132 Sentences With "social scale" | Random Sentence Generator

Slave ownership reached down the social scale and into New England's hinterland.

The wives of men lower in the social scale are called Econowives, and wear stripes.

This led them to speculate that such empathy weakens as you go up the social scale.

Again, this happens far more often at the bottom of the social scale than at the top.

Venues will satisfy our fans who want to enjoy this type of content on a massively social scale.

While the reasons remain unclear, hip fractures also disproportionately affect those at the disadvantaged end of the social scale.

I've had days where I didn't want to leave bed because of the anxiety I felt on a social scale.

The oppressed have often aimed their impotent rage at those too low on the social scale to even attempt rebellion.

If so, life could be getting much better objectively, on the social scale, without getting all that much better subjectively, on the individual scale.

That said, Apple's full-stack ecosystem, Google's AR Cloud, Facebook's social scale and Alibaba's Online-to-Offline ("O2O") dominance position them as strong contenders.

I don't mean to be trite about this, but how you put your finger on the social scale here is a really tough question.

Those lower down the social scale rely increasingly on money sent by the millions of Venezuelans who have emigrated in recent years to survive.

At the other end of the social scale Lokandra Singh, a member of the local royal family, proclaimed him the "finest forest worker in India".

Originally the preserve of monarchy and of the high nobility, the full-length portrait was later adopted by those a little lower down the social scale.

With no newspapers to pick up the story, and with both criminal and victims at the bottom of the social scale, talk of the drama soon fades away.

Fortune favors the brave, and soon Monty — through happenstance and the occasional bit of malicious handiwork — is rocketing up the social scale, as his relatives fall victim to unhappy, ahem, accidents.

Growing up, the chef was considered very low on the social scale, and any good mother would've wanted their kid to marry a doctor or a lawyer; certainly not a cook.

That's not to say that the penniless of Rosewater are depicted with a great degree of compassionate seriousness; Vonnegut's critique of man's follies and iniquities ranges up and down the social scale.

It also offers views of other nearby historical sites such as the Roman Forum and the Palatine Hill, where emperors - the other end of the social scale from the plebeians - used to live.

The right has gone after government, journalism, science, and academia in turn, in each case doing at a social scale what whataboutism is meant to do at the individual level: show that all claims of transpartisan authority are fraudulent.

A lot of what it will take, on a social scale, is people being willing to come out as polyamorous or non-monogamous to their friends so that people have a relationship to think of when they hear about these relationships.

At the other end of the social scale, Chinese data shows corn exports to North Korea also jumped in the first nine months of this year, to nearly 50,000 tonnes, compared with just over 3,000 tonnes in the whole of 2016.

Slapstick, or Lonesome No More! is a science fiction novel by American author Kurt Vonnegut. Written in 1976, it depicts Vonnegut's views of loneliness, both on an individual and social scale.

This was a welcome change, and a whole raft of new partners were brought in at B & M (including myself). We were a mixed bunch of young men from all levels of the social scale.

However the kabbalistic fellowship of Brody did not act on social scale. It was a closed circle of pietists who used to gather at Brody Study Hall, founded around 1736, not spreading their activities beyond that.

J. E. A. Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), , p. 322. Lower down the social scale, the rolls of poor relief indicate that large numbers of widows with children endured a marginal existence.

Such pariahs often had no choice but to marry the offspring of other families with "bad" class backgrounds. At the other end of the social scale, there appeared to be a high level of intermarriage among the children of high-level cadres.

This earlier experience had led him to the founding of Habonim. Now the result was the building of a youth sports centre in Jaffa.Silman-Cheong, Helen, Rebel with a Cause, p.141. At the other end of the social scale he volunteered his organising skills to the planning committee for Israel's first golf course in Caesarea.

The family continued to entertain visitors, ranging on the social scale from Charles and Sophie La Trobe to passing travellers. They also had cordial relations the local Bunurong tribe, who often camped near their homestead at certain times of the year. Georgiana and oldest son George learnt many native words, and she painted two of them, Benbenjie and Eliza.

For most Romans, even the simplest, cheapest linen or woolen clothing represented a major expense. Worn clothing was passed down the social scale until it fell to rags, and these in turn were used for patchwork.Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct. 1996), pp.

At the end of the social scale are the slaves (brańcy of war, or their descendants). There are little difference between them and the free peasants, but their duty to their master was higher.M. K. Barański: Dynastia Piastów w Polsce, pp. 250–256. Non-free population was also used for personal services or to work on the land in favor of the ruler.

Although they were still segregated from other workers, they were paid more, and they were higher on the social scale. The Japanese played an important role in canneries until World War II, when many Japanese men were interned for the duration of the war. At this time, many of their fishing vessels were also confiscated, making returning after the war difficult for them.Muszyinski, Cheap Wage Labour, 172.

Ready-made clothing was available for all classes, at a price; the cost of a new cloak for an ordinary commoner might represent three fifths of their annual subsistence expenses. Clothing was recycled down the social scale, until it fell to rags; even these were useful, and ("patch- workers") made a living by sewing clothing and other items from recycled fabric patches.Vout, pp. 211, 212.

Some professions were able to advance up the professional and social scale. At the beginning of the 18th century, doctors were members of the same professional corporation as barbers, and required no special training. In 1731, they established the first Society of Surgeons, and in 1743, a university medical degree was required to practice surgery. In 1748, the Society of Surgeons became the Academy of Surgery.

John Whitbourn (born 1958) is an English author of novels and short stories focusing on alternative histories set in a 'Catholic' universe. His works are characterised by wry humour, the reality of magic and a sustained attempt to reflect on the interaction between religion and politics on a personal and social scale. The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1997) says he 'writes well, with dry wit'.

The panorama's rise in popularity was a result of its accessibility in that people did not need a certain level of education to enjoy the views it offered.Ellis 2008, p. 142 Accordingly, patrons from across the social scale flocked to rotundas throughout Europe. While easy access was an attraction of the panorama, some people believed it was nothing more than a parlor trick bent on deceiving its public audience.

John Burnett notes that ownership had spread down the social scale so that the gap between consumption by professional and manual workers had considerably narrowed. The provision of household amenities steadily improved in the late decades of the century. From 1971 to 1983, households having the sole use of a fixed bath or shower rose from 88% to 97%, and those with an internal WC from 87% to 97%.

Dalit women also tend to live in poverty, and many are illiterate. Dalit women face oppression not only from men in higher castes, but also from other Dalit men. In addition, there is a hierarchy among Dalit groups, with some Dalits being higher up on the social scale than others. Dalit women face violence at higher rates, including types of violence that are specifically done to Dalit women.

The idea for the tax came from the Commons and was an attempt to move taxation down the social scale. A similar, but heavier, tax was a contributing factor to the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. The Bad Parliament also approved the payment of 6,000 pounds of back salary owed to Gaunt. The speaker was Sir Thomas Hungerford, who is the first leader of Commons to be called "speaker" in the rolls of Parliament.

School for Coquettes (French:L'école des cocottes) is 1918 French comedy play by Paul Armont and Marcel Gerbidon. A young working class woman attends a school to turn her into a coquette in the hope it will allow her to rise up the social scale. It was first performed at the Grand Guignol Theatre in Paris. A 1928 British play Excelsior was based on the play, written by H. M. Harwood and starring Gladys Cooper.

Ukiyo-e art flourished in Japan during the Edo period from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries. The artform took as its primary subjects courtesans, kabuki actors, and others associated with the ukiyo "floating world" lifestyle of the pleasure districts. Alongside paintings, mass-produced woodblock prints were a major form of the genre. Ukiyo-e art was aimed at the common townspeople at the bottom of the social scale, especially of the administrative capital of Edo.

Internally, it was split into two aisles of differing width. Both halls were heated by open hearths, two of which survive from the earlier hall. Opposite ends of the hall were for opposite ends of the social scale within the castle. The high end (next to the withdrawing chamber) was for the earl and his family, and the low end (next to the kitchen and other service rooms) for the rest of the household.

Fyodor Dostoevsky, born on , was the second child of Dr. Mikhail Dostoevsky and Maria Dostoevskaya (born Nechayeva). He was raised in the family home in the grounds of the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor, which was in a lower class district on the edges of Moscow. Dostoevsky encountered the patients, who were at the lower end of the Russian social scale, when playing in the hospital gardens. Dostoevsky was introduced to literature at an early age.

Johann Gottlieb Lindner was born in Bärenstein, a small town in Saxony, right on the frontier with Bohemia. The area was known for its ore mines, and Lindner's father was a miner. His first recorded employment was as a teacher at the Kreuzschule (literally School of the Cross) in Dresden. During this period he supplemented his meagre earnings by working as a musical performer and was thereby able to work his way up the social scale.

By the time of the American Revolution, New Hampshire was a divided province. The economic and social life of the Seacoast region revolved around sawmills, shipyards, merchants' warehouses, and established village and town centers. Wealthy merchants built substantial homes, furnished them with the finest luxuries, and invested their capital in trade and land speculation. At the other end of the social scale, there developed a permanent class of day laborers, mariners, indentured servants and even slaves.

Ukiyo-e art flourished in Japan during the Edo period from the 17th to 19th centuries. The artform took as its primary subjects courtesans, kabuki actors, and others associated with the ukiyo "floating world" lifestyle of the pleasure districts. Alongside paintings, mass-produced woodblock prints were a major form of the genre. Ukiyo-e art was aimed at the merchants at the bottom of the social scale, especially of the administrative capital of Edo (modern Tokyo).

Bochco reportedly intended this fictional city to be a hybrid of Chicago, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh. The program's focus on failure and those at the bottom of the social scale is pronounced, in contrast to Bochco's later project L.A. Law. Inspired by police procedural detective novels such as Ed McBain's 1956 Cop Hater, the show has been described as Barney Miller out of doors. The focus on the bitter realities of 1980s urban living was revolutionary for its time.

The first significant native artist was George Jamesone, who was succeeded by a series of portrait painters as the fashion moved down the social scale to lairds and burgesses. The loss of ecclesiastical patronage that resulted from the Reformation created a crisis for native craftsmen and artists, who turned to secular patrons. One result of this was the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls. Other forms of domestic decoration included tapestries and stone and wood carving.

Most buildings remained tied to the locality, and local materials shaped buildings. Furthermore, the buildings of the 16th century were also governed by fitness for purpose. However, more stable and sophisticated houses for those lower down the social scale gradually appeared, replacing timber with stone and, later, brick. The arrival of Flemish people in the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Protestant craftsmen and pattern-books from the Low Countries that also prompted the multiplication of weavers' cottages.

From the other end of the social scale Lady Margaret Maclean Clephane Compton Northampton (d. 1830), translated Jacobite verse from the Gaelic and poems by Petrarch and Goethe as well as producing her own original work. William Edmondstoune Aytoun (1813–65), eventually appointed Professor of belles lettres at the University of Edinburgh, he is best known for The lays of the Scottish Cavaliers and made use of the ballad form in his poems, such as Bothwell.

At the peak of Calton's prosperity after 1780, when the fly-shuttle was introduced, wages had risen to nearly £100 a year and weavers had risen to high places in society. The handweavers and warpers of Calton were known for their clubs or friendly societies. The Calton book club was educational in intent, reflecting the aspirations of skilled workers just above the common laborer on the social scale. Other clubs were more concerned with issues such as wages and working conditions.

He lived during the Ming Dynasty and was influenced by the Neo-Confucian beliefs of the time. He was born in what is today Qizhou,Panyu Tiger: Li Shizhen Qichun County, Hubei on July 3, 1518 AD and died 75 years later, in 1593. Li's grandfather had been a doctor who traveled the countryside and was considered relatively low on the social scale of the time. His father was a traditional physician and scholar who had written several influential books.

Otto Pfister continues; In Africa there is often only one way for many young lads to escape from poverty and to make their way up the social scale – football. Youngsters want to become stars and to play in a top European league. That is their main aim and they will do anything to achieve it. Let me give you an example: While I was coaching in Ghana I once told my team to be ready for training at three o'clock in the morning.

Clarke currently resides in Cambridge with her partner, the science fiction novelist and reviewer Colin Greenland. She was, in 2004, working on a book that begins a few years after Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell ends and which will involve characters who, as Clarke says, are "a bit lower down the social scale". She commented in 2005 and 2007 that progress on the book had been slowed by her ill health. In 2006 it was reported that she suffered from chronic fatigue syndrome.

The demonstration effect was introduced to tourism when researchers were looking into the effects of social influences from tourism on local communities. The demonstration effect argues that local inhabitants copy the behavioral patterns of tourists. There are a number of social, economic and behavioral reasons as to why the demonstration effect comes into play. One economic and social reason is that locals copy the consumption patterns of those higher up the social scale in order to improve their social status.

The Early (or Formative) Mumun (c. 1500-850 BC) is characterized by shifting cultivation, fishing, hunting, and discrete settlements with rectangular semi-subterranean pit-houses. The social scale of Early Mumun societies was egalitarian in nature, but the latter part of this period is characterized by increasing intra-settlement competition and perhaps the presence of part-time "big-man" leadership. Early Mumun settlements are relatively concentrated in the river valleys formed by tributaries of the Geum River in West-central Korea.

The rapid change brought them much hostility from traditional boyars. Landowners in a rudimentary economy, accustomed to have an important say in political developments, these found themselves stripped of importance in the new structure, and became bitterly hostile to the immigrants. However, this was not the only notable trend: there were numerous cases of intermarriage at the top of the social scale (and not only), the arguably most famous of which being the ones inside the very powerful Cantacuzino family.

Otto Pfister continues; In Africa there is often only one way for many young lads to escape from poverty and to make their way up the social scale - football. Youngsters want to become stars and to play in a top European league. That is their main aim and they will do anything to achieve it. Let me give you an example: While I was coaching in Ghana I once told my team to be ready for training at three o'clock in the morning.

However, Scotland continued to produce talented and successful poets. Poets from the lower social orders included the weaver-poet William Thom (1799–1848), whose "A chieftain unknown to the Queen" (1843) combined simple Scots language with a social critique of Queen Victoria's visit to Scotland. From the other end of the social scale Lady Margaret Maclean Clephane Compton Northampton (d. 1830), translated Jacobite verse from the Gaelic and poems by Petrarch and Goethe as well as producing her own original work.

Successful lords regularly held court with those immediately below them on the social scale, but absentees could expect to find their influence weakened. Larger lordships could be vast, and it would be impractical for a lord to visit all his properties regularly so deputies were appointed. This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries. To allow the lord to concentrate on his duties regarding administration, he had a household of servants to take care of chores such as providing food.

The original residents of Dines Green were working class families at the lower end of the social scale. Employment amongst the residents was high though and centered upon mostly unskilled positions and qualified tradesman. The 2001 census found little change: 42% of adults had no qualifications, but unemployment was close to the city average. When Dines Green was built a small play area for children was provided, but it was lost together with other small grassed areas during the 1980s restoration of the estate.

Francis seems to have done enough to vindicate his claims. The Kynnersley lords slowly crept up the social scale, serving their locality in various capacities. Thomas Kynnersley was High Sheriff of Staffordshire and later High Sheriff of Shropshire under the Commonwealth, and his grandson John was High Sheriff of Shropshire under George I. Around 1719, John Kynnersley demolished the old timber-framed manor house and built a new hall, a substantial but unpretentious building with six ground floor rooms, just to the north of the old site.

Newspapers were even sensationalizing stories and headlines to further boost the negative reputation and stereotypes of Italian immigrants. Because of their darker skin tone and hair, Italians were viewed to be second-class citizens, unlike those of northern European ancestry. Italian immigrants that were tenant farmers at this time did work equivalent to African Americans, and therefore resulted in both ethnic groups residing at the bottom of the social scale. Italian Americans were often victims of prejudice, economic exploitation, and sometimes even violence, particularly in the South.

Typically, larger houses of this period were based around a great hall open from floor to roof. One bay at each end was split into two storeys and used for service rooms and private rooms for the owner. Even quite high up the social scale houses were small by modern standards, except for the very wealthy.Aslet and Powers, 15 Buildings surviving from this period included moated manor houses of which Ightham Mote is a notable late medieval example, and Wealden hall houses such as Alfriston Clergy House.

The Neo-Latin fabulist Laurentius Abstemius provided a sequel to the story with an opposite social message in his Hecatomythium (1499). In this the lion promises the mouse any reward it cares to name after setting him free. The mouse asks for the lion's daughter in marriage, but the bride steps on her husband by accident on the marriage night. Where Aesop's fable teaches that no-one should be despised, however low in the social scale, this reinterpretation suggests that one should not try to rise out of one's class through marriage.

Hollis, a descendant of an industrialist family who developed paper mills at nearby Mounton, was the Sheriff of Monmouthshire in 1831. About fifty years after Shirenewton Hall's construction, when it was no longer known as Shirenewton Court, the Blethyn family had "descended in the social scale", and sold the property to Edward Joseph Lowe. He was a botanist, horticulturalist, meteorologist and writer who was largely responsible for designing and planting the surrounding gardens. Lowe added two open pavilions, the larger being of sandstone with a glazed tile roof, while the smaller had a copper roof.

Like the other parts of his economic contribution, Verri's theory of distribution also springs from the theory of needs and desires. As many of the economists of his time, Verri has a preference for a society in which the weight of the middle class is large. The members of this class, urged by their needs, are stimulated to work hard in order to better their condition. Inequality of fortunes, as far as it is moderate and gradual, is an additional stimulus, giving to everyone a hope to ascend in the social scale.

Nowadays, especially Flemish nationalist parties (as, for example, Vlaams Belang), aiming for Flemish independence, have taken up this talking point, as it showcases the victory of an oppressed Flemish infantry against a highly superior French foe. . Belgian historian Henri Pirenne, on the other hand, especially laid emphasis on the social scale of the conflict.. He is also credited with ensuring the survival of the Dutch language in the northern part of Belgium. The statue Jan Breydel shares with Pieter de Coninck has decorated the Market Place in Bruges ever since 1887.

Canting arms of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. An English citizen with arms registered in the College of Arms, or a Scottish citizen in the Lyon Court, can be referred to as armigerous. Any British citizen can apply for arms from their respective authority but only those of sufficient social standing would be granted arms. Arms in and of themselves are imperfectly aligned with social status, in that many of high status will have no right to arms whilst, on the other hand, those entitled to arms by descent can include branches of families from anywhere on the social scale.

Most clothing was simple in structure and basic form, and its production required minimal cutting and tailoring, but all was produced by hand and every process required skill, knowledge and time. Spinning and weaving were thought virtuous, frugal occupations for Roman women of all classes. Wealthy matrons, including Augustus' wife Livia, might show their traditionalist values by producing home-spun clothing, but most men and women who could afford it bought their clothing from specialist artisans. Relative to the overall basic cost of living, even simple clothing was expensive, and was recycled many times down the social scale.

R. Mitchison, Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), , pp. 86–8. Some were highly successful, like Janet Fockart, an Edinburgh Wadwife or moneylender, who had been left a widow with seven children after her third husband's suicide, and who managed her business affairs so successfully that she had amassed a moveable estate of £22,000 by her death in the late sixteenth century.Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed, p. 322. Lower down the social scale the rolls of poor relief indicate that large numbers of widows with children endured a marginal existence and were particularly vulnerable in times of economic hardship.

Embracing a wide range of peoples and cultures, from nomadic Indians to the high society of Mexico City, this ambitious undertaking met with mixed success. In New Mexico, there was already a highly structured and differentiated society at the time of independence, which was unique along the Mexican frontier. At the top were ethnic Europeans who then merged with a large community of Hispanics. The more Indian blood you possessed, the lower on the social scale you tended to reside until the bottom was made of settled Pueblo communities and the nomadic Indians who existed outside of the polity.

Veblen’s trickle-down theory was referring to the society of the 19th and 20th centuries, a time where people were trying to climb the social ladder by imitating the style of the rich. In difference to that the advent and spread of social media, made it possible for people who are not on the top of the social scale to be noticed and gave them the ability to express their style. Now they can create trends whenever and wherever. Apart from that designers now have online stores as main sales channels and maintain an active social media presence.

The area added to the constituency after 1918 included some poor quality housing around the northern end of Westbourne Terrace, which was the scene for much of the 1950 film The Blue Lamp before being cleared and redeveloped by the London County Council as the Warwick Estate in the 1960s. The changes in 1918 also brought into the constituency the Paddington Railway station and Paddington Basin. Overall, this made for a constituency which moved slowly but perceptibly down the social scale during the years, although the preponderance of the electorate were still prosperous at all times.

Ryerson had thought society in terms of a "union of individuals" people showed their basic premise to society. He strongly believed that a strong, well-intact government was important to society, because without individuals passions will cause chaos, so it was, therefore, important that interests were preserved for the greater good. Ryerson was a believer that rising in social scale depends on the work you put into society and with the rise in this social scare; individuals would gain respect from others. Individuals needed to learn about this at a young age so they would have a stronger likelihood of being successful.

The woman in front of the evangelist represents genteel glamour – a fashionable lady whose only "job" is to look beautiful. The figure beyond her epitomises the opposite end of the social scale, a ragged itinerant who lives in a flophouse in Flower and Dean Street, Whitechapel, the most notoriously criminalised part of London at the time. He is a plant and animal seller, a form of urban worker who obtained flowers, reeds and small animals from the country to sell in the centre of the city. These characters had been described in Henry Mayhew's book London Labour and the London Poor.

Many courtiers, such as valets de chambre, in late medieval courts were paid annual amounts, sometimes supplemented by large if unpredictable extra payments. At the other end of the social scale, those in many forms of employment either received no pay, as with slavery (although many slaves were paid some money at least), serfdom, and indentured servitude, or received only a fraction of what was produced, as with sharecropping. Other common alternative models of work included self- or co-operative employment, as with masters in artisan guilds, who often had salaried assistants, or corporate work and ownership, as with medieval universities and monasteries.

Nash pp. 49–50 The street demonstrations originated from the efforts of respectable public leaders such as James Otis, who commanded the Boston Gazette, and Samuel Adams of the "Loyal Nine" of the Boston Caucus, an organization of Boston merchants. They made efforts to control the people below them on the economic and social scale, but they were often unsuccessful in maintaining a delicate balance between mass demonstrations and riots. These men needed the support of the working class, but also had to establish the legitimacy of their actions to have their protests to England taken seriously.

In 1656, Forbes enrolled at Marischal College, Aberdeen, before moving to the University of Bourges in France a year later; he also spent time in Paris. In this period, lack of suitable legal training at home meant Scots seeking to practice law often studied at Bourges, Paris or Orléans. The Forbes and Dunbars were prominent in local government, his father and other members of the family serving as Provost or Mayor of Inverness. However, his marriage to Marie Innes was a significant step up in the social scale; in 1812, the sixth baronet became Duke of Roxburghe.

Many Basques arrived in Chile in the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th and early 20th century from their homeland in northern Spain (see Basque Provinces) and parts of southwestern France, as conquistadors, soldiers, sailors, merchants, priests and labourers. Due to their traditional hard work and entrepreneurship, many of them rose to the top of the social scale and intermarried into the Chilean elites of Castilian descent, giving birth to the new Basque-Chilean aristocracy in Chile. This union is the basis of the Chilean elite of today. But also, they immensely contributed to the ethnic make up of the bulk of the Chilean population.

Members of the upper middle and upper classes tend to prefer French, although Luxembourgish may be used to convey a sense of close identification with one's nationality. German tends to be viewed negatively among the upper class, with the assumption that anyone writing in German has a poor mastery of French. Despite this, a minority of members of the upper class do prefer standard German when corresponding with close relatives. Use of German becomes more prominent the lower down the social scale one goes, followed by Luxembourgish, with French tending to be the least popular among the lower classes.

Similar schemes of decoration were often included within public buildings such as courtrooms whereby the traditional design or technique was intended to reinforce traditional values and customs. In the second half of the 16th century in buildings at the higher end of the social scale, existing houses were altered to include under-plastered ceilings to conceal the old fashioned exposed joists, or indeed incorporated into the design of ‘new’ builds. However, such a detail was more usually confined to the principal rooms such as parlour and main chamber. To include such a thing at garret level is indicative of status and wealth.

Her decision was a surprise to her friends, some of whom said she was "going on a wild-goose chase;" or, the old story, that she was "throwing herself away;" or, for her it was "a descent in the social scale." But none of these things moved her. After her decision was made, she at once commenced her preparations — visited her old home, and traveled over the country visiting many points of interest. She entered the service not for worldly gain; her salary was only , but she was willing to supplement the deficiency by drawing upon her own financial resources.

There were also forty guest rooms on the second and third floors. Membership was restricted to white males of a certain class. Even the famous 34-metre Long Bar on the second floor was subject to a strict hierarchy: the prime Bund-facing end of the L-shaped mahogany bar was the territory of the tai-pans and bank managers, with the social scale falling as one moved down the length of the bar. A massive Italianate Grand Hall was located on the first floor, with ceilings over 12 feet high, supported by enormous Ionic columns.

Moses or Moishe Elman"Miecio. Letters and postcards of Janina Roza Horszowska 1900-1904", Edited by Bice Horszowski Costa, Erga edizioni 2008 was born in the small town of Talnoye (now known as Talne) in the Umansky Uyezd of the Kiev Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine). His grandfather was a klezmer, or Jewish folk, musician who also played the violin. It became apparent when Mischa was very young that he had perfect pitch, but his father hesitated about a career as a musician, since musicians were not very high on the social scale.

Those realms have been at war with each other more or less continuously for thousands of years. War both keeps the population down (in both senses of the word) and provides big profits for large corporations. Frank works his way up the social scale and also discovers a hidden way to turn off Wu’s air supply. Using the latter, he deposes the dictator and takes his place. Frank’s efforts to reform the society of Wu meet so much resistance and resentment that he is compelled to renew the war with Zu, whose own dictator has just been deposed.

Male clothing of al-Andalus in the 15th century, during the Emirate of Granada The society of al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Muslims, although united on the religious level, had several ethnic divisions, the main being the distinction between the Arabs and the Berbers. The Arab elite regarded non- Arab Muslims as second-class citizens; and they were particularly scornful of the Berbers. The ethnic structure of al-Andalus consisted of Arabs at the top of the social scale followed by, in descending order, Berbers, Muladies, Mozarabes, and Jews.

After a visit to the Soviet Union she developed a strong criticism of its system, which made her unpopular when relayed to the left-wing in Britain. Snowden married the prominent Labour Party politician and future Chancellor of the Exchequer, Philip Snowden. She rose up the social scale in the 1920s, much to her pleasure, and she welcomed appointment as a Governor of the BBC and as a Director of the Royal Opera House. Although her husband received a Viscountcy, money became tight and she led the way in caring for him; after his death, she resumed temperance campaigning as well as journalism.

It is unknown whether or not Chardin had intended for there to be a message in the painting, or if at all in any of his paintings. Despite portraying a servant helping in domestic tasks——described to be of a low social scale——the woman was still dressed well. In addition, the kitchen is kept in neat order; a sharp contrast to the portrayals of domestic servants in other paintings of the time. Nevertheless, the maid is still not a model of industry either, as the viewer in intended to speculate on what the maid is speculating in her moment of pause.

Fifth Dynasty (approx. 2500–2300 BCE), Abusir necropolis, Egypt In ancient Mesopotamia, most people owned a single item of clothing, and being naked meant being at the bottom of the social scale, lacking in dignity and status. For the average person, clothing changed little in ancient Egypt from the Early Dynastic Period, (3150–2686 BCE) until the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 BCE). Although the genitals of adults were generally covered, nakedness in ancient Egypt was not a violation of any social norm, but more often a convention indicating lack of wealth; those that could afford to do so covered more.

Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy. Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended. Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures,Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 1.11 but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people.

The accused, totally irrelevant on the social scale, is fired due to his unexplained absences from work during the long dragging period of the investigation that failed to produce any proof, as well as his several months in prison. And still, up to a certain point, the young carpenter proves to be, psychologically, the strongest. He gets back to life, gets married, continues to work, although more introverted than before, circumscribed to his sad destiny. Obsessed by his need to be always right, the doctor goes to meet the young man again and make him confess the theft that he in fact has never committed.

Lower down the social scale the rolls of poor relief indicate that large numbers of widows with children endured a marginal existence and were particularly vulnerable in times of economic hardship. This may in part explain the relatively high rates of remarriage suggested by the available sources. Many widows needed financial security and widowers often needed heirs or a mother for their children. Although contemporary writers seem to have been generally pessimistic about the step-parent relationships that these remarriages created, the evidence of diaries and autobiographies from the period suggest that they were often highly successful, with many children remembering their step-parents with genuine affection.

Since the mid 20th century, most of the surviving torp cottages in Scandinavia have come to serve as summer homes for city dwellers. Before that, being brought up in a torp was a sign of relatively modest ancestry, with lower status than that of lifelong tenants—and very much lower than that of freeholding farmers, however small their farm—although torp dwellers were higher on the social scale than farmhands, maids and those who lived in paupers' cottages (backstugusittare). In Danish and Norwegian, the common noun for an inhabitant of a torp is husmann/husmand - a man with a house. Such men owned their houses, but no land.

On the lower end of the social scale in Lisbon were all types of labourers and street merchants, as well as fishermen and farmers of vegetable gardens. In this era the streets were occupied by tradesmen who had organised artisans' guilds directed by masters of their respective trades. These included: Rua do Ouro (Goldsmiths' Street), Rua da Prata (Silversmiths' Street), Rua dos Fanqueiros (Drapers' Street), Rua dos Sapateiros (Cobblers' Street), Rua dos Retroseiros (Mercers' Street) and Rua dos Correeiros (Saddlers' Street). Such corporations were formed for social protection and to educate apprentices, and were employed to enforce a system of price controls for the benefit of their members.

Nurturing Our Humanity: How Domination and Partnership Shape Our Brains, Lives, and Future by Riane Eisler and Douglas Fry combines Eisler's partnership-domination social scale with extensive evidence from neuroscience and other fields. It shows that, contrary to popular beliefs about "selfish genes" driving human behavior, how people think and feel is heavily influenced by whether they grow up in partnership or domination oriented environments. It also documents that in reality humans in the course of evolution developed a propensity for empathy, caring, and creativity, which is, however, inhibited in domination systems. It further points to interventions that can accelerate the contemporary movement toward partnership and prevent further regressions to domination.

The one corpse that had not been found for several days is never shown on screen. No bodies show the gaunt figure of one who has died after a long illness, or the cuts and bruises of an accident victim. Japanologist Mark R. Mullins writes that the gratitude shown in Departures would probably not have occurred in real life; according to Coffinman, there "is nothing lower on the social scale than the mortician, and the truth of the matter is that [the Japanese people] fear the coffinman and the cremator just as much as death and the corpse". Symbolism has been found in the film's use of cherry blossoms.

Arrow is a village in the Stratford-on-Avon district of Warwickshire, England. Together with the entirely rural hamlet of Weethley, it forms since 2004 the civil parish of Arrow with Weethley. The parish lies midway between Redditch and Evesham. From Alcester the River Arrow flows southwards to the Avon, and to the west of the river the present road to Evesham joins that to Worcester at a busy junction where, near the Old Toll House, stands the hamlet of Arrow, a group of modernized black and white farm workers' cottages which have risen up the social scale to become homes for business people.

There is a famous bust of Lorenzo de Medici wearing one, although in this he may be deliberately avoiding ostentatious dress (see gallery section). They are more characteristic of merchants and lawyers in these countries, for example in the images of Jean Fouquet from the mid-century. In England, on the other hand, almost all the non-royal members of the Order of the Garter are shown wearing them in their portraits in the "Bruges Garter Book" of 1430–1440 (British Library, MS Stowe 594).See the images on Wikimedia Commons In the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and Portugal they were generally less common, & appeared lower down the social scale.

From the time of the Northern Crusades in the early 13th century, most of the land in Courland was owned by nobles descended from the German invaders. In 1863, the Russian authorities issued laws to enable Latvians, who formed the bulk of the population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were founded to help them. By this means, some occupants bought their farms, but the great mass of the population remained landless, and lived as hired laborers, occupying a low position in the social scale. This was the situation prevailing at the time of writing – thus, the strongly negative presentation of these German invaders had clear contemporary implications for the writer's own time.

Along Maida Vale, the 1930s saw the building of new mansion blocks, a type of housing that already predominated along Elgin Avenue and some of the other streets from the time they were first built (typically, the first decade of the twentieth century). The constituency descended the social scale as one travelled to the west, with the houses becoming smaller and more cheaply built; Shirland Road was the approximate boundary of the two zones. Between the canal and the Harrow Road above Little Venice was an area around Westbourne Square (actually triangular) which quickly became slumland, although this was not typical of the area north of the canal. Much of this area was lost to Paddington South in 1918.

By the end of the twenties, people at both ends of the social scale danced to the same rhythms and listened to the same hit songs as high culture was replaced with a popular new version of the high art of reality, the music of mass entertainment, jazz, and the cinema. These new trendy concepts claimed that boxing and jazz were the only interesting art forms of the modern age and "negro music" set the standards for what was new and stimulating. These different changes were seen to be successful mainly because modernity in cities and regions and the interchangeable aspects of modern life fascinated individuals and provided them with a brand new way of life.

According to the OW approach, the Objectivized Activity concept implies the recognition that, in order to change the mind-set of individuals, we need to start with changes to their activity – and/or to the object that "suggests" their activity. In the Organization Workshop context, the real enterprise the participants are engaged in is that "object that teaches". From a pedagogical perspective the choice of "object" is crucial. To ensure that a social scale of activity was engendered, de Morais made the requirement that a common resource pool be put at the disposal of participants, which requires that production processes be regulated (co-ordinated), independently from the whims of various collaborators. p. 6.

Lower down the social scale, gardening for many crofters and agricultural labourers was focused around a small area near their house, in Shetland, and to a lesser extent in Orkney, it was often a small drystone enclosure known as a planticrue, which was particularly used for the growing of cabbages, and in the lowlands it was a kailyard,R. A. Doghson, "Everyday structures, rhythms and spaces of the Scottish countryside", in E. A. Foyster and C. A. Whatley, eds, A History of Everyday Life in Scotland, 1600 to 1800 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010), , pp. 32, 42 and 57.A. Ritchie and J. N. G. Ritchie, Scotland: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), , p. 233.

A highly detailed description of the scene was written, as Chaplin considered it to be the center of the entire film. For a subplot, Chaplin first considered a character even lower on the social scale, a black newsboy. Eventually he opted for a drunken millionaire, a character previously used in the 1921 short The Idle Class. The millionaire plot was based on an old idea Chaplin had for a short in which two millionaires pick up the Little Tramp from the city dump and show him a good time in expensive clubs before dropping him back off at the dump, so when he woke up, the Tramp would not know if it was real or a dream.

Early byelaw houses in Cog Street, Burnley Decorated openings in cast stone, in style of a Gibbs surround, Strood A byelaw terraced house is a type of dwelling built to comply with the Public Health Act 1875. It is a type of British terraced house at the opposite end of the social scale from the aristocratic townhouse, but a marked improvement on the pre-regulation house built as cheap accommodation for the urban poor of the Industrial Revolution. The term usually refers to houses built between 1875 and 1918. The 1875 Act imposed a duty on local authorities to regulate housing by the use of byelaws, and subsequently all byelaw terraced housing was required to have its own toilet.

The authority formerly vested him was clearly and quickly being shifted to his half brother, Hisamitsu Hisamitsu was rapidly elevated through the ranks of his father's court soon after Nariakira's departure from Satsuma for Edo. He was placed in charge of the newly created office of military service of Satsuma in October 1847. In 1848, Narioki appointed Hisamitsu steward of Chosa District, with the responsibility of acting on behalf of the daimyō in all military matters in the area. At about the same time, Hisamitsu was given the highly respected post of han councilor, a rank which, according to the instructions accompanying the appointment, placed him at the top of the social scale.

Paddington North was a borough constituency in the Metropolitan Borough of Paddington in London which returned one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, elected by the first past the post voting system. It was created in 1885, and abolished for the February 1974 general election. It was a compact and mixed residential area which included some grand mansion blocks of flats, large runs of typical London terraced houses, and some areas of working-class housing. The area moved slowly down the social scale during its existence and the construction of large amounts of social housing following the Second World War made what had been a Conservative-inclined marginal seat into a reasonably safe Labour one.

Many people are skeptical about the idea of enjoying whiskey with a meal. This is in contrast to other alcoholic beverages such as wine, ale, and beer that have a dated history of being consumed with meals. In the past, consuming whisky with a meal was not influenced by fashion, but by social and geographical position: in the Scottish Lowlands, whisky was consumed only by those at the bottom of the social scale, whereas the upper class would enjoy claret or rum punch with their food. From a geographical standpoint, whisky was consumed more often in colder climates because of the warming effect it was thought to have on the body; in truth, however, alcohol is a vasodilator, (meaning it causes blood vessels to expand).

This story has been interpreted in the context of the proposed trifunctional hypothesis of Proto- Indo-European society. Cognates to the word ceorle are frequently found in place names, throughout the Anglophone world, in towns such as Carlton and Charlton, meaning "the farm of the churls". Names such as Carl and Charles are derived from cognates of churl or ċeorle. While the word churl went down in the social scale, the first name derived from the same etymological source ("Karl" in German, "Charles" in French and English, "Carlos" in Spanish etc.) remained prestigious enough to be used frequently by many European royal families - owing originally to the fame of Charlemagne, to which was added that of later illustrious kings and emperors of the same name.

Lily then finds a job in a milliner's shop; yet, unaccustomed to the rigors of working class manual labor, her rate of production is low and the quality of her workmanship is poor, exacerbated by her increased use of the drug. She is fired at the end of the New York social season, when the demand for fashionable hats has diminished. Meanwhile, Simon Rosedale, the Jewish suitor who previously had proposed marriage to Lily when she was higher on the social scale, reappears in her life and tries to rescue her, but Lily is unwilling to meet his terms. Simon wants Lily to use the love letters that she bought from Selden's servant to expose the love affair between Lawrence Selden and Bertha Dorset.

In the Insular art of the British Isles the preferred shape was the penannular brooch, and exceptionally large and elaborate examples like the Tara Brooch and Hunterston Brooch were worn by both secular elites and the clergy (at least on liturgical vestments). Relatively few other types of jewellery have survived from this place and period. The wearing of cheaper forms of jewellery appears to have reached quite far down the social scale; gold was relatively cheap at the period. Though mostly based on Roman models, styles varied with the different tribes or people, and the jewellery buried in graves can be used to trace the movement of ethnic groups, having presumably served with other aspects of costume as a cultural identifier for the living.

This system of municipalities was in force until the arrival of the King Felipe II, who obtained permission from the Pope Gregory XIII to divide and sell any town, place and jurisdiction, what allowed him to obtain financing for wars and to pay the great debt he had. There were attempts of buying jurisdictions by some individuals (with the intention to advance in the social scale), but the most usual was the buying by the people. This favored that in those years Boal disassociated from the Church. In 1579, Alonso López de Navia y Bolaño, an inhabitant of the town of Navia, gave power to Pedro Bermúdez to arrange with Alonso de Camino, who initially registered the parishes of Serandinas, Boal, Doiras, Pesoz, Coaña, Trelles, Villacondide, etc.

Due to his awkwardness around people, his social life is nothing to speak of - his only friends are his stoner cousin Mirko (Miloš Tanasković) as well as an even nerdier math colleague Stanislav (Vladimir Tešović). At a math competition as the students are working away solving problems, Novica is pressured into cheating by Relja, a confident skinhead full of bravado who is also gifted at math, but doesn't quite possess Novica's math problem-solving skills. Relja is seated relatively close to Novica at the competition and is stuck on a question that he can't solve. Obviously flattered by the attention from a kid placed much higher on the high school social scale, Novica passes Relja the solution written on a piece of paper.

At the Gangs of New York screening at the Cannes Film Festival with Leonardo DiCaprio and Cameron Diaz In 1999, Scorsese produced a documentary on Italian filmmakers titled Il Mio Viaggio in Italia, also known as My Voyage to Italy. The documentary foreshadowed the director's next project, the epic Gangs of New York (2002), influenced by (amongst many others) major Italian directors such as Luchino Visconti and filmed in its entirety at Rome's famous Cinecittà film studios. With a production budget said to be in excess of $100 million, Gangs of New York was Scorsese's biggest and arguably most mainstream venture to date. Like The Age of Innocence, it was set in 19th-century New York, although focusing on the other end of the social scale (and like that film, also starring Daniel Day-Lewis).

For instance, Afrikaans-speaking Coloureds descended from South African immigrants typically formed the Coloured elite in Zimbabwe; they were followed in descending order on the social scale by Coloureds with one white and one Coloured parent, those with two Coloured parents, those with one white and one black parent, and the so-called "Indo-African" Coloureds with an Asian ancestor or parent. Marriages between Coloureds and black Africans are generally stigmatised, as the former preferred to select partners with visible white characteristics. Coloureds of British descent from Zambia and Malawi retain strong emotional ties to the United Kingdom. When India's independence movement began gaining momentum in the late 1940s, Coloured schools in central Africa rejected Indian instructors, emphasising that "love and patriotism to the British nation" were an integral part of their curricula.

Long decided to call his compilation of teachings Huna, because one meaning of the word is "hidden secret".Pukui and Ebert Hawaiian Dictionary (University of Hawaii, 1986) He wrote that he derived it from the word kahuna, meaning "priests and master craftsmen who ranked near the top of the social scale". Long published a series of books on Huna starting in 1936, and founded an organization called the Huna Fellowship in 1945. There are no accepted Hawaiian sources - Malo,David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (Bishop Museum, 1951) Kamakau,Samuel Kamakau, The People of Old (Bishop Museum, 1991) 'I'i,John Papa 'I'i, Fragments of Hawaiian History (Bishop Museum, 1959) or KepelinoMartha Beckwith, Kepelino's Traditions of Hawaii (Bishop Museum, 1932) \- that refer to the word Huna as a tradition of esoteric learning.

Kikdale was known in Liverpool as the "bedroom of the docks"; an area housing dock labourers and the poorest of the poor, as well as the skilled tradesmen who worked in the constituency's docks and shipyards. There was nothing resembling an upper class in Kirkdale, where skilled artisans and shopkeepers sat at the top of the social scale. The Times reported that while both groups deplored the passionate religious sectarianism which was rife in the poorer areas of the constituency, Kyffin-Taylor had made a strident Protestantism a main plank of his campaign. Cameron denounced the sectarianism, and The Times reported that despite the furious speeches on religious matters, the election was likely to be decided by whether voters preferred Kyffin-Taylor's tariff reform to Cameron's socialism, although Cameron made little use of the term.

In the Early Middle Ages, a group of mosaic portraits in Rome of Popes who had commissioned the building or rebuilding of the churches containing them show standing figures holding models of the building, usually among a group of saints. Gradually these traditions worked their way down the social scale, especially in illuminated manuscripts, where they are often owner portraits, as the manuscripts were retained for use by the person commissioning them. For example, a chapel at Mals in South Tyrol has two fresco donor figures from before 881, one lay and the other of a tonsured cleric holding a model building.Dodwell, 46 In subsequent centuries bishops, abbots and other clergy were the donors most commonly shown, other than royalty, and they remained prominently represented in later periods.

Until about the 10th century CE the Chinese sat on mats or low platforms using low tables, in typical Asian style, but then gradually moved to using high tables with chairs.Grove Chinese furniture is mostly in plain polished wood, but from at least the Song dynasty the most luxurious pieces often used lacquer to cover the whole or parts of the visible areas. All the various sub-techniques of Chinese lacquerware can be found on furniture, and become increasingly affordable down the social scale, and so widely used, from about the Ming dynasty onwards. Carved lacquer furniture was at first only affordable by the imperial family or the extremely rich, but by the 19th century was merely very expensive, and mostly found in smaller pieces or as decorated areas on larger ones.

Between Madras and Chengalpet, in the middle of the sixties… Thozhilali tells the story of Raju (MGR), relentless worker, only son of a widow (S N. Lakshimi) of peasant origin, which in spite of the economic difficulties, makes a success, in parallel, of brilliant of high studies. We see him climbing, not without happinesses and problems, the social scale, via diverse jobs, arousing in the passage, the jealousy of his rich neighbors. But his effort will be rewarded in the measure for hard sound labour, in the person of beautiful and intelligent Vijaya (Rathna)... Raju, a hardworking man joins a bus company and earns the respect of boss Murugappan. Murugappan's daughter Meena falls for Raju but he refuses to marry her and is thrown out of the company.

City elections returned a local government that retained the octroi, triggering a new riot in the city. Continuing mutual intransigence over the taxation issue led to fresh riots accompanied by the ransacking of several of the houses belonging to Lyon's richest citizens along with a continuation of the taxation on necessities. These social conflicts bound together the interests of the old royalist elite under the leadership of Jacques Imbert-Colomès with those of the revolutionary patriots surrounding the local industrialist turned politician Jean-Marie Roland. Lower down the social scale, small-scale employers were opposed to taxation that increased living costs of employees whose salaries could therefore not be further cut, and the affected employees thereby felt closer affinity with their bosses and with the manufacturing interest in the city than with the desperate plight of the large numbers of unemployed.

6th-century Japanese haniwa clay figure; these were buried with the dead in the Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries CE) The Kofun period of Japanese history, from the 3rd to 6th centuries CE, is named after kofun, the often enormous keyhole-shaped Imperial mound-tombs, often on a moated island. None of these have ever been allowed to be excavated, so their possibly spectacular contents remain unknown.Paine and Soper, 287–89 Late examples which have been investigated, such as the Kitora Tomb, had been robbed of most of their contents, but the Takamatsuzuka Tomb retains mural paintings. Lower down the social scale in the same period, terracotta haniwa figures, as much as a metre high, were deposited on top of aristocratic tombs as grave markers, with others left inside, apparently representing possessions such as horses and houses for use in the afterlife.

Acquiring such feudal rights was regarded as essential to establish a family in the status and dignity of the late medieval gentry; but for a long period freehold manorial estates had been very rare in the market; and families of all kinds seized on the opportunity now offered to entrench their position in the social scale. Nothing would subsequently induce them to surrender their new acquisitions. The Court of Augmentations retained lands and spiritual income sufficient to meet its continuing obligations to pay annual pensions; but as pensioners died off, or as pensions were extinguished when their holders accepted a royal appointment of higher value, then surplus property became available each year for further disposal. The last surviving monks continued to draw their pensions into the reign of James I (1603–1625), more than 60 years after the dissolution's end.

The Mumun period ends when iron appeared in the archaeological record along with pit-houses that had interior composite hearth-ovens reminiscent of the historic period (agungi). Some scholars suggest that the Mumun pottery period should be extended to 0 BC because of the presence of an undecorated ware that was popular between 400 BC and 0 BC called jeomtodae (). However, bronze became very important in ceremonial and elite life from 300 BC. Additionally, iron tools are increasingly found in Southern Korea after 300 BC. These factors clearly differentiate the time period 300 BC - 0 from the cultural, technological, and social scale that was present in the Mumun pottery period. The unequal presence of bronze and iron in increased amounts from a few high status graves after 300 BC as sets this time apart from the Mumun pottery period.

The historian Robert Liddiard argues that the large windows at Castle Rising would have been a significant weakness, as it would have been easy to fire arrows through them from the bailey, and George Garnett has questioned the utility of the defensive arrow slits, which he suggests were not well positioned or designed.; The whole site was also overlooked by higher ground, which Liddiard considers would have been a key defensive weakness. Great keeps such as Castle Rising's were also important ceremonially and symbolically in the 12th century, however, and historian Thomas Heslop has described Castle Rising as "a fortress palace", with the keep forming the palace, and the surrounding earthworks the more practical defences.; They reflected lordly status: typically their owners had recently advanced up the social scale, as with William d'Aubigny, and were keen to impress others with their new authority.

The Basques arrived in Chile in the 18th century from their homeland in northern Spain (see Basque Provinces) and parts of southwestern France, as merchants and due to their hard work and entrepreneurship, rose to the top of the social scale and intermarried into the Chilean elites of Castilian descent. This union is the basis of the Chilean elite of today. The Basque settlers also intermarried into the native American population of central Chile in the middle of the colonial period to form the large mestizo population that exists in Chile today; mestizos create modern middle and lower classes; other Basque settlers also intermarried with mestizos of Castilian descent. Thousands of Basque refugees fleeing Spanish Civil War in 1939 also settled and have many descendants in the country and have even intermarried with other Spanish ethnic groups other than Castilians as well as other European ethnic groups.

Based on his theoretical notion of societal legitimacy coming only from the active, ongoing consent of the people, Habermas shows how his notion of a political public sphere provides, by means of the deliberative agreements developed in radical liberal democracy, a way for people who formerly considered themselves strangers can come to see themselves as having a common self-interest at a larger social scale than they had previously imagined. The second larger consideration for Habermas is the supplanting of what he calls "constitutional patriotism" for ethnic nationalism as the substantial glue holding a diverse, pluralistic society together. In a "postmetaphysical" age, worldview pluralism means that people cannot base agreements at a political level on particular religious values. Similarly, in an age of immigration and retreating racism, it is no longer appropriate to build political consensus in the state primarily upon one culture's values over another's.

Among the earliest books to be printed were magical texts. The nóminas were one example, consisting of prayers to the saints used as talismans.Davies (2009:45) It was particularly in Protestant countries, such as Switzerland and the German states, which were not under the domination of the Roman Catholic Church, where such grimoires were published. Despite the advent of print, however, handwritten grimoires remained highly valued, as they were believed to contain inherent magical powers, and they continued to be produced.Davies (2009:53–54) With increasing availability, people lower down the social scale and women began to have access to books on magic; this was often incorporated into the popular folk magic of the average people and, in particular, that of the cunning folk, who were professionally involved in folk magic.Davies (2009:66–67) These works left Europe and were imported to the parts of Latin America controlled by the Spanish and Portuguese empires and the parts of North America controlled by the British and French empires.

Batwa women with traditional pottery Traditionally, the Twa have been semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers of the mountain forests living in association with agricultural villages, much as other pygmy peoples do. When the Hutu, a Bantu-speaking people, arrived in the region, they subjugated 'bush people' (hunter-gatherers) they called Abatwa, which are generally assumed to be the ancestors of the Twa today, though it may be that the Twa arrived alongside the Hutu, and either were a distinct people from the original inhabitants, or have mixed ancestry. Around the 15th century AD, the pastoralist Tutsi arrived and dominated both the Hutu and the Twa, creating a three-caste society with the Tutsi governing, the Hutu the bulk of the population, and the Twa at the bottom of the social scale, simultaneously despised, admired, and feared. For several hundred years, the Twa have been a small minority in the area, currently 1% in Rwanda and Burundi, and have had little political role, though there were at times Twa in the government of the Tutsi king.

23 not to take government administrative jobs, but rather to rise from the lower levels of the Portuguese social scale: Despite the poverty and backwardness of most of the country, a rich upper class rose in Lisbon which spent lavishly and behaved as if it belonged to the elite of northern Europe, while governing a rural and backward country crippled by economic protectionism, and lacking systems to provide state-funded education and health care. With the decreasing importance of land as a factor of wealth, the landed aristocracy and gentry orbited the royal court, living luxuriously on allowances and salaries distributed by the state using taxes collected from the middle and lower classes. A regime "of genteel manners" was established which ceased political persecution, but also halted any reforms; corruption was routine and almost always went unpunished. Occasionally, an exceptional politician who was amenable to change and willing to invest time and effort to bring it about would appear in the succession of mostly idle and corrupt administrators.

In fewer than ten years their use in better-off homes was widespread. By 1856 a northern provincial newspaper contained an advert alluding casually to them,"Now the best Christmas box / You can give to the young / Is not toys, nor fine playthings, / Nor trees gaily hung...": Manchester Guardian, Saturday, 5January 1856, p. 6. as well as reporting the accidental death of a woman whose dress caught fire as she lit the tapers on a Christmas tree.Manchester Guardian, 24 January 1856, p. 3: the death of Caroline Luttrell of Kilve Court, Somerset. They had not yet spread down the social scale though, as a report from Berlin in 1858 contrasts the situation there where "Every family has its own" with that of Britain, where Christmas trees were still the preserve of the wealthy or the "romantic".The Times (London, England), 28 December 1858, p. 8. Their use at public entertainments, charity bazaars and in hospitals made them increasingly familiar however, and in 1906 a charity was set up specifically to ensure even poor children in London slums "who had never seen a Christmas tree" would enjoy one that year.