It would have been very hard to take down because of the 30,000 stapes.
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The Staten Island Stapletons, also called the Stapes, were part of the National Football League from 1929-32.
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When she decided to run in District 21, she consulted with local leaders and other civic stapes more closely attuned to the area's concerns.
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Staten Island: The National Football League had a team in Staten Island from 1929 to 1932, called "the Stapes," as in the Staten Island Stapletons.
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In 1927, the Stapes fielded their ex-Newark Bears squad, although Wycoff signed with the Giants. The Giants would go on to win the 1927 NFL championship and defeated the Stapes twice in non-league games, 19–0 and 18–0. The Stapes though did manage to beat the NFL's Duluth Eskimos, featuring Ernie Nevers 7–6 on November 27, 1927. By 1928, Blaine wanted the Stapes to become an NFL franchise.
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The size of the stapes, compared with a 10-cent euro coin. The stapes is the third bone of the three ossicles in the middle ear. The stapes is a stirrup-shaped bone, and the smallest in the human body. It rests on the oval window, to which it is connected by an annular ligament.
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It transmits vibrations to the incus, which in turn transmits the vibrations to the small stapes bone. The wide base of the stapes rests on the oval window. As the stapes vibrates, vibrations are transmitted through the oval window, causing movement of fluid within the cochlea. The round window allows for the fluid within the inner ear to move.
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Columella (Co) and extra-columella (E) evolve into the stapes and extra-stapes in embryonic mammals (7). In the transition of tetrapods from sea to land, the earliest appearance of functional columella appeared in temnospondyls.
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The stapes is described as having a base, resting on the oval window, as well as a head that articulates with the incus. These are connected by anterior and posterior limbs (). The stapes articulates with the incus through the incudostapedial joint. The stapes is the smallest bone in the human body, and measures roughly 3 x 2.5mm, greater along the head-base span.
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The stapes is always normal in character, never becoming at all columelliform.
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She loathes the Edema Ruh (Kvothe's ethnic people), as her sister, Netalya Lackless, was wooed by an Edema Ruh man and later eloped with him. Stapes: The Maer's manservant and most trusted friend. Initially hostile to Kvothe, Stapes softens when Kvothe saves the Maer from slow poisoning by Caudicus. Stapes then gives Kvothe his 'ring of bone' - a ring that signifies his unconditional loyalty to Kvothe.
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In need of a coach, Blaine hired Hinkey Haines, who had played briefly for the Stapes in 1929. The Stapes opened at home by beating the Dodgers 9–7 before 7,000 fans. However a week later at Ebbets Field, the Dodgers forced 3 interceptions to defeat the Stapes 18–6. The team would post a 4–6–1 record in 1931, defeating the Giants (once), Dodgers (twice) and the Cleveland Indians.
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Thus, temnospondyls possessed a hearing system supposedly ancestral to that of living amphibians and reptiles. Frogs and all other living tetrapods have a rod-like bone called the stapes that aids in hearing by transferring vibrations from the ear drum —or homologous tympanum— to the inner ear. Temnospondyls also have a stapes, which projects into the otic cavity. The stapes likely evolved from the hyomandibula of lobe-finned fishes.
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The second is a congenital malformation of the stapes. In both of these situations, it is possible to improve hearing by removing the stapes bone and replacing it with a micro prosthesis - a stapedectomy, or creating a small hole in the fixed stapes footplate and inserting a tiny, piston-like prosthesis - a stapedotomy. The results of this surgery are generally most reliable in patients whose stapes has lost mobility because of otosclerosis. Nine out of ten patients who undergo the procedure will come out with significantly improved hearing while less than 1% will experience worsened hearing acuity or deafness.
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In this way it could transmit sound from the outside world to the brain. The configuration of the stapes is intermediate between non-amniote tetrapods and amniotes. On the one hand, its connection to the otic notch is unusual, since true reptiles and other amniotes have lost an otic notch, forcing the tympanum and stapes to shift downwards towards the quadrate bone of the jaw joint. On the other hand, the thin, sensitive structure of Seymouria's stapes is a specialization over most non-amniote tetrapods, which have a thick stapes useless for hearing yet useful for reinforcing the skull.
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Situated between the incus and the inner ear, the stapes transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the oval window, a membrane-covered opening to the inner ear. The stapes is also stabilized by the stapedius muscle, which is innervated by the facial nerve.
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The stapes develops from the second pharyngeal arch during the sixth to eighth week of embryological life. The central cavity of the stapes, the obturator foramen, is due to the presence embryologically of the stapedial artery, which usually regresses in humans during normal development.
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The best understood mechanism is fixation of the stapes footplate to the oval window of the cochlea. This greatly impairs movement of the stapes and therefore transmission of sound into the inner ear ("ossicular coupling"). Additionally the cochlea's round window can also become sclerotic, and in a similar way impair movement of sound pressure waves through the inner ear ("acoustic coupling"). Conductive hearing loss is usually concomitant with impingement of abnormal bone on the stapes footplate.
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This is, unsurprisingly, the same as for conditions where the stapes itself is fixed, such as otosclerosis.
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Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 114(3), 307-348. The opening of the otic wall of the braincase can be considered a paedomorphic feature for tetrapods and is linked to the stapes functionally.Clack, J. A. (1994). Earliest known tetrapod braincase and the evolution of the stapes and fenestra ovalis.
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The stapedius dampens the vibrations of the stapes by pulling on the neck of that bone. As one of the muscles involved in the acoustic reflex it prevents excess movement of the stapes, helping to control the amplitude of sound waves from the general external environment to the inner ear.
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Thamjarayakul T, Supiyaphun P, & Snidvongs K, "Stapes fixation surgery: Stapedectomy versus stapedotomy", Asian Biomedicine, 4(3): 429–434, 2010.
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In modern species that are sensitive to over 1 kHz frequencies, the footplate of the stapes is 1/20th the area of the tympanum. However, in early amphibians the stapes was too large, making the footplate area oversized, preventing the hearing of high frequencies. So it appears they could only hear high intensity, low frequency sounds—and the stapes more probably just supported the brain case against the cheek. Only in the early Triassic, about hundred million years after they conquered land, did the tympanic middle ear evolve (independently) in all the tetrapod lineages.
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The positioning of the stapes and the shape of the otic region suggests that the tympani of temnospondyls and frogs are homologous, but the tympani of these amphibians are no longer considered homologous with the hearing systems of reptiles, birds, and mammals. Therefore, ear structures in temnospondyls were not ancestral to those of all other tetrapods. The ability of the tympanum and stapes to effectively transmit vibrations is called impedance matching. Early tetrapods like temnospondyls have thick stapes with poor impedance matching, so it is now thought that they were not used for hearing.
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The middle ear consists of a space spanned by three small bones called the ossicles. The three ossicles are the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are Latin names that roughly translate to hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and articulates with the incus. The incus, in turn, articulates with the stapes.
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The stapes appears to be relatively constant in size in different ethnic groups. In 0.01-0.02% of people, the stapedial artery does not regress, and persists in the central foramen. In this case, a pulsatile sound may be heard in the affected ear, or there may be no symptoms at all. Rarely, the stapes may be completely absent.
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A stapedectomy is a surgical procedure of the middle ear performed in order to improve hearing. If the stapes footplate is fixed in position, rather than being normally mobile, then a conductive hearing loss results. There are two major causes of stapes fixation. The first is a disease process of abnormal mineralization of the temporal bone called otosclerosis.
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Epitherians comprise all the placental mammals except the Xenarthra. They are primarily characterized by having a stirrup-shaped stapes in the middle ear, which allows for passage of a blood vessel. This is in contrast to the column- shaped stapes found in marsupials, monotremes, and xenarthrans. They are also characterized by having a shorter fibula relative to the tibia.
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The stapes bone transmits movement to the oval window. As the stapes footplate moves into the oval window, the round window membrane moves out, and this allows movement of the fluid within the cochlea, leading to movement of the cochlear inner hair cells and thus hearing. If the round window were to be absent or rigidly fixed (as can happen in some congenital abnormalities), the stapes footplate would be pushing incompressible fluid against the unyielding walls of the cochlea. It would therefore not move to any useful degree leading to a hearing loss of about 60dB.
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On the other hand, the rear branch jugal bone lengthens to fill some of the space left by the shortening of the anterior process of the quadratojugal. In archosauriforms, the jugal even re-encloses the lower temporal fenestra. The stapes are long, thin, and solid, without a perforating hole (stapedial foramen) present in the more robust stapes of other reptiles.
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In basal members of the 3 major clades of amniotes (synapsids, eureptiles, and parareptiles) the stapes bones are relatively massive props that support the braincase, and this function prevents them from being used as part of the hearing system. However, there is increasing evidence that synapsids, eureptiles and parareptiles developed eardrums connected to the inner ear by stapes during the Permian.
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It is occupied by the base of the stapes, the circumference of which is fixed by the annular ligament to the margin of the foramen.
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It also possessed several unique features, including a high tooth number, long postfrontal, small interpterygoid vacuity, and a specialized interaction between the stapes and quadrate.
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The malleus and incus derive from the cartilage of the first pharyngeal arch, whereas the stapes derives from the cartilage of the second pharyngeal arch.
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In the middle ear, the energy of pressure waves is translated into mechanical vibrations by the three auditory ossicles. Pressure waves move the tympanic membrane which in turns moves the malleus, the first bone of the middle ear. The malleus articulates to incus which connects to the stapes. The footplate of the stapes connects to the oval window, the beginning of the inner ear.
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Remarkably, the stapes, or middle ear bone, remains intact. Also preserved are both mandibles and the atlas-axis complex, which connects to the base of the skull.
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Thus the stapes became an important element in an impedance matching system, coupling airborne sound waves to the receptor system of the inner ear. This system had evolved independently within several different amphibian lineages. The impedance matching ear had to meet certain conditions to work. The stapes had to be perpendicular to the tympanum, small and light enough to reduce its inertia, and suspended in an air-filled cavity.
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Two common treatments are stapedectomy, the surgical removal of the stapes and replacement with an artificial prosthesis, and stapedotomy, the creation of a small hole in the base of the stapes followed by the insertion of an artificial prosthesis into that hole. Surgery may be complicated by a persistent stapedial artery, fibrosis-related damage to the base of the bone, or obliterative otosclerosis, resulting in obliteration of the base.
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The stapes is one of three ossicles in mammals. In non-mammalian four-legged animals, the bone homologous to the stapes is usually called the columella; however, in reptiles, either term may be used. In fish, the homologous bone is called the hyomandibular, and is part of the gill arch supporting either the spiracle or the jaw, depending on the species. The equivalent term in amphibians is the '.
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The Staten Island Stapletons also known as the Staten Island Stapes were a professional American football team founded in 1915 that played in the National Football League from 1929 to 1932. The team was based in the Stapleton section of Staten Island. They played under the shortened nickname the "Stapes" the final two seasons. Jack Shapiro, who was a blocking back for the Stapletons, was the shortest player in NFL history.
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Though the term may refer to any small bone throughout the body, it typically refers to the malleus, incus, and stapes (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) of the middle ear.
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There is a large amount of evidence that Greererpeton and other colosteids were completely aquatic animals. Grooves on the side of the skull indicate that Greererpeton had lateral lines, sensory organs commonly found only in fish and aquatic stem-tetrapods. The stapes bone at the rear of the skull is massive, probably used as a support for the skull. This contrasts with the stapes of terrestrial animals such as frogs, mammals, and lizards.
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Occasionally the joints between the ossicles become rigid. One condition, otosclerosis, results in the fusing of the stapes to the oval window. This reduces hearing and may be treated surgically.
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Vibrations in the middle ear are received via the tympanic membrane. The malleus, resting on the membrane, conveys vibrations to the incus. This in turn conveys vibrations to the stapes.
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The stapedius is the smallest skeletal muscle in the human body. At just over one millimeter in length, its purpose is to stabilize the smallest bone in the body, the stapes.
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These are the most unusual of the braincase bones, and were previously misidentified as stapes. While they are not stapes, it is difficult to be certain what they are. As mentioned, they are sutured to the tubera basioccipitalia, and so could not have moved freely, meaning that they were not bones for the transmission of sound in this manner. Medially, they are sutured to the posterodorsal margins of the tubera basioccipitalia by a strongly serrate and partially intergrown suture.
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Within mammals and other synapsids the columella has evolved into the stapes, a homologous bone within the newly evolved inner ear. As the tympanic cavity evolved to reduce in size, the columella shortened in length. The stirrup-shaped articular processes of the columella inspired a new name for this auditory ossicle, the stapes. The auditory ossicles continue to function in conducting transmitting sound through the auditory pathway; however, they have lost their function in conducting low frequency ground vibrations.
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The middle ear contains three tiny bones known as the ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes. The ossicles were given their Latin names for their distinctive shapes; they are also referred to as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, respectively. The ossicles directly couple sound energy from the eardrum to the oval window of the cochlea. While the stapes is present in all tetrapods, the malleus and incus evolved from lower and upper jaw bones present in reptiles.
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There are various methods to treat otosclerosis. However the method of choice is a procedure known as stapedectomy. Early attempts at hearing restoration via the simple freeing of the stapes from its sclerotic attachments to the oval window were met with temporary improvement in hearing, but the conductive hearing loss would almost always recur. A stapedectomy consists of removing a portion of the sclerotic stapes footplate and replacing it with an implant that is secured to the incus.
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The Boston District Independents were formed in 2012, by the four remaining Boston Bypass Independent councillors on Boston Borough Council. They are Councillors Alison Austin, Richard Austin, Helen Stapes and David Witts.
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Its stapes is also a better transmitter of sound. The hearing system of Doleserpeton and related temnospondyls was able to detect airborne sound and may have been ancestral to that of living amphibians.
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Air vibrations could not set up pulsations through the skull as in a proper auditory organ. The spiracle was retained as the otic notch, eventually closed in by the tympanum, a thin, tight membrane. The hyomandibula of fish migrated upwards from its jaw supporting position, and was reduced in size to form the stapes. Situated between the tympanum and braincase in an air-filled cavity, the stapes was now capable of transmitting vibrations from the exterior of the head to the interior.
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The stapes or stirrup is a bone in the middle ear of humans and other mammals which is involved in the conduction of sound vibrations to the inner ear. This stirrup-shaped bone is connected to the oval window by its annular ligament, which allows the footplate to transmit sound energy through the oval window into the inner ear. The stapes is the smallest and lightest bone in the human body, and is so-called because of its resemblance to a stirrup ().
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Adult males measure and adult females in snout–vent length. The snout is acuminate. The tympanic membrane, annulus, and stapes are absent. The fingers have lateral fringes but no webbing whereas the toes are webbed.
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In July 1931, the team's official name on the league records was changed from the Stapleton Football Club, Inc., to Staten Island Stapes. At this time, Doug Wycoff left the team to rejoin the Giants.
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The stapedius emerges from a pinpoint foramen in the apex of the pyramidal eminence (a hollow, cone-shaped prominence in the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity), and inserts into the neck of the stapes.
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Over the following couple of seasons, the Stapes would play exhibitions against pro teams from the NFL and various other leagues. On November 14, 1926, the Stapes were routed by the Newark Bears, 33–0. The Bears belonged to Red Grange's American Football League, which served as competitor to the NFL during the 1926 season. Unhappy with the defeat, Blaine promptly hired most of the Newark players, including star rookie Doug Wycoff, who were still owed money because the Newark owner was having financial problems.
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The ringed caecilian (Siphonops annulatus) has dental glands that may be homologous to the venom glands of some snakes and lizards. The function of these glands is unknown. The middle ear consists of only the stapes and the oval window, which transfer vibration to the inner ear through a reentrant fluid circuit as seen in some reptiles. The species within the Scolecomorphidae lack both stapes and an oval window, making them the only known amphibians missing all the components of a middle ear apparatus.
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They each connected to a thick yet complex stapes which possessed a conspicuous footplate, stapedial foramen, and a dorsal process. A knob on the outer edge of the stapes likely connected to a characteristic spur on the quadrate. What can be seen of the lower jaw indicates that it was primarily formed by the dentary in its front half, and the low, elongated surangular and angular in its rear half. The coronoid had a low peak and the tall articular had a small retroarticular process.
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In humans, artificially made columella may be produced as autografts from cortical bone. These prostheses are used as replacements for the stapes in ear surgery to correct for hearing problems (such as cholesteatoma or re-perforation).
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The stapedius, which emerges from the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity of the middle ear and inserts into the neck of the stapes (stirrup), prevents excess movements of the stapes by pulling it away from the oval window. The action of either muscle, therefore, dampens vibrations of the ossicles and reduces the amplitude of transmitted sounds for up to 20 dB. The muscles normally contract in response to vocalization, jawing and loud external sounds, which is accompanied by a small but measurable displacement of the eardrum from its initial position. Because cerebrospinal fluid and perilymph communicate through the cochlear aqueduct, an increase in intracranial pressure is directly transmitted to the footplate of the stapes, changing its initial position and affecting thereby the direction and magnitude of the displacement of the eardrum in response to a sound.
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Balanerpeton woodi was discovered by Stanley Wood and is the earliest and most common tetrapod in the East Kirkton Limestone of the East Kirkton Quarry assemblage of terrestrial amphibians in Scotland. Characteristics of Balanerpeton woodi include the presence of large external nares, large interpterygoid vacuities (holes in the back of the palate), and an ear with a tympanic membrane and rod-like stapes. Numerous studies and research regarding ontogeny in non extant taxa have been oriented around this taxon. The morphology of the stapes suggests that the animal was capable of hearing high-frequency sound.
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All non-mammalian amniotes use this system including lizards, crocodilians, dinosaurs (and their descendants the birds) and therapsids; so the only ossicle in their middle ears is the stapes. The mammalian jaw joint is composed of different skull bones, including the dentary (the lower jaw bone which carries the teeth) and the squamosal (another small skull bone). In mammals, the quadrate and articular bones have evolved into the incus and malleus bones in the middle ear. The mammalian middle ear contains three tiny bones known as the ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes.
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In mammals, the articular and quadrate bones have migrated to the middle ear and are known as the malleus and incus. Along with the stapes, these are known as the ossicles and are a defining characteristic of mammals.
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Male Ctenophryne carpish measure (based on a single specimen) and females in snout–vent length. The body is stout and the head is short. The eyes are large. The tympanum is absent, as is tympanic annulus and stapes.
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The stapes mobilization operation had varying results and was soon replaced by stapedectomy, first described by John Shea, Jr.; this was an operation that was always performed with the microscope. Today neurosurgeons are very proud to use microscopes in their procedures.
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Theliderma stapes, the stirrup shell or stirrupshell, is a species of bivalve in the family Unionidae. It is endemic to eastern Mississippi and western Alabama in the United States, though it is potentially extinct, as it was last observed in 1987.
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The stapes and vestibular foramen (the hole that connects the middle and inner ears) are preserved in one specimen of Glanosuchus that was examined by grinding away cross sections of the skull. The anular ligament, a ring-like structure that forms a seal between the end of the stapes and the rim of the vestibular foramen, was probably held in place by cartilage. The transfer of sound between the thin bony plate and the vestibular foramen in Glanosuchus was not as effective as it is in mammals, meaning that the animal had a less acute sense of hearing.
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A modified stapes operation, called a stapedotomy, is thought by many otologic surgeons to be safer and reduce the chances of postoperative complications. In stapedotomy, instead of removing the whole stapes footplate, a tiny hole is made in the footplate - either with a microdrill or with a laser, and a prosthesis is placed to touch this area, oval window. This procedure can be further improved by the use of a tissue graft seal of the fenestra, which is now common practice. Laser stapedotomy is a well-established surgical technique for treating conductive hearing loss due to otosclerosis.
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The ossicles are classically supposed to mechanically convert the vibrations of the eardrum into amplified pressure waves in the fluid of the cochlea (or inner ear), with a lever arm factor of 1.3. Since the effective vibratory area of the eardrum is about 14 fold larger than that of the oval window, the sound pressure is concentrated, leading to a pressure gain of at least 18.1. The eardrum is merged to the malleus, which connects to the incus, which in turn connects to the stapes. Vibrations of the stapes footplate introduce pressure waves in the inner ear.
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In these cases, the stapes either is also missing or, in the absence of an eardrum, connects to the quadrate bone in the skull, although, it is presumed, it still has some ability to transmit vibrations to the inner ear. In many amphibians, there is also a second auditory ossicle, the operculum (not to be confused with the structure of the same name in fishes). This is a flat, plate-like bone, overlying the fenestra ovalis, and connecting it either to the stapes or, via a special muscle, to the scapula. It is not found in any other vertebrates.
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Auditory ossicles from a deep dissection of the tympanic cavity Sound waves travel through the ear canal and hit the tympanic membrane, or eardrum. This wave information travels across the air-filled middle ear cavity via a series of delicate bones: the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup). These ossicles act as a lever, converting the lower-pressure eardrum sound vibrations into higher-pressure sound vibrations at another, smaller membrane called the oval window or vestibular window. The manubrium (handle) of the malleus articulates with the tympanic membrane, while the footplate (base) of the stapes articulates with the oval window.
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As the stapes pushes the secondary tympanic membrane, fluid in the inner ear moves and pushes the membrane of the round window out by a corresponding amount into the middle ear. The ossicles help amplify sound waves by nearly 15–20 times.
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Caudal to what will eventually become the stapes, Reichert's cartilage also forms the styloid process of the temporal bone. The cartilage between the hyoid bone and styloid process will not remain as development continues, but its perichondrium will eventually form the stylohyoid ligament.
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The middle ear uses three tiny bones, the malleus, the incus, and the stapes, to convey vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. There are three main components of the human auditory system: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.
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The franchise's failure can be blamed on a combination of the Great Depression and having too small of a stadium that could never accommodate enough fans to make the team profitable. Therefore, Stapes fans could not afford enough tickets to make a team possible.
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Amniotes do not have gills. The gill arches form as pharyngeal arches during embryogenesis, and lay the basis of essential structures such as jaws, the thyroid gland, the larynx, the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals) and in mammals the malleus and incus.
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The stapes, as first described by Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia (Labeled M, bottom right). The stapes is commonly described as having been discovered by the professor Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia in 1546 at the University of Naples, although this remains the nature of some controversy, as Ingrassia's description was published posthumously in his 1603 anatomical commentary '. Spanish anatomist Pedro Jimeno is first to have been credited with a published description, in ' (1549). The bone is so-named because of its resemblance to a stirrup (), an example of a late Latin word, probably created in mediaeval times from "to stand" (), as stirrups did not exist in the early Latin-speaking world.
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518 The patient was a 54-year-old housewife with conductive hearing loss so severe that she could no longer hear at all, even with a hearing aid. Shea removed the stapes, covered the oval window opening with a vein graft removed from the back of the patient's hand, and inserted a prosthesis to replace the diseased stapes bone. The patient’s hearing was restored and she heard well for the rest of her life. He pioneered numerous techniques in the treatment of hearing loss and dizziness, developed many instruments and prostheses to restore hearing, and worked to advance the knowledge and understanding of the treatment of ear disease.
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The palate is also somewhat weathered in this specimen. The referred specimen LPB 1993-9 is smaller than the holotype ( long) and also more complete, however it has been subjected to taphonomic distortion during fossilisation that distorts some features. The skull has been laterally compressed, particularly distorting the shape of the zygomatic arches, obscuring details of the palate, twisting the tusks so that they curl inward, and altering the symmetry of the skull in general (although the left orbit appears to have maintained its shape). LBP 1993-9 is also missing the left quadratojugal and stapes, and the quadrates, while the right stapes and epipterygoids are poorly preserved.
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Flowchart of sound passage - middle ear The middle ear plays a crucial role in the auditory process, as it essentially converts pressure variations in air to perturbations in the fluids of the inner ear. In other words, it is the mechanical transfer function that allows for efficient transfer of collected sound energy between two different media. The three small bones that are responsible for this complex process are the malleus, the incus, and the stapes, collectively known as the ear ossicles. The impedance matching is done through via lever ratios and the ratio of areas of the tympanic membrane and the footplate of the stapes, creating a transformer-like mechanism.
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Indications of stapedectomy: # Conductive hearing loss (due to fixation of stapes). # Air bone gap of at least 30 dB. # Presence of Carhart's notch in the audiogram of a patient with conductive hearing loss (relative) # Good cochlear reserve as assessed by the presence of good speech discrimination.
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Abnormal development of the skeletal portions of the second arch # Nondifferentiation of the stapes, with resultant absence of round and oval window. # Abnormal course of the facial nerve. Skull base abnormalities # Hypoplasia of the petrous temporal bone. # Hypoplastic and sclerotic petrous apex may mimic labyrinthitis ossificans.
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Howie Davis was a native of Far Rockaway, New York who founded the Harlem Wizards basketball team. He worked for many years as a sports promoter. He was a promoter for the Brooklyn Dodgers and the Staten Island Stapes football teams. He raised over 150 million dollars for schools.
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Thus, the discovery of a slender stapes in Cacops aspidephorus suggested that Cacops had an ability to hear airborne sound. The presence of a tympanum in contemporary amniotes is a difference between these terrestrial vertebrates that suggests these two groups had very different abilities to hear airborne sound.
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Most notable is evidence of a deep recess that is just anterior to the fenestra ovalis, containing evidence of smooth muscle interactions with the skull. Such smooth muscle interactions have been interpreted to be indicative of the tympanum and give the implications that this recess, in conjunction with the fenestra ovalis, outline the origin of the ear in Thrinaxodon. This is a new synapomorphy as this physiology had arisen in Thrinaxodon and had been conserved through late Cynodontia. The stapes contained a heavy cartilage plug, which was fit into the sides of the fenestra ovalis; however, only one half of the articular end of the stapes was able to cover the fenestra ovalis.
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Furious, Kevin orders her to apologise the next day and withdraw her statement to the police. Sally also apologises to John and Fiz and asks them not to press charges. John agrees but Fiz is openly angry. The Stapes and the Websters both agree to stay out of each other's way.
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Otosclerosis is a disorder of the middle ear, characterized by abnormal bone growth at the foot plate of the stapes which affect its mobility, resulting in progressive hearing loss. OPG gene polymorphisms c.9C>G and c.30+15C> have shown genetic association with OTSC in Indian and Tunisian populations.
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Golden moles differ in the nature and extent of the interbullar connection, the shape of the tympanic membrane and that of the manubrium. The stapes has an unusual orientation, projecting dorsomedially from the incus. It has been proposed that hypertrophied ossicles in golden moles are adapted towards the detection of seismic vibrations.
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In at least one case (the Senckenberg specimen), rarely preserved sclerotic rings were preserved in the eye sockets.Lull, Richard Swann; and Wright, Nelda E. (1942). Hadrosaurian Dinosaurs of North America. pp. 128–130. Another rarely seen bone, the stapes (the reptilian ear bone), has also been seen in a specimen of Edmontosaurus.
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In detail, the pinna of the outer ear helps to focus a sound, which impacts on the eardrum. The malleus rests on the membrane, and receives the vibration. This vibration is transmitted along the incus and stapes to the oval window. Two small muscles, the tensor tympani and stapedius, also help modulate noise.
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The splanchnocranium (or visceral skeleton) is the portion of the cranium that is derived from pharyngeal arches. The splanchnocranium consists of cartilage and endochondral bone. In mammals, the splanchnocranium comprises the three ear ossicles (i.e., incus, malleus, and stapes), as well as the alisphenoid, the styloid process, the hyoid apparatus, and the thyroid cartilage.
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The first two (malleus and incus) derive from the first pharyngeal arch and the stapes derives from the second. All three ossicles develop from the neural crest. Eventually cells from the tissue surrounding the ossicles will experience apoptosis and a new layer of endodermal epithelial will constitute the formation of the tympanic cavity wall.
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In modern amniotes (including mammals), the middle ear collects airborne sounds through an eardrum and transmits vibrations to the inner ear via thin cartilaginous and ossified structures. These structures usually include the stapes (a stirrup-shaped auditory ossicle). Early tetrapods likely did not possess eardrums. Eardrums appear to have evolved independently three to six times.
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The laser Doppler vibrometer is being used in clinical otology for the measurement of tympanic membrane (eardrum), malleus (hammer), and prosthesis head displacement in response to sound inputs of 80- to 100-dB sound-pressure level. It also has potential use in the operating room to perform measurements of prosthesis and stapes (stirrup) displacement.
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Columella (highlighted) in the skull of the extinct therapsid Dicynodon. In the auditory system, the columella contributes to hearing in amphibians, reptiles and birds. The columella form thin, bony structures in the interior of the skull and serve the purpose of an eardrum. It is an evolutionary homolog of the stapes, one of the auditory ossicles in mammals.
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Siphonopids are oviparous caecilians, meaning they lay eggs. They have imperforated stapes and no inner mandibular teeth. Like species of some other caecilian families, their skulls have relatively few bones, with those present being fused to form a solid ram to aid in burrowing through the soil. The mouth is recessed beneath the snout, and there is no tail.
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Their descendants, the therapsids (including mammalian ancestors), probably had tympanic membranes in contact with the quadrate bones. The stapes remained in contact with the quadrate bone, but functioned as auditory ossicles rather than supports for the brain case. As a result, the quadrate bones of therapsids likely had a dual function in both the jaw joint and auditory system.
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Earlier workers suggested the use of calcium fluoride; now sodium fluoride is the preferred compound. Fluoride ions inhibit the rapid progression of disease. In the otosclerotic ear, there occurs formation of hydroxylapatite crystals which lead to stapes (or other) fixation. The administration of fluoride replaces the hydroxyl radical with fluoride leading to the formation of fluorapatite crystals.
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Film historian and critic Roberto Curti stated that despite the film often being labelled a horror film, it was a supernatural drama that involved ghosts, and some such gothic stapes such as a haunted house. Curti noted the film's horrific bits are limited to a dog attack, a burning painting that emits laughter and voices recorded from unknown sources on an audio tape.
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Evolution of the columella is closely related to the evolution of the jaw joint. It is an ancestral homolog of the stapes, and is derived from the hyomandibular bone of fishes. As the columella is derived from the hyomandibula, many of its functional relationships remain the same. The columella resides in the air-filled tympanic cavity of the middle ear.
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From the parental care indicated by the large size of the young, it can be deduced that social behaviour in general was relatively complex. It is not known whether plesiosaurs hunted in packs. Their relative brain size seems to be typical for reptiles. Of the senses, sight and smell were important, hearing less so; elasmosaurids have lost the stapes completely.
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In advanced cynodonts, including the mammaliaforms, have lost the quadratojugal, with the diminutive quadrate connecting to the stapes to function as a hearing structure. In modern mammals, the quadrate bone evolves to become the incus, one of the ossicles of the middle ear. This is an apomorphy of the mammalian clade, and is used to identify the fossil transition to mammals.
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A type 1 tympanoplasty is synonymous to myringoplasty. # Type 2 involves repair of the tympanic membrane and middle ear in spite of slight defects in the middle ear ossicles. # Type 3 involves removal of ossicles and epitympanum when there are large defects of the malleus and incus. The tympanic membrane is repaired and directly connected to the head of the stapes.
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He bolstered his squad by re-signing Doug Wycoff back as a player-coach and by signing six graduates from the nationally ranked New York University team. The Stapes had their best season on record, going 10–1–1, including a 3–1 record against NFL teams. They even pulled out a 7–0 victory over the Giants on Thanksgiving Day.
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In 1932, the Stapes finished last, defeating only the Giants and the Chicago Cardinals. Blaine was allowed by the NFL to suspend league play for the upcoming 1933 season. The team continued to lose money in 1933. While the team posted losses against the Giants, Dodgers, Portsmouth Spartans, and Green Bay Packers, it did manage to defeat the newly established Philadelphia Eagles.
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Clack, J. A. (2002): Gaining ground: the origin and evolution of tetrapods. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana. 369 pp While the more derived vertebrates lack gills, the gill arches form during fetal development, and form the basis of essential structures such as jaws, the thyroid gland, the larynx, the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals) and, in mammals, the malleus and incus.
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The dorsal process of the stapes in Theriognathus is greatly reduced or entirely absent. The dentary is short, shaped like a banana, and continuously tapers anteriorly to a narrow edge. The dentarys’ lateral surface is smooth. The posterodorsal terminal end of the coronoid process is more rounded, and the dorsal extent terminates below the middle of the orbit in adults.
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The estimated length of Tuarangisaurus is about . It can be distinguished from all other known elasmosaurids by a unique combination of characteristics as well as two otherwise unknown traits: the ectopterygoid has a long process directed towards the back, and a large boss of bone underneath. A stapes is present in the holotype; this bone was previously thought to be absent from elasmosaurids.
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Danny Lew Staples (April 1, 1932 - July 22, 2003) was a Missouri politician and former state senator from Eminence, Missouri. He served for 20 years in the Missouri Senate (1983-2003) and 6 years in the Missouri House (1976-1982). Before becoming a politician, Stapes was a truck driver. During his career in the state senate, he chaired committees for the Missouri state transportation and prison systems.
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The occipital head of the stapes is largely expanded, with a large hyoid process, but the quadrate head is missing. The quadrate is roughly ear-shaped, with an occipital lamella. Only the posterior end of the lower jaw is preserved, and this lacks any distinctive features, such as teeth. The surangular fossa is present but extremely reduced, and the angular is well exposed laterally.
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Unlike the better-known embolomeres, the baphetid cheek and skull roof are sutured together. There is a strongly embayed spiracular ("otic") notch, but the stapes is distally broad, which seems to rule out a sensitive hearing apparatus. The palate is closed—a primitive character, but very different from the temnospondyls. The coronoids bear no teeth or denticles, while the dentary has a double tooth row.
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The auditory system of humans and animals allows individuals to assimilate information from the surroundings, represented as sound waves. Sound waves first pass through the pinnae and the auditory canal, the parts of the ear that comprise the outer ear. Sound then reaches the tympanic membrane in the middle ear (also known as the eardrum). The tympanic membrane sets the malleus, incus, and stapes into vibration.
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The jaw transition is a good classification tool, as most other fossilized features that make a chronological progression from a reptile-like to a mammalian condition follow the progression of the jaw transition. The mandible, or lower jaw, consists of a single, tooth-bearing bone in mammals (the dentary), whereas the lower jaw of modern and prehistoric reptiles consists of a conglomeration of smaller bones (including the dentary, articular, and others). As they evolved in synapsids, these jaw bones were reduced in size and either lost or, in the case of the articular, gradually moved into the ear, forming one of the middle ear bones: while modern mammals possess the malleus, incus and stapes, basal synapsids (like all other tetrapods) possess only a stapes. The malleus is derived from the articular (a lower jaw bone), while the incus is derived from the quadrate (a cranial bone).
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The posterior and superior parts of the tympanic membrane are most commonly affected. If the cholesteatoma has been dry, the cholesteatoma may present the appearance of 'wax over the attic'. The attic is just above the eardrum. If untreated, a cholesteatoma can eat into the three small bones located in the middle ear (the malleus, incus and stapes, collectively called ossicles), which can result in nerve deterioration, deafness, imbalance and vertigo.
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Karenites is known from a partial holotype skeleton, two partial skulls, and isolated jaw bones. Although incomplete, the skulls preserve small and delicate structures like nasal turbinates on the inside of the skull and the stapes bone of the ear. The skull of Karenites is about long, with the snout much longer than the temporal region of the skull behind the eye sockets. Viewed from above, the skull is triangular.
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The center of the ear opening, squamosum, stapes, eye lens, nose, and premaxilla were all tracked in the study. The cervical vertebra (C1) and the pituitary gland were used to define the anatomical coordinate system. Measurements of the ear-opening, surface area of the ear, and eccentricity were derived using various equations. Through the examination of data, the development of ear asymmetry was apparent throughout the stages of embryonic development.
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Thamjarayakul T, Supiyaphun P & Snidvongs K, "Stapes fixation surgery: Stapedectomy versus stapedotomy", Asian Biomedicine, 4(3): 429–434, 2010. In particular, stapedotomy procedure greatly reduces the chance of a perilymph fistula (leakage of cochlear fluid). Stapedotomy, like stapedectomy, can be successful in the presence of sclerotic adhesions (tissue growths abnormally linking the bones to the tympanic cavity), provided the adhesions are removed during surgery. However, the adhesions may recur over time.
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The stapes is the smallest named bone in the body. The middle ear also connects to the upper throat at the nasopharynx via the pharyngeal opening of the Eustachian tube. The three ossicles transmit sound from the outer ear to the inner ear. The malleus receives vibrations from sound pressure on the eardrum, where it is connected at its longest part (the manubrium or handle) by a ligament.
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The middle ear and its components develop from the first and second pharyngeal arches. The tympanic cavity and auditory tube develop from the first part of the pharyngeal pouch between the first two arches in an area which will also go on to develop the pharynx. This develops as a structure called the tubotympanic recess. The ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) normally appear during the first half of fetal development.
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Instead, these thick stapes may have functioned to support the tissue that covers the otic notch. Early temnospondyls, like Dendrerpeton, could not hear airborne sound but would have been able to detect vibration in the ground. Later temnospondyls like Doleserpeton had otic regions adapted to hearing. Doleserpeton has a structure in the inner ear called the perilymphatic duct, which is also seen in frogs and is associated with hearing.
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Amia calva. Hyamandibular marked h, top image, upper right corner The hyomandibula, commonly referred to as hyomandibular [bone] (, from , "upsilon- shaped" (υ), and Latin: mandibula, "jawbone") is a set of bones that is found in the hyoid region in most fishes. It usually plays a role in suspending the jaws and/or operculum (teleostomi only). It is commonly suggested that in tetrapods (land animals), the hyomandibula evolved into the columella (stapes).
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Normally, vibrations of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) elicited by acoustic stimuli are transmitted through the chain of ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) in the middle ear to the oval window of the cochlea. Vibrations of the footplate of stapes transmit through the oval window to the perilymph, which in turn causes the endolymph, the basilar membrane, and the organ of Corti to vibrate, activating ultimately the acoustic sensor cells, the inner hair cells of the organ of Corti. The transfer function of this complex mechanical system under physiological conditions is modulated by the action of two small muscles of the middle ear, the tensor tympani, and stapedius. The tensor tympani arises from the cartilaginous portion of the auditory tube and the osseous canal of the sphenoid and, having sharply bent over the extremity of the septum, attaches to the manubrium of the malleus (hammer); its contraction pulls the malleus medially, away from the tympanic membrane, which tenses the membrane.
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The stapes (stirrup) ossicle bone of the middle ear transmits vibrations to the fenestra ovalis (oval window) on the outside of the cochlea, which vibrates the perilymph in the vestibular duct (upper chamber of the cochlea). The ossicles are essential for efficient coupling of sound waves into the cochlea, since the cochlea environment is a fluid–membrane system, and it takes more pressure to move sound through fluid–membrane waves than it does through air; a pressure increase is achieved by the area ratio of the tympanic membrane to the oval window, resulting in a pressure gain of about 20× from the original sound wave pressure in air. This gain is a form of impedance matching – to match the soundwave travelling through air to that travelling in the fluid–membrane system. At the base of the cochlea, each duct ends in a membranous portal that faces the middle ear cavity: The vestibular duct ends at the oval window, where the footplate of the stapes sits.
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Restoration of Osteolepis The Osteolepiformes and Elpistostegalia are two crown groups of rhipidistians with respect to the tetrapods. The development of skull roof and cheekbone patterns in these organisms match those found in the first tetrapods. Palatal and nasal skeletal features like choanae are present in these groups and are also observed in modern amphibians. This indicates that incipient air breathing was developed, as well as modification of the hyoid arch towards stapes development.
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The stapes is then attached to the inner ear, where the sound waves will be transduced into a neural signal. The middle ear is connected to the pharynx through the Eustachian tube, which helps equilibrate air pressure across the tympanic membrane. The tube is normally closed but will pop open when the muscles of the pharynx contract during swallowing or yawning. Mechanoreceptors turn motion into electrical nerve pulses, which are located in the inner ear.
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Interestingly, Kembawacela is the only known cistecephalid known to preserve pieces of the bony sclerotic ring surrounding the eye, and they are remarkably smaller than would suggested by the size of the orbits. However, they were too incompletely preserved to estimate the light sensitivity of the eyes. The footplates of the bony stapes are large, associated with hearing low-frequency sounds underground, although its inner-ear is not as specialised as Kawingasaurus.
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Also located in the middle ear are the stapedius muscle and tensor tympani muscle, which protect the hearing mechanism through a stiffening reflex. The stapes transmits sound waves to the inner ear through the oval window, a flexible membrane separating the air-filled middle ear from the fluid-filled inner ear. The round window, another flexible membrane, allows for the smooth displacement of the inner ear fluid caused by the entering sound waves.
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In these groups the bone is thin and sensitive to vibration, so it is used for sensitive hearing. The thick stapes of Greererpeton is an indication that did not have good hearing like terrestrial animals. Greererpeton retains a postbranchial lamina on its shoulder blade, which may have been indicative of internal gills like those of fish. However, the erratic distribution of postbranchial laminae in aquatic and terrestrial fish and amphibians makes this conclusion questionable.
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Insertion of the tensor tympani muscle onto the malleus. . AA’ ( two fibrous collagenic layers); B épidermis; C mucous membrane; D head of malleus; E incus; F stapes; G tensor tympani; H lateral process of malleus; I Manubrium of malleus; J stapedius muscle. The tensor tympani is a muscle that is present in the middle ear. It arises from the cartilaginous part of the auditory tube, and the adjacent great wing of the sphenoid.
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Restoration of Acanthostega In the tetrapod and higher clades from the lower-middle Famennian there are several defining changes on the basis of anatomy of Ichthyostega, Tulerpeton, and Acanthostega. In the cranium, there is a stapes derived from the hyomandibular of fishes; a single bilateral pair of nasal bones, and a fenestra ovalis in the otic capsule of the braincase.Lebedev, O. A., & Coates, M. I. (1995). The postcranial skeleton of the Devonian tetrapod Tulerpeton curtum Lebedev.
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Otosclerosis is a congenital or spontaneous- onset disease characterized by abnormal bone remodeling in the inner ear. Often this causes the stapes to adhere to the oval window, which impedes its ability to conduct sound, and is a cause of conductive hearing loss. Clinical otosclerosis is found in about 1% of people, although it is more common in forms that do not cause noticeable hearing loss. Otosclerosis is more likely in young age groups, and females.
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The teeth of Megaconus have many cusps, allowing them to interlock tightly when the jaws are closed. If Megaconus is a non-mammalian mammaliaform, it is one of the most basal mammaliaforms to possess such complex teeth. The middle ear of Megaconus is more primitive than that of modern mammals. The three bones that make up the middle ear in modern mammals — the malleus, incus, and stapes — originated from the lower jaw in the ancestors of mammals.
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The middle ear The middle ear lies between the outer ear and the inner ear. It consists of an air-filled cavity called the tympanic cavity and includes the three ossicles and their attaching ligaments; the auditory tube; and the round and oval windows. The ossicles are three small bones that function together to receive, amplify, and transmit the sound from the eardrum to the inner ear. The ossicles are the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup).
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The oval window (or fenestra vestibuli) is a membrane-covered opening from the middle ear to the cochlea of the inner ear. Vibrations that contact the tympanic membrane travel through the three ossicles and into the inner ear. The oval window is the intersection of the middle ear with the inner ear and is directly contacted by the stapes; by the time vibrations reach the oval window, they have been amplified over 10 timesMoore and Dalley. Clinically Oriented Anatomy.
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This stiffness is due to, among other things, the thickness and width of the basilar membrane,Camhi, J. Neuroethology: nerve cells and the natural behavior of animals. Sinauer Associates, 1984. which along the length of the cochlea is stiffest nearest its beginning at the oval window, where the stapes introduces the vibrations coming from the eardrum. Since its stiffness is high there, it allows only high-frequency vibrations to move the basilar membrane, and thus the hair cells.
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Together with turtles, the tuatara has the most primitive hearing organs among the amniotes. There is no eardrum and no earhole, they lack a tympanum, and the middle ear cavity is filled with loose tissue, mostly adipose (fatty) tissue. The stapes comes into contact with the quadrate (which is immovable), as well as the hyoid and squamosal. The hair cells are unspecialised, innervated by both afferent and efferent nerve fibres, and respond only to low frequencies.
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Otosclerosis is a condition where one or more foci of irregularly laid spongy bone replace part of normally dense enchondral layer of bony otic capsule in the bony labyrinth. This condition affects one of the ossicles (the stapes) resulting in hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo or a combination of symptoms. The term otosclerosis is something of a misnomer. Much of the clinical course is characterized by lucent rather than sclerotic bony changes, so the disease is also known as otospongiosis.
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In the human body at birth, there are approximately 270 bones present; many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult, not counting numerous small sesamoid bones. The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear. The Greek word for bone is ὀστέον ("osteon"), hence the many terms that use it as a prefix—such as osteopathy.
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From about 1836 to about 1878, musicians at the school, typically teenaged boys, orphaned or with few occupational prospects, lived in small rooms with double bunk beds, consisting of large bags filled with straw. Meals consisted of stapes like rice or bean soup, bread, potatoes, boiled salt beef or pork, and coffee. Enlistees earned seven dollars a month, for training six days a week. By the late 1870s, Fort Columbus was designated as a major army headquarters, bringing numerous generals to the post.
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In reptiles, sound is transmitted to the inner ear by the stapes (stirrup) bone of the middle ear. This is pressed against the oval window, a membrane-covered opening on the surface of the vestibule. From here, sound waves are conducted through a short perilymphatic duct to a second opening, the round window, which equalizes pressure, allowing the incompressible fluid to move freely. Running parallel with the perilymphatic duct is a separate blind-ending duct, the lagena, filled with endolymph.
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Staten Island had a National Football League (NFL) team, the Stapletons, also known as the Stapes. The team was based in Stapleton at Thompson Stadium, located on the current site of Berta A. Dreyfus Intermediate School 49 and the Stapleton Houses. They played in the league from 1929 to 1932, defeating the New York Giants twice and the Chicago Cardinals once. During the 1932 NFL season, the Stapletons, last in the NFL, played the eventual season champion Chicago Bears to a scoreless tie.
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Doug Wycoff and Bob Campiglio stayed with the Stapes in 1933, but their star player Ken Strong signed with the Giants and helped them win the NFL's Eastern Division championship that season and the NFL league championship in 1934. Blaine went through the formality of getting NFL permission to suspend league operations for the 1934 season. The team played one more season of semi-pro football in 1934 before quietly folding a year later. In June 1935, Blaine's franchise was finally declared forfeit.
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As the dentary bone of the lower jaw continued to enlarge during the Triassic, the older quadrate-articular joint fell out of use. Some of the bones were lost, but the quadrate, the articular, and the angular bones became free-floating and associated with the stapes. This occurred at least twice in the mammaliformes. The multituberculates had jaw joints that consisted of only the dentary and squamosal bones, and the quadrate and articular bones were part of the middle ear.
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The stapes transmits these vibrations to the inner ear by pushing on the membrane covering the oval window, which separates the middle and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea, the liquid-filled structure containing the hair cells. These cells serve to transform the incoming vibration to electrical signals, which can then be transmitted to the brain. The auditory nerve carries the signal generated by the hair cells away from the inner ear and towards the auditory receiving area in the cortex.
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Fixation of the stapes within the oval window causes a conductive hearing loss. In pure-tone audiometry, this manifests as air-bone gaps on the audiogram (i.e. a difference of more than 10 dB between the air-conduction and bone-conduction thresholds at a given test frequency). However, medial fixation of the ossicular chain impairs both the inertial and osseotympanic modes of bone conduction, increasing the bone-conduction thresholds between 500 Hz and 4 kHz, and reducing the size of air-bone gaps.
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They found it similar to Acamptonectes in several features, while also differing in some ways, and suggested it was a juvenile due to the size and shape of its basicranium. They considered I. brunsvicensis a nomen dubium due to being fragmentary, as well as not being available for study anymore. Multiple basioccipitals, stapes, and a basisphenoid from the Cambridge Greensand Formation of Cambridge, England, were also assigned to Acamptonectes sp. (of uncertain species within the genus) by Fischer and colleagues.
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Upupa and epops are respectively the Latin and Ancient Greek names for the hoopoe; both, like the English name, are onomatopoeic forms which imitate the cry of the bird. The hoopoe was classified in the clade Coraciiformes, which also includes kingfishers, bee-eaters, and rollers. A close relationship between the hoopoe and the wood hoopoes is also supported by the shared and unique nature of their stapes. In the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, the hoopoe is separated from the Coraciiformes as a separate order, the Upupiformes.
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The two both share common traits such as a lack of premaxillary ridges and the midline ridge of the vomerine is depressed. Unlike any other dicynodont the two genera share a similar feature of a longitudinal ridge at the edge of the premaxilla. Hotton analyzed the small skull that was found just south of Lady Frere, Cape Province, north of the Cacadu River in South Africa. The specimen had a complete lower jaw and stapes that proved pivotal in the description and definition of the species.
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Unlike other caecilians, they have only primary annuli; these are grooves running incompletely around the body, giving the animal a segmented appearance. All other caecilians have a complex pattern of grooves, with secondary or tertiary annuli present. Also uniquely amongst tetrapods, the scolecomorphids lack a stapes bone in the middle ear. At least some species of scolecomorphids give birth to live young, retaining the eggs inside the females' bodies until they hatch into fully formed offspring, without the presence of a free-living larval stage.
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The three small bones in the middle ear of mammals including humans, the malleus, incus, and stapes, are today used to transmit sound from the eardrum to the inner ear. The malleus and incus develop in the embryo from structures that form jaw bones (the quadrate and the articular) in lizards, and in fossils of lizard-like ancestors of mammals. Both lines of evidence show that these bones are homologous, sharing a common ancestor. Among the many homologies in mammal reproductive systems, ovaries and testicles are homologous.
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Prior to Orange becoming a member of the NFL, the team enjoyed a rivalry with another future NFL franchise, the Staten Island Stapletons. In 1927, Simandl canceled a game against the Stapletons in a dispute over the distribution of gate receipts. A few weeks later before the final Stapletons game of the season that was to be played in Staten Island, Simandl demanded that the Stapes game be played in Orange, New Jersey. To avoid losing the game, Stapletons manager Dan Blaine agreed to play in Orange.
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Irritator challengeris holotype is unique in that it is one of the few non-avian (or non-bird) dinosaur fossils found with a preserved stapes. Closeup of Irritators upper jaw and Irritator had straight or only faintly recurved conical teeth, bearing sharply defined but unserrated edges. Flutes (lengthwise ridges) were present on its tooth crowns, a common dental trait among spinosaurids. Both sides of Irritators teeth were fluted, as in Spinosaurus, whereas Baryonyx exhibited them only on the lingual (inward facing) side of its teeth.
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The other two skulls were assigned to another new genus, Repelinosaurus. The holotype was temporarily stored, prepared and studied at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris, and is permanently housed at the Savannakhet Dinosaur Museum in Laos. LPB 1993-3 is relatively complete, although the left portion of the orbit is damaged and it is missing the stapes and quadrate bones, as well as poorly preserving the preparietal, prootic and epipterygoid bones. The top surfaces of the snout and head are also partly weathered and eroded.
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Tshifularo is the first to transplant the ossicles: the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup (stapes) that make up the middle ear, using 3D-print technology. Tshifularo is the head of the Department of Ear, Nose, Throat, Head and Neck Surgery at the Otorhinolaryngology Department of the University of Pretoria, and started developing this technology during his PhD studies. He and his team at the Steve Biko Academic Hospital in Pretoria performed the first transplant on 13 March 2019. The endoscopic procedures lasted approximately 2 hours.
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This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the stapes, to the inner ear. Only high- frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism. There is a patch of specialized haircells, called papilla amphibiorum, in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds. Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals.
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The first and second arches disappear early. A remnant of the 1st arch forms part of the maxillary artery, a branch of the external carotid artery. The ventral end of the second develops into the ascending pharyngeal artery, and its dorsal end gives origin to the stapedial artery, a vessel which typically atrophies in humans but persists in some mammals. The stapedial artery passes through the ring of the stapes and divides into supraorbital, infraorbital, and mandibula branches which follow the three divisions of the trigeminal nerve.
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The jaws of early synapsids, including the ancestors of mammals, were similar to those of other tetrapods of the time, with a lower jaw consisting of a tooth-bearing dentary bone and several smaller posterior bones. The jaw joint consisted of the articular bone in the lower jaw and the quadrate in the upper jaw. The early pelycosaurs (late Carboniferous and early Permian) likely did not have tympanic membranes (external eardrums). Additionally, their massive stapes bones supported the braincase, with the lower ends resting on the quadrates.
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Embryonic pharyngeal slits, which form in many animals when the thin branchial plates separating pharyngeal pouches and pharyngeal grooves perforate, open the pharynx to the outside. Pharyngeal arches appear in all tetrapod embryos: in mammals, the first pharyngeal arch develops into the lower jaw (Meckel's cartilage), the malleus and the stapes. Haeckel produced several embryo drawings that often overemphasized similarities between embryos of related species. Modern biology rejects the literal and universal form of Haeckel's theory, such as its possible application to behavioural ontogeny, i.e.
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Though there is little certainty in how Stanocephalosaurus breathed, paleontologists suggest that it had air pockets around the stapes, which have been hypothesized to act as resonance chambers, meaning that the inner ear bone could be related to underwater hearing. This trait is possibly associated with early tetrapod evolution. S. amenasensis show a circumorbital canal that runs along the prefrontal, postorbital and jugal, and a supraanarial canal that runs along the nasal and anterior half of the prefrontal. These dermo-sensory grooves suggest an aquatic lifestyle.
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This can be quantified using multi-frequency tympanometry. Thus, a high resonant- frequency pathology such as otosclerosis can be differentiated from low resonant-frequency pathologies such as ossicular discontinuity. In the absence of a pathology, a loud sound (generally greater than 70 dB above threshold) causes the stapedius muscle to contract, reducing the admittance of the middle ear and softening the perceived loudness of the sound. If the mobility of the stapes is reduced due to otosclerosis, then stapedius muscle contraction does not significantly decrease the admittance.
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Once in the middle ear, which consists of the malleus, the incus, and the stapes; the sounds are changed into mechanical energy. After being converted into mechanical energy, the message reaches the oval window, which is the beginning of the inner ear. Once inside the inner ear, the message is transferred into hydraulic energy by going through the cochlea, which is filled with fluid, and on to the Organ of Corti. This organ again helps the sound to be transferred into a neural impulse that stimulates the auditory pathway and reaches the brain.
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The middle ear consists of a small air-filled chamber that is located medial to the eardrum. Within this chamber are the three smallest bones in the body, known collectively as the ossicles which include the malleus, incus, and stapes (also known as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, respectively). They aid in the transmission of the vibrations from the eardrum into the inner ear, the cochlea. The purpose of the middle ear ossicles is to overcome the impedance mismatch between air waves and cochlear waves, by providing impedance matching.
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Bony projections on the underside of the lower jaw of Karenites may have supported tissues that transmitted sound to the stapes bone in the ear. Early therapsids like Karenites lack the well- developed auditory system of mammals, which had evolved from a restructuring of bones in the back of the skull and the lower jaw, and probably had a poor sense of hearing. As an early stage in the development of the mammalian auditory system, Karenites may have been able to hear some sounds by placing its jaw on the ground to detect vibrations.
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The third skull was assigned to another new genus, Counillonia. The specimens were temporarily stored, prepared and studied at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris, and is permanently housed at the Savannakhet Dinosaur Museum in Laos. The larger of the two specimens, LPB 1993-2, was made the holotype of Repelinosaurus. It is a partial skull missing portions from the left back side including the postorbital bar, the zygomatic arch, the quadratojugals, quadrate bones and part of the squamosal, as well as the external portion of the tusks and the stapes.
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Glanosuchus represents an early stage in the development of the mammalian middle ear. Modern mammals have three bones in the middle ear (the malleus, incus, and stapes) that transfer sound energy from the eardrum to the fluid of the inner ear. The malleus and incus of mammals developed from the articular and quadrate of early therapsids. Studies of the bones of Glanosuchus show that it had a very thin plate of bone that acted as an eardrum, receiving sounds and transferring them to a small air-filled cavity.
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Part of the palate is exposed on the right side of the skull, revealing many worn palatal teeth. The teeth in the mandible or lower jaw are hidden beneath the bones of the upper jaw, but CT scanning has revealed that there is a single tooth row on each side with mostly small teeth. Two teeth are much larger than the rest, similar in size to the enlarged caniniforms of the upper jaw. The braincase is preserved at the back of the skull and includes the stapes, a bone rarely preserved in parareptile fossils.
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When the stapes presses on the oval window, it causes the perilymph, the liquid of the inner ear to move. The middle ear thus serves to convert the energy from sound pressure waves to a force upon the perilymph of the inner ear. The oval window has only approximately 1/18 the area of the tympanic membrane and thus produces a higher pressure. The cochlea propagates these mechanical signals as waves in the fluid and membranes and then converts them to nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain.
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Approximately in the middle of the parietal bones was a small hole known as a pineal foramen, which may have held a sensory organ known as a parietal eye. The pineal foramen is smaller in Seymouria than in other seymouriamorphs. The stapes, a rod-like bone which lies between the braincase and the wall of the skull, was tapered. It connected the braincase to the upper edge of the otic notch, and likely served as a conduit of vibrations received by a tympanum (eardrum) which presumably lay within the otic notch.
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The Stapletons would never have a winning season in the NFL. During its first NFL season in 1929, the team went 3–4–3, defeating the Dayton Triangles, Brooklyn Dodgers and the Minneapolis Red Jackets. It also managed to tie the Frankford Yellow Jackets once and Orange Tornadoes twice. The team improved to a 5–5–2 record in 1930. That season the Stapes managed to defeat the rival New York Giants 7–6, after a four-yard touchdown run from Doug Wycoff and an extra point kick from Strong.
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Comparisons between the scleral rings of Corythosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral, active throughout the day at short intervals. The sense of hearing in hadrosaurids, specifically such as Lophorhothon, also seems to have been greatly developed because of an elongated lagena. The presence of a thin stapes (an ear bone that is rod-like in reptiles), combined with a large eardrum implies the existence of a sensitive middle ear. It is possible that hadrosaurid ears are sensitive enough to detect as much sound as a modern crocodilian.
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Paralysis of the stapedius allows wider oscillation of the stapes, resulting in heightened reaction of the auditory ossicles to sound vibration. This condition, known as hyperacusis, causes normal sounds to be perceived as very loud. Paralysis of the stapedius muscle may result when the nerve to the stapedius, a branch of the facial nerve, is damaged, or when the facial nerve itself is damaged before the nerve to stapedius branches. In cases of Bell's palsy, a unilateral paralysis of the facial nerve, the stapedius is paralyzed and hyperacusis may result.
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Like the stapes bone to which it attaches, the stapedius muscle shares evolutionary history with other vertebrate structures. The mammalian stapedius evolved from a muscle called the depressor mandibulae in other tetrapods, the function of which was to open the jaws (this function was taken over by the digastric muscle in mammals). The depressor mandibulae arose from the levator operculi in bony fish, and is equivalent to the epihyoidean in sharks. Like the stapedius, all of these muscles derive from the hyoid arch and are innervated by cranial nerve VII.
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Sound waves enter the outer ear and travel through the external auditory canal until they reach the tympanic membrane, causing the membrane and the attached chain of auditory ossicles to vibrate. The motion of the stapes against the oval window sets up waves in the fluids of the cochlea, causing the basilar membrane to vibrate. This stimulates the sensory cells of the organ of Corti, atop the basilar membrane, to send nerve impulses to the central auditory processing areas of the brain, the auditory cortex, where sound is perceived and interpreted.
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The wood hoopoes are related to the kingfishers, the rollers, and the hoopoe, forming a clade with this last according to Hackett et al. (2008). A close relationship between the hoopoe and the wood hoopoes is also supported by the shared and unique nature of their stapes. The wood hoopoes most resemble the true hoopoe with their long down-curved bills and short rounded wings. According to genetic studies, the two genera, Phoeniculus and Rhinopomastus, appear to have diverged about 10 million years ago, so some systematists treat them as separate subfamilies or even separate families.
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As sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane (eardrum), it in turn moves the nearest ossicle, the malleus, to which it is attached. The malleus then transmits the vibrations, via the incus, to the stapes, and so ultimately to the membrane of the fenestra ovalis (oval window), the opening to the vestibule of the inner ear. Sound traveling through the air is mostly reflected when it comes into contact with a liquid medium; only about 1/30 of the sound energy moving through the air would be transferred into the liquid.Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A. & Anderson, M. (2008).
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Skull of Sclerocephalus, showing the otic notches Otic notches are invaginations in the posterior margin of the skull roof, one behind each orbit. Otic notches are one of the features lost in the evolution of amniotes from their tetrapod ancestors. The notches have been interpreted as part of an auditory structure and are often reconstructed as holding a tympanum similar to those seen in modern anurans. Analysis of the columella (the stapes in amphibians and reptiles) of labyrinthodonts however indicates that it did not function in transmitting low-energy vibrations, thus rendering these animals effectively deaf to airborne sound.
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Anticipating the Situationist International's detournement, his 1949 film Magic Thinking combined black-and-white cartoons, home movies, GI training films, industrial commercials, strip footage and old feature films. To raise the $250 required of by Tibor de Nagy Gallery to exhibit there in 1952, he appeared on Strike It Rich, an early reality television program, and won. His 1952 exhibition included The Bed-Sheet Painting, a 12 by 16 foot, black painting with a scumbled surface and white bar mounted on unstretched canvas. In the '50s, he made sculptures using seemingly insignificant materials such as plumber's tape, stapes, grommets, nails, housepaint.
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For example, the University of Maryland Medical Center uses the term, "otologist/neurotologist". Otologists and neurotologists have specialized in otolaryngology and then further specialized in pathological conditions of the ear and related structures. Many general otolaryngologists are trained in otology or middle ear surgery, performing surgery such as a tympanoplasty, or a reconstruction of the eardrum, when a hole remains from a prior ear tube or infection. Otologic surgery includes treatment of conductive hearing loss by reconstructing the hearing bones, or ossicles, as a result of infection, or by replacing the stapes bone with a stapedectomy for otosclerosis.
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One such mechanism is the opening of ion channels in the hair cells of the cochlea in the inner ear. Air pressure changes in the ear canal cause the vibrations of the tympanic membrane and middle ear ossicles. At the end of the ossicular chain, movement of the stapes footplate within the oval window of the cochlea, in turn, generates a pressure field within the cochlear fluids, imparting a pressure differential across the basilar membrane. A sinusoidal pressure wave results in localized vibrations of the organ of Corti: near the base for high frequencies, near the apex for low frequencies.
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He performed studies on the functionality of the Eustachian tube and of the tympanic membrane and tried to restore attempts, the tympanoplasty. When St. Mary’s Hospital was founded in Paddington, he a became an aural surgeon and a lecturer on ear diseases — his course of clinical lectures being published in 1855 and 1866. During this time period he composed two major works: "A Descriptive Catalogue of Preparations Illustrative of the Diseases of the Ear" (1857), and "The Diseases of the Ear: Their Nature, Diagnosis and Treatment" (1860). From his many dissections of "deaf ears", he studied ankylosis of the stapes.
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The procedure creates a tiny opening in the stapes (the smallest bone in the human body) in which to secure a prosthetic. The CO2 laser allows the surgeon to create very small, precisely placed holes without increasing the temperature of the inner ear fluid by more than one degree, making this an extremely safe surgical solution. The hole diameter can be predetermined according to the prosthesis diameter. Treatment can be completed in a single operation visit using anesthesia, normally followed by one or two nights' hospitalization with subsequent at-home recovery time a matter of days or weeks.
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The movement of the ossicles may be stiffened by two muscles. The stapedius muscle, the smallest skeletal muscle in the body, connects to the stapes and is controlled by the facial nerve; the tensor tympani muscle is attached to the upper end of the medial surface of the handle of malleus and is under the control of the medial pterygoid nerve which is a branch of the mandibular nerve of the trigeminal nerve. These muscles contract in response to loud sounds, thereby reducing the transmission of sound to the inner ear. This is called the acoustic reflex.
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The outer ear funnels sound vibrations to the eardrum, increasing the sound pressure in the middle frequency range. The middle-ear ossicles further amplify the vibration pressure roughly 20 times. The base of the stapes couples vibrations into the cochlea via the oval window, which vibrates the perilymph liquid (present throughout the inner ear) and causes the round window to bulb out as the oval window bulges in. Vestibular and tympanic ducts are filled with perilymph, and the smaller cochlear duct between them is filled with endolymph, a fluid with a very different ion concentration and voltage.
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This procedure restores continuity of ossicular movement and allows transmission of sound waves from the eardrum to the inner ear. A modern variant of this surgery called a stapedotomy, is performed by drilling a small hole in the stapes footplate with a micro-drill or a laser, and the insertion of a piston-like prothesis. The success rate of either surgery depends greatly on the skill and the familiarity with the procedure of the surgeon. However, comparisons have shown stapedotomy to yield results at least as good as stapedectomy, with fewer complications, and thus stapedotomy is preferred in normal circumstances.
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The upper portion of the second embryonic arch supporting the gill became the hyomandibular bone of jawed fishes, which supports the skull and therefore links the jaw to the cranium. Gilbert 2000, Embryonic homologies When vertebrates found their way onto land, the hyomandibula, with its location near the ear, began to function as a sound amplifier beside its function to support the skull. As evolution later attached the cranium of terrestrial vertebrates to the rest of the skull, the hyomandibula lost its supportive function and became an interior organ, the stapes, and thus its secondary function had become its primary function.
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On the supraoccipital, a slight groove can be seen at each anteroventral extremity, particularly at the dorsolateral side. Leptopleuron is also characterized by its opisthotic having no foramen on the ventral ramus, specifically for nerve IX. The opisthotic is identified by a short transverse ridge that flanks a relatively deep and crescent moon-like notch ventrally. As for the prootic, the anteroventral process extends out into a free-standing distal plate rounded at the anterior. Characteristic of Leptopleuron as well is its extremely tiny stapes with a cone-like and obtusely sub-triangular footplate in lateral view.
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The stapes was thought to be just a structural support between the palate and the stapedial plate of the braincase. In the Acanthostega, it is likely that due to the otic capsule of the brain case being mesial to the stapedial plate, sound was picked up from the palate or the otic notch to allow for rudimentary hearing. It was able to perceive vibrations by opening its mouth by way of the palate. Other factors that caused aquatic tetrapods to spend more time on land caused the development of terrestrial hearing with the development of a tympanum within an otic notch and developed by convergent evolution at least three times.
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Klein identifies three pairs of bones to which he attributes the sense of hearing, and he takes to correspond to the Incus, Malleus and Stapes of other animals. The first are the two largest, which he explains are easily found; the other two pairs, he explains, are small, difficult to find, enveloped in distinct fine membranes. Klein believed one could determine the age of fish by analysing the number and thickness of the Laminae and fibres of these bones. The bone to which Klein was referring, now called the otolith, acquires a growth ring every day for at least the first six months of its life.
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Conductive hearing ability is mediated by the middle ear composed of the ossicles: the malleus, the incus, and the stapes. Sensorineural hearing ability is mediated by the inner ear composed of the cochlea with its internal basilar membrane and attached cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). The outer ear consisting of the pinna, ear canal, and ear drum or tympanic membrane transmits sounds to the middle ear but does not contribute to the conduction or sensorineural hearing ability save for hearing transmissions limited by cerumen impaction (wax collection in the ear canal). The Weber test has had its value as a screening test questioned in the literature.
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There is a steadily increasing body of evidence that shows that the lever arm ratio is actually variable, depending on frequency. Between 0.1 and 1 kHz it is approximately 2, it then rises to around 5 at 2 kHz and then falls off steadily above this frequency. The measurement of this lever arm ratio is also somewhat complicated by the fact that the ratio is generally given in relation to the tip of the malleus (also known as the umbo) and the level of the middle of the stapes. The eardrum is actually attached to the malleus handle over about a 0.5 cm distance.
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The hearing loss associated with congenital aural atresia is a conductive hearing loss—hearing loss caused by inefficient conduction of sound to the inner ear. Essentially, children with aural atresia have hearing loss because the sound cannot travel into the (usually) healthy inner ear—there is no ear canal, no eardrum, and the small ear bones (malleus/hammer, incus/anvil, and stapes/stirrup) are underdeveloped. "Usually" is in parentheses because rarely, a child with atresia also has a malformation of the inner ear leading to a sensorineural hearing loss (as many as 19% in one study). Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by a problem in the inner ear, the cochlea.
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The earliest mammals were generally small animals, and were likely nocturnal insectivores. This suggests a plausible source of evolutionary pressure: with these small bones in the middle ear, a mammal has extended its range of hearing for higher-pitched sounds which would improve the detection of insects in the dark. The evidence that the malleus and incus are homologous to the reptilian articular and quadrate was originally embryological, and since this discovery an abundance of transitional fossils has both supported the conclusion and given a detailed history of the transition. The evolution of the stapes (from the columella) was an earlier and distinct event.
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Cartilage in the second pharyngeal arch is referred to as Reichert's cartilage and contributes to many structures in the fully developed adult.Sudhir, Sant, 2008.Embryology for Medical Students 2nd edition In contrast to the Meckel's cartilage of the first pharyngeal arch it does not constitute a continuous element, and instead is composed of two distinct cartilaginous segments joined by a faint layer of mesenchyme. Dorsal ends of Reichert's cartilage ossify during development to form the stapes of the middle ear before being incorporated into the middle ear cavity, while the ventral portion ossifies to form the lesser cornu and upper part of the body of the hyoid bone.
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42–44 To find their prey, salamanders use trichromatic color vision extending into the ultraviolet range, based on three photoreceptor types that are maximally sensitive around 450, 500, and 570 nm. The larvae, and the adults of some highly aquatic species, also have a lateral line organ, similar to that of fish, which can detect changes in water pressure. All salamanders lack middle ear cavity, eardrum and eustachian tube, but have an opercularis system like frogs, and are still able to detect airborne sound. The opercularis system consists of two ossicles: the columella (equivalent to the stapes of higher vertebrates) which is fused to the skull, and the operculum.
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The evolutionary explanation for this contradiction known as Bystrow's Paradox is that temnospondyls had both internal gills and external gills, with external gills only present in larvae and internal gills that are homologous with Osteichthyes (bony fish) gills that later become modern amphibian gills. Thus, Rhineceps larvae likely had external gills and adult Rhineceps had internal gills, although this is difficult to confirm given the lack of evidence for metamorphosis in stereospondyls including Rhineceps. Rhineceps as a temnospondyl, possesses diagnostic temnospondyl traits including wide vomers, large and round interpterygoid vacuities, otic notches, contact between post- pareital and exoccipital skull bones, and a stapes that articulates with the parasphenoid.Rainer R. Schoch. 2013.
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The Stanocephalosaurus have at least 100 straight and conical teeth on the premaxilla and maxilla combined, gradually increasing in size towards the front. Other skull regions previously inaccessible or too poorly preserved on the Stanocephalosaurus have been observed with X-ray micro-CT scans, including the otic capsule, delta groove of the exoccipital, as well as parts of the arterial and nervous system. Air pockets around the stapes of Stanocephalosaurus have been hypothesized to act as resonance chambers, meaning that the spoon-shaped inner ear bone could be related to underwater hearing. This trait is possibly associated with early tetrapod evolution, and can act as a link to Anuran tympanum evolution.
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Two probable hyoid bones (tongue bones) are preserved with specimen SNHM1284-R; these bones were rod-like, with one end spatula- shaped. The stapes (bone in the ear region that is used for hearing) had a shaft that was more slender than in any other ichthyosaur, and its head was large and square—these features are regarded an autapomorphy (unique feature) and serve to distinguish the genus from related genera. The basisphenoid, a bone of the lower part of the braincase, had a well-developed crest on its upper surface, which also is considered an autapomorphy. In other ichthyosaurs, the basisphenoid instead formed a wide plateau.
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Feduccia's research has focused on ornithology, evolutionary biology, vertebrate history and morphogenesis, and the tempo and mode of the Cenozoic vertebrate radiation. His early work in the 1970s focused on clarification of the evolutionary history of modern birds (Neornithes), focusing, in particular, on the identification of conserved morphological characters that might elucidate phylogeny more readily than strongly functionally correlated characters. Using this approach, in a series of publications, Feduccia analyzed the morphology of the bony stapes, the ear ossicle of birds, to help elucidate the interrelationships of passeriform birds. This approach was extended to the analysis of non-passeriform birds as well, including owls and the shoebill, also known as the whalebill (Balaeniceps rex).
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The skull of Cacops has several features associated with predatory behavior. In particular, transverse flanges on the pterygoid that extend below the level of the marginal tooth row have been interpreted to be adaptive for capturing and holding struggling prey; this feature is also seen in the trematopids. Like many other terrestrial tetrapods, Cacops exhibits evidence of a tympanic membrane in the form of a large, smooth, unornamented flange in the otic notch that bears faint striations inferred to have been the sites of attachment. Among modern amniotes, sensory perception requires a specialized middle ear that collects airborne sounds through a tympanic membrane and delivers the vibrations to the inner ear via multiple structures, including the stapes.
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A large amount of material and data supports the hypothesis that the large, tubular crest of Parasaurolophus was a resonating chamber. Weishampel in 1981 suggested that Parasaurolophus made noises ranging between the frequencies 55 and 720 Hz, although there was some difference in the range of individual species because of the crest size, shape, and nasal passage length, most obvious in P. cyrtocristatus (interpreted as a possible female). Hopson found that there is anatomical evidence that hadrosaurids had a strong hearing. There is at least one example, in the related Corythosaurus, of a slender stapes (reptilian ear bone) in place, which combined with a large space for an eardrum implies a sensitive middle ear.
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The middle ear of tetrapods is analogous with the spiracle of fishes, an opening from the pharynx to the side of the head in front of the main gill slits. In fish embryos, the spiracle forms as a pouch in the pharynx, which grows outward and breaches the skin to form an opening; in most tetrapods, this breach is never quite completed, and the final vestige of tissue separating it from the outside world becomes the eardrum. The inner part of the spiracle, still connected to the pharynx, forms the eustachian tube. In reptiles, birds, and early fossil tetrapods, there is a single auditory ossicle, the columella (that is homologous with the stapes, or "stirrup" of mammals).
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Specimen of Dendrerpeton acadianum from the Prehistoric Gallery of the Inner Mongolia Museum in China The length of the skull can range from 84mm to 104mm for midline length. to Through the analysis of the middle ear region of Dendrerpeton acadianum, it could be determined that this taxa has a tympanic ear that is not there as a means of support for the palatoquadrate, but rather the positioning of the stapes indicates that it is used for the movement of sound. This morphology demonstrates Dendrerpeton having a hearing system that mimics that of anurans. This was contrary to what was previously thought, which was that it had a "squamosal embayment" rather than an otic notch.
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Then it draws the sides of its throat together, forcing the water through the gill openings, so that it passes over the gills to the outside. The bony fish have three pairs of arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven. The vertebrate ancestor no doubt had more arches, as some of their chordate relatives have more than 50 pairs of gills. Higher vertebrates do not develop gills, the gill arches form during fetal development, and lay the basis of essential structures such as jaws, the thyroid gland, the larynx, the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals) and in mammals the malleus and incus.
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The bones of the mandible and quadrate bones can also pick up ground borne vibrations. Because the sides of the jaw can move independently of one another, snakes resting their jaws on a surface have sensitive stereo hearing which can detect the position of prey. The jaw-quadrate-stapes pathway is capable of detecting vibrations on the angstrom scale, despite the absence of an outer ear and the ossicle mechanism of impedance matching used in other vertebrates to receive vibrations from the air. The hyoid is a small bone located posterior and ventral to the skull, in the 'neck' region, which serves as an attachment for muscles of the snake's tongue, as it does in all other tetrapods.
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From this theory, he developed a hypothesis about "the anatomical and physiological properties of the ear" where the assumption was that "the inner ear is a hydraulic system, that the effective cochlear oscillations occur in the basilar membrane, that this membrane is inelastic, and that its motions passively follow the motions of the stapes". This received little attention until the year 1966. After having a falling out with Stumpf, he migrated to London and spent time in the psychological lab of James Sully at the University of London for 6 months. Here he worked on developing an apparatus where a deaf person could even compose, as well as worked on a theory of harmony.
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As 2 kHz is the resonant frequency of the ossicular chain, the largest increase in bone-conduction threshold (around 15 dB) occurs at this frequency – the resultant notch is called Carhart's notch and is a useful clinical marker for medial ossicular-chain fixation. Tympanometry measures the peak pressure (TPP) and peak-compensated static admittance (Ytm) of the middle ear at the eardrum. As the stapes is ankylosed in otosclerosis, the lateral end of the ossicular chain may still be quite mobile. Therefore, otosclerosis may only slightly reduce the admittance, resulting in either a shallow tympanogram (type AS), or a normal tympanogram (type A). Otosclerosis increases in the stiffness of the middle-ear system, raising its resonant frequency.
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Because of this, the jaw of Probainognathus remains distinct from that of mammals due mostly to the presence of the articular and the quadrate. Once the dentary-squamosal articulation becomes more established, the former bones involved in jaw articulation, the articular and quadrate, can become integrated into the inner ear as the malleus and incus, respectively. This has not yet happened in the case of Probainognathus, but the reduced size of the quadrate, as well as its loose association with the squamosal and proximity to the stapes indicates the quadrate to incus process is underway. This combination of evidence further solidifies Probainognathus’ phylogenetic placement on the line to Mammalia, and provides a sound evolutionary connection between reptiles and mammals.
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This type of skull is very similar to that of Mastodonsaurus, which is also triangular in shape. The Stanocephalosaurus has at least 100 straight and conical teeth on the premaxilla and maxilla combined, gradually increasing in size towards the front. While there is a lot of known information about Stanocephalosaurus, some of the skull regions which were previously inaccessible or too poorly preserved on Stanocephalosaurus have been observed with X-ray micro-CT scans, including the otic capsule, delta groove of the exoccipital, as well as parts of the arterial and nervous system. Air pockets around the stapes of Stanocephalosaurus have been hypothesized to act as resonance chambers, meaning that the spoon-shaped inner ear bone could be related to underwater hearing.
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The connection between this auditory complex and the rest of the skull is reduced—to a single, small cartilage in oceanic dolphins. In odontocetes, the complex is surrounded by spongy tissue filled with air spaces, while in mysticetes, it is integrated into the skull as with land mammals. In odontocetes, the tympanic membrane (or ligament) has the shape of a folded-in umbrella that stretches from the ectotympanic ring and narrows off to the malleus (quite unlike the flat, circular membrane found in land mammals.) In mysticetes, it also forms a large protrusion (known as the "glove finger"), which stretches into the external meatus and the stapes are larger than in odontocetes. In some small sperm whales, the malleus is fused with the ectotympanic.
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The reptilian quadrate bone, articular bone, and columella evolved into the mammalian incus, malleus, and stapes (anvil, hammer, and stirrup), respectively. In reptiles, the eardrum is connected to the inner ear via a single bone, the columella, while the upper and lower jaws contain several bones not found in mammals. Over the course of the evolution of mammals, one bone from the lower and one from the upper jaw (the articular and quadrate bones) lost their purpose in the jaw joint and migrated to the middle ear. The shortened columella connected to these bones within the middle ear to form a chain of three bones, the ossicles, which serve to effectively transmit air-based vibrations and facilitate more acute hearing.
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The vibratory portion of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) is many times the surface area of the footplate of the stapes (the third ossicular bone which attaches to the oval window); furthermore, the shape of the articulated ossicular chain is like a lever, the long arm being the long process of the malleus, the fulcrum being the body of the incus, and the short arm being the lenticular process of the incus. The collected pressure of sound vibration that strikes the tympanic membrane is therefore concentrated down to this much smaller area of the footplate, increasing the force but reducing the velocity and displacement, and thereby coupling the acoustic energy. The middle ear is able to dampen sound conduction substantially when faced with very loud sound, by noise- induced reflex contraction of the middle-ear muscles.
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In 1544 he became professor of anatomy and medicine at the University of Naples. He conducted dissection studies and recorded his findings in the book In Galeni librum de ossibus doctissima et expectatissima commentaria, a critical commentary on Galen's De Ossibus that was published posthumously in 1603. He gave the first distinct account of the true configuration of the sphenoid and the ethmoid bone as well as several other bones of the head, and has the merit of first describing (1546) the third ear bone, the stapes. His work De tumoribus praeter naturam (1553) contains what is probably the first description of scarlet fever: he reported on a disease of children different from measles that caused a red rash all over the body, however he didn't mention the common symptom of a sore throat.
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In November of the same year he used it to operate on a patient with chronic otitis who had a labyrinthine fistula. Nylen's microscope was soon replaced by a binocular microscope, developed in 1922 by his colleague Gunnar Holmgren (1875–1954). Gradually the operating microscope began to be used for ear operations. In the 1950s many otologists began to use it in the fenestration operation, usually to perfect the opening of the fenestra in the lateral semicircular canal. The revival of the stapes mobilization operation by Rosen, in 1953, made the use of the microscope mandatory, although it was not used by the originators of the technique, Kessel (1878), Boucheron (1888) and Miot (1890). Mastoidectomies began to be performed with the surgical microscope and so were the tympanoplasty techniques that became known in the early 1950s.
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The acoustic reflex (also known as the stapedius reflex, stapedial reflex, auditory reflex, middle-ear-muscle reflex (MEM reflex, MEMR), attenuation reflex, cochleostapedial reflex or intra-aural reflex) is an involuntary muscle contraction that occurs in the middle ear in response to loud sound stimuli or when the person starts to vocalize. When presented with an intense sound stimulus, the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles of the ossicles contract. The stapedius stiffens the ossicular chain by pulling the stapes (stirrup) of the middle ear away from the oval window of the cochlea and the tensor tympani muscle stiffens the ossicular chain by loading the tympanic membrane when it pulls the malleus (hammer) in toward the middle ear. The reflex decreases the transmission of vibrational energy to the cochlea, where it is converted into electrical impulses to be processed by the brain.
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TMD fails to provide accurate estimates of ICP mostly because the acoustic impedance and its changes due to the acoustic reflex are dominantly determined by the structures and functional properties of the middle ear, and only marginally influenced by changes in ICP. A measurable acoustic phenomenon that originates in the inner ear would, at least in theory, allow for more precise assessment of the pressure of the peri- and endo-lymph, and consequently, of ICP. Otoacoustic emission (OAE), which is a sound generated by subtle oscillations of the endo- and perilymph caused by contractions of the outer hair cells of the inner ear in response to a loud sound, seems to offer such a possibility. The sound is transmitted to the stapes, and further through the ossicles, to the tympanic membrane from which it can be detected with a sensitive microphone inserted into the ear canal.
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They developed "hands" and "feet" with five or more digits; the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation. The fish's hyomandibula bone in the hyoid region behind the gills diminished in size and became the stapes of the amphibian ear, an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land. An affinity between the amphibians and the teleost fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired supra-occipital bones at the back of the head, neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom. The Permian lepospondyl Diplocaulus was largely aquatic At the end of the Devonian period (360 million years ago), the seas, rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates, though some, such as Ichthyostega, may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water.
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Basicranium (A-E), stapes (F-G), and teeth (J-K) of the holotype: The generic name partially refers to the tightly fitting bones of the occiput; the arrow by the exoccipital (E) shows a notch that would closely fit a bump on the basioccipital. Over a series of weekends in 1958, four students and a technician from the geology department of Hull University collected an ichthyosaur (or "fish lizard", a Mesozoic group of marine reptiles) specimen from the Speeton Clay Formation of Speeton in northern England. It was transferred to the Hunterian Museum of the University of Glasgow in 1991, when the geology department of Hull University was closed, where it was catalogued as specimen GLAHM 132855 (it was also known as the "Speeton Clay ichthyosaur"). It consists of a partial skeleton of an adult, including a fragmentary skull roof, a mandible, the axial skeleton, and the scapular girdle.
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The displacement can be measured with common tympanometers used for impedance audiometry that are portable and relatively inexpensive and easy to use (particularly the modern, computerized tympanometers with fully automated measurement procedure). Inward displacement (negative peak pressure on an audiogram) is suggestive of high, and outward of normal or low ICP. The direction and magnitude of TMD, however, depend not only on the initial position of stapes but also on numerous other factors that affect the acoustic impedance (integrity of the eardrum, condition of the ossicles, patency of the Eustachian tube, pressure and eventual presence of fluid or other masses in the middle ear) or the strength of the acoustic reflex (physiological variability of the reflex threshold, functional integrity of the cochlear and facial nerves, degree of eventual sensory hearing loss). In addition, the assumption that the pressure of perilymph is equal to ICP does not hold if the patency of the cochlear aqueduct is compromised, which is often the case in elderly subjects.
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The world's first stapedectomy is credited to Dr. John J.Shea Jr. who performed it in May 1956 on a 54-year-old housewife who could no longer hear even with a hearing aid. Significant contributions to modern stapedectomy techniques were then made by the late Dr. Antonio De La Cruz of the House Ear Institute in Los Angeles; by the late Professor Henri André Martin of the Hôpital Edouard Herriot in Lyon, France, including calibrated platinotomy (stapes footplate rather than whole surgery) and trans-footplate piston surgery that also paved the way for modern stapedotomy; and by the late Dr. Jean-René Causse of the eponymous clinic in Béziers, France, who pioneered the use of Teflon piston prostheses (also critical progress for stapedotomy) and, with his late son Dr. Jean-Bernard Causse, the reattachment of the stapedius muscle alongside the use of veinous grafts.Causse JB, "Stapedotomy technique and results", American Journal of Otology, 6(1), 1985.
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The vestibule is somewhat oval in shape, but flattened transversely; it measures about 5 mm from front to back, the same from top to bottom, and about 3 mm across. In its lateral or tympanic wall is the oval window (fenestra vestibuli), closed, in the fresh state, by the base of the stapes and annular ligament. On its medial wall, at the forepart, is a small circular depression, the recessus sphæricus, which is perforated, at its anterior and inferior part, by several minute holes (macula cribrosa media) for the passage of filaments of the acoustic nerve to the saccule; and behind this depression is an oblique ridge, the crista vestibuli, the anterior end of which is named the pyramid of the vestibule. This ridge bifurcates below to enclose a small depression, the fossa cochlearis, which is perforated by a number of holes for the passage of filaments of the acoustic nerve which supply the vestibular end of the ductus cochlearis.
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In humans, sound waves funnel into the ear via the external ear canal and reach the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The compression and rarefaction of these waves set this thin membrane in motion, causing sympathetic vibration through the middle ear bones (the ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes), the basilar fluid in the cochlea, and the hairs within it, called stereocilia. These hairs line the cochlea from base to apex, and the part stimulated and the intensity of stimulation gives an indication of the nature of the sound. Information gathered from the hair cells is sent via the auditory nerve for processing in the brain. The commonly stated range of human hearing is 20 to 20,000 Hz.20 to 20,000 Hz corresponds to sound waves in air at 20°C with wavelengths of 17 meters to 1.7 cm (56 ft to 0.7 inch). Under ideal laboratory conditions, humans can hear sound as low as 12 Hz and as high as 28 kHz, though the threshold increases sharply at 15 kHz in adults, corresponding to the last auditory channel of the cochlea.
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