The case of Greece is particularly interesting in light of classical archaeology's role in creating a modern concept of the ancient world, in which supposedly the foundations of a democratic west lie, mimicking the classical world as imagined by European humanists, conflict-free and teleologically directed towards Christian salvation.
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He viewed this end teleologically as its ultimate purpose and destiny.
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According to this author, associative learning will only demonstrate intelligence if it is seen as part of teleologically integrated activity. Otherwise, it can be reduced to mechanistic explanation.
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Furthermore, in light of the Darwinistic mechanisms of carcinogenesis, it has been theorized that the various forms of cancer can be categorized as pubertal and gerontological. Anthropological research is currently being conducted on cancer as a natural evolutionary process through which natural selection destroys environmentally inferior phenotypes while supporting others. According to this theory, cancer comes in two separate types: from birth to the end of puberty (approximately age 20) teleologically inclined toward supportive group dynamics, and from mid-life to death (approximately age 40+) teleologically inclined away from overpopulated group dynamics.
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Some biology courses have incorporated exercises requiring students to rephrase such sentences so that they do not read teleologically. Nevertheless, biologists still frequently write in a way which can be read as implying teleology even if that is not the intention.
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Postmodern Music/Postmodern Thought. . p. 6. Against this postmodern position, Alasdair MacIntyre has argued that a narrative understanding of oneself, of one's capacity as an independent reasoner, one's dependence on others and on the social practices and traditions in which one participates, all tend towards an ultimate good of liberation. Social practices may themselves be understood as teleologically oriented to internal goods, for example practices of philosophical and scientific inquiry are teleologically ordered to the elaboration of a true understanding of their objects. MacIntyre's After Virtue (1981) famously dismissed the naturalistic teleology of Aristotle's 'metaphysical biology', but he has cautiously moved from that book's account of a sociological teleology toward an exploration of what remains valid in a more traditional teleological naturalism.
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Country Studies This gave rise to Samizdat, a clandestine copying and distribution of government-suppressed literature. Art, literature, education, and science were placed under strict ideological scrutiny, since they were supposed to serve the interests of the victorious proletariat. Socialist realism is an example of such teleologically-oriented art that promoted socialism and communism. All humanities and social sciences were tested for strict accordance with historical materialism.
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The Revolution, Clark asserted, was triggered by the denominational conflicts still endemic at that time within the English-speaking North Atlantic world.Clark, Language of Liberty, p. 304. Clark has frequently maintained that too often the 18th century has been interpreted teleologically in the light of the 19th; he sees his mission as an historian to explain the long 18th century in its own terms.
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Adler's book, Über den nervösen Charakter (The Neurotic Character) defines his earlier key ideas. He argued that human personality could be explained teleologically: parts of the individual's unconscious self ideally work to convert feelings of inferiority to superiority (or rather completeness).'Inferiority Complex', in Richard Gregory ed, The Oxford Companion to the Mind (1987) p. 368 The desires of the self ideal were countered by social and ethical demands.
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For many classical philosophers, nature was understood teleologically, meaning that every type of thing had a definitive purpose which fit within a natural order that was itself understood to have aims. Perhaps starting with Pythagoras or Heraclitus, the cosmos is even said to have reason.. See pp. 204 & 235. Reason, by this account, is not just one characteristic that humans happen to have, and that influences happiness amongst other characteristics.
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Although some scholars have argued that there are glimmers of Wollstonecraft's radicalism in this text, they admit that the "potential for critique remains largely latent".Jones, "Literature of advice", 124. Thoughts is therefore usually interpreted either teleologically, as a first step towards the more radical Rights of Woman, or dismissed as a "politically naïve potboiler" written prior to Wollstonecraft's conversion to radicalism while she was writing the Rights of Men.
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Death becomes victory, martyrdom is an expiating sacrifice, and Satan will be overcome only by such nonresistant suffering. That was the teaching of Daniel 3 (the three men in the furnace) and of the Second and Third Book of the Maccabees (e.g., the story of the mother and her seven sons). In short, the apocalyptic, pre-Christian literature offers this double justification of martyrdom: causally it is inescapable, and teleologically ("what for") it is absolutely meaningful.
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Statements implying that nature has goals, for example where a species is said to do something "in order to" achieve survival, appear teleological, and therefore invalid. Usually, it is possible to rewrite such sentences to avoid the apparent teleology. Some biology courses have incorporated exercises requiring students to rephrase such sentences so that they do not read teleologically. Nevertheless, biologists still frequently write in a way which can be read as implying teleology even if that is not the intention.
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In effect, Hume contended that such hostilities are not found in nature, but are a human creation, depending on a particular time and place, and thus unworthy of mortal conflict. Prior to Hume, Aristotelian philosophy maintained that all actions and causes were to be interpreted teleologically. This rendered all facts about human action examinable under a normative framework defined by cardinal virtues and capital vices. "Fact" in this sense was not value-free, and the fact-value distinction was an alien concept.
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One running debate in modern philosophy of biology > is to what extent does teleological language (i.e., the 'purposes' of > various organs or life-processes) remain unavoidable, and when does it > simply become a shorthand for ideas that can ultimately be spelled out non- > teleologically. According to Aristotle, the telos of a plant or animal is > also "what it was made for"—which can be observed. Trees, for example, seem > to be made to grow, produce fruit/nuts/flowers, provide shade, and > reproduce.
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Statements which imply that nature has goals, for example where a species is said to do something "in order to" achieve survival, appear teleological, and therefore invalid to evolutionary biologists. It is however usually possible to rewrite such sentences to avoid the apparent teleology. Some biology courses have incorporated exercises requiring students to rephrase such sentences so that they do not read teleologically. Nevertheless, biologists still frequently write in a way which can be read as implying teleology, even though that is not their intention.
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Some modern scholars however think his advice shows more familiarity with the schoolroom than with the battlefield, appearing to feature obsolete armour and tactics typical of Homeric rather than hoplite warfare.H. L. Lorimer, "The Hoplite Phalanx" A.B.S.A. 42 (1947), pages 122ff Others have argued that the Spartans at that time were still developing hoplite tactics or that they were adapting hoplite tactics to encounter Messenian guerillas.N.G.L.Hammond, "The Lycurgean Reform at Sparta", J.H.S. 70 (1950), n. 50, page 51 Tyrtaeus's poetry is almost always interpreted teleologically, for signs of its subsequent impact on Spartan society.
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Institutional reform, such as privatization, failed to deliver the predicted economic growth, not because of lacking credible commitment on part of actors but due to the absence of endogenous credibility. For this reason, Grabel noted that “credibility is always secured endogenously (. . .) rather than exogenously by virtue of the epistemological status of the theory that promotes it.” In contrast, the growth of the Chinese economy despite lack of many institutions considered to be essential for economic growth indicated that institutional arrangements do not necessarily determine economic outcomes, and also at the same time economic development does not automatically lead to teleologically predetermined institutional forms.
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Kant does however reason that these natural objects, such as rivers, rocks and beaches do have a purpose in a relative sense. They have a purpose in a relative sense as long as they contribute towards the existence of a living thing which has an internal purpose. These relative purposes provide the condition by which it is possible for nature to be a system of purposes where all organisms and natural objects are connected teleologically through relative purposiveness. The teleological idea of this system of purposes leads to both the idea of the ultimate purpose [letzter Zweck] of nature and the idea of the final purpose [Endzweck] of nature.
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Since the mid 1990s Jeffrey has increasingly turned his attention to comparative literary study of Chinese and Western texts. He has argued that the dominant meta-narrative impulses of the two literary cultures are strikingly opposite teleologically; whereas Western texts tend to privilege leaving the homeland behind in search of a better country (eg. Vergil, Exodus, early American literature), Asian texts may favor going out in search of intellectual treasure but then prioritize bringing it back to the original homeland. Summarily, if for Tom Wolfe, ‘you can’t go home again,’ for Asian texts one must go home again (Dangdai Ouzhou Wenxie Zonghengtan [Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House, 2003]).
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Ancient science has been described as having gotten off to a good start, then faltered. The doctrine of atomism, propounded by the pre-Socratic philosophers Leucippus and Democritus, was naturalistic, accounting for the workings of the world by impersonal processes, not by divine volitions. Nevertheless, these pre-Socratics come up short for Weinberg as proto-scientists, in that they apparently never tried to justify their speculations or to test them against evidence. Weinberg believes that science faltered early on due to Plato's suggestion that scientific truth could be attained by reason alone, disregarding empirical observation, and due to Aristotle's attempt to explain nature teleologically—in terms of ends and purposes.
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2, pp. 557-575. Kulka sums up his approach to the study of this period in the history of German Jewry as follows: > In my attempt to present the basic tendencies in the development of Jewish > life from 1933 on, there are two different dimensions of time: the > historical dimension of time and the time dimension of the Third Reich – > defined teleologically, the period of the Final Solution. The first > dimension explores this time against the background of continuity: what > existed before 1933 and continued even if under an altered guise after that > watershed. The second dimension relates to what was significantly new and > novel, introduced and developed under the new regime.
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Kant's position is that, even though we cannot know whether there are final causes in nature, we are constrained by the peculiar nature of the human understanding to view organisms teleologically. Thus the Kantian view sees teleology as a necessary principle for the study of organisms, but only as a regulative principle, and with no ontological implications. Talcott Parsons, in the later part of his working with a theory of social evolution and a related theory of world- history, adopted the concept of teleonomy as the fundamental organizing principle for directional processes and his theory of societal development in general. In this way, Parsons tried to find a theoretical compromise between voluntarism as a principle of action and the idea of a certain directionality in history.
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1016) :Plato, describes the idea of the good, or the Godhead, sometimes teleologically, as the ultimate purpose of all conditioned existence; sometimes cosmologically, as the ultimate operative cause; and has begun to develop the cosmological, as also the physico- theological proof for the being of God; but has referred both back to the idea of the Good, as the necessary presupposition to all other ideas, and our cognition of them. (p. 402) The book The Works of Aristotle (1908, p. 80 Fragments) mentioned :Aristotle says the poet Orpheus never existed; the Pythagoreans ascribe this Orphic poem to a certain Cercon (see Cercops). Bertrand Russell (1947) noted :The Orphics were an ascetic sect; wine, to them, was only a symbol, as, later, in the Christian sacrament.
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Roche’s work has given rise to a number of criticisms usually originating from historians principally interested in the French Revolution rather than the French Enlightenment. David Garrioch points out that religious history, visual sources, and any discussion of revolutionary Paris (all three being of important consequence to the history of the Enlightenment although the focus on the latter tends to teleologically frame 1789 as the terminus ad quem of the 18th century) are all largely absent from Roche’s writings.Garrioch, “Daniel Roche and the History of Paris,” 739. The history of consumerism in early modern France is also a problematic approach to the broader French Enlightennment because the materially poor of the cities and the bulk of the rural population lacked the means or incentive to engage in consumerism.
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Ancient cultures such as Incan, Mayan, Hopi, and other Native American Tribes – plus the Babylonians, ancient Greeks, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and others – have a concept of a wheel of time: they regard time as cyclical and quantic, consisting of repeating ages that happen to every being of the Universe between birth and extinction. In general, the Islamic and Judeo-Christian world-view regards time as linear and directional, beginning with the act of creation by God. The traditional Christian view sees time ending, teleologically, with the eschatological end of the present order of things, the "end time". In the Old Testament book Ecclesiastes, traditionally ascribed to Solomon (970–928 BC), time (as the Hebrew word עידן, זמן iddan (age, as in "Ice age") zĕman(time) is often translated) was traditionally regarded as a medium for the passage of predestined events.
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This is a system which may have evolved to cope with threats to the survival of human ancestors: in the wild, a person who perceived intelligent and potentially dangerous beings everywhere was more likely to survive than a person who failed to perceive actual threats, such as wild animals or human enemies. Humans are also inclined to think teleologically and ascribe meaning and significance to their surroundings, a trait which may lead people to believe in a creator-deity. This may have developed as a side effect of human social intelligence, the ability to discern what other people are thinking. Stories of encounters with supernatural beings are especially likely to be retold, passed on, and embellished due to their descriptions of standard ontological categories (person, artifact, animal, plant, natural object) with counterintuitive properties (humans that are invisible, houses that remember what happened in them, etc.).
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Disadvantages include the exclusion of non-chord tones characteristic of bop and free styles, the "in-between" sounds featured in the blues, and consideration of directionality created between the interaction of a solo and a chord progression: "The disadvantages of this system may become clear when students begin to question why their own playing does not sound like such outstanding linear-oriented players as Charlie Parker, Sonny Stitt or Johnny Griffin (or, for that matter, the freer jazz stylists)": > The chord-scale method's 'vertical' approach...is 'static,' offering little > assistance in generating musical direction through the movement of chords. > Hence the importance of knowing the older chord tone approach. But...Swing- > and bop-era songforms operate teleologically with regard to harmony. Highly > regarded soloists in those styles typically imply the movements of > chords...either by creating lines that voice-lead smoothly from one chord to > another or by confounding the harmony pull through anticipating or delaying > harmonic resolution.
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