensile, over long, and extends from inside the mantle.
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This gene encodes a histone H1 binding protein that is involved in transporting histones into the nucleus of dividing cells. The somatic form is expressed in all mitotic cells, is localized to the nucleus, and is coupled to the cell cycle. The testicular form is expressed in embryonic tissues, tumor cells, and the testis. In male germ cells, this protein is localized to the cytoplasm of primary spermatocytes, the nucleus of spermatids, and the periacrosomal region of mature spermatozoa.
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This results in a loss of nutrition for the crab, and impairs its overall growth. The natural ability of regrowing a severed claw that is commonly used for defense purposes is therefore lost after the infestation of Sacculina. The male Sacculina 'larva' looks for a virgin female Sacculina on the underside of a crab. He then implants its cells into a pocket in the female's body called the "testis", where male cells produce spermatozoa to fertilize eggs.
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This gene is a member of the melanoma antigen gene (MAGE) family. Most of the genes of this family encode tumor specific antigens that are not expressed in normal adult tissues except testis. Although the protein encoded by this gene shares strong homology with members of the MAGE family, it is expressed in almost all normal adult tissues. This gene has been demonstrated to be involved in the p75 neurotrophin receptor mediated programmed cell death pathway.
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Ascidians are almost all hermaphrodites and each has a single ovary and testis, either near the gut or on the body wall. In some solitary species, sperm and eggs are shed into the sea and the larvae are planktonic. In others, especially colonial species, sperm is released into the water and drawn into the atria of other individuals with the incoming water current. Fertilization takes place here and the eggs are brooded through their early developmental stages.
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This gene encodes one of three protein subunits of PFK, which are expressed and combined to form the tetrameric PFK in a tissue-specific manner. As a PFK subunit, PFKL is involved in catalyzing the phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. This irreversible reaction serves as the major rate-limiting step of glycolysis. Though the PFKM subunit majorly incorporates into muscle and erythrocyte PFKs, PFKM also is expressed in the heart, brain, and testis.
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However, sertoli cells form tight junctions that separate SSCs and spermatogonia in contact with the basement membrane from the spermatocytes and spermatids to create a basal and an adluminal compartment, whereby differentiating spermatocytes must traverse the tight junctions. These tight junctions form the blood testis barrier (BTB) and have been suggested to play a role in isolating differentiated cells in the adluminal compartment from secreted factors by the interstitial tissue and vasculature neighboring the basal compartment.
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Most veterinarians remove the testis held most "tightly" (or close to the body) by the cremaster muscle first, so as to minimize the risk of the horse withdrawing it to the point where it is inaccessible. The horse, now a gelding, is allowed to recover. Standing castration can be performed in more complicated cases. Some authorities have described a technique for the removal of abdominally retained testes from cryptorchid animals,Hanrath, M., and Rodgerson, D.H. (2002).
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TMEM275's RNA levels are very high at around 11 weeks of gestation within the intestines. Some other notable peaks include the lungs, kidneys, and adrenal tissues at 10, 16, and 20 weeks, respectively. It has also been found that of the 20 human tissues tested, RNA was notably present within fetal brain tissue. Further testing on tissue types lead to the discovery that TMEM275 may have tissue-specificity with the testis, the brain, and the prostate.
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As the testes develops, the main portion of the lower end of the gubernaculum is carried, following the skin to which it is attached, to the bottom of this pouch. Other bands are carried to the medial side of the thigh and to the perineum. The tube of peritoneum constituting the vaginal process projects itself downward into the inguinal canal, and emerges at the external inguinal ring, pushing before it a part of the obliquus internus and the aponeurosis of the obliquus externus, which form respectively the cremaster muscle and the external spermatic fascia. The vaginal process forms a gradually elongating pouch, which eventually reaches the bottom of the scrotum, and behind this pouch the testis is drawn by the growth of the body of the fetus, for the gubernaculum does not grow proportionately with the growth of other parts, and therefore the testis, being attached by the gubernaculum to the bottom of the scrotum, is prevented from rising as the body grows, and is instead drawn first into the inguinal canal and eventually into the scrotum.
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Kelch domain-containing protein 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the KLHDC3 gene. The protein encoded by this gene contains six repeated kelch motifs that are structurally similar to recombination activating gene 2 (RAG2), a protein involved in the activation of the V(D)J recombination. This gene is found to express specifically in testis. Its expression in pachytene spermatocytes is localized to cytoplasm and meiotic chromatin, which suggests that this gene may be involved in meiotic recombination.
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PLAC1 expression is suppressed by wild-type p53 but increases in the presence of mutated or absent p53[54]. PLAC1 Immunotherapy PLAC1 is classified as a “cancer-testis antigen” as it is preferentially expressed in trophoblasts and tumors. In addition to results associating PLAC1 expression with risk of various cancers as well as with prognosis, the ability of PLAC1 to elicit an immune response suggests that its specificity could be harnessed therapeutically. One group in particular is pioneering the potential[59].
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The RNA levels of mPer3 oscillate with a circadian rhythm in both the SCN and in the eyes, as well as in peripheral tissues, including the liver, skeletal muscle, and testis. Unlike Per1 and Per2, of which the mRNA is induced in response to light, Per3 mRNA in the SCN does not respond to light. This suggests that Per3 may be regulated differently than either Per1 or Per2. The mPER3 protein contains a PAS domain, similar to mPER1 and mPER2.
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As a traveling pair, a male blue whale typically trails a female, and is generally successful at repelling an intruder male after a short and vigorous battle. Blue whale anatomy, specifically a small testis-to- body weight ratio and documented visual observations of a second male joining the traveling pair, suggest a polygynous, antagonistic male-male competition strategy. Mating is thought to occur fall through winter. Female blue whales give birth every two to three years, depending on body condition and lactation period.
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Testis-Specific Protein Y-encoded (TSPY) Like 2 (TSPYL2) codes for a member of the TSPY-like/SET/nucleosome assembly protein-1 superfamily and is located on the X chromosome at Xp11.22. The encoded protein is localized to the nucleolus where it functions in chromatin remodeling and as an inhibitor of cell-cycle progression. Consistent with a possible role for Tspyl2 pathways in neurodevelopment, Xp11.2 microduplication incorporating the TSPYL2 locus has been reported in male patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.
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Acid-sensing ion channel 3 (ASIC3) also known as amiloride-sensitive cation channel 3 (ACCN3) or testis sodium channel 1 (TNaC1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ASIC3 gene. The ASIC3 gene is one of the five paralogous genes that encode proteins that form trimeric acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) in mammals. The cDNA of this gene was first cloned in 1998. The ASIC genes have splicing variants that encode different proteins that are called isoforms.
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The testes begin as an immigration of primordial germ cells into testicular cords along the gonadal ridge in the abdomen of the early embryo. The interaction of several male genes organizes this developing gonad into a testis rather than an ovary by the second month of gestation. During the third to fifth months, the cells in the testes differentiate into testosterone-producing Leydig cells, and anti-Müllerian hormone-producing Sertoli cells. The germ cells in this environment become fetal spermatogonia.
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Cell cultures can include either monocultures, where one cell population is cultured, or co-culturing systems, where several cells lines (must be at least two) can be cultured together. Cells are initially isolated for culture by enzymatically digesting the testis tissue to separate out the different cells types for culture. The process of isolating cells can lead to cell damage. The main advantage of monoculture is that the effect of different influences on one specific cell population of cells can be investigated.
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The male reproductive system includes testes, rete testis, efferent ductules, epididymis, sex accessory glands, sex accessory ducts and external genitalia. Testosterone, an androgen, although present in both males and females, is relatively more abundant in males. Testosterone serves as one of the major sexual reproductive hormones in the male reproductive system However, the enzyme aromatase is present in testes and capable of synthesizing estrogens from androgens. Estrogens are present in high concentrations in luminal fluids of the male reproductive tract.
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The WDR12 gene is ubiquitously expressed during embryogenesis, and high levels are found in the thymus and testis of adult mice. It is a crucial factor in the mammalian ribosome biogenesis pathway that forms a stable complex named PeboW with Pes1 and Bop1. WDR12 is required for processing of the 32S precursor rRNA without affecting the synthesis of the 45S/47S primary transcript and it functions in the maturation of the 60S ribosomal subunit. Depletion of WDR12 severely inhibits cell proliferation.
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Normal cells will display the normal protein antigen on their MHC molecules, whereas cancer cells will display the mutant version. Some viral proteins are implicated in forming cancer (oncogenesis), and some viral antigens are also cancer antigens. Cancer-testis antigens are antigens expressed primarily in the germ cells of the testes, but also in fetal ovaries and the trophoblast. Some cancer cells aberrantly express these proteins and therefore present these antigens, allowing attack by T-cells specific to these antigens.
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GLUT5 is a fructose transporter expressed on the apical border of enterocytes in the small intestine. GLUT5 allows for fructose to be transported from the intestinal lumen into the enterocyte by facilitated diffusion due to fructose's high concentration in the intestinal lumen. GLUT5 is also expressed in skeletal muscle, testis, kidney, fat tissue (adipocytes), and brain. Fructose malabsorption or Dietary Fructose Intolerance is a dietary disability of the small intestine, where the amount of fructose carrier in enterocytes is deficient.
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Figure 1: Schematic diagrams of the epididymis of a reptile (A), monotreme mammal (B) and scrotal mammal (C) showing the anatomical caput, corpus and cauda, and the histologic initial segment, middle segment and terminal segment. The reptilian testis and epididymis typically undergo seasonal recrudescence coupled to the breeding season. All reptiles retain their testes and excurrent ducts within the abdomen (testicond). Generally, the reptilian epididymis does not exhibit the same degree of anatomical regionalizationAkbarsha, M.A., Kadalmani, B. &Tamilarasan;, V. (2006).
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Mouse maelstrom, a component of nuage, is essential for spermatogenesis and transposon repression in meiosis. Dev. Cell. 15:285–297. MAEL has also recently been associated with human cancer. An experiment showed MAEL expression throughout a majority of cancer cell types, including lung cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and colon cancer and in turn suggests MAEL as a constituent of the cancer/testis gene class.Xiao L, Wang YJ, Zhou YK, Sun Y, Sun W, Wang L, Zhou C, Zhou JL, Zhou JA (2010).
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The specimen was renamed Salamandra scheuchzeri by Friedrich Holl in 1831. The genus Andrias was only coined six years later by Johann Jakob von Tschudi.Jakob von Tschudi, (1837), "Über den Homo diluvii testis, Andrias Scheuchzeri", Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde In doing so, both the genus, Andrias (which means image of man), and the specific name, scheuchzeri, ended up honouring Scheuchzer and his beliefs. The Teylers Museum has several other specimens in their collection in addition to this one.
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Mortality during this phase can be as high as 95%. The acute phase is characterized histologically by multifocal areas of nuclear pyknosis/karyorrhexis and numerous cytoplasmic inclusion bodies in the cuticular epithelium and the subcutis of the general body surface, all appendages, gills, hindgut, esophagus and stomach. The pyknosis and karyorrhexis give a “buckshot” appearance to the tissue and are considered pathognomonic for the disease. In severe infections the antennal gland tubule epithelium, the hematopoietic tissues and the testis are also affected.
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Harefuah 1997;132:614-618.Samli M, Sariyuce O, Basar M, Evrenkaya T. Evaluation of nonobstructive azoospermia with bilateral testicular biopsy. J Urol 1999;161:342. FNA mapping has also been used to determine whether particular geographic sites are more likely to have sperm than others. In one study, individual testis maps from each side were pooled, and from this analysis all FNA sites showed sperm at about the same frequency; there was no suggestion of sperm “hot spots” in nonobstructive testes.
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Pure histologic patterns of Sertoli cell-only and early maturation arrest were associated with a very poor likelihood of sperm detection (4-8%). In contrast, patients with other pure pattern histologies or mixed patterns had high rates of FNA sperm detection (77-100%). Thus, sperm detection with FNA showed wide variation depending on testis histology. In addition, certain histologic patterns may reflect a more global testicular dysfunction due to underlying genetic causes, and thus a poorer likelihood of sperm identification.
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In cases of infertility due to nonobstructive azoospermia, surgical sperm retrieval for IVF-ICSI is successful 40-60% of the time without prior knowledge of the geography of testis sperm production.Tournaye H, Liu J, Nagy PZ, Camus M, Goossens A, Silber S, Van Steirtegham AC, Devroey P. Correlation between testicular histology and outcome after intracytoplasmic sperm injection using testicular spermatozoa. Hum Reprod 1996;11:127-132. With the addition of diagnostic FNA mapping, the rate of successful sperm retrieval can be increased substantially.
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His explanation of how the Flood caused mountains and the fossil sequence was similar to Woodward's. Johann Jakob Scheuchzer wrote in support of Woodward's ideas in 1708, describing some fossil vertebrae as bones of sinners who had perished in the Flood. A skeleton found in a quarry was described by him in 1726 as Homo diluvii testis, a giant human testifying to the Flood. This was accepted for some time, but in 1812 it was shown to be a prehistoric salamander.
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Olfactory receptor gene (OR) is normally expressed in human and mouse olfactory tissue with a main function as odorant receptor for the detection of odorants. Individuals with a defect in this gene have disorders of taste and smell. It has been reported that ORs is also expressed on sperms and testis with special emphasis in a manner of ectopic expression. In a study, researchers identified ectopic expression of OR genes in non-olfactory tissues in the mouse model by measuring transcript levels.
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The presenting features may be a palpable testicular mass or asymmetric testicular enlargement in some cases. The tumour may present as signs and symptoms relating to the presence of widespread metastases, without any palpable lump in the testis. The clinical features associated with metastasising embryonal carcinoma may include low back pain, dyspnoea, cough, haemoptysis, haematemesis and neurologic abnormalities. Males with pure embryonal carcinoma tend to have a normal amount of the protein alpha-fetoprotein in the fluid component of their blood.
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Similar to mEH but unlike sEH, EH3 is membrane-bound enzyme. Based on the expression of its mRNA in mouse tissue, EH3 has a very different distribution than mEH or sEH: EH3 expression is high in skin, lung, tongue, esophagus, and stomach; intermediate in pancreas and eye, visceral fat, lymph nodes, spleen, aortic arch, and heart; low in liver, kidney, testis, ovary intestine, and brain; and very low in skeletal muscle. Its expression in human tissues has not yet been reported.
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The activity of the PDH complex in mammalian tissues is largely determined by the phosphorylation of certain subunits within the complex. As such, the absolute amounts of site-specific kinases and phosphates expressed in the mitochondria directly affect PDH activity. As this gene is mostly inactive, save for in testis tissue, a methylation mechanism is in place that inactivates this gene in somatic cells. Removing the methyl group from the coding region has shown to activate the enzyme in vitro.
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The main issue was that tissue of any sort taken from one individual and planted in another is physiologically a stranger. The subject of gland grafting engaged his interest in the Nineties. He also noticed that ovarian grafting was so much more frequently possible than testis grafting, first of all because of the number of women donors, which he reported were much more ready than men to sacrifice a solid organ. He performed the first human ovarian grafting in 1895.
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In typical prenatal development, sex organs originate from a common primordium during early gestation and differentiate into male or female sexes. The SRY gene, usually located on the Y chromosome and encoding the testis determining factor, determines the direction of this differentiation. The absence of it allows the gonads to continue to develop into ovaries. Thereafter, the development of the internal, and external reproductive organs is determined by hormones produced by certain fetal gonads (ovaries or testes) and the cells' response to them.
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Each GSC is enclosed by a pair of SSCs, though each stem cell type is still in contact with the hub cells. In this way, the stem cell niche consists of these three cell types, as not only do the hub cells regulate GSC and SSC behaviour, but the stem cells also regulate the activity of each other. The Drosophila testis GSC niche has proven a valuable model system for examining a wide range of cellular processes and signalling pathways.
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Microorchidism is a genetic disorder found in males, characterized by abnormally small testes. The condition is associated with (and often secondary to) a number of other genetic disorders, including Klinefelter's Syndrome and Prader-Willi syndrome, as well as other multiple malformation disorders. The degree of abnormality (or otherwise) of the testes can be determined by the use of an orchidometer. In addition, Microorchidism may also occur as a result of shrinkage or atrophy of the testis due to infections like mumps. .
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The ERICH3 gene in humans is 105,628 bases and is encoded on the minus strand at position 31.1 on the short arm of chromosome 1 from base pair 75,033,795 bp to 75,139,422 bp from pter. C1orf173's function in humans is still unclear though there is a link between expression of this gene and several forms of cancer, such as breast cancer and skin sarcomas. C1orf173 is expressed in the brain, eye, lung, mammary gland, muscle, pituitary gland, testis, trachea, and uterus.
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The ovotestis (hermaphrodite gland) is yellow with white dots. The ovotestis fills the posterior portion of the visceral cavity, and is composed of large irregular lobules made up almost entirely of eggs, and packed into a dense mass, tapering a little behind and truncated in front. The testis is a stout flesh-coloured tube, two or three times convoluted. It tapers at one extremity into a long slender duct or vas deferens, which is united to the inner extremity of the penis.
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LH acts upon the Leydig cells of the testis and is regulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). The Leydig cells produce testosterone under the control of LH, which regulates the expression of the enzyme 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase that is used to convert androstenedione, the hormone produced by the testes, to testosterone. The onset of puberty is controlled by two major hormones: FSH initiates spermatogenesis and LH signals the release of testosterone. an androgen that exerts both endocrine activity and intratesticular activity on spermatogenesis.
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Data from NCBI shows that GOLGA8H in Homo sapiens has the strongest expression is through the thyroid and testis, with RKPMs of 12.2 and 12.1 respectively. It is also expressed in lesser amounts in 25 other tissues. Data from GEO DataSet show the tissue expression is highest in bone marrow and pancreas tissue. However, samples from all tissues were above the 90th percentile, indicating that the expression value of that gene is much higher in respect to all other genes on the array.
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Based on experimental data on normal tissues in the human body, IFFO1 gene is highly expressed in the cerebellum, cerebral cortex, and especially in the spleen. Medium expression is seen in several areas such as the adrenal gland, colon, lymph nodes, thymus, and ovary. The tissue areas that had the relatively low expression includes CD4 and CD8 T-cells, epidymal cells, the heart, and the stomach. Extremely low levels of expression were observed in tissues obtained from fetus, kidney, testis, thyroid, and especially in the salivary gland.
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While in New York, his daughter, Charlotte Maria was born. Finally, he went back to Paris to succeed Claude Bernard in 1878 as professor of experimental medicine in the Collège de France, and he remained there until his death, which occurred in 1894 at Sceaux, France. He was buried in Paris at the Cimetière du Montparnasse. Brown-Séquard was quite a controversial and eccentric figure, and is also known for self-reporting, at age 72, "rejuvenated sexual prowess after subcutaneous injection of extracts of monkey testis".
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The gene encoding DHCR7 (labeled as DHCR7) was cloned in 1998, and has been mapped to chromosome 11q12-13. It is 14100 base pairs of DNA in length, and contains nine exons, the corresponding mRNA is 2786 base pairs in length (the remaining DNA sequence is intronic). The structure of the DHCR7 rat gene is very similar to the structure of the human gene. The highest levels of DHCR7 expression have been detected in the adrenal gland, the testis, the liver and in brain tissue.
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Its structure extends to the skin surface of the scrotum as the scrotal raphe.Mediastinum dictionary definition It is an incomplete wall of connective tissue and nonstriated muscle (dartos fascia) dividing the scrotum into two sacs, each containing a testis. Histological septa are seen throughout most tissues of the body, particularly where they are needed to stiffen soft cellular tissue, and they also provide planes of ingress for small blood vessels. Because the dense collagen fibres of a septum usually extend out into the softer adjacent tissues.
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The Key Largo woodrat is similar to the Florida woodrat (Neotoma floridana floridana) and cannot be distinguished from it in size or external anatomy. It differs in the shape of the sphenopalatine vacuities (openings in the roof of the mesopterygoid fossa, the gap behind the palate), which are narrower and shorter than in N. f. floridana. On average, males are a bit larger than females. In the holotype, an adult male, total length is , tail length , hindfoot length , ear length , dimensions of the testis , and mass is .
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Large molecules cannot pass from the blood into the lumen of a seminiferous tubule due to the presence of tight junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells. The spermatogonia are in the basal compartment (deep to the level of the tight junctions) and the more mature forms such as primary and secondary spermatocytes and spermatids are in the adluminal compartment. The function of the blood–testis barrier may be to prevent an auto-immune reaction. Mature sperm (and their antigens) arise long after immune tolerance is established in infancy.
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Furthermore, the basal Sertoli-Sertoli cell junctions and the apical Sertoli-germ cell junctions contain myosin VIIA but lack its counterpart vezatin. Myosin VIIA is almost always expressed with vezatin but the absence of this partnership within the testis is yet to be fully understood. However, vezatin has been shown to be expressed within the acrosomal region of the actual spermatozoa. Vezatin is not found in the early spermatid but only appears when the formation of the acrosome occurs later on in the process of spermatogenesis.
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TSBP1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TSBP1 gene. C6orf10 is an open reading frame on chromosome 6 containing a protein that is ubiquitously expressed at low levels in the adult genome and may play a role during fetal development. C6orf10 has been found to be linked to both neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases in adults. Expression of this gene is highest in the testis but is also seen in other tissue types such as the brain, lens of the eye and the medulla.
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Histone deacetylases, such as HDAC11, control DNA expression by modifying the core histone octamers that package DNA into dense chromatin structures and repress gene expression.[supplied by OMIM] HDAC11 expression is normally found in brain and testis tissue, but upregulation of HDAC11 expression has also been seen in various cancer cells. HDAC11 has been shown to be a negative regulator of IL-10 production in antigen presenting cells. It has also been shown that inhibition of HDAC11 results in increased expression of OX40L in Hodgkin lymphoma cells.
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A tunicate group from East Timor Almost all ascidians are hermaphrodites and conspicuous mature ascidians are sessile. The gonads are located in the abdomen or postabdomen, and include one testis and one ovary, each of which opens via a duct into the cloaca. Broadly speaking, the ascidians can be divided into species which exist as independent animals (the solitary ascidians) and those which are interdependent (the colonial ascidians). Different species of ascidians can have markedly different reproductive strategies, with colonial forms having mixed modes of reproduction.
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Vasography was first described by Belfield in 1913, where a vasotomy was initially done and the vas deferens was subsequently intubated. After almost 40 years of being overlooked, Boreau revived the procedure in the 1950s. Then, vasography was somewhat overused for various fertility disorders and other diseases such as tuberculosis, prostate cancer, hemospermia, and compressive fibrolipomatosis, without considering the possible risks and complications from the procedure. Today, vasography is used to determine the location of obstruction in azoospermic patients who have demonstrated spermatogenesis by testis biopsy.
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Semaphorin 7A, GPI membrane anchor (John Milton Hagen blood group) (SEMA7A) also known as CD108 (Cluster of Differentiation 108), is a human gene. SEMA7A is a membrane-bound semaphorin that associates with cell surfaces via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linkage. SEMA7A is also known as the John- Milton-Hagen (JMH) blood group antigen, an 80-kD glycoprotein expressed on activated lymphocytes and erythrocytes.[supplied by OMIM] SEMA7A is expressed in various adult tissues such as adipose, colon, esophagus, heart, brain, spleen, testis, lung, ovary, and uterus.
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NIPA is broadly expressed in the human tissues, with the highest expression in heart, skeletal muscle, and testis. It is a human F-box protein that defines an SCF- type ubiquitin E3 ligase, the formation of which is regulated by cell-cycle- dependent phosphorylation of NIPA. Cyclin B1, essential in the entry into mitosis, is targeted by SCFNIPA in interphase. Phosphorylation of NIPA occurs in G2 phase, results in dissociation of NIPA from the SCF core, and has been proven critical for proper G2/M transition.
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Phosphorylase b kinase gamma catalytic chain, testis/liver isoform is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PHKG2 gene. The PHKG2 gene provides instructions for making one piece, the gamma subunit, of the phosphorylase b kinase enzyme. This enzyme is made up of 16 subunits, four each of the alpha, beta, gamma, and delta subunits. (Each subunit is produced from a different gene.) The gamma subunit performs the function of phosphorylase b kinase enzyme, and the other subunits help regulate its activity.
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Apart from the presence of sex chromosomes, specific genes associated with the development of the fallopian tubes include the Wnt and Hox groups of genes, Lim1, Pax2, and Emx2. Embryos have two pairs of ducts to let gametes out of the body; one pair (the Müllerian ducts) develops in females into the fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina, while the other pair (the Wolffian ducts) develops in males into the epididymis and vas deferens. The homologous organ in the male is the rudimentary appendix testis.
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Seipin is a homo-oligomeric integral membrane protein in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that concentrates at junctions with cytoplasmic lipid droplets (LDs). Alternatively, seipin can be referred to as Bernardinelli-Seip congenital lipodystrophy type 2 protein (BSCL2), and it is encoded by the corresponding gene of the same name, i.e. BSCL2. At protein level, seipin is expressed in cortical neurons in the frontal lobes, as well as motor neurons in the spinal cord. It is highly expressed in areas like the brain, testis and adipose tissue.
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In situ ligand binding studies have shown that 125I inhibin βA binds specifically to Leydig cells throughout rat testis development. These results suggest that inhibin has been considered as a regulator of Leydig cell differentiated function. Recently, additional inhibin specific binding proteins were identified in inhibin target tissues, including pituitary and Leydig cells. From these receptors betaglycan (the TGF-ß type III receptor) and InhBP/p120 (a membrane- tethered proteoglycan) were identified as putative inhibin receptors and they are all present in Leydig cells.
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A Sertoli cell (a kind of sustentacular cell) is a "nurse" cell of the testicles that is part of a seminiferous tubule and helps in the process of spermatogenesis, the production of sperm. It is activated by follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the adenohypophysis, and has FSH receptor on its membranes. It is specifically located in the convoluted seminiferous tubules (since this is the only place in the testes where the spermatozoa are produced). Development of Sertoli cells is directed by the testis-determining factor protein.
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In 1888 Lubarsch provided the first detailed description of carcinoid tumors during autopsies of two male "patients", however it wouldn't be until 1907 that the term karzinoid was applied by Siegfried Oberndorfer. Lubarsch also discovered tiny crystals in the epithelial cells of the testis that resemble sperm crystals. These structures are now known as "Lubarsch' crystals". With Friedrich Henke (1868–1943), he was editor of the Henke-Lubarsch Handbuch der Speziellen Pathologischen Anatomie und Histologie, which was a massive reference book containing information germane to pathology.
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FSH stimulates both the production of androgen binding protein (ABP) by Sertoli cells, and the formation of the blood-testis barrier. ABP is essential to concentrating testosterone in levels high enough to initiate and maintain spermatogenesis. Intratesticular testosterone levels are 20–100 or 50–200 times higher than the concentration found in blood, although there is variation over a 5- to 10-fold range amongst healthy men. FSH may initiate the sequestering of testosterone in the testes, but once developed only testosterone is required to maintain spermatogenesis.
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Spermatozoa formed in the testis enter the caput epididymis, progress to the corpus, and finally reach the cauda region, where they are stored. Sperm entering the caput epididymis are incomplete—they lack the ability to swim forward (motility) and to fertilize an egg. Epididymal transit takes about 2.5 months in humans (longer in other species), but the sperm can be stored in the cauda for 2–3 days. During their transit in the epididymis, sperm undergo maturation processes necessary for them to acquire motility and fertility.
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It has a subspherical pharynx, with a length of about 50 µm, and lacks an esophagus, its intestinal bifurcation following the latter organ. It shows a simple caeca that terminates at the level of the posterior margin of its vitellarium. Its testis are also subspherical and intercaecal, with a length of approximately 70 µm; its quadriloculate organ with an inner length of about 51 µm. At the same time, its ovary is subequatorial, intercaecal and pretesticular, encircling the right caecum, with a width of about 80 µm.
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Cryptorchidism, also known as undescended testis, is a common birth defect affecting male genital formation. Individuals diagnosed with cryptorchidism are often at risk of testicular cancer and infertility due to dysfunction in the development of the neonatal germ cells, in particular, the disruption of the differentiation of gonocytes into adult dark- spermatogonia. It is proposed that this dysfunction is a product of heat stress caused by the undescended testes remaining in the abdomen and unable to regulate its temperature which is often accomplished by the scrotum.
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From a comprehensive study of 118 consecutive azoospermic, infertile men who underwent FNA mapping, much has been learned about the geography of spermatogenesis in both normal (obstructed) and abnormal (nonobstructed) testes. In men with obstructive azoospermia, sperm is found in all sites and in all locations on the FNA map. However, in men with nonobstructive azoospermia, sperm is found in about 50% of cases. In the subgroup of men with no sperm on a prior testis biopsy, FNA maps revealed sperm in 27% of cases.
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TMEM217 is not ubiquitously expressed. The gene tends to have expression correlated to lymphatic system, vascular/arterial endothelial tissue, and notable expression in the bladder based on expression profiles and microarray analysis. Other tissues that have been shown to express TMEM217 include: connective tissues, the liver, mammary glands, the testis, and the cervix. Co-expression analyses have found that TMEM217 was up-regulated in response to mechanical stretch in dermal fibroblast cells and in response to the resveratrol derivative, DMU-212, in vascular endothelial tissues.
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The gene is flanked by UBR4 on its right and MRTO4 on its left. This Information is graphically displayed in Figure 1. Expressed Sequence Tags and isolated cDNA clones indicate KIAA0090 is expressed ubiquitously in low to moderate levels throughout the body. This includes but is not limited to testis, tongue, lung, cerebellum, brain, mammary gland, trachea, placenta, esophageal, salivary gland, brain, hippocampus, amygdale, bone marrow, thalamus, spleen, uterus, thymus, kidney, eye, heart, gall bladder, prostate, liver, parathyroid gland, ovary, stomach, skeletal muscle, colon, pancreas, and skin.
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SSTRB receptor has approximately 300 nucleotides between carboxyl terminus and transmembrane segments fewer than the original Somatostatin receptor 2. SST2A receptor is made up of 369 amino acids and 346 amino acids make up the SST2B receptor. Somatostatin receptor 2a and somatostatin receptor 2b were found in the medulla oblongata, mesencephalon, testis, cortex, hypothalamus, hippocampus and pituitary of a rodent, using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Somatostatin receptor 2a is highly evident in the cortex, but the somatostatin receptor 2b is not seen as much.
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Collagen alpha-5(VI) chain also known as von Willebrand factor A domain- containing protein 4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the COL6A5 gene. COL6A5 is a part of the Collagen VI gene family which produce collagen components for the Extracellular matrix of most connective tissues. In the human genome, part of the collagen VI family is located on chromosome 3q in order of COL6A4, COL6A5, COL6A6. Transcription of COL6A5 only occurs in skin, lung, testis, colon, and small intestine cells.
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This gene encodes a member of the mammalian PIAS [protein inhibitor of activated STAT-1 (signal transducer and activator of transcription-1)] family. This member contains a putative zinc-binding motif and a highly acidic region. It inhibits STAT1-mediated gene activation and the DNA binding activity, binds to Gu protein/RNA helicase II/DEAD box polypeptide 21, and interacts with androgen receptor (AR). It functions in testis as a nuclear receptor transcriptional coregulator and may have a role in AR initiation and maintenance of spermatogenesis.
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Adult male alt=Drawing of a male octopus with one large arm ending in the sexual apparatus Octopuses are gonochoric and have a single, posteriorly-located gonad which is associated with the coelom. The testis in males and the ovary in females bulges into the gonocoel and the gametes are released here. The gonocoel is connected by the gonoduct to the mantle cavity, which it enters at the gonopore. An optic gland creates hormones that cause the octopus to mature and age and stimulate gamete production.
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Protogynous hermaphroditism in gobies consists of a male reproductive system with paired, secretory, accessory gonadal structures (AGSs) associated with the testis. While the AGS is almost universally present in male gobies, protogynous females need to develop AGSs for sex reversal to take place. The AGSs develop from precursive tissues (pAGSs), in the form of bilateral, ventrally localized cell masses, located close to the junction of the ovarian lobes and the oviduct. At the time of sex change, it undergoes rapid growth and diverts to form the AGSs.
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The two main molecular signalling pathways regulating stem cell behaviour in the testis GSC niche are the Jak-STAT and BMP signalling pathways. Jak-STAT signalling originates in the hub cells, where the ligand Upd is secreted to the GSCs and SSCs. This leads to activation of the Drosophila STAT, Stat92E, a transcription factor which effects GSC adhesion to the hub cells, and SSC self-renewal via Zfh-1. Jak-STAT signalling also influences the activation of BMP signalling, via the ligands Dpp and Gbb.
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Since fertilization chances for an individual male are proportional to the amount of sperm simultaneously transferred into a female, the size of the testes and resulting production of sperm increases in situations with high intrasexual competition. There is a negative correlation between testis size and variation in mate guarding behavior. In several species of the Australian Maluridae, as the competition level of sperm increases, testicular spermatogenic tissue also increases proportionately. This suggests that sperm competition selects for greater sperm production per unit volume of testicular tissue.
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Another elegiac comedy, Alda, also about a character named Pyrrhus, involves the same pun on pirus for both "pear tree" and "testis/penis". According to Vasvári, 9 and n9, this "protracted botanical symbolism" dates back at least to Classical Latin and forward as far as Chaucer and Boccacio. For its use in antiquity, see James N. Adams (1982), Latin Sexual Vocabulary (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press). For its use in Cligès, see L. Polak (1972), "Cligès, Fénice, et l'arbre d'amour", Romania, 93:303-16.
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PMDS is usually overseen because of the external symptoms such as the cryptorchidism and inguinal hernias, being assumed to be the only complication. Especially before the 21st century, these conditions were hard to diagnose due differences in imaging capabilities to the present. For this reason, there are cases where the older population, or those in poorer countries find out later. A case reported in 2013, exhibits a 50-year-old male with history of low testosterone levels, high cholesterol and the congenital absence of his right testis.
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Harbour JW, Roberson EDO, Anbunathan H, Onken MD, Worley LA, Bowcock AM. Recurrent mutations at codon 625 of the splicing factor SF3B1 in uveal melanoma. Nature genetics. 2013;45(2):133-135. doi:10.1038/ng.2523. In 2016, the Harbour lab discovered that the cancer-testis antigen PRAME is yet another prognostic biomarker in uveal melanoma. Both class 1 and class 2 uveal melanomas expressing PRAME were shown to have a worse prognosis, but these tumors may also be subject to immunotherapy directed against PRAME.
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The gene FAM193A is most abundantly expressed, by examination of spot intensity from its EST profile Hs.652364, in the embryonic, lymph node, nerve, uterus, testis, larynx tissues and somewhat in the blood. Unigene The gene is expressed through a number of health states, for example, adrenal, chondrosarcoma and uterine tumors, it is also implicated in soft tissue/ muscle tissue tumors. Unigene A microarray from BRAINSPAN.org within the Prenatal LCM microarray data shows high abundance of FAM193A expression in humans ubiquitously throughout the brain.
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Performing a BLASTn query search with the ESTs (expressed sequence tags) database for the cDNA clones derived from the probes, revealed that 53% of related transcripts were found in placental cells. A southern blot using hybridization of gag, pro, env derived probes revealed a complex distribution of HERV-Ws in the human haploid genome with 70 gag, 100 pro, and 30 env regions. With in vitro transcription techniques three suggested ORFs on chromosome 3 (gag), 6 (pro) and 7 (env) were detected and further analyzed revealing that the ORF on chromosome 7q21.2 uniquely encoded a glycosylated Env protein. Performing RealTime RT-PCR on adrenal gland, bone marrow, cerebellum, whole brain, fetal brain, fetal liver, heart, kidney, liver, lung, placenta, prostate, salivary gland, skeletal muscle, spinal cord, testis, thymus, thyroid gland, trachea, and uterus cells revealed 22 complete HERV-W families on chromosomes 1–3, 5–8, 10–12, 15, 19 and X. In silico expression data revealed that these HERV-W elements are randomly expressed in various tissues (brain, mammary gland, cerebrum, skin, testis, eye, embroyonic tissue, pancreatic islet, pineal gland, endocrine, retina, adipose tissue, placenta and muscle).
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Lastly, CRMP-5 is expressed not only in post-mitotic neurons of the olfactory bulb, olfactory epithelium, and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, but also in peripheral nerve axons and sensory neurons. Other families of CRMP also appear in peripheral tissues. Expression of CRMPs-1, -4, and -5 in the adult testis is detected only in the cell spermatid stage and CRMP-2 mRNA is found in lung tissue of the fetal mouse and adult human. The expression of CRMPs also can be found in the death or survival signaling of postmitotic neurons.
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Hypothesis that XX occurs in males because of the interaction of the testis-determining portion of the Y chromosome and part of the X chromosome, called the Xg gene, is generally supported by various data. The frequency of the Xg phenotype in XX males is closer to normal males' frequency than normal females' frequency. There have been at least four cases where XX males have inherited the Xg allele from their father, and at least nine cases where XX males did not inherit the allele from their father.
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NCBI GEO Human Tissue Expression Profile for C20orf196. RNA-Seq analysis has shown ubiquitous expression of c20orf196 in 26 human tissues: adrenal, appendix, bone marrow, brain, colon, duodenum, endometrium, esophagus, fat, gall bladder, heart, kidney, liver, lung, lymph node, ovary, pancreas, placenta, prostate, salivary gland, skin, small intestine, spleen, stomach, testis, thyroid, and urinary bladder. The highest C20orf196 mRNA levels were found in the lymph node, tonsil, thyroid, adrenal gland, prostate, pharynx, parathyroid, connective tissue, and bone marrow. C20orf196 was found to be expressed in soft tissue/muscle tissue tumors, lymphoma tumors, and pancreatic tumors.
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C16orf82 expression in humans has been observed in major organ systems including the heart, liver, brain, and kidney at a constant level. The tissue in which C16orf82 has been seen to be most highly expressed has been the testis, both by microarray experiments as well as RNA-seq. C16orf82 expression is also highly variable between individuals, with some expressing the gene in large amounts while others barely express the gene within the same tissue type. Micro RNA (miR-483) over expression has been shown to knock down C16orf82 expression.
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Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance, transport and fertilization, as well as for protection of eggs. They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called oothecae. Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized. For males, the reproductive system is the testis, suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body.
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Fertilization: a sperm's journey to and interaction with the oocyte. The Journal of clinical investigation, 120(4), 984-94.. In-vitro human experiments have also been conducted, suggesting that Izumo is required for human gamete fusion. [1] Through the use of Western Blot analyses, it has been shown that Izumo is only expressed in the testis and is found on mature spermatozoa. Ellerman DA, Pei J, Gupta S, Snell WJ, Myles D, Primakoff P. Izumo is part of a multiprotein family whose members form large complexes on mammalian sperm.
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Serine/threonine-protein phosphatase 2B catalytic subunit gamma isoform (PP2BC) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PPP3CC gene. Calmodulin- dependent protein phosphatase, calcineurin, is involved in a wide range of biologic activities, acting as a Ca(2+)-dependent modifier of phosphorylation status. In testis, the motility of the sperm is thought to be controlled by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation and a unique form of calcineurin appears to be associated with the flagellum. The calcineurin holoenzyme is composed of catalytic and regulatory subunits of 60 and 18 kD, respectively.
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UCH-L1 is a member of a gene family whose products hydrolyze small C-terminal adducts of ubiquitin to generate the ubiquitin monomer. Expression of UCH-L1 is highly specific to neurons and to cells of the diffuse neuroendocrine system and their tumors. It is abundantly present in all neurons (accounts for 1-2% of total brain protein), expressed specifically in neurons and testis/ovary. The catalytic triad of UCH-L1 contains a cysteine at position 90, an aspartate at position 176, and a histidine at position 161 that are responsible for its hydrolase activity.
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So-called "testis" in an adult animal is a receptacle of cells from larval males. This discovery revolutionized biological studies of rhizocephalans and related animals. While he was at the Worcester Foundation for Biomedical Research as a Dr. M.C. Chang's postdoctoral fellow (1960-1964), he witnessed and recorded the entire process of sperm penetration through the zona pellucida and fusion with the egg proper in living (hamster) egg, which was the first in mammals. He was one of few who began to study the process and mechanisms of mammalian fertilization using in vitro fertilization technique.
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NUT carcinoma (formerly NUT midline carcinoma), is a rare genetically defined, very aggressive squamous cell epithelial cancer that usually arises in the midline of the body and is characterized by a chromosomal rearrangement in the nuclear protein in testis gene. In approximately 75% of cases, the coding sequence of NUTM1 on chromosome 15q14 is fused to BRD4 or BRD3, which creates a chimeric gene that encodes the BRD-NUT fusion protein. The remaining cases, the fusion of NUTM1 is to an unknown partner gene, usually called NUT-variant.
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More contradictions exists with Latin Canon Law, such as in the Collectio canonum Hibernensis (Irish Collection of Canons), than with Vernacular Church law. Brehon law allows polygyny (albeit while citing the authority of the Old Testament) and divorce, among other actions that canon law expressly forbids.Binchy 1978, p ix At the same time it is clear that the two legal systems have borrowed from each other. Much Latin terminology has entered into Old Irish and into the legal system, such as a type of witness teist from Latin testis.
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Gonads start developing as a common primordium (an organ in the earliest stage of development), in the form of gonadal ridges, and only later are differentiated to male or female sex organs. The presence of the SRY gene, located on the Y chromosome and encoding the testis determining factor, determines male sexual differentiation. In the absence of the SRY gene from the Y chromosome, the female sex (ovaries instead of testes) will develop. The development of the gonads is a part of the development of the urinary and reproductive organs.
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Before then, the term classis, in addition to being a naval fleet, was a social class in one of the diachronic divisions of Roman society in accordance with property ownership under the Roman constitution. The word is a transliteration of Greek κλῆσις (clēsis, or "calling") used to rank army draftees by property from first to fifth class. Classicus refers to those in the primae classis ("first class"), such as the authors of polished works of Latinitas, or sermo urbanus. It contains nuances of the certified and the authentic, or testis classicus ("reliable witness").
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Some hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins play a key role in cancer cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis, suggesting possible involvement in carcinogenesis. Hormones are important agents in sex-related cancers, such as cancer of the breast, endometrium, prostate, ovary and testis and also of thyroid cancer and bone cancer. For example, the daughters of women who have breast cancer have significantly higher levels of estrogen and progesterone than the daughters of women without breast cancer.
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Loveland has published over 130 peer-reviewed manuscripts, and is an Associate Editor for Andrology. Her laboratory investigates the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underpin mammalian testis development and sperm production. The team's objective is to identify and characterize the molecular switches that regulate cell fate decisions in sperm precursor cells (germ cells) and in the somatic cells that support them. Specific research focus areas are : Signaling by activin/ TGFβ superfamily, Wnt and Hedgehog pathways, growth factor/hormone signaling cross- talk, and the contribution of regulated nuclear transport molecules to cellular development and stress responses.
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Aceview states that the gene is expressed 2.2 times the amount an average gene is expressed, and the sequence has been seen in the brain, testis, uterus, kidney, thymus, breast, kidney tumor, and 84 other places. C20orf96 has been found to bind to transcription factor binding sites AREB6, GATA-1, GATA-2, GATA-3, ATF6, c-Myc, Max, CHOP-10, AMLa, and C/EBPalpha. TYW5 and ALOXE3 are two proteins that interact with C20orf96. TYW5 is a protein coding gene and also incorporates tRNA modification in the nucleus.
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Thus, the knockout model shows that loss of the DMRT1 gene is associated with incomplete germ cell development leading to infertility, abnormal testicular formation, and/or feminization of the affected individual. Induced knockout of DMRT1 in adult male mice has been found to cause transdifferentiation of somatic cells in the testis to the equivalent cell types that would ordinarily be found in the ovary. Conversely, conditional expression of DMRT1 in the gonad of female mice caused the apparent transdifferentiation of ovarian somatic (granulosa) cells to the equivalent cell type (Sertoli) ordinarily found in males.
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When muscles are damaged, dysferlin containing vesicles accumulate at the site of injury, and by fusing together and to the membrane, they patch the leakage. In dysferlin- null muscles, these vesicles still accumulate at the damage site, but they cannot fuse and therefore, are unable to repair the damaged muscle cells. Otoferlin is another ferlin member in humans and it plays a role in exocytosis of synaptic vesicles at the auditory inner hair cell ribbon synapse. In adult fruit flies, a ferlin member called misfire is expressed in testis and ovaries.
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In addition, vitamin A1-deprived but all-trans-retinoic acid-supplemented male rats exhibit hypogonadism and infertility due to lack of local retinoic acid synthesis in the testis; similar treatment of female rats causes infertility due to fetal resorption caused by a lack of local retinoic acid synthesis in the embryo. The retinoic acid synthesis in testes is catalyzed primarily by the RALDH2 (ALDH1A2) aldehyde dehydrogenase. Suppressing this enzyme has been proposed as a possible way to make a male contraceptive pill, because retinoic acid is necessary for spermatogenesis in humans, much as in rats.
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Phareodus is a genus of freshwater fish from the Paleocene to the Eocene of Australia, Europe and North and South America. This genus includes at least four species,1997 "The species of †Phareodus (Teleostei: Osteoglossidae) from the Eocene of North America and their phylogenetic relationships." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17(3):487-505 P. testis (Leidy, 1873) and P. encaustus of North America, P. muelleri of Europe, and P. queenslandicus of Australia. Representatives have been found in the middle Eocene of Australia, Europe and North America, including the Green River Formation in Wyoming, United States.
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Nevertheless, despite the potential advantages of a trial of hormonal therapy, many surgeons do not consider the success rates high enough to be worth the trouble, since the surgery itself is usually simple and uncomplicated. In cases where the testes are identified preoperatively in the inguinal canal, orchiopexy is often performed as an outpatient and has a very low complication rate. An incision is made over the inguinal canal. The testis with accompanying cord structure and blood supply is exposed, partially separated from the surrounding tissues ("mobilized"), and brought into the scrotum.
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In vitro spermatogenesis is the process of creating male gametes (spermatozoa) outside of the body in a culture system. The process could be useful for fertility preservation, infertility treatment and may further develop the understanding of spermatogenesis at the cellular and molecular level. Spermatogenesis is a highly complex process and artificially rebuilding it in vitro is challenging. These include creating a similar microenvironment to that of the testis as well as supporting endocrine and paracrine signalling, and ensuring survival of the somatic and germ cells from spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) to mature spermatozoa.
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Zinc finger and BTB domain-containing protein 32 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the 1960 bp ZBTB32 gene. The 52 kDa protein (487 aa) is a transcriptional repressor and the gene is expressed in T and B cells upon activation, but also significantly in testis cells. It is a member of the Poxviruses and Zinc-finger (POZ) and Krüppel (POK) family of proteins, and was identified in multiple screens involving either immune cell tumorigenesis or immune cell development. The protein recruits histone modification enzymes to chromatin to affect gene activation.
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In scrotal mammals the epididymis is attached to the testes in an extra-abdominal position where the cauda epididymis extends beyond the lowest extremity of the testis. Hence, the cauda epididymis is exposed to the coolest of temperatures compared to all other reproductive structures. Whereas testicond reptiles contain an excurrent duct system, they lack male reproductive glands (absent seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands). Monotreme mammals are also testicond (like reptiles) and contain some, but not all (absent seminal vesicles) of the male reproductive glands observed in most metatherian and eutherian mammals.
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Sperm are immunogenic – that is they will cause an autoimmune reaction if transplanted from the testis into a different part of the body. This has been demonstrated in experiments using rats by Lansteiner (1899) and Metchinikoff (1900), mice and guinea pigs. The likely reason for their immunogenicity or rather antigenicity is that sperm first mature at puberty, after central tolerance has been established, therefore the body recognizes them as foreign and mounts an immune reaction against them. Therefore, mechanisms for their protection must exist in this organ to prevent any autoimmune reaction.
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Gonocytes are the precursors of spermatogonia that differentiate in the testis from primordial germ cells around week 7 of embryonic development and exist up until the postnatal period, when they become spermatogonia. Despite some uses of the term to refer to the precursors of oogonia, it was generally restricted to male germ cells. Germ cells operate as vehicles of inheritance by transferring genetic and epigenetic information from one generation to the next. Male fertility is cetered around continual spermatogonia which is dependent upon a high stem cell population.
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Anatomical evidence for the epididymis as the prime mover in the evolution of the scrotum. American Journal of Anatomy 152: 483-508. The evolutionary adaptive advantage of testicular descent into an extra-abdominal position may be related more to the enhanced sperm storage capacity of the epididymis at lower extra-abdominal temperatures than to the testis itself. Greater sperm storage capacity in the epididymis has been associated with enhanced fertility. In this context, the proportion (26% of total) of mature sperm stored intra-abdominally in the monotreme epididymisDjakiew D. & Jones J.C. (1981).
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Fbxo15 is a protein expressed in undifferentiated embryonic stem cells. It is expressed during coexpression of Oct3/4, c-Myc, Klf4, and SOX2, four genes identified to be important in embryonic stem cell self-renewal and differentiation repression. In mice having a beta-galactosidase gene knocked into the Fbx15 locus, stain was detected in ES cells, early embryos (from two- cell to blastocyst stages), and testis tissue. There is an enhancer site upstream of the Fbx15-encoding transcription gene that contains an octamer- like binding motif and a Sox-like binding motif.
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Zika can be transmitted from men and women to their sexual partners; most known cases involve transmission from symptomatic men to women. As of April 2016, sexual transmission of Zika has been documented in six countries – Argentina, Australia, France, Italy, New Zealand, and the United States – during the 2015 outbreak. ZIKV can persist in semen for several months, with viral RNA detected up to one year. The virus replicates in the human testis, where it infects several cell types including testicular macrophages, peritubular cells and germ cells, the spermatozoa precursors.
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Prophylactic surgery (also known as preventive surgery), is a form of surgery whose purpose is to minimize or prevent the risk of developing cancer in an organ or gland that has yet to develop cancer and is known to be at high risk of developing cancer. This form of preventive healthcare may include surgeries such as mastectomies, oophorectomies, colectomies and surgical corrections, such as the surgical correction of cryptorchidism or undescended testis. Another less common definition of prophylactic surgery also includes the prevention of other diseases, outcomes or even future appearance.
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The success of ICSI has also encouraged reproductive clinicians to look beyond the ejaculate and into the male reproductive tract to find sperm. Currently, sources of sperm routinely used for ICSI include sperm from the vas deferens, epididymis, and testicle. As ART has evolved, so too have novel FNA techniques to help diagnose and treat severe male infertility. An example of this is use of testicular FNA “mapping” to systemically assess and localize sperm for ART in men with azoospermia (no sperm count) and with testis failure characterized by “patchy” or “focal” spermatogenesis.
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Among his advances was the tubed pedicle graft, which maintained a flesh connection from the donor site until the graft established its own blood flow. Gillies' assistant, Archibald McIndoe, carried on the work into the Second World War as reconstructive surgery. In 1962, the first successful replantation surgery was performed – re-attaching a severed limb and restoring (limited) function and feeling. Transplant of a single gonad (testis) from a living donor was carried out in early July 1926 in Zaječar, Serbia, by a Russian émigré surgeon Dr. Peter Vasil'evič Kolesnikov.
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The C57BL/6 mouse has 23 IRG genes of which 21 may be functional in resistance to pathogens (6 are well characterized), whereas humans have evolved only 1 functional IRG gene (IRGM) and one pseudogene. Studies in mice have characterized the importance of the type 2 effector molecule IFNγ in various cell types and gone on to determine the importance of these proteins in intracellular pathogen resistance. Orthologous Irgc (aka: Cinema) genes are found in humans and mice. These orthologs are not IFN inducible and are expressed only in the testis of both mammals.
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Figure 2: Effects of Genetic Polymorphisms. Host polymorphisms within the IRG loci can alter the ability of cells to eliminate the vacuolated pathogen. Alternatively pathogens containing coding variations in effector proteins can circumvent the cellular response to infection to generate a pathogen permissive environment. The mouse genome encodes 23 IRGs, several of which have been demonstrated to be widely expressed (liver, heart, spleen, intestine, thymus, lung, testis, kidney, brain, skin) in a number of cell types, and are greatly up-regulated following exposure to the potent immune effector molecule interferon gamma, IFNγ.
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Gonadal dysgenesis is classified as any congenital developmental disorder of the reproductive system in the male or female. It is the atypical development of the gonads in an embryo, with reproductive tissue replaced with functionless, fibrous tissue, termed streak gonads. Streak gonads are a form of aplasia, resulting in hormonal failure that manifests as sexual infantism and infertility, with no initiation of puberty and secondary sex characteristics. Gonadal development is a genetically controlled process by the chromosomal sex (XX or XY) which directs the formation of the gonad (ovary or testis).
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If a single or combination of these genes are mutated or deleted, downstream signalling is disrupted, leading to malformation of male external genitalia. SRY acts on gene SOX9 which drives Sertoli cell formation and testis differentiation. An absence in SRY causes SOX9 to not be expressed at the appropriate time or concentration, leading to a deficiency in testosterone and Anti-Müllerian hormone production. Inadequate levels of testosterone and Anti-Müllerian hormone disrupts the development of Wolffian ducts and internal genitalia that are key to male reproductive tract development.
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Mixed gonadal dysgenesis, also known as X0/XY mosaicism or partial gonadal dysgenesis is a sex development disorder associated with sex chromosome aneuploidy and mosaicism of the Y chromosome. Mixed gonadal dysgenesis is the presence of two or more germ line cells. The degree of development of the male reproductive tract is determined by the ratio of germ line cells expressing the XY genotype. Manifestations of mixed gonadal dysgenesis are highly variable with asymmetry in gonadal development of testis and streak gonad, accounted for by the percentage of cells expressing XY genotype.
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Nominal expression of PTCHD4 was found in the brain, connective tissue, embryonic tissue, lungs, placenta, testis, trachea, and uterus, with the greatest expression in the trachea. Nominal expression was also found in the following disease states: chondrosarcoma, germ cell tumors, non-neoplasia, and uterine tumors. Protein localization was found in all tissues examined except the salivary glands, yet RNA expression was scarcely found anywhere. This may suggest that PTCHD4 protein is particularly resilient to degradation, and that it is only produced under key circumstances or at key life stages.
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H2B histone family, member W, testis-specific is a protein that in humans is encoded by the H2BFWT gene. Histones are basic nuclear proteins that are responsible for the nucleosome structure of the chromosomal fiber in eukaryotes. Two molecules of each of the four core histones (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) form an octamer, around which approximately 146 bp of DNA is wrapped in repeating units, called nucleosomes. The linker histone, H1, interacts with linker DNA between nucleosomes and functions in the compaction of chromatin into higher order structures.
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Expression of D3 contributes to the development of the brain, skin, liver, bone, ovary, testis, intestine, and brown adipose tissue. Introductory observations of D3-deficient mice indicate growth retardation and even some neonatal death. Due to its ability to activate or inactivate thyroid hormone, Dio3 coding of D3 could be a target for therapeutic intervention in insulin-related illness such as diabetes. In addition, an abnormal amount of Dio3 related to insufficient thyroid hormone levels could be responsible for the disruption of brain development in conjunction with alcohol exposure.
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Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that develops from the thin layer of tissue that covers many of the internal organs (known as the mesothelium). The most common area affected is the lining of the lungs and chest wall. Less commonly the lining of the abdomen and rarely the sac surrounding the heart, or the sac surrounding the testis may be affected. Signs and symptoms of mesothelioma may include shortness of breath due to fluid around the lung, a swollen abdomen, chest wall pain, cough, feeling tired, and weight loss.
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HNF-1α is a transcription factor expressed in organs of endoderm origin, including liver, kidneys, pancreas, intestines, stomach, spleen, thymus, testis, and keratinocytes and melanocytes in human skin. It has been shown to affect intestinal epithelial cell growth and cell lineages differentiation. For instance, HNF1A is an important cell-intrinsic transcription factor in adult B lymphopoiesis. The participation of HNF-1α in glucose metabolism and diabetes has been reported, including the involvement in GLUT1 and GLUT2 transporter expression in pancreatic β-cells and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 gene expression in pancreatic islets.
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Nandrolone decanoate is used for physique- and performance-enhancing purposes by competitive athletes, bodybuilders, and powerlifters. It is consumed by bodybuilders as per 8-12 weeks bulking cycles with some form of Testosterone as a base because, according to the studies: if consumed solo (i.e., without a base); it shuts down the natural production of Testosterone by altering blood–testis barrier components. Despite this fact, Nandrolone decanoate is one of the most popular injectable AAS worldwide, and nandrolone esters have been said to be the most popular AAS used by bodybuilders and in sports.
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CRF1 is expressed widely throughout both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the central nervous system, CRF1 is particularly found in the cortex, cerebellum, amygdala, hippocampus, olfactory bulb, ventral tegmental area, brainstem areas, and pituitary. In the pituitary, CRF1 stimulation triggers the activation of the POMC gene, which in turn causes the release of ACTH and β-endorphins from the anterior pituitary. In the peripheral nervous system, CRF1 is expressed at low levels in a wide variety of tissues, including the skin, spleen, heart, liver, adipose tissue, placenta, ovary, testis, and adrenal gland.
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Sperm midpiece size is tied to sperm competition in that individuals with a larger midpiece will have more mitochondria, and will thus have more highly motile sperm than those with a lower volume of mitochondria. Among humans, as with relative testis size and ejaculate volume, the size of the sperm midpiece is small compared to other primates, and is most similar in size to that of primates with low levels of sperm competition, supporting the theory that humans have had an evolutionary history of intermediate levels of sperm competition.
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The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the highly conserved cyclin family, whose members are characterized by a dramatic periodicity in protein abundance through the cell division cycle. Cyclins function as activating subunits of enzymatic complex together with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). Different cyclins exhibit distinct expression and degradation patterns that contribute to the temporal coordination of cell cycle events. Cyclin A1 was shown to be expressed in testis and brain, as well as in several leukemic cell lines, and is thought to primarily function in the control of meiosis.
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JAM-3 has been shown to be a primary regulator of the development of spermatids as well as the rest of the male reproductive system. Within the Sertoli cells of the male reproductive system, JAM-3 interacts with JAM-2 to influence the polarity of both round and elongated spermatids. JAM-1 and JAM-2 are also present in and contribute to the polarity of the blood-testis barrier. Studies have also shown that inactivation of JAM-3 has been shown to significantly impede fertility by blocking male germ cell development and proliferation.
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Humans, many mammals, insects and other animals have an XY sex-determination system. Humans have forty-six chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes, XX in females and XY in males. The Y chromosome must carry at least one essential gene which determines testicular formation (originally termed TDF). A gene in the sex-determining region of the short arm of the Y, now referred to as SRY, has been found to direct production of a protein, testis determining factor, which binds to DNA, inducing differentiation of cells derived from the genital ridges into testes.
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DNAJC30 is expressed in many tissues, including the brain, heart, kidney, liver, lung, spleen, stomach, and testis, though no transcripts were found in colon, small intestine, and muscle. This protein has been found to localize to the cytosol and mitochondria of cells. Though its exact biological function has yet to be elucidated, the centromeric location of DNAJC30 on the chromosome has led Merla et al. to postulate that it may contribute to functions such as subtle defects in cognition, transient hypercalcemia, and gastrointestinal problems experienced by Williams Beuren syndrome patients.
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NKX3-1 expression acts as a transcription factor that has been found to play a main role in prostate development and tumor suppression. The loss of NKX3-1 expression is frequently observed in prostate tumorigenesis and has been seen to be a result of allelic loss, methylation, and post transcriptional silencing. NKX3-1 expression is seen in prostate epithelium, testis, ureter, and pulmonary bronchial mucous glands. NKX3-1 binds to DNA to suppress transcription as well as interacts with transcription factors such as serum response factor, to enhance transcriptional activation.
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J. Urol. 159: 1951, 1998 With this technique, one, two or three “vest” sutures of 10-0 suture should be placed near the opening of the epididymal tubule to allow the epididymal tubule to “invaginate” into the vas deferens, theoretically creating a connection, that, based on studies in animal models, has an improved watertight seal and possibly a higher chance for success. Once the vas- deferens-epididymis connection is completed, the covering around the testis is replaced. Vasoepididymostomy is often considered one of the most technically challenging operations in the field of urology.
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WW domain-containing proteins are found in all eukaryotes and play an important role in the regulation of a wide variety of cellular functions such as protein degradation, transcription, and RNA splicing. This gene encodes a protein which contains 2 WW domains and a short- chain dehydrogenase/reductase domain (SRD). The highest normal expression of this gene is detected in hormonally regulated tissues such as testis, ovary, and prostate. This expression pattern and the presence of an SRD domain suggest a role for this gene in steroid metabolism.
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The RFX proteins were originally cloned and characterized due to their high affinity for a cis-acting promoter sequence, called the Xbox, found in all MHC class II genes. Levels of mRNA encoding this protein as well as RFX2 and RFX3 are found to be consistently elevated in the testis and are variable in other tissues throughout the body. RFX1 contains a C-terminal sequence with no apparent homology to other RFX proteins. This C-terminal tail contains an acidic region that is thought to aid in crossing the nuclear membrane.
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In human males, the cremaster muscle is a thin layer of striated muscle found in the inguinal canal and scrotum between the external and internal layers of spermatic fascia, surrounding the testis and spermatic cord. The cremaster muscle is a paired structure, there being one on each side of the body. Anatomically, the lateral cremaster muscle originates from the internal oblique muscle, just superior to the inguinal canal, and the middle of the inguinal ligament. The medial cremaster muscle, which sometimes is absent, originates from the pubic tubercle and sometimes the lateral pubic crest.
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In general, HSPA1L is widely distributed across tissues at low abundances, but in particular, it is constitutively and abundantly expressed in the testis. Along with other heat shock proteins, this protein stabilizes existing proteins against aggregation and mediates the folding of newly translated proteins in the cytosol and in organelles. In order to properly fold non-native proteins, this protein interacts with the hydrophobic peptide segments of proteins in an ATP- controlled fashion. Though the exact mechanism still remains unclear, there are at least two alternative modes of action: kinetic partitioning and local unfolding.
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The body wall is thin and transparent, but when illuminated, shows a light green tint. It swims actively by lateral undulating movements. The setae are one-pointed. Hrabea ogumai is similar to Stylodrilus subgenus Bythonomus, but lacks the transversal vessels of the middle and posterior parts of the body, has one testis and male funnel (in segment X) instead of two (in segments IX and X), and has a pear-shaped atrium, to which the vas deferens is connected at the apical end, rather than at the lower half.
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Hermaphroditism is extremely rare in the insect world despite the comparatively common nature of this condition in the crustaceans. Several species of Icerya, including the pestiferous cottony-cushion scale, Icerya purchasi, are known to be hermaphrodites that reproduce by self- fertilising. Occasionally reproductively functioning males are produced from unfertilised eggs but generally individuals are monoecious and with a female- like nature but possessing an ovotestis which is part testis part ovary and sperm is transmitted ovarially from the female to her young.THE EVOLUTION OF ALTERNATIVE GENETIC SYSTEMS IN INSECTS.
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VPAC2 is found in the CNS, pancreas, skeletal muscle, heart, kidney, adipose tissue, testis, and stomach. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) receptors are activated by the endogenous peptides VIP, PACAP-38, PACAP-27, peptide histidine isoleucineamide (PHI), peptide histidine methionineamide (PHM) and peptide histidine valine (PHV). “PACAP type II receptors” (VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors) display comparable affinity for PACAP and VIP, whereas PACAP-27 and PACAP-38 are >100 fold more potent than VIP as agonists of most isoforms of the PAC1 receptor.
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Lung buds removed from KLF2-deficient mouse embryos and cultured from normal tracheobronchial trees. In order to circumvent embryonic lethality usually observed in KLF2-deficient embryos, KLF2 homozygous null mouse embryonic stem cells were constructed and used to produce chimeric animals. These KLF2-deficient embryonic stem cells contribute significantly to development of skeletal muscle, spleen, heart, liver, kidney, stomach, brain, uterus, testis, and skin, but not to the development of the lung. These embryos had lungs arrested in the late canalicular stage of lung development, with undilated acinar tubules.
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Evolution has caused sexually selected adaptations to occur in penis and testis size in order to maximise reproductive success and minimise sperm competition. Sperm competition has caused the human penis to evolve in length and size for sperm retention and displacement. To achieve this, the penis must be of sufficient length to reach any rival sperm and to maximally fill the vagina. In order to ensure that the female retains the male's sperm, the adaptations in length of the human penis have occurred so that the ejaculate is placed close to the female cervix.
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The germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF), also known as RTR (retinoid receptor- related testis-associated receptor) or NR6A1 (nuclear receptor subfamily 6, group A, member 1), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NR6A1 gene. GCNF is a member of the nuclear receptor family of intracellular transcription factors . In adults, GCNH is expressed mainly in the germ cells of gonads and is involved in the regulation of embryogenesis and germ cell differentiation. Its expression pattern suggests that it may be involved in neurogenesis and germ cell development.
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JQ1 is a thienotriazolodiazepine and a potent inhibitor of the BET family of bromodomain proteins which include BRD2, BRD3, BRD4, and the testis-specific protein BRDT in mammals. BET inhibitors structurally similar to JQ1 are being tested in clinical trials for a variety of cancers including NUT midline carcinoma. It was developed by the James Bradner laboratory at Brigham and Women's Hospital and named after chemist Jun Qi. The chemical structure was inspired by patent of similar BET inhibitors by Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma [WO/2009/084693]. Structurally it is related to benzodiazepines.
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These studies establish that ENaC is an important regulator of fluid level in the luminal side of cells with motile cilia in the female reproductive and respiratory tract. More recently, they showed that these sodium channels are also located in the seminiferous tubules in the testis and in the tail and head region of sperm. Systemic pseudohypoaldosteronism patients with mutated ENaC subunits may lose significant amount salt in sweat especially at hot climates. To identify the sites of salt loss, Hanukoglu brothers examined the localization of ENaC in the human skin.
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The presence of the SCB allows Sertoli cells to control the adluminal environment in which germ cells (spermatocytes, spermatids and sperm) develop by influencing the chemical composition of the luminal fluid. The barrier also prevents passage of cytotoxic agents (bodies or substances that are toxic to cells) into the seminiferous tubules. The fluid in the lumen of seminiferous tubules is quite different from plasma; it contains very little protein and glucose but is rich in androgens, estrogens, potassium, inositol and Glutamic and Aspartic acid. This composition is maintained by blood–testis barrier.
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Studies revealed a promoter associated with a CpG island that accounts for most of the TLN2 expression in adult tissues. This promoter is separated from the first coding exon by approximately > 200 kb of alternatively spliced noncoding exons. The testis and kidney talin-2 isoforms lack the N-terminal 50% of the protein, and evidence suggests that this is the isoform expressed in elongating spermatids. Talin is also post- translationally modified via calpain 2-mediated cleavage, which may target it for ubiquitin-proteasome-mediated degradation and turnover of associated cell adhesion structures.
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Research has indicated a dispersal via land bridge, with waves of adaptive radiation seeming to have swept the Americas from north to south. Andrias scheuchzeri In 1726, the Swiss physician Johann Jakob Scheuchzer described a fossil as Homo diluvii testis (Latin: Evidence of a diluvian human), believing it to be the remains of a human being who drowned in the biblical flood. The Teylers Museum in Haarlem, Netherlands, bought the fossil in 1802, where it is still exhibited. In 1812, the fossil was examined by Georges Cuvier, who recognized that it was not human.
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The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the lin-28 family, which is characterized by the presence of a cold-shock domain and a pair of CCHC zinc finger domains. This gene is highly expressed in testis, fetal liver, placenta, and in primary human tumors and cancer cell lines. It is negatively regulated by microRNAs that target sites in the 3' UTR, and overexpression of this gene in primary tumors is linked to the repression of let-7 family of microRNAs and derepression of let-7 targets, which facilitates cellular transformation.
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The first visible signs of PMDS after birth is Cryptorchidism (undescended testes) either unilaterally or bilaterally. Along with Cryptorchidism, is also inguinal hernias which may be presented unilaterally (affects one testicle) or bilaterally (affects both testicles). Adults who have been oblivious to this condition may be presented with haematuria, which is when blood appears in urine because of hormonal imbalances. PMDS Type I, is also referred to as ‘Hernia Uteri Inguinalis’, which exhibits one descended testis that has also pulled the fallopian tube and sometimes uterus, through the inguinal canal.
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H-Y antigen is a male tissue specific antigen. Originally thought to trigger the formation of testes (via loci, an autosomal gene that generates the antigen and one that generates the receptor,) it is now known that it does not trigger the formation of testes but may be activated by the formation of testes. There are several antigens which qualify as H-Y as defined by rejection of male skin grafts in female hosts or detected by cytotoxic T cells or antibodies. One H-Y, secreted by the testis, defined by antibodies, is identical to müllerian-inhibiting substance (AMH gene).
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Increasingly, clinicians (physicians and other healthcare professionals who provide direct patient care) are using the ultrasound in office and hospital practice (point-of-care ultrasound). Sonography is effective for imaging soft tissues of the body. Superficial structures such as muscle, tendon, testis, breast, thyroid and parathyroid glands, and the neonatal brain are imaged at a higher frequency (7–18 MHz), which provides better linear (axial) and horizontal (lateral) resolution. Deeper structures such as liver and kidney are imaged at a lower frequency 1–6 MHz with lower axial and lateral resolution as a price of deeper tissue penetration.
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Although UCH-L1 protein expression is specific to neurons and testis/ovary tissue, it has been found to be expressed in certain lung-tumor cell lines. This abnormal expression of UCH-L1 is implicated in cancer and has led to the designation of UCH-L1 as an oncogene. Furthermore there is evidence that UCH-L1 might play a role in the pathogenesis of membranous glomerulonephritis as UCH-L1 de novo expression in podocytes was seen in PHN, the rat model of human mGN. This UCH-L1 expression is thought to induce at least in part podocyte hypertrophy.
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About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal mature placenta. Some 350 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the placenta and fewer than 100 genes are highly placenta specific. The corresponding specific proteins are mainly expressed in trophoblasts and have functions related to female pregnancy. Examples of proteins with elevated expression in placenta compared to other organs and tissues are PEG10 and the cancer testis antigen PAGE4 and expressed in cytotrophoblasts, CSH1 and KISS1 expressed in syncytiotrophoblasts, and PAPPA2 and PRG2 expressed in extravillous trophoblasts.
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However, the corresponding region in the Y appears far shorter and lacks regions that are conserved in the X throughout primate species, implying a genetic degeneration for Y in that region. Because males have only one X chromosome, they are more likely to have an X chromosome-related disease. It is estimated that about 10% of the genes encoded by the X chromosome are associated with a family of "CT" genes, so named because they encode for markers found in both tumor cells (in cancer patients) as well as in the human testis (in healthy patients).
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This nuclear gene encodes a mitochondrial member of the thioredoxin family, a group of small multifunctional redox-active proteins. The encoded protein is ubiquitously expressed in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, but demonstrates especially high expression in tissues with heavy metabolic activity, including the stomach, testis, ovary, liver, heart, neurons, and adrenal gland. It may play important roles in the regulation of the mitochondrial membrane potential and in protection against oxidant-induced apoptosis. Specifically, the ability of TXN2 to reduce disulfide bonds enables the protein to regulate mitochondrial redox and, thus, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).
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They placed it in the genus Amphistomum, because of its obvious location of posterior sucker; the species was named Amphistomum hominis, as it was found in human. In 1902, F. Fischoeder recognised the affinity with other species and tentatively placed it in the genus Gastrodiscus (Leuckart, 1877). However, the generic name was largely recognised as a synonym; it was then known as Amphistomum (Gastrodiscus) hominis. With a fresh look, J. W. W. Stephens re-described the parasite in 1906, and clearly noted the overlooked relatively small ovary and interpretation of the posterior testis as an ovary in the original description.
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Aside from the cellular form, the only other known isoform is Gelsolin-3, an identical non-secreted protein containing an 11 AA, rather than 24 AA, N-terminal extension. It has been found in brain, testis, and lung oligodendrocytes, and is reportedly involved in myelin remodeling during spiralization around the axon. Plasma Gelsolin is highly conserved and its only known mutations are single point mutations. One of several such mutations leads to Finnish Familial Amyloidosis, a disorder in which pGSN becomes more conformationally flexible and susceptible to enzymatic cleavage resulting in accumulation of peptide fragments into amyloid fibrils.
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It is of an oval form, the long axis of the oval being vertical; it varies in size in different subjects, and is much larger in the male than in the female. It is bounded, above and laterally, by the arched lower margin of the transversalis fascia; below and medially, by the inferior epigastric vessels. It transmits the spermatic cord in the male and the round ligament of the uterus in the female. From its circumference a thin funnel- shaped membrane, the infundibuliform fascia, is continued around the cord and testis, enclosing them in a distinct covering.
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Spermatogonial stem cell therapy (SSCT) has been proposed as a potential method to restore fertility in such cancer survivors who desire to have children later in life. The method has been tested in numerous animal models including non-human primates; Hermann et al. took out and isolated SSCs from prepubertal and adult rhesus macaques before treating them with busulfan (an alkylating agent used in chemotherapy). SSCs were then injected back into the rete testis of the same animal that they were taken from ~10–12 weeks after treatment; and spermatogenesis was observed in almost all recipients (16/17).
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Duplication of genital tract that does not involve functional impairment does not require surgical intervention; however, plastic surgery can be carried out to improve patients’ self-esteem and social status. For duplication of female genital tract, the septum between duplicated organs such as vagina, cervix, and vulva are resected to combine two duplicated organs into one or one duplicated organ could be detached and excised. For male patients, one duplicated genitalia can be removed, and duplicated scrotum and testis can be either combined or excised. The external genitalia of both male and female can be reconstructed by midline apposition of tissues.
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Hormones are important agents in sex-related cancers such as cancer of the breast, endometrium, prostate, ovary, and testis, and also of thyroid cancer and bone cancer. For example, the daughters of women who have breast cancer have significantly higher levels of estrogen and progesterone than the daughters of women without breast cancer. These higher hormone levels may explain why these women have higher risk of breast cancer, even in the absence of a breast-cancer gene. Similarly, men of African ancestry have significantly higher levels of testosterone than men of European ancestry, and have a correspondingly much higher level of prostate cancer.
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Dr. Goldstein is a specialist in male infertility and scrotal disorders and is internationally renowned for his pioneering work on microsurgical management of male infertility such as vasectomy reversals, varicocelectomy, Hydrocele, Inguinal hernia repair and testis-sparing testicular tumor excision. He was the first American surgeon to be trained in, and perform, the Chinese method of no-scalpel vasectomy. Dr. Goldstein's research has shown that there is a direct link between varicocele and low testosterone and varicocele and loss of fertility in men. His research has also shown that the presence of varicoceles can run in families.
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Loveland received her undergraduate and PhD degrees at Duke University in the United States, studying the molecular basis of mammalian fertilization. She then engaged in postdoctoral studies at Howard Hughes Medical Institute with the University of Texas, before moving to Australia in 1989 to join Monash University. Loveland is a National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia senior research fellow (since 2000) and is a fellow of the Society for the Study of Reproduction. She is a research group head for Testis Development and Male Germ Cell Biology, and head of Postgraduate Studies, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health.
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The internal iliac lymph nodes (or hypogastric) surround the internal iliac artery and its branches (the hypogastric vessels), and receive the lymphatics corresponding to the distribution of the branches of it, i. e., they receive lymphatics from all the pelvic viscera, from the deeper parts of the perineum, including the membranous and cavernous portions of the urethra, and from the buttock and back of the thigh. The internal iliac lymph nodes also drain the superior half of the rectum, above the pectinate line. It does not receive lymph from the ovary or testis, which drain to the paraaortic lymph nodes.
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The A-kinase anchor proteins (AKAPs) are a group of structurally diverse proteins, which have the common function of binding to the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (PKA) and confining the holoenzyme to discrete locations within the cell. This gene encodes a member of the AKAP family, and is expressed in testis only. The encoded protein contains an RII- binding domain, and is predicted to participate in protein-protein interactions with the R-subunit of the PKA. This protein is localized to the ribs of the fibrous sheath in the principal piece of the sperm tail.
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The second phase, in which the testes move through the inguinal canal into the scrotum, is dependent on androgens (most importantly testosterone). In rodents, androgens induce the genitofemoral nerve to release calcitonin gene-related peptide, which produces rhythmic contractions of the gubernaculum, a ligament which connects the testis to the scrotum, but a similar mechanism has not been demonstrated in humans. Maldevelopment of the gubernaculum, or deficiency or insensitivity to either AMH or androgen can, therefore, prevent the testes from descending into the scrotum. Some evidence suggests an additional paracrine hormone, referred to as descendin, may be secreted by the testes.
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Co-culture allows for the interactions between cell populations to be observed and experimented on, which is seen as an advantage over the monoculture model. Isolated cell culture, specifically co-culture of testis tissue, has been a useful technique for examining the influences of specific factors such as hormones or different feeder cells on the progression of spermatogenesis in vitro. For example, factors such as temperature, feeder cell influence and the role of testosterone and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) have all been investigated using isolated cell culture techniques. Studies have concluded that different factors can influence the culture of germ cells e.g.
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The advantage of using this method is that it maintains the natural spatial arrangement of the seminiferous tubules. However, hypoxia is a recurring problem in these cultures where the low oxygen supply hinders the development and maturation of spermatids (significantly more in adult than immature testis tissues). Other challenges with this type of culture include maintaining the structure of the seminiferous tubules which makes it more difficult for longer-term cell cultures as the tissue structures can flatten out making it hard to work with. To resolve some of these issues, 3D cultures can be used.
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The EST profile shows that, in humans, SOGA2 is highly expressed in many sites throughout the body, including bone, brain, ear, eye, and many others. There are a large number of transcripts in liver cancer samples. Human microarray data show that SOGA2 is moderately expressed, with especially high expression in brain (especially the cerebellum and hippocampus), colon, pituitary gland, small intestine, spinal cord, testis and fetal brain. Brain-tissue-specific microarray data show that SOGA2 has high expression throughout the posterior lobe of the cerebellar hemispheres and posterial lobe of the vermis in the mouse brain.
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Antisperm antibodies (ASA) have been considered as infertility cause in around 10–30% of infertile couples. ASA production are directed against surface antigens on sperm, which can interfere with sperm motility and transport through the female reproductive tract, inhibiting capacitation and acrosome reaction, impaired fertilization, influence on the implantation process, and impaired growth and development of the embryo. Risk factors for the formation of antisperm antibodies in men include the breakdown of the blood‑testis barrier, trauma and surgery, orchitis, varicocele, infections, prostatitis, testicular cancer, failure of immunosuppression and unprotected receptive anal or oral sex with men.
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ATP-binding cassette sub-family A member 12 also known as ATP-binding cassette transporter 12 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ABCA12 gene. ABCA12 belongs to a group of genes called the ATP-binding cassette family, which makes proteins that transport molecules across cell membranes. The ABCA12 gene is active in some types of skin cells and in several other tissues, such as testis, placenta, lung, stomach, and fetal brain and liver. This protein appears to be essential for normal development of the skin, which provides a barrier between the body and its surrounding environment.
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The human penis may have been selected to displace seminal fluids implanted in the female reproductive tract by a rival male. Specifically, the shape of the coronal ridge may promote displacement of seminal fluid from a previous mating via thrusting action during sexual intercourse. A 2003 study by Gordon G. Gallup and colleagues concluded that one evolutionary purpose of the thrusting motion characteristic of intense intercourse is for the penis to “upsuck” another man's semen before depositing its own. Evolution to increase ejaculate volume in the presence of sperm competition has a consequence on testis size.
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Amplification, sequencing, mapping and validation exon–exon junction Double-stranded cDNA of eight human tissues (brain, heart, kidney, testis, liver, spleen, lung, and skeletal muscle) were generated with a cDNA amplification, and the purified DNA was directly used to generate a sequencing library with the ‘‘Genomic DNA sample prep kit’’ (Illumina). This library was subsequently sequenced on an Illumina Genome Analyzer 2 platform. Then, reads (35 or 75 nt) were mapped on to the reference human genome (hg19) and the predicted spliced amplicons with Bowtie software. Only uniquely mapping reads with no mismatch were considered to validate a splice site (transcript).
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During gestation, the cells of the primordial gonad that lie along the urogenital ridge are in a bipotential state, meaning they possess the ability to become either male cells (Sertoli and Leydig cells) or female cells (follicle cells and theca cells). TDF initiates testis differentiation by activating male-specific transcription factors that allow these bipotential cells to differentiate and proliferate. TDF accomplishes this by upregulating SOX9, a transcription factor with a DNA-binding site very similar to TDF's. SOX9 leads to the upregulation of fibroblast growth factor 9 (Fgf9), which in turn leads to further upregulation of SOX9.
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Androgen-binding protein (ABP) is a glycoprotein (beta-globulin) produced by the Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis that binds specifically to testosterone (T), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and 17-beta- estradiol. Because ABP binds to T and DHT, these hormones are made less lipophilic and become concentrated within the luminal fluid of the seminiferous tubules. The higher levels of these hormones enable spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules and sperm maturation in the epididymis. ABP has the same amino acid sequence as sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG); the difference is the site of production and the addition of different sugar moieties.
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Nettie Stevens and Edmund Beecher Wilson are credited with independently discovering, in 1905, the chromosomal XY sex-determination system, i.e. the fact that males have XY sex chromosomes and females have XX sex chromosomes.John L. Heilbron (ed.), The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science, Oxford University Press, 2003, "genetics". The first clues to the existence of a factor that determines the development of testis in mammals came from experiments carried out by Alfred Jost,Jost A., Recherches sur la differenciation sexuelle de l’embryon de lapin, Archives d'anatomie microscopique et de morphologie experimentale, 36: 271 – 315, 1947.
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5α-R1 is expressed in fetal scalp and nongenital skin of the back, anywhere from 5 to 50 times less than in the adult. 5α-R2 is expressed in fetal prostates similar to adults. 5α-R1 is expressed mainly in the epithelium and 5α-R2 the stroma of the fetal prostate. Scientists looked for 5α-R2 expression in fetal liver, adrenal, testis, ovary, brain, scalp, chest, and genital skin, using immunoblotting, and were only able to find it in genital skin. After birth, the 5α-R1 is expressed in more locations, including the liver, skin, scalp and prostate.
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Reproductive immunology refers to a field of medicine that studies interactions (or the absence of them) between the immune system and components related to the reproductive system, such as maternal immune tolerance towards the fetus, or immunological interactions across the blood-testis barrier. The concept has been used by fertility clinics to explain the fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages and pregnancy complications observed when this state of immunological tolerance is not successfully achieved. Immunological therapy is the new up and coming method for treating many cases of previously "unexplained infertility" or recurrent miscarriage.Pearson, H. Immunity’s Pregnant Pause.
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Further analyses by Arthur Looss, though, showed significant differences from the general features of Opisthorchis, particularly on the highly branched testes. He created a new genus Clonorchis (from Greek klon meaning "twig/branch", orkhis meaning "testis") in 1907. Similar to Baelz, he differentiated the larger species as Clonorchis sinensis, which is mostly found in China, and the smaller species as C. endemicum, found mostly in Japan. In 1912, Harujiro Kobayashi corrected the classification that the differences in sizes were due to the nature of the host and intensity of infection, and had nothing to do with the biology.
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Northern blot analyses reveal INMT messenger RNA (mRNA) to be highly expressed in rabbit lung, and in human thyroid, adrenal gland, and lung. Intermediate levels of expression are found in human heart, skeletal muscle, trachea, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, testis, prostate, placenta, lymph node, and spinal cord. Low to very low levels of expression are noted in rabbit brain, and human thymus, liver, spleen, kidney, colon, ovary, and bone marrow. INMT mRNA expression is absent in human peripheral blood leukocytes, whole brain, and in tissue from 7 specific brain regions (thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, caudate nucleus, hippocampus, amygdala, substantia nigra, and corpus callosum).
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Further, human tissues that lack some sort of HERV expression could not be found which suggests that HERVs are permanent members of the human transcriptome. Although expression of HERV-W is prevalent in the whole body there are two tissues whose expression levels are higher than the rest. The HERV-W derived element of chromosome 12p11.21 and 7q21.2 had 42 hits from the env gene in pancreatic islet tissues and 224 hits (11 gag, 41 pol, 164 env) in placenta, testis, and embryotic tissues, respectively. The HERV-W element on 7q21.2 encodes for ERVWE-1, which was named synctin-1.
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In 1793, word came of Lady Sheffield's death; Gibbon immediately left Lausanne and set sail to comfort a grieving but composed Sheffield. His health began to fail critically in December, and at the turn of the new year, he was on his last legs. Gibbon is believed to have suffered from an extreme case of scrotal swelling, probably a hydrocele testis, a condition which causes the scrotum to swell with fluid in a compartment overlying either testicle. In an age when close-fitting clothes were fashionable, his condition led to a chronic and disfiguring inflammation that left Gibbon a lonely figure.
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However, unambiguously identifying ncRNAs within these cDNA libraries is challenging since it can be difficult to distinguish protein-coding transcripts from non-coding transcripts. It has been suggested through multiple studies that testis, and neural tissues express the greatest amount of long non-coding RNAs of any tissue type. Using FANTOM5, 27,919 long ncRNAs have been identified in various human sources. Quantitatively, lncRNAs demonstrate ~10-fold lower abundance than mRNAs in a population of cells, which is explained by higher cell-to-cell variation of expression levels of lncRNA genes in the individual cells, when compared to protein-coding genes.
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Vitamin A-deprived rats can be kept in good general health with supplementation of retinoic acid. This reverses the growth-stunting effects of vitamin A deficiency, as well as early stages of xerophthalmia. However, such rats show infertility (in both male and females) and continued degeneration of the retina, showing that these functions require retinal or retinol, which are interconvertible but which cannot be recovered from the oxidized retinoic acid. The requirement of retinol to rescue reproduction in vitamin A deficient rats is now known to be due to a requirement for local synthesis of retinoic acid from retinol in testis and embryos.
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The DAZ (Deleted in AZoospermia) gene family encodes potential RNA binding proteins that are expressed in prenatal and postnatal germ cells of males and females. The protein encoded by this gene is localized to the nucleus and cytoplasm of fetal germ cells and to the cytoplasm of developing oocytes. In the testis, this protein is localized to the nucleus of spermatogonia but relocates to the cytoplasm during meiosis where it persists in spermatids and spermatozoa. Transposition and amplification of this autosomal gene during primate evolution gave rise to the DAZ gene cluster on the Y chromosome.
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Like Dr. Paolo Sassone-Corsi wrote in this article CREM is “a master-switch regulator in testis”. It plays an important role in the regulation of the expression of post-meiotic genes, and this has been supported by several studies using CREM-mutation mice. The results showed the first step in the process of sperm formation would be blocked if the germ cell development in mice CREM gene were disrupted. The cAMP response element sites can be found in the promoter region of some postmeiotic genes, so that the CREM can target and regulate these genes.
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SCNN1A, SCNN1B, and SCNN1G are commonly expressed in tight epithelia that have low water permeability. The major organs where ENaC is expressed include parts of the kidney tubular epithelia, the respiratory airway, the female reproductive tract, testis, including, spermatogonia in the seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells, and spermatozoa, colon and salivary glands. In the skin, SCNN1A is expressed in the keratinocytes in the epidermal layer, in the sebaceous sweat glands, and the smooth muscle cells mostly within the cytoplasm. In contrast, in the eccrine sweat glands ENaC is mostly located on the luminal surface of eccrine duct epithelia.
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Prolonged spermatogenesis relies on the maintenance of SSCs, however, this maintenance declines with age and leads to infertility. Mice between 12 and 14 months of age show decreased testis weight, reduced spermatogenesis and SSC content. Although stem cells are regarded as having the potential to infinitely replicate in vitro, factors provided by the niche are crucial in vivo. Indeed, serial transplantation of SSCs from male mice of different ages into young mice 3 months of age, whose endogenous spermatogenesis had been ablated, was used to estimate stem cell content given that each stem cell would generate a colony of spermatogenesis.
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IL-37a,b,c are being expressed in a variety of tissues - thymus, lung, colon, uterus, bone marrow. It is produced by immune cells, for example natural killer cells, activated B lymphocytes, monocytes but also by keratinocytes or epithelial cells. Some IL-37 isoforms are tissue specific: IL-37a - brain IL-37b - kidney, bone marrow, blood, skin, respiratory and urogenital tract IL-37c - heart IL-37d - bone marrow, testis IL-37 same as the other members of the interleukin-1 family is synthesized in a precursor form and for a full activation is a cleavage by caspase 1 needed.
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Pevsner, Nikolaus & Cherry, Bridget, The Buildings of England: Devon, London, 2004, p.728 Beaumont died on 12 June 1473. His will was dated 1 January 1472/3 and requested that a marble stone should be laid on his body, with his arms graven on it, and his portraiture of copper, with this inscription on it: (citing Pole) > Testis sis tu Christe, quod non-jacet hic lapis iste Corpus ut ornetur, sed > ut spiritus memoretur. Clearly this had not been performed by 1488 as in that year his younger half- brother and heir Thomas Beaumont (died 1488) repeated the request in his own will.
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In males, the sex-determining region Y (SRY) gene on the Y chromosome suppresses Mullerian duct development, by initiating the production of anti- Mullerian hormone by the Sertoli cells of the testis. The Mullerian ducts only develop in the absence of anti-Mullerian hormone, where the Wolffian ducts regress. Development of the female reproductive tract begins at approximately week 8 of embryonic development, and development of the Mullerian duct system is typically complete by the end of the first trimester. The Mullerian ducts develop to give rise to the fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and upper two- thirds of the vagina.
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Imaging presented the patient with three cystic masses, with similar structures to a uterus and ovary, thus PMDS. During operation, the surgeons found malignant degeneration of the Mullerian remnants which occurs to the body if PMDS is unnoticed for a long period of time. The cause of the complication presented to the male patient is due mainly to the unidentified bilateral cryptorchidism since birth, as doctors at that time assumed the complication was just the “congenital absence of his right testis”. Overlooking the symptoms of PDMS can cause permanent negative effects such as infertility and future malignancies as shown by the male patient.
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In the early hours of 29 April 2017, monitoring group Turkey Blocks identified loss of access to all language editions of Wikipedia throughout Turkey. The block came after Turkish authorities demanded Wikipedia "remove content by writers supporting terror and of linking Turkey to terror groups"; a demand for which the government stated that it did not receive a satisfactory response. Before, Turkey had only censored specific articles on Turkish Wikipedia, such as "Kadın üreme organları" (vulva), "insan penisi" (human penis), "2015 Türkiye genel seçim anketleri" (2015 Turkey general election polls) "vajina" (vagina) and "testis torbası" (scrotum). There was no court decision for this censorship.
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SOX1 is a gene that encodes a transcription factor with a HMG-box (high mobility group) DNA-binding domain and functions primarily in neurogenesis. SOX1, SOX2 and SOX3, members of the SOX gene family (specifically the SOXB1 group), contain transcription factors related to SRY, the testis-determining factor. SOX1 exerts its importance in its role in development of the central nervous system (neurogenesis) and in particular the development of the eye, where it is functionally redundant with SOX3 and to a lesser degree SOX2, and maintenance of neural progenitor cell identity. SOX1 expression is restricted to the neuroectoderm by proliferating progenitor cells in the tetrapod embryo.
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The UBE2Z gene is ubiquitously expressed in human tissues, and its expression is relatively high in placenta, pancreas, spleen and testis. Notably, its expression in cancer tissues is much higher than in relevant normal tissues, especially in kidney, lymph node, colon and ovary cancer. As an E2 member of the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme family, UBE2Z mainly participates in the second step of protein ubiquitination, which is a major component of protein degradation machinery. Specifically, UBE2Z receives ubiquitin (Ub) from ubiquitin-activating enzyme (E1), mediates the transfer of Ub from E2 to substrate, directly or indirectly with the help of ligase enzyme (E3), which interacts with the substrate and E2-Ub complex.
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It is also present in the form of refined sugars including granulated sugars (white crystalline table sugar, brown sugar, confectioner's sugar, and turbinado sugar), refined crystalline fructose , as high fructose corn syrups as well as in honey. About 10% of the calories contained in the Western diet are supplied by fructose (approximately 55 g/day). Unlike glucose, fructose is not an insulin secretagogue, and can in fact lower circulating insulin. In addition to liver, fructose is metabolized in intestine, testis, kidney, skeletal muscle, fat tissue and brain, but it is not transported into cells via insulin-sensitive pathways (insulin regulated transporters GLUT1 and GLUT4).
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Stages in the development of the clitoris In mammals, sexual differentiation is determined by the sperm that carries either an X or a Y (male) chromosome. The Y chromosome contains a sex-determining gene (SRY) that encodes a transcription factor for the protein TDF (testis determining factor) and triggers the creation of testosterone and Anti-Müllerian hormone for the embryo's development into a male. This differentiation begins about eight or nine weeks after conception. Some sources state that it continues until the twelfth week, while others state that it is clearly evident by the thirteenth week and that the sex organs are fully developed by the sixteenth week.
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Many species of Talpid moles exhibit peniform clitorises that are tunneled by the urethra and are found to have erectile tissue, most notably species from the Talpa genus found in Europe. Unique to this clade are the presence of ovotestes, wherein the female ovary also is mostly made up of sterile testicular tissue that secretes testosterone with only a small portion of the gonad containing ovarian tissue. Genetic studies have revealed that females have an XX genotype and do not have any translocated Y-linked genes. Detailed developmental studies of Talpa occidentalis have revealed that the female gonads develop in a "testis-like pattern".
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Some mutations of SNX8 have been related to certain types of cancer, specially to stomach and endometrial cancer. The bar plot on the right shows the proportion of tumor samples from 15 cancer types that have any kind of altering mutations in the given protein. Moreover, some studies seem to draw an important relationship between different type of cancers and SNX8 expression; although most of the patients with colorectal, stomach or testis cancer showed high levels of SNX8, almost any patient with prostate, endometrial or carcinoid cancer presented low or any concentrations of SNX8. The rationale behind this differential phenotype of SNX8 synthesis remains unclear.
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However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the US has banned import of any sperm, motivated by a risk of mad cow disease, although such a risk is insignificant, since artificial insemination is very different from the route of transmission of mad cow disease.The God of Sperm By Steven Kotler The prevalence of mad cow disease is one in a million, probably less for donors. If prevalence was the case, the infectious proteins would then have to cross the blood-testis barrier to make transmission possible. Transmission of the disease by an insemination is approximately equal to the risk of getting killed by lightning.
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TFIIA-alpha and beta-like factor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GTF2A1L gene. The assembly and stability of the RNA polymerase II transcription pre-initiation complex on a eukaryotic core promoter involve the effects of TFIIA on the interaction between TATA-binding protein (TBP) and DNA. This gene encodes a germ cell-specific counterpart of the large (alpha/beta) subunit of general transcription factor TFIIA that is able to stabilize the binding of TBP to DNA and may be uniquely important to testis biology. Alternative splicing for this locus has been observed and two variants, encoding distinct isoforms, have been identified.
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GnIH-R expression in the pituitary and other brain regions implies GnIH acts directly on the pituitary to downregulate gonadotropin production, impacting reproductive behaviors. This neurohormone also acts on the hypothalamus to inhibit the expression of GnRH, which may further inhibit gonadotropin secretion, and kisspeptin, which may inhibit kisspeptin-mediated stimulation of GnRH neurons prior to the preovulatory hormonal surge. GnIH also spurs the production of cytochrome P450 aromatase, promoting the synthesis of neuroestrogen in the brains of quails and reducing aggressivity in reproductive behaviors. In male vertebrates, GnIH reduces testis size, lowers testosterone secretion, and increases the incidence of apoptosis in germ cells and Sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubules.
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Transient receptor potential (TRP) polycystin 2 and 3 (TRPP2 and 3) are homologous members of the TRP superfamily of cation channels but have different physiological functions. TRPP2 is part of a flow sensor, and is defective in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease and implicated in left-right asymmetry development. TRPP3 is implicated in sour tasting in bipolar cells of taste buds of the tongue and in the regulation of pH-sensitive action potential in neurons surrounding the central canal of the spinal cord. TRPP3 is present in both excitable and non-excitable cells in various tissues, such as retina, brain, heart, testis, and kidney.
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Among other mechanisms, her laboratory discovered that a polyadenylated tail is not required for gene regulation. Lehmann continued to focus her research efforts on germ cell differentiation well into the early 2000s. She played a substantial role in the discovery of germ cell migratory pathways (namely those involving gap junctions, G protein-coupled receptors like Tre-1, and isoprenoids), particularly those concerning migration into the ovaries and testis. In 2005, Lehmann’s laboratory published a paper relating the lipid phosphatases Wunen and Wunen 2 to germ cell migration and elimination, suggesting that germ cells are sorted into the gonads by a type of repellent mechanism.
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Undescended testes are associated with reduced fertility, increased risk of testicular germ-cell tumors, and psychological problems when the boy is grown. Undescended testes are also more susceptible to testicular torsion (and subsequent infarction) and inguinal hernias. Without intervention, an undescended testicle will usually descend during the first year of life, but to reduce these risks, undescended testes can be brought into the scrotum in infancy by a surgical procedure called an orchiopexy.The A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia Although cryptorchidism nearly always refers to congenital absence or maldescent, a testis observed in the scrotum in early infancy can occasionally "reascend" (move back up) into the inguinal canal.
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A retractile testis high in the scrotum can be difficult to distinguish from a position in the lower inguinal canal. Though various maneuvers are used to do so, such as using a cross-legged position, soaping the examiner's fingers, or examining in a warm bath, the benefit of surgery in these cases can be a matter of clinical judgment. In the minority of cases with bilaterally nonpalpable testes, further testing to locate the testes, assess their function, and exclude additional problems is often useful. Scrotal ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging performed and interpreted by a radiologist can often locate the testes while confirming absence of a uterus.
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The most commonly used hormone therapy is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). A series of hCG injections (10 injections over five weeks is common) is given and the status of the testis/testes is reassessed at the end. Although many trials have been published, the reported success rates range widely, from roughly 5% to 50%, probably reflecting the varying criteria for distinguishing retractile testes from low inguinal testes. Hormone treatment does have the occasional incidental benefits of allowing confirmation of Leydig cell responsiveness (proven by a rise of the testosterone by the end of the injections) or inducing additional growth of a small penis (via the testosterone rise).
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The existence of immune privilege in the testes of rodents is well accepted, due to many experiments demonstrating prolonged, and sometimes indefinite, survival of tissue transplanted into the testis, or testicular tissue transplanted elsewhere. Evidence includes the tolerance of testicular grafts in mice and rats, as well as the increased survival of transplants of pancreatic insulin-producing cells in rats, when cells from the testes (Sertoli cells) are added to the transplanted material. Complete spermatogenesis, forming functional pig or goat sperm, can be established by the grafting of pig or goat testicular tissue onto the backs of mice - however, immunodeficient mice needed to be used.
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2.) Female reproductive anatomy. Principal abbreviations (from von Eggeling) are: T, testis; Vd, vas deferens; BU, urethral bulb; Ur, urethra; R, rectum; P, penis; S, scrotum; O, ovary; FT, Fallopian tubes; RL, ligament uteri; Ut, uterus; CC, Corpus clitoris. Remaining abbreviations, in alphabetical order, are: AG, anal glands; B, vesica urinaria; CG, Cowper's glands; CP, Corpus penis; CS, corpus spongiosum; GC, glans; GP, glans penis; LA, levator ani muscle; Pr, prepuce; RC, musculus retractor clitoris; RP, Musculus retractor penis; UCG, Canalis urogenital. The genitalia of the female closely resembles that of the male; the clitoris is shaped and positioned like a penis, a pseudo-penis, and is capable of erection.
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Fraser served as house surgeon, first in the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh and then at the Royal Hospital for Sick Children under Sir Harold Stiles, who was to have a powerful influence on Fraser's approach to surgical problems and scientific enquiry. He became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh (FRCSEd) in 1910. Fraser's scientific approach was manifest in his ChM dissertation, nominally on inguinal hernia in childhood but containing a detailed account of the descent of the testis which was based on 1000 cases he studied and which contained many original observations.Fraser, J. The study of 1000 cases of oblique inguinal hernia occurring in children.
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For example, among primates, female gorillas are relatively monogamous, so gorillas have smaller testes than humans, which in turn have smaller testes than the highly promiscuous bonobos.Harcourt, A.H., Harvey, P.H., Larson, S.G., & Short, R.V. 1981. Testis weight, body weight and breeding system in primates, Nature 293: 55-57 Male chimpanzees that live in a structured multi-male, multi-female community, have large testicles to produce more sperm, therefore giving him better odds to fertilize the female. Whereas the community of gorillas consist of one alpha male and two or three females, when the female gorillas are ready to mate, normally only the alpha male is their partner.
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The protein is expressed in the nervous system where it acts as an enhancer of the activity of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine certain α7-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which have a role in learning. A duplication of the gene has been detected in a case study of two individuals with severe intellectual disability, suggesting its role in proper brain development and cognitive function. Additionally, the protein demonstrates high expression in several other normal organs including the testis, lungs, stomach, and prostate. Hypermethylation of the gene and a subsequent decreased expression has been demonstrated as one of the contributors to the invasive capacity of cancer cells in melanoma.
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The colonies of H. rigida spawn after the full moon of November. They are simultaneously hermaphrodite coral that develop eggs earlier than the testis and there are some strong indications that many colonies of H. rigida carry out multiple gametogenic cycles each year. In the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, the coral colonies would contain ripe eggs in March, so people inferred that they are part of the mass spawning event that happens in western Australia. It has been found that the population of H. rigida was always in a fertile condition from November to February and this indicates that the spawning season may spread over several months each year.
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Importantly, in 28% of cases preparation artifact or insufficient biopsy size rendered the sample suboptimal for interpretation. In addition, in 46% of cases, the two reviews disagreed, and this discordance resulted in significant changes in clinical care in 27% of cases. The most common error in pathological review was the under-appreciation of mixed histological patterns that are common and characteristic of infertile men with no sperm counts. Thus, although commonly used, the classical testis biopsy has little or no correlation with specific diseases, is associated with significant variability in interpretation, and can miss mixed patterns of spermatogenesis that may qualify infertile men for assisted reproduction.
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Because these genes are expressed throughout the body, Page further concluded that these genes give rise to differences in the biochemistry of male and female tissues. In super- resolution studies of the sex chromosomes, Page has found evidence of an evolutionary "arms race" between the X and Y chromosomes for transmission to the next generation. In one study, Page found that human X and mouse Y chromosomes have converged, independently acquiring and amplifying gene families expressed in testicular germ cells. Another study found that the mouse Y chromosome had acquired and massively amplified genes homologous to the testis-expressed gene families on the mouse X chromosome.
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Intra-operative gross photograph of the spleen attached to the left testis in a 1-year old boy with splenogonadal fusion Splenogonadal fusion is a rare congenital malformation that results from an abnormal connection between the primitive spleen and gonad during gestation. A portion of the splenic tissue then descends with the gonad. Splenogonadal fusion has been classified into two types: continuous, where there remains a connection between the main spleen and gonad; and discontinuous, where ectopic splenic tissue is attached to the gonad, but there is no connection to the orthotopic spleen. Patients with continuous splenogonadal fusion frequently have additional congenital abnormalities, most commonly cryptorchidism.
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Establishing his own research group at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia in 1992, Koopman set out to discover new members of a growing family of genes related to Sry – "Sox" genes. Among the first discoveries was Sox9, a key regulator of skeletal and testis development, which carries mutations in humans with the skeletal disorder campomelic dysplasia and associated XY sex reversal. Koopman's group also discovered Sox18, a switch gene that directs formation of the lymphatic vessels, and is defective in humans with hypotrichosis-lymphedema- telangiectasia syndrome. Given the role of lymphatic vessels in tumour metastasis, Sox18 is being developed as a potential drug target for anti- metastatic cancer therapy.
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In situ hybridization and conditional gene knockout studies have helped to demonstrate the role JAG1 plays in development and its effects on different organ systems. In humans, JAG1 has broad expression in many tissue types including the pancreas, heart, placenta, prostate, lung, kidney, thymus, testis, and leucocytes in the adult. In a developing embryo JAG1 expression is concentrated around the pulmonary artery, mesocardium, distal cardic outflow tract, major arteries, metanephros, branchial arches, pancreas, the portal vein, and otocyst. Generally, JAG1 expression patterns correlate with organ systems affected in ALGS, although it is important to note that not all tissues where JAG1 is expressed are affected in ALGS.
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In amphibians for example, phthalates and BPA disrupt thyroid functioning which in turn impacts larval development. Molluscs, crustaceans and amphibians appear to be more responsive than fish, with most effects being induced in low concentration ranges with the exception of disrupted spermatogenesis in fish in the low range. A Phthalate referred to as diethyl phthalate (DEP) enters the aquatic environment through industries that manufacture cosmetics, plastics and many commercial products that pose hazards to aquatic organisms and human health. Through exposing an adult male common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) to LC50 doses it was evident that a bioaccumulation of DEP in testis, liver, brain, gills and muscle tissue was present.
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In humans, TRPV6 transcripts have been detected in the placenta, pancreas, prostate cancer, and duodenum and the prostate by northern blotting; and in duodenum, jejunum, placenta, pancreas, testis, kidney, brain, and colon by semi-quantitative PCR. In rodents, TRPV6 expression has been validated in the duodenum, cecum, small intestine, colon, placenta, pancreas, prostate, and epididymis by Northern Blotting. In mouse, TRPV6 transcript abundance measured by RT-PCR is as follows: prostate > stomach, brain > lung > duodenum, cecum, heart, kidney, bone > colon > skeletal muscle > pancreas. Data from Human Protein Atlas and RNA-Seq based suggest TRPV6 mRNA is low in most tissues except for the placenta, salivary gland, pancreas, and prostate.
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The SOX3 gene encodes a protein that is similar but distinct to the testis-determining factor (TDF), also known as sex-determining region Y (SRY) protein that is found on the Y chromosome. He has founded two biotechnology companies, Sideromics LLC and Recognyz System Technology, founded to develop treatments for the health effects experiences by persons with rare diseases. Moalem has also been awarded 25 patents for inventions related to biotechnology and human health. In March 2014, Dr. Moalem and his team won a hackathon at MIT to build a smartphone app that can be used to treat patients by identifying predispositions to certain diseases based on facial structure.
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This gene encodes the protein elongin B, which is a subunit of the transcription factor B (SIII) complex. The SIII complex is composed of elongins A/A2, B and C. It activates elongation by RNA polymerase II by suppressing transient pausing of the polymerase at many sites within transcription units. Elongin A functions as the transcriptionally active component of the SIII complex, whereas elongins B and C are regulatory subunits. Elongin A2 is specifically expressed in the testis, and capable of forming a stable complex with elongins B and C. The von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor protein binds to elongins B and C, and thereby inhibits transcription elongation.
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This gene encodes the protein elongin C, which is a subunit of the transcription factor B (SIII) complex. The SIII complex is composed of elongins A/A2, B and C. It activates elongation by RNA polymerase II by suppressing transient pausing of the polymerase at many sites within transcription units. Elongin A functions as the transcriptionally active component of the SIII complex, whereas elongins B and C are regulatory subunits. Elongin A2 is specifically expressed in the testis, and capable of forming a stable complex with elongins B and C. The von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor protein binds to elongins B and C, and thereby inhibits transcription elongation.
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The tunica vaginalis is the pouch of serous membrane that covers the testes. It is derived from the vaginal process of the peritoneum, which in the fetus precedes the descent of the testes from the abdomen into the scrotum. After its descent, that portion of the pouch which extends from the abdominal inguinal ring to near the upper part of the gland becomes obliterated; the lower portion remains as a shut sac, which invests the surface of each testis, and is reflected on to the internal surface of the scrotum; hence it may be described as consisting of a visceral and a parietal lamina.
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Those becoming myoid cells would sit on a basement membrane surrounding the developing seminiferous tubules. However, more recent evidence has found that mesonephric cells do not give rise to PTMs but instead have only a vascular fate, leaving more uncertainty over where PTMs come from. The main difficulty in studying the development of PTMs is the lack of a molecular marker specific to them that is visible during early differentiation of the testis. Current knowledge suggests that PTMs arise from cells within the developing gonad itself, or alternatively from a layer of cells surrounding the outside of the gonad, called coelomic epithelium, by a process named epithelial-mesenchymal transition.
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Flacinus, Flacino, or Flagino was the Bishop of Oviedo between 909 and 912, possibly from as early as 907 until as late as 914. His predecessor was Gomelo II and he first appears in a document of the latter's episcopate, on 20 January 905, signing as both a presbyter and a primicerius ("Flacinus presbyter, Primicerius testis"). The earliest evidence of his episcopate is a pair of charters for Sahagún (dated 28 April and 28 May 909) in which he signs as Placinius without reference to his see. In 912 when García I made a donation to San Ciprián Flacinus signed as a witness, but again without reference to his see.
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The human NAA10 is located on chromosome Xq28 and contains 8 exons, 2 encoding three different isoforms derived from alternate splicing. Additionally, a processed NAA10 gene duplication NAA11 (ARD2) has been identified that is expressed in several human cell lines; however, later studies indicate that Naa11 is not expressed in the human cell lines HeLa and HEK293 or in cancerous tissues, and NAA11 transcripts were only detected in testicular and placental tissues. Naa11 has also been found in mouse, where it is mainly expressed in the testis. NAA11 is located on chromosome 4q21.21 in human and 5 E3 in mouse, and only contains two exons.
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RhoGDI2 (ARHGDIB) is part of a family of three members: RhoGDI1, RhoGDI2 (also known as RhoGDIB, D4-GDI or Ly-GDI) and RhoGDI3. RhoGDI1 is expressed in many organs and is the best studied member of the family. RhoGDI2 was initially believed to be expressed specifically in blood forming cells, but has subsequently been found to be highly expressed in a variety of other cell types as well. RhoGDI3 is predominantly expressed in brain, lung, kidney, testis and pancreas, and is targeted to specific parts of the cell such as the Golgi where it may play a role in transport or proteins in cells.
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The Urology Center of Westchester (UCW) is a community-based practice of academic and specialist urologists affiliated with Westchester Medical Center, the major teaching hospital in the Hudson Valley region of lower New York State, USA. UCW was incorporated in 1988 and consists of specialists in urology, the surgical and medical field dealing with the genito-urinary system. Services provided include: robotics, stone disease and management, treatments for cancers of the prostate, bladder, kidney, and testis, incontinence disorders, erectile dysfunction and urinary problems in men and women. UCW is located at 19 Bradhurst Avenue, Hawthorne, NY which is also home to cancer specialists, radiology, cardiology, internal medicine, orthopedics, and pediatrics.
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Testis ovate, lying sinistroposterior to germarium along body midline; proximal vas deferens not observed; seminal vesicle a simple dilation of distal vas deferens, lying posterior to male copulatory organ; ejaculatory bulb and duct not observed; large vesicle (prostatic reservoir?) lying dextral to distal chamber of male copulatory organ. Male copulatory organquadriloculate, with thick walls, short distal cone, elongate tube, protruding filament variable in length. Germarium pyriform; germarial bulb lying diagonally at body midlength, with dorsoventral distal loop around right intestinal cecum; ootype lying to left of body midline, with well-developed Mehlis’ gland; uterus delicate, banana shaped when empty. Common genital pore ventral, dextral to MCO.
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Other molecules fulfilling the definition of oncoantigen are EGFR/HER-1, the mucin MUC1 and the idiotype of B and T cell malignancies. Further candidates are receptor tyrosine kinases and growth factors, but in most cases the induction of effective anti-tumor immune responses against such molecules remains to be demonstrated. Most tumor antigens are not oncoantigens, either because they are intracellular molecules, like cancer-testis antigen such as MAGE family members, or because they appear to be dispensable without significant alterations of tumorigenicity, like the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) or the prostate specific antigen (PSA). Novel strategies will be required to identify new oncoantigens amenable to human application.
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"Pseudohermaphroditism" on the other hand is an old clinical term for a person that is born with primary sex characteristics of one sex but develops the secondary sex characteristics that are different from what would be expected on the basis of the gonadal tissue (ovary or testis). Use of the term "pseudohermaphroditism" can be problematic, and is now widely considered redundant. Because of this, the language still used by the armed forces has fallen out of favor in the 21st century due to misconceptions and pejorative connotations associated with the term Hermaphrodite. Several militaries, whether they accept intersex people (such as Israel) or not, use different wording.
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Cartoon diagram of the Human vaccinia-related kinase protein PDB entry Serine/threonine-protein kinase VRK1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the VRK1 gene. This gene encodes a member of the vaccinia-related kinase (VRK) family of serine/threonine protein kinases. This gene is widely expressed in human tissues and has increased expression in actively dividing cells, such as those in testis, thymus, fetal liver, and carcinomas. Its protein localizes to the nucleus and has been shown to promote the stability and nuclear accumulation of a transcriptionally active p53 molecule and, in vitro, to phosphorylate Thr18 of p53 and reduce p53 ubiquitination.
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Human talin-2 is 271.4 kDa and 2542 amino acids in length. The size of talin-2 protein is similar to talin-1, and is relatively similar (74% identity, 86% similarity); the size of the talin-2 gene (200 kb) is however much larger than that of talin-1 (30 kb), due to differences in intron sizes. Talin-2 mRNA is expressed in multiple tissues, including cardiac muscle, mouse embryonic stem cells, brain, lung, skeletal muscle, kidney and testis; however expression is highest in cardiac muscle. A detailed analysis of the TLN2 gene revealed that the alternative splicing of TLN2 is complex and encodes multiple mRNA transcripts and protein isoforms.
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T helper 1 (TH1) cells, when injected with overexpressed tumor antigens, have been shown to enhance migration of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) into the draining lymph node in mice, further enhancing immune response through activation of CTLs. Tumor antigens are typically cancer/testis antigens. Chemically inducing this antigen in T-cells by DNA demethylation allows the immune system to recognize a wide range of tumors. This method of activation may be used for the preparation of anti-tumor vaccines or for ex vivo activation of the cytotoxic T-cells which can then be followed by the expansion of T-cells through normal, mature dendritic cells.
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No. 60, and beginning of the recitative No. 61a (Bible words written in red) in Bach's autograph score: the recitative contains Christ's last words, and the only words by Christ sung without the characteristic string section accompaniment ("Eli, Eli lama asabthani?") The narration of the Gospel texts is sung by the tenor Evangelist in secco recitative accompanied only by continuo. Soloists sing the words of various characters, also in recitative; in addition to Jesus, there are named parts for Judas, Peter, two high priests (Pontifex I & II), Pontius Pilate, Pilate's wife (Uxor Pilati), two witnesses (Testis I & II) and two ancillae (maids). These are not always sung by all different soloists.
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At an early period of fetal life the testes are placed at the back part of abdominal cavity, behind the peritoneum, and each is attached by a peritoneal fold, the mesorchium, to the mesonephros. From the front of the mesonephros a fold of peritoneum termed the inguinal fold grows forward to meet and fuse with a peritoneal fold, the inguinal crest, which grows backward from the antero-lateral abdominal wall. The testis thus acquires an indirect connection with the anterior abdominal wall. At the same time, a portion of the peritoneal cavity lateral to these fused folds is marked off as the future vaginal process.
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Calydiscoides euzeti is a species of monogenean of the family Diplectanidae. As all members of the family Diplectanidae, it has a single posterior testis and a single ovary that wraps the lateral caecum of the intestine. As all members of the genus Calydiscoides, it is characterized by the presence of lamellodiscs, which are specialized attachment organs made up of concentric lamellae, on the posterior part of its body. The species is distinguished from other species of the genus Calydiscoides by the shape and size of its male copulatory organ, which is elongate in shape with an anterior curved whip, and 70–83 μm in length.
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Intraflagellar transport protein 20 homolog is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IFT20 gene. The gene is composed of 6 exons and is located on human chromosome 17p11.1. This gene is expressed in human brain, lung, kidney and pancreas, and lower expression were also detected in human placenta, liver, thymus, prostate and testis. Intraflagellar transport (IFT), in which molecular motors and IFT particle proteins participate, is very important in assembling and maintaining many cilia/flagella, such as the motile cilia that drive the swimming of cells and embryos, the nodal cilia that generate left- right asymmetry in vertebrate embryos, and the sensory cilia that detect sensory stimuli in some animals.
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If the malignant diagnosis is established by exploration and intraoperative ultrasound-guided biopsy, orchiectomy is performed in cases of diffuse involvement of a testis. Spontaneous resolution has been reported in 50% to 70% of patients with active sarcoidosis. If the diagnosis is not established unequivocally, immunosuppressive agents (frequently steroids) will resolve the inflammation in patients who wish to salvage their fertility; and in those with severely advanced disease, after careful consideration. A new approach has been proposed recently, based on the absence of evidence for malignant transformation in pathologically confirmed benign diagnosed testicular sarcoidosis, and it involves the open exploration of both testes, with resection of the largest lesion (on the right tunica).
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Antisperm antibodies (ASA) have been considered as infertility cause in around 10–30% of infertile couples. ASA production are directed against surface antigens on sperm, which can interfere with sperm motility and transport through the female reproductive tract, inhibiting capacitation and acrosome reaction, impaired fertilization, influence on the implantation process, and impaired growth and development of the embryo. Risk factors for the formation of antisperm antibodies in men include the breakdown of the blood‑testis barrier, trauma and surgery, orchitis, varicocele, infections, prostatitis, testicular cancer, failure of immunosuppression and unprotected receptive anal or oral sex with men. Genetics Chromosomal anomalies and genetic mutations account for nearly 10–15% of all male infertility cases.
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The ASRGL1 protein consists of 308 amino acids and is activated by autocleavage at amino acid 168 to form an alpha- and a beta-chain, which can dimerize into a heterodimer. The ASRGL1 enzyme has both L-asparaginase and beta-aspartyl peptidase activity and may be involved in the production of L-aspartate, which can act as an excitatory neurotransmitter in some brain regions. According to antibody-based profiling and transcriptomics analysis, ASRGL1 protein is present in all analysed human tissues, with highest expression in brain, in female tissues such as the uterine cervix and fallopian tube, and in male tissues as testis. Based on confocal microscopy ASRGL1 is mainly localized to the microtubules.
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With the development of tumor-associated antigens (TAA), the first clone of a human tumor antigen, melanoma antigen-1 (MAGE-1) was reported in 1990s, which elicited an autologous cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response in a melanoma patient. Further studies found that MAGE-1 (renamed MAGE-A1 later) was expressed in various cancers of different histological origin but not in normal tissues excluding testis and placenta. Later on, using T-cell epitope cloning technology, other tumor antigens with same properties were identified, including MAGE-A2, MAGE-A3, BAGE and GAGE-1. With the new approach, serological analysis of cDNA expression libraries (SEREX), several novel similar antigens were discovered, including SSX-2, NY-ESO-1, etc.
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In normal placenta, CT antigens genes are less common, and MAGE-A3, MAGE-8, MAGE-A10, XAGE-2 and XAGE-3 have been found there. The mRNA of CT antigens was also found in some somatic tissues such as pancreas, liver and spleen, but the level is normally less than 1% of that in testis. The expression of CT antigens genes were measured mainly by RT-PCR in transcription level and by immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis in protein level. In tumor tissues, CT antigens are distributed widely but heterogeneously, expressing largely in melanoma, bladder and non-small cell lung cancers, moderately in breast and prostate cancers, poorly in kidney and colon cancers and in hematologic malignancies.
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Potential layout of the zinc finger protein 800 with significant regions highlighted, such as conserved areas of unknown function in grey, zinc finger regions in green, and unstructured region upstream of the zinc finger in blue. ZNF800 is ubiquitously expressed in at least 27 different tissues, with the largest amounts in bone marrow, testis, and lymph nodes. The ZNF800 protein contains 6 C2H2 zinc finger regions, 4 of which are conserved in paralogs, and 5 of which are conserved in orthologs of ZNF800. It also has two larger regions of unknown function, which are conserved in orthologs, and several key amino acids, the function of which in this particular protein has not yet been discovered.
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Medical services offered at Danat Al Emarat for children include the following: Children’s Medical Services: Child Development, Neonatology, Neonatology and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU), Pediatrics, Pediatric Cardiology, Pediatric urology, Pediatric Pulmonology, Pediatric Endocrinology and Pediatric Intensive Care Unit. Pediatric Surgery Specialties: Neonatal Surgery, General Pediatric Surgery, Pediatric Thoracic Surgery, Pediatric Urology, Laparoscopy and Cystoscopy, Pediatric Urodynamic Study and Multidisciplinary Antenatal Counseling. Pediatric Surgical Conditions and Procedures: Circumcision, Inguinal Hernia & Hydrocele, Undescended Testis, Hypospadias, Urinary Incontinence, Hydronephrosis, Vesico-Ureteric Reflux, Appendicitis, Intussusception, Anorectal Malformations, Hirschprung’s Disease, Hepatobiliary Surgery, Umbilical Hernia, Gastroschisis and Omphalocele, Intestinal Atresia, Esophageal Atresia, Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia, Congenital Lung Malformations, Soft Tissue Swelling, Sclerotherapy for Vascular Malformations and Gastroesophageal Reflux.
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We can also find them in some other source tissues are the fibroblast, HeLa cell, MCF-7 cell, melanoma cell line and thymus. Inside those cells, it can be located in the nucleus and mitochondrion since its main function is related with DNA polyadenilation and these cell organelles are the only ones were DNA can be found. However, there are also GLD-2 in a soluble way in the cytosol, although the reason why they are there is still unsure. In Escherichia Coli, this enzymatic protein can be found in the cell membrane and in the cytosol, whereas in Drosophila melanogaster, it predominates in the brain's nucleus and cytoplasm, oocyte, ovary and testis’ cells.
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The basic structure of the reproductive tract is similar in both sexes, with a mesodermal gonoduct (sperm duct or oviduct) emerging from both sides of the U-shaped gonad (testis or ovary). The two gonoducts fuse into a single duct, which leads into a cuticle-lined duct derived from the ectoderm into the open through an organ (penis in males or ovipositor in females) that can be everted through a combination of muscles and hemolymph pressure. These eversible organs play an important role in determining taxonomic relationships. The penis is often complex, consisting of a long shaft and a shorter glans at the end, which is often equipped with various projections such as spines.
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In human, the SRY gene is located on short (p) arm of the Y chromosome at position 11.2 Testis-determining factor (TDF), also known as sex-determining region Y (SRY) protein, is a DNA-binding protein (also known as gene- regulatory protein/transcription factor) encoded by the SRY gene that is responsible for the initiation of male sex determination in therian mammals (placental mammals and marsupials). SRY is an intronless sex-determining gene on the Y chromosome. Mutations in this gene lead to a range of disorders of sex development (DSD) with varying effects on an individual's phenotype and genotype. TDF is a member of the SOX (SRY-like box) gene family of DNA-binding proteins.
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The SF1 protein, on its own, leads to minimal transcription of the SOX9 gene in both the XX and XY bipotential gonadal cells along the urogenital ridge. However, binding of the TDF-SF1 complex to the testis-specific enhancer (TESCO) on SOX9 leads to significant up-regulation of the gene in only the XY gonad, while transcription in the XX gonad remains negligible. Part of this up-regulation is accomplished by SOX9 itself through a positive feedback loop; like TDF, SOX9 complexes with SF1 and binds to the TESCO enhancer, leading to further expression of SOX9 in the XY gonad. Two other proteins, FGF9 (fibroblast growth factor 9) and PDG2 (prostaglandin D2), also maintain this up-regulation.
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Paired dorsal bar with enlarged medial end. Hook with elongate slightly depressed thumb, delicate point, uniform shank; FH loop nearly shank length. Testis subspherical, usually with indentation of posterior margin suggesting two posterior lobes; proximal vas deferens dorsoventrally looping left intestinal cecum; seminal vesicle a simple dilation of distal portion of vas deferens, lying just posterior to male copulatory organ; vas deferens entering large subspherical ejaculatory bulb; ejaculatory duct entering portal to male copulatory organ; large vesicle (prostatic reservoir?) lying to right of male copulatory organ. Male copulatory organ reniform, quadriloculate, with short tapered cone, elongate distal tube, and variable apparently retractile filament (usually not observed); walls of two distal chambers thick, walls of chambers becoming thinner proximally.
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Individuals that are 46, XY and have been tested positive for mutations in their AMH or AMH receptor genes have been known to exhibit features typical of that which are exhibited in persistent müllerian duct syndrome due to the fact that the paramesonephric ducts fail to regress. When this happens the individuals develop structures that are derived from the paramesonephric duct, and also structures that are derived from the mesonephric duct. A male that has persistent müllerian duct syndrome may have an upper vagina, uterus, and uterine tubes as well as ductus deferens along with male external genitalia. The female organs are in the correct anatomical position but the position of the testis varies.
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In humans, the encoding gene for MSH3 is found on chromosome 5 at location 5q11-q12 upstream of the dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) gene. MSH3 is encoded by 222,341 base pairs and creates a protein consisting of 1137 amino acids. MSH3 is typically expressed at low levels in several transformed cell lines—including HeLa, K562, HL-60, and CEM—as well as a large range of normal tissues including spleen, thymus, prostate, testis, ovary, small intestine, colon, peripheral blood leukocytes, heart, brain, placenta, lung, liver, skeletal muscle kidney, and pancreas. Although expression levels of MSH3 vary slightly from tissue to tissue, its widespread low-level expression indicates that it is a “housekeeping” gene commonly expressed in all cells.
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Notably, GJA1 expression has been associated with a wide variety of cancers, including nasopharyngeal carcinoma, meningioma, hemangiopericytoma, liver tumor, colon cancer, esophageal cancer, breast cancer, mesothelioma, glioblastoma, lung cancer, adrenocortical tumors, renal cell cancer, cervical carcinoma, ovarian carcinoma, endometrial carcinoma, prostate cancer, thyroid carcinoma, and testis cancer. Its role in controlling cell motility and polarity was thought to contribute to cancer development and metastasis, though its role as a gap junction protein may also be involved. Moreover, the cytoprotective effects of this protein can promote tumor cell survival in radiotherapy treatments, while silencing its gene increases radiosensitivity. As a result, GJA1 may serve as a target for improving the success of radiotherapeutic treatment of cancer.
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For example, during research to produce a more efficient vaccine for smallpox, Yasu-ichi Nagano and Yasuhiko Kojima—two Japanese virologists working at the Institute for Infectious Diseases at the University of Tokyo—noticed inhibition of viral growth in an area of rabbit-skin or testis previously inoculated with UV- inactivated virus. They hypothesised that some "viral inhibitory factor" was present in the tissues infected with virus and attempted to isolate and characterize this factor from tissue homogenates. Independently, Monto Ho, in John Enders's lab, observed in 1957 that attenuated poliovirus conferred a species specific anti-viral effect in human amniotic cell cultures. They described these observations in a 1959 publication, naming the responsible factor viral inhibitory factor (VIF).
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Females have two copies of every gene locus found on the X chromosome, just as for the autosomes, and the same dominance relationships apply. Males, however, have only one copy of each X chromosome gene locus, and are described as hemizygous for these genes. The Y chromosome is much smaller than the X, and contains a much smaller set of genes, including, but not limited to, those that influence 'maleness', such as the SRY gene for testis determining factor. Dominance rules for sex-linked gene loci are determined by their behavior in the female: because the male has only one allele (except in the case of certain types of Y chromosome aneuploidy), that allele is always expressed regardless of whether it is dominant or recessive.
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Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is a protein that is encoded by the GFAP gene in humans. It is a type III intermediate filament (IF) protein that is expressed by numerous cell types of the central nervous system (CNS), including astrocytes and ependymal cells during development. GFAP has also been found to be expressed in glomeruli and peritubular fibroblasts taken from rat kidneys, Leydig cells of the testis in both hamsters and humans, human keratinocytes, human osteocytes and chondrocytes and stellate cells of the pancreas and liver in rats. GFAP is closely related to the other three non- epithelial type III IF family members, vimentin, desmin and peripherin, which are all involved in the structure and function of the cell’s cytoskeleton.
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The syndrome appears to be due to mutations in the gene tetratricopeptide repeat domain 37 (TTC37) which encodes the protein Thespin or the SKIV2L gene. This gene is expressed is in the adrenal gland, amniotic fluid, bladder, blood, bone, bone marrow, brain, cervix, connective tissue, ear, epididymis, eye, heart, intestine, kidney, liver, lung, lymph nodes, mammary glands, mouth, muscle, nerve, oesophagus, ovary, pancreas, pharynx, placenta, prostate, pituitary gland, salivary gland, testis, thyroid, tonsil, thymus, trachea, skin, uterus, spleen, spinal cord, stomach and vascular tissue. It is also expressed in ascites and various embryonic tissues. It is expressed at high level in the intestine, lung, lymph nodes, pituitary and vascular tissues. This gene is also known as KIAA0372, MGC32587 and TPR repeat protein 37.
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Pasqualini RQ, Bur GE. Síndrome hipoandrogénico con gametogénesis conservada. Rev Asoc Méd Argent 1950; 64: 6-10. The hypoandrogenism with spermatogenesis syndrome included: (a) eunuchoidism, (b) testis with normal spermatogenesis and full volume, with mature spermatozoids in a high proportion of seminiferous tubes and undifferentiated and immature Leydig cells (c) full functional compensation through the administration of chorionic gonadotropin hormone, while hCG is administered (d) total urinary gonadotrophins within normal limits (e) this definition implies the normal activity of the pituitary and the absence of congenital malformations in general. In describing five other similar cases in 1953, Mc Cullagh & al McCullagh EP, Beck JC, Schaffenburg CA: A syndrome of eunuchoidism with spermatogenesis, normal urinary FSH and low or normal ICSH: (“Fertile eunuchs”).
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CT antigens can be divided by whether they are encoded on the X chromosome (X-CT antigens genes) or not (non-X-CT antigens genes). It has been estimated that 10% of genes on the X chromosome belong to X-CT antigens families. The X-CT antigens genes represent more than half of all CT antigens and often constitute multigene families organized in well-defined clusters long the X chromosome, while the genes of non-X-CT antigens are distributed throughout the genome and are mostly single-copy genes. In normal testis, X-CT antigens genes are expressed primarily on the spermatogonia that are proliferate germ cells, while non-X-CT antigens are expressed in later stages of germ-cell differentiation, such as on spermatocytes.
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Following this, Graves discovered that the platypus sex chromosomes are homologous to the bird ZW rather than conserved with the mammalian XY. Owing to this work, the emergence of mammalian sex chromosomes could be dated back to between 160-190 million years ago, between the divergence of therian mammals from monotremes and the divergence of the marsupial-eutherian species. Graves' work on sex determination led to the discovery that the Australian reptile the dragon lizard exhibits both genetic and temperature dependent sex determination. At normal temperatures, the sex of offspring is determined via genetic factors (ZZ male, ZY female) as two copies of this Z-borne gene (ZZ) are required to induce testis formation. At higher temperatures, however, all hatchlings are female.
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Subsequently Bradbury and Smyth elucidated the mechanism of peptide amidation (46-49), a post-translational modification essential for the activity of many peptide hormones and hormone releasing peptides and more recently Smyth and his colleagues isolated and identified a series of tripeptide amides with structure related to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (50-54). These peptides possess inhibitory properties and appear to fulfil a physiological role in hormone regulation. Thus pGlu Phe Pro amide which occurs in testis has been shown to inhibit the release of testosterone (51) while pGlu His Pro amide which is present in thyroid inhibits release of thyroglobulin. The continuing line of Smyth’s research culminated in the proposal of a new concept for the regulation of peptide hormone activity.
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Spermatogonial stem cell (SSC) transplantation, in vitro spermatogenesis and testicular tissue grafting are three methods in development for the fertility restoration of cryopreserved testicular tissue. Firstly, SSC transplantation, the only technique to allow natural conception to happen involves isolating testicular cells from the cryopreserved tissue in an attempt to grow the SSC number These SSCs are then transplanting into the testis where they will carry out spermatogenesis, producing sperm continuously. Testicular tissue grafting, an alternative approach involves grafting fragments of testicular tissue to homotypic or ectopic locations. Lastly, in vitro spermatogenesis is an approach which could be used in patients with malignant haematological diseases to reduce the chance of reintroducing malignant cells back into the body, this requires more research into the experimental conditions.
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This is one hypothesized reason for males having two penises instead of one: as each hemipenis is associated with one testis and only one side can be used during mating, having a second hemipenis functions as a "backup" and ensures that mating can continue even if one side were to run out of sperm. It is important to distinguish between cryptic female choice and facultative parthenogenesis, a form of asexual reproduction. Due to the female's ability to get pregnant long after she has been in contact with a male, it is difficult to distinguish between the two in ambiguous cases. In such circumstances, molecular testing techniques can be used to identify whether her offspring share all or some of their genetic make-up with their mother.
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These people did not have the option to cryopreserve viable sperm before their procedure, and thus the ability to generate genetically descended sperm later in life is invaluable. Possible methods that could be applied (to this and other groups) are induction of spermatogenesis in testis samples taken prepubertally, or, if these samples are not available/viable, new methods that manipulate stem cell differentiation could produce SSCs ‘from scratch’, using adult stem cell samples. An alternative method is to graft preserved tissue back onto adult cancer survivors, however this comes with operational risks, as well as a risk of reintroducing malignant cells. Even if using this method however, in vitro spermatogenesis advances would allow for sample expansion and observation to better ensure quality and quantity of graft tissue.
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Wabakken et al. (2003) and the pFAM database, the figure shows the computer predicted membrane topology of MgtE in H. sapiens. The TM domains are shown in light blue, the orientation in the membrane and the positions of the N- and C-termini are indicated, and the figure is not drawn to scale. Wabakken et al. (2003) found that the transcript of the SLC41A1 gene was expressed in all human tissues tested, but at varying levels, with the heart and testis having the highest expression of the gene. No explanation of the expression pattern has been suggested with regard to Mg2+-related physiology. It has not been shown whether the SLC41 proteins transport Mg2+ or complement a Mg2+ transport mutation in any experimental system.
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Specimen in Germany In his book Lithographia Helvetica from 1726, Johann Jakob Scheuchzer described a Miocene fossil found in Öhningen as Homo diluvii testis (Latin: Man, witness of the Deluge), believing it to be the remains of a human that drowned in the biblical Deluge. The fossil was about 1 m (3 ft) long, lacked its tail and hind legs, and could thus be interpreted as showing some resemblance to the remains of a violently trampled human child. In 1758, the first to doubt his theory in print was Johannes Gessner, who thought it was a giant catfish (Siluris). In 1787 Petrus Camper thought it was a lizard (Lacerta); at that time, scholars and the scientific community generally did not differentiate between reptiles and amphibians.
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In 2007, the U.S. federal government invited experts to Chapel Hill, North Carolina to perform a scientific assessment of literature on BPA. Thirty-eight experts in fields involved with bisphenol A gathered in Chapel Hill, North Carolina to review several hundred studies on BPA, many conducted by members of the group. At the end of the meeting, the group issued the Chapel Hill Consensus Statement, which stated "BPA at concentrations found in the human body is associated with organizational changes in the prostate, breast, testis, mammary glands, body size, brain structure and chemistry, and behavior of laboratory animals." The Chapel Hill Consensus Statement stated that average BPA levels in people were above those that cause harm to many animals in laboratory experiments.
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In addition, based on sperm quantity and distribution in the testes as assessed by the map, sperm retrieval can proceed from the least invasive to the most invasive methods. From a review n=159 cases of nonobstructive azoospermia, one group observed that 44% of mapped cases required sperm retrieval by needle aspiration (TESA); 33% required open, directed surgical biopsies (TESE); and 23% needed microsurgically-assisted dissection of the entire testis parenchyma (mTESE) for successful sperm retrieval. In addition, the majority (78%) of these cases required only unilateral sperm retrieval to find sufficient sperm for IVF-ICSI. Overall, sufficient sperm for all oocytes retrieved was possible in 95% of cases with prior maps, ranging from 100% in simple aspiration cases to 80% of microdissection cases.
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Alternatively referred to as the breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), this protein functions as a xenobiotic transporter which may play a role in multi-drug resistance to chemotherapeutic agents including mitoxantrone and camptothecin analogues. Early observations of significant ABCG2-mediated resistance to anthracyclines were subsequently attributed mutations encountered in vitro but not in nature or the clinic. Significant expression of this protein has been observed in the placenta, and it has been shown to have a role in protecting the fetus from xenobiotics in the maternal circulation. The transporter has been shown to play protective roles in blocking absorption at the apical membrane of the intestine, and at the blood-testis barrier, the blood–brain barrier, and the membranes of hematopoietic progenitor and other stem cells.
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It is also believed that cancer-testis antigens are immunogenic proteins, since many members of the family have been shown to induce spontaneous cellular and humoral immune responses in patients with advanced stage tumours. The first reported simultaneous humoral and cellular response against CTAG1B was from a metastatic melanoma patient. 3 HLA-A2 restricted epitopes in CTAG1B were identified as the recognition sites for CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Integrated humoral immune responses against CTAG1B have been detected in patients with: Multiple myeloma, breast cancer, non small-cell lung carcinoma, and ovarian cancer. As such, CTAG1B is believed to be a promising candidate for cancer immunotherapy due to its exclusive expression in normal tissues and re expression in tumour cells, as well as its high immunogenicity.
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The basement membrane of the seminiferous tubule is a modified form of extracellular matrix composed of fibronectin, collagens, and laminin. β1- integrin is expressed on the surface of SSCs and is involved in their adhesion to the laminin component of the basement membrane although other adhesion molecules are likely also implicated in the attachment of SSCs to the basement membrane. E cadherin expression on SSCs in mice, unlike in Drosophila, have been shown to be dispensable as the transplantation of cultured SSCs lacking E-cadherin are able to colonize host seminiferous tubules and undergo spermatogenesis. In addition the blood testis barrier provides architectural support and is composed of tight junction components such as occludins, claudins and zonula occludens (ZOs) which show dynamic expression during spermatogenesis.
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It furthermore enables detection for CMV-, EBV-, influenza-, and BK virus specific CD8+ T cells. Dextramer CMV kit - These MHC Dextramers provide a method for quantification of CMV-specific CD8+ T cells in whole blood samples as an aid in predicting and monitoring patients at risk of developing CMV- related disease. Melanoma Dextramer collection 1 - comprises MHC Dextramers specific for 6 different melanoma-associated antigens and can be used for the detection, enumeration and isolation of melanoma-specific CD8+ T cells from blood or tumor tissue. Cancer Testis Antigen CD1d Dextramer - These MHC Dextramers are flow cytometry reagents for the identification and sorting of Natural killer cells (NKT), as well as an extensive range of single reagents for detection of cancer- and viral-specific T cells.
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Just as in the male, there is a gubernaculum in the female, which effects a considerable change in the position of the ovary, though not so extensive a change as in that of the testis. The gubernaculum in the female lies in contact with the fundus of the uterus and adheres to this organ, and thus the ovary can only descend as far as to this level. The part of the gubernaculum between the ovary and the uterus ultimately becomes the proper ovarian ligament, while the part between the uterus and the labium majus forms the round ligament of the uterus. A pouch of peritoneum analogous to the vaginal process in the male accompanies it along the inguinal canal: it is called the canal of Nuck.
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BIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION 56, 1570–1575 (1997)- Determination of Testis Temperature Rhythms and Effects of Constant Light on Testicular Function in the Domestic Fowl (Gallus domesticus) It was once theorized that birds used their air sacs to cool the testes internally, but later studies revealed that birds' testes are able to function at core body temperature. Some mammals which have seasonal breeding cycles keep their testes internal until the breeding season at which point their testes descend and increase in size and become external. 2) Irreversible adaptation to sperm competition. It has been suggested that the ancestor of the boreoeutherian mammals was a small mammal that required very large testes (perhaps rather like those of a hamster) for sperm competition and thus had to place its testes outside the body.
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Acrosomal protein SP-10 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACRV1 gene. This gene encodes a testis-specific, differentiation antigen, acrosomal vesicle protein 1, that arises within the acrosomal vesicle during spermatogenesis, and is associated with the acrosomal membranes and matrix of mature sperm. This gene consists of 4 exons and its alternative splicing generates multiple distinct transcripts, which encode protein isoforms ranging from 81 to 265 amino acids. The longest transcript is the most abundant, comprising 53-72% of the total acrosomal vesicle protein 1 messages; the second largest transcript comprises 15-32%; the third and the fourth largest transcripts account for 3.4-8.3% and 8.7-12.5%, respectively; and the remaining transcripts combined account for < 1% of the total acrosomal vesicle protein 1 message.
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TRP channels are typically non-selective, although a few are selective for calcium or hydrated magnesium ions, and are composed of integral membrane proteins. Although many TRP channels are activated by voltage change, ligand binding, or temperature change, some TRP channels have been hypothesized to be involved in mechanotransduction. Some examples are TRPV4, which mediates mechanical load in a variety of tissues, including the liver, heart, lung, trachea, testis, spleen, salivary glands, cochlea, and vascular endothelial cells, as well as TRPC1 and TRPC6, which are involved in muscle mechanosensation. TRPC1 is expressed in the myocytes of the heart, arteries, and skeletal muscle. TRPC1 is widely considered to be a non- selective “store-operated ion channel” (SOC) involved in the calcium influx following calcium depletion of the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell.
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The TDF protein consists of three main regions. The central region encompasses the HMG (high-mobility group) domain, which contains nuclear localization sequences and acts as the DNA-binding domain. The C-terminal domain has no conserved structure, and the N-terminal domain can be phosphorylated to enhance DNA-binding. The process begins with nuclear localization of TDF by acetylation of the nuclear localization signal regions, which allows for the binding of importin β and calmodulin to TDF, facilitating its import into the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, TDF and SF1 (steroidogenic factor 1, another transcriptional regulator) complex and bind to TESCO (testis-specific enhancer of Sox9 core), the testes-specific enhancer element of the Sox9 gene in Sertoli cell precursors, located upstream of the Sox9 gene transcription start site.
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Paired dorsal bar with spatulate medial end. Hook with elongate depressed thumb, delicate point, uniform shank; filamentous hook (FH) loop nearly shank length. Testis ovate, lying sinistroposterior to germarium; proximal vas deferens, prostatic reservoir not observed; seminal vesicle an indistinct dilation of distal vas deferens, lying just posterior to MCO; ejaculatory bulb not observed. Male copulatory organ (MCO) reniform, quadriloculate, with short distal cone, elongate tube with comparatively thick walls, delicate apparently retractile distal filament; walls of two distal chambers thick, walls of proximal two chambers thinner but comparatively rigid. Germarium pyriform, shaped as an inverted comma; germarial bulb lying diagonally at body midlength, with elongate dorsoventral distal loop around right intestinal cecum; ootype lying to left of body midline, with well-developed Mehlis’ gland and giving rise to delicate banana- shaped uterus when empty.
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Furthermore, GPR56 was down-regulated in the prefrontal cortex of individuals with depression that died by suicide. Outside the nervous system, GPR56 has been linked to muscle function and male fertility. The expression of GPR56 is upregulated during early differentiation of human myoblasts. Investigation of Gpr56 knockout mice and BFPP patients showed that GPR56 is required for in vitro myoblast fusion via signaling of serum response factor (SRF) and nuclear factor of activated T-cell (NFAT), but is not essential for muscle development in vivo. Additionally, GPR56 is a transcriptional target of peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha 4 and regulates overload-induced muscle hypertrophy through Gα12/13 and mTOR signaling. Therefore, the study of knockout mice revealed that GPR56 is involved in testis development and male fertility.
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Crystals: Crystalline inclusions have long been recognized as normal constituents of certain cell types such as Sertoli cells and Leydig cells of the human testis, and occasionally in macrophages. It is believed that these structures are crystalline forms of certain proteins which is located everywhere in the cell such as in nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, and free in cytoplasmic matrix. Pigments: The most common pigment in the body, besides hemoglobin of red blood cells is melanin, manufactured by melanocytes of the skin and hair, pigments cells of the retina and specialized nerve cells in the substantia nigra of the brain. These pigments have protective functions in skin and aid in the sense of sight in the retina but their functions in neurons is not understood completely.
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Chimeras may also show, under a certain spectrum of UV light, distinctive marks on the back resembling that of arrow points pointing downwards from the shoulders down to the lower back; this is one expression of pigment unevenness called Blaschko's lines. Affected persons may be identified by the finding of two populations of red cells or, if the zygotes are of opposite sex, ambiguous genitalia and intersex alone or in combination; such persons sometimes also have patchy skin, hair, or eye pigmentation (heterochromia). If the blastocysts are of opposite sex, genitals of both sexes may be formed: either ovary and testis, or combined ovotestes, in one rare form of intersex, a condition previously known as true hermaphroditism. Note that the frequency of this condition does not indicate the true prevalence of chimerism.
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Male Onykia ingens with penis erected to The sexes are separate in squid, there being a single gonad in the posterior part of the body with fertilisation being external, and usually taking place in the mantle cavity of the female. The male has a testis from which sperm pass into a single gonoduct where they are rolled together into a long bundle, or spermatophore. The gonoduct is elongated into a "penis" that extends into the mantle cavity and through which spermatophores are ejected. In shallow water species, the penis is short, and the spermatophore is removed from the mantle cavity by a tentacle of the male, which is specially adapted for the purpose and known as a hectocotylus, and placed inside the mantle cavity of the female during mating.
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There are also two spherical or oval buccal suckers at the anterior extremity. The digestive organs include an anterior, terminal funnel shaped and muscular mouth, a large and oval pharynx, a broad oesophagus and a posterior intestine that bifurcates in two lateral branches with numerous short outer and few short intercrural branches, posteriorly terminating independently behind the last testis, the right branche slightly over-reach the left. Each adult contains male and female reproductive organs. The reproductive organs include an anterior genital atrium, a muscular and conical penis, with a basal bulb and a distal corona of 10-12 recurved hooks, a single unarmed dorsal vagina, an inverted 'U' shaped ovary, and 9-14 irregularly oval or somewhat rectangular testes post-ovarian, and extend to the base of the haptor in the intercrural space.
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Apart from breaching of blood-testis barrier, epididymal distension, raised intraluminal pressure, and sperm granuloma formation leading spermatozoal phagocytosis seem to be contributing factors. As of 2017, it is unclear how or why women generally do not develop ASA, and why some women do develop them; the clearest correlations are that women whose male partners have ASA in their semen are more likely to have ASA, and women with ASA tend to react only to their partner's sperm and not to other men's sperm. The hypotheses for how women form ASA, as of 2017, includes cross-reactivity with microbial antigens, antibodies raised against ASA in their partner's semen, and a cytokine-driven immune response to ASA in their partner's semen. In women, spermatozoa in the genital tract after intercourse are not a factor in the production of antisperm antibodies.
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The process of spermatogenesis as the cells progress from primary spermatocytes, to secondary spermatocytes, to spermatids, to Sperm Cycle of the seminiferous epithelium of the testis Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the normal complement of genetic material. In spermatocytogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium, which resides in the basal compartment of the seminiferous tubules, divides mitotically, producing two diploid intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes. Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules and duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes, which will later divide once more into haploid spermatids. This division implicates sources of genetic variation, such as random inclusion of either parental chromosomes, and chromosomal crossover that increases the genetic variability of the gamete.
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Testis subspherical, lying immediately posterior to germarium; proximal vas deferens not observed; seminal vesicle a simple dilation of distal vas deferens, lying just posterior to MCO; ejaculatory bulb apparently absent; large vesicle (prostatic reservoir?) with translucent contents lying dorsal to common genital pore. MCO reniform, quadriloculate, with moderately long cylindrical distal cone; distal tube with delicate wall; terminal filament delicate, variable in length; walls of three distal chambers comparatively thick; proximal chamber with delicate wall, frequently collapsing during mounting of specimen on slide. Germarium pyriform; germarial bulb lying slightly to right of body midline, with elongate dorsoventral distal loop around right intestinal cecum; ootype lying slightly to left of body midline, with well-developed Mehlis’ gland and giving rise to delicate banana-shaped uterus when empty. Common genital pore ventral, dextral to distal chamber of MCO.
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The donor was a convicted murderer, one Ilija Krajan, whose death sentence was commuted to 20 years imprisonment, and he was led to believe that it was done because he had donated his testis to an elderly medical doctor. Both the donor and the receiver survived, but charges were brought in a court of law by the public prosecutor against Dr. Kolesnikov, not for performing the operation, but for lying to the donor. The first attempted human deceased-donor transplant was performed by the Ukrainian surgeon Yurii Voronoy in the 1930s; but failed due to Ischemia. Joseph Murray and J. Hartwell Harrison performed the first successful transplant, a kidney transplant between identical twins, in 1954, because no immunosuppression was necessary for genetically identical individuals. In the late 1940s Peter Medawar, working for the National Institute for Medical Research, improved the understanding of rejection.
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After the findings from the vasal fluid are reviewed showing epididymal obstruction, the epididymis is exposed by opening the outer testis covering (tunica vaginalis). The epididymis is inspected and an individual tubule is selected to enter and connect to the vas deferens. From this point on, one of two epididymovasostomy techniques is taken. In the mucosa-to-mucosa, end to side method,Thomas AJ Jr. Vasoepididymostomy. Urol Clin North Am. 14: 527, 1987 an opened epididymal tubule is connected to the cut end of the vas deferens with 4 to 6 small (10-0) simple sutures placed around the circumference of each. This “inner” layer is supported with an “outer” layer of radially placed 9-0 sutures to strengthen the connection. Recently, an “invagination” vasoepididymostomy was described as an alternative to the mucosa-to-mucosa method.Berger RE. Triangulation end-to-side vasoepididymostomy.
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In terms of brain imaging, the ability for CLARITY imaging to reveal specific structures in such unobstructed detail has led to promising avenues of future applications including local circuit wiring (especially as it relates to the Connectome Project), relationships between neural cells, roles of subcellular structures, better understanding of protein complexes, and imaging of nucleic acids and neurotransmitters. An example of a discovery made through CLARITY imaging is a peculiar 'ladder' pattern where neurons connected back to themselves and their neighbors, which has been observed in animals to be connected to autism-like behaviors. CLARITY can be used with little or no modifications to clear most other organs such as liver, pancreas, spleen, testis, and ovaries and other species such as zebrafish. While bone requires a simple decalcification step, similarly, plant tissue requires an enzymatic degradation of the cell wall.
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In his work on de la Chapelle Syndrome in 1986, Page collaborated with the geneticist who originally identified the first XX male, Albert de la Chapelle, and geneticist Jean Weissenbach to show that XX males carry a small piece of the Y chromosome. In the following year, he reported that the gene ZFY induced the development of the testes, a finding which received a great deal of media attention since it putatively resolving a decade-long search for the sex- determining gene. In 1989, a British team of scientists led by Peter Goodfellow and Robin Lovell-Badge began to report that the testis-determining gene was not ZFY, which led Page to review his data. Page found that he had misinterpreted his data because one of the XY females in his study had a second deletion at the site which proved to be the location of the real sex- determining gene.
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The relative size of human male testes is comparable to those primates who have single-male (monogamous or polygynous) mating systems, such as gorillas and orangutans, while it is smaller when compared to primates with polyandrous mating systems, such as bonobos and chimpanzees. While it is possible that the large testis size of some primates could be due to seasonal breeding (and consequently a need to fertilize a large number of females in a short period of time), evidence suggests that primate groups with multi-male mating systems have significantly larger testes than do primates groups with single-male mating systems, regardless of whether that species exhibits seasonal breeding. Similarly, primate species with high levels of sperm competition also have larger ejaculate volumes and larger sperm midpieces. Unlike all other Old World great apes and monkeys, humans do not have a baculum (penile bone).
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Human NAA15 is located on chromosome 4q31.1 and contains 23 exons. Initially, 2 mRNA species were identified, of size 4.6 and 5.8 kb, both harboring the same open reading frame encoding a putative protein of 866 amino acids (~105 kDa) protein that can be detected in most human adult tissues. According to RefSeq/NCBI, only one human transcript variant exists, although 2 more isoforms are predicted. In addition to full length Naa15, an N-terminally truncated variant of Naa15 (named tubedown-1), Naa15273-865 has been described; however, in mouse only full length Naa15 is widely expressed, whereas smaller transcripts seem to visualized only in heart and testis. In addition to this, a NAA15 gene duplication, NAA16, has been identified, and the encoded protein shares 70% sequence identity to hNaa15 and is expressed in a variety of human cell lines, but is generally less abundant as compared to hNaa15.
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The xanthogranulomatous type of inflammation is most-commonly seen in pyelonephritis and cholecystitis, although it has more recently been described in an array of other locations including bronchi, lung, endometrium, vagina, fallopian tubes, ovary, testis, epydidymis, stomach, colon, ileum, pancreas, bone, lymph nodes, bladder, adrenal gland, abdomen and muscle. Telling apart clinically a XP from a tumor condition can be challenging as pointed out by several authors. Cozzutto and Carbone suggested that a wide array of entities characterized by a large content of histiocytes and foamy macrophages could be traced back at least in part to a xanthogranulomatous inflammation. These include such varied disturbances as xanthoma disseminatum, ceroid granuloma of the gallbladder, Whipple's disease, inflammatory pseudotumor of the lung, plasma cell granuloma of the lung, malakoplakia, verruciform xanthoma, foamy histiocytosis of the spleen in thrombocytopenic purpura, isolated xanthoma of the small bowel, xanthofibroma of bone, and gastric xanthelasma.
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An early case study of de novo gene birth, which identified five de novo genes in D. melanogaster, noted preferential expression of these genes in the testes, and several additional de novo genes were identified using transcriptomic data derived from the testes and male accessory glands of D. yakuba and D. erecta (see above). This was in keeping with the rapid evolution of genes related to reproduction that has been observed across a range of lineages, suggesting that sexual selection may play a key role in adaptive evolution and de novo gene birth. A subsequent large-scale analysis of six D. melanogaster strains identified 248 testis-expressed de novo genes, of which ~57% were not fixed. It has been suggested that the large number of de novo genes with male- specific expression identified in Drosophila is likely due to the fact that such genes are preferentially retained relative to other de novo genes, for reasons that are not entirely clear.
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They are two slender vessels of considerable length, and arise from the front of the aorta a little below the renal arteries. Each passes obliquely downward and lateralward behind the peritoneum, resting on the Psoas major, the right lying in front of the inferior vena cava and behind the middle colic and ileocolic arteries and the terminal part of the ileum, the left behind the left colic and sigmoid arteries and the iliac colon. Each crosses obliquely over the ureter and the lower part of the external iliac artery to reach the abdominal inguinal ring, through which it passes, and accompanies the other constituents of the spermatic cord along the inguinal canal to the scrotum, where it becomes tortuous, and divides into several branches. Two or three of these accompany the ductus deferens, and supply the epididymis, anastomosing with the artery of the ductus deferens; others pierce the back part of the tunica albuginea, and supply the substance of the testis.
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"Pseudohermaphroditism" has, until very recently, been the term used in the medical literature to describe the condition of an individual whose gonads and karyotype do not match the external genitalia in the gender binary sense. For example, 46,XY individuals who have a female phenotype, but also have testes instead of ovaries—a group that includes all individuals with CAIS, as well as some individuals with PAIS—are classified as having "male pseudohermaphroditism", while individuals with both an ovary and a testis (or at least one ovotestis) are classified as having "true hermaphroditism". Use of the word in the medical literature antedates the discovery of the chromosome, thus its definition has not always taken karyotype into account when determining an individual's sex. Previous definitions of "pseudohermaphroditism" relied on perceived inconsistencies between the internal and external organs; the "true" sex of an individual was determined by the internal organs, and the external organs determined the "perceived" sex of an individual.
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Adult zebrafish express miR-10a in heart, testis and ovary, and miR-10b in muscle and liver. In developing embryos, miR-10 is detected at specific stages. Zebrafish embryos show miR-10a expression from 48 to 120 hours post- fertilisation, and miR-10b expression from 12 to 120 hours post-fertilisation. In Drosophila expression of miR-10-3p is highest in 12- to 24-hour-old embryos and in 1st and 3rd instar larvae. Levels of miR-10-5p are highest in 12- to 24-hour-old embryos and much lower in larvae. In stage 5 Drosophila embryos (130–180 minutes post-fertilisation), miR-10 is distributed throughout 50-80% of the length of the egg. Later in development miRNA-10 becomes localised into bands, and levels decrease by stage 7 (195–200 minutes post-fertilisation). miR10 reappears by stage 11 (320–440 minutes post-fertilisation), where it is found in the ventral nerve cord, posterior midgut and hindgut.
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As the number of children with intersex conditions referred to Lawson Wilkins' new pediatric endocrinology clinic at Hopkins increased, it was recognized that doctors "couldn't tell by looking" at the external genitalia, and many errors of diagnosis based on outward appearance had led to anomalous sex assignments. Although it seems obvious now that a doctor could not announce to an eight-year-old boy and his parents that "we have just discovered that you are 'really' a girl, with female chromosomes, and ovaries and uterus inside, and we recommend that you change your sex to match your chromosomes and internal organs," a few such events occurred around the world as doctors and parents tried to make use of new information. Genital reconstructive surgery at that time was primarily performed on older children and adults. In the early 1950s, it consisted primarily of the ability to remove an unwanted or nonfunctional gonad, to bring a testis into a scrotum, to repair a milder chordee or to change the position of the urethra in hypospadias, to widen a vaginal opening, and to remove a clitoris.
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As a geneticist, Howard already recognized the importance of DNA, and although the double helix structure would not be discovered for a few more years, "the idea that chromosomes are made of DNA was generally agreed on." On her first day, she suggested to Stephen Pelc that radioactive phosphorus taken into the cell might be incorporated into DNA and give some information on the replication and synthesis of this important substance. They injected a mouse with phosphorus-32 to study the rate at which the isotope incorporated into the DNA of dividing cells in the testis and the resulting autoradiographs were promising. However, in animal cells and tissues the background radioactivity from remaining Phosphorus-32 made it impossible to obtain an autoradiograph localized down to individual chromosomes and parts of chromosomes. There were a limited number of radioactive isotopes available in the early 1950s but Howard and Pelc switched to a botanical experimental system well established in Gray's lab, the bean root Vicia faba, and they were then able to continue their research with Phosphorus-32.
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This results primarily as a consequence of polyandrous mating systems, or due to extra-pair copulations of females, which increases the chance of cuckoldry, in which the male mate raises a child that is not genetically related to him.Simmons, Leigh W.; Firman, Renée C.; Rhodes, Gillian; Peters, Marianne. (2004). “Human sperm competition: Testis size, sperm production, and rates of extrapair copulations”. Animal Behaviour. 68 (2): 297-302. Sperm competition among males has resulted in numerous physiological and psychological adaptations, including the relative size of testes, the size of the sperm midpiece, prudent sperm allocation, and behaviors relating to sexual coercion,Martin, Robert D. (2007). “The evolution of human reproduction: A primatological perspective”. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. 50: 59-84. however this is not without consequences: the production of large amounts of sperm is costlyDewsbury, Donald A. (1982). “Ejaculate cost and male choice”. The American Naturalist. 119 (5): 601-610.Baker, R. Robin; Bellis, Mark A. (1993). “Human sperm competition: Ejaculate adjustment by males and the function of masturbation”. Animal Behaviour.
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KSI occurs in animal tissues concerned with steroid hormone biosynthesis, such as the adrenal, testis, and ovary. KSI in Comamomas testosteroni is used in the degradation pathway of steroids, allowing this bacteria to utilize steroids containing a double bond at Δ5, such as testosterone, as its sole source of carbon. In mammals, transfer of a double bond at Δ5 to Δ4 is catalyzed by 3-β-hydroxy-Δ5-steroid dehydrogenase at the same time as the dehydroxylation of 3-β-hydroxyl group to ketone group, while in C. testosteroni and P. putida, Δ5,3-ketosteroid isomerase just transfers a double bond at Δ5 of 3-ketosteroid to Δ4. A Δ5-3-ketosteroid isomerase-disrupted mutant of strain TA441 can grow on dehydroepiandrosterone, which has a double bond at Δ5, but cannot grow on epiandrosterone, which lacks a double bond at Δ5, indicating that C. testosteroni KSI is responsible for transfer of the double bond from Δ5 to Δ4 and transfer of the double bond by hydrogenation at Δ5 and following dehydrogenation at Δ4 is not possible.
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His body of work includes The Cell and Molecular Biology of Fish Oogenesis, Cellular and Molecular Biology of Gonadal Development and Maturation in Mammals: Fundamentals and Biomedical Implications, Comparative Cellular and Molecular Biology of Ovary in Mammals: Fundamental and Applied Aspects, Comparative Cellular and Molecular Biology of Testis in Vertebrates: Trends in Endocrine, Paracrine, and Autocrine Regulation of Structure and Functions, Cellular And Molecular Biology For Human, (all on Cell and Molecular biology), Biology of Spermatogenesis and Spermatozoa in Mammals, Biology of Spermatogenesis and Spermatozoa in Mammals, Buffalo bull semen: morphology, biochemistry, physiology and methodology (all on spermatogenesis) and Rodents: ecology, biology and control. He was associated with national and international organizations such as World Health Organization, UNESCO, Indian Council of Medical Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and the University Grants Commission and served as the member of the council of Indian National Science Academy (INSA) from 1986 to 1988. He was also a member of the editorial boards of Journal of Biosciences, Himalayan Journal of Environment and Zoology and the journals of the INSA.
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Principal abbreviations (from Schmotzer & Zimmerman) are: T, testis; Vd, vas deferens; BU, urethral bulb; Ur, urethra; R, rectum; P, penis; S, scrotum; O, ovary; FT, tuba Fallopii; RL, ligament uteri; Ut, uterus; CC, Corpus clitoris. Remaining abbreviations, in alphabetical order, are: AG, parotid analis; B, vesica urinaria; CG, parotid Cowperi; CP, Corpus penis; CS, corpus spongiosum; GC, glans; GP, glans penis; LA, levator ani muscle; Pr, prepuce; RC, musculus retractor clitoris; RP, Musculus retractor penis; UCG, Canalis urogenital. Due to their higher levels of androgen exposure during fetal development, the female hyenas are significantly more muscular and aggressive than their male counterparts; social-wise, they are of higher rank than the males, being dominant or dominant and alpha, and the females who have been exposed to higher levels of androgen than average become higher-ranking than their female peers. Subordinate females lick the clitorises of higher-ranked females as a sign of submission and obedience, but females also lick each other's clitorises as a greeting or to strengthen social bonds; in contrast, while all males lick the clitorises of dominant females, the females will not lick the penises of males because males are considered to be of lowest rank.
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ICAM-1 and soluble ICAM-1 have antagonistic effects on the tight junctions forming the blood-testis barrier, thus playing a major role in spermatogenesis. The presence of heavy glycosylation and other structural characteristics of ICAM-1 lend the protein binding sites for numerous ligands. ICAM-1 possesses binding sites for a number of immune-associated ligands. Notably, ICAM-1 binds to _mac_ rophage adhesion ligand- _1_ (Mac-1; ITGB2 / ITGAM), _l_ eukocyte _f_ unction associated _a_ ntigen- _1_ (LFA-1), and fibrinogen. These three proteins are generally expressed on endothelial cells and leukocytes, and they bind to ICAM-1 to facilitate transmigration of leukocytes across vascular endothelia in processes such as extravasation and the inflammatory response. As a result of these binding characteristics, ICAM-1 has classically been assigned the function of intercellular adhesion. Researchers began to question the role of ICAM-1 as a simple adhesion molecule upon discovering that ICAM-1 serves as the binding site for entry of the major group of human rhinovirus (HRV) into various cell types. ICAM-1 also became known for its affinity for plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (PFIE), providing more of a role for ICAM-1 in infectious disease.
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