89 Sentences With "second estate" | Random Sentence Generator

The second estate belonged to Lynda Cruz, who died three months before the shooting.

The company received a licence in 2015 to develop the second estate Long Thanh on 410 hectares of land, which is expected to be ready for investors in 2017, she said.

The Second Estate (Fr. deuxieme état) was the French nobility and (technically, though not in common use) royalty, other than the monarch himself, who stood outside of the system of estates. The Second Estate is traditionally divided into noblesse d'épée ("nobility of the sword"), and noblesse de robe ("nobility of the robe"), the magisterial class that administered royal justice and civil government. The Second Estate constituted approximately 1.5% of France's population.

Preceding the French Revolution, French society had long been split into three "Estates". The First Estate contained members of the clergy, the Second Estate the French nobility, and the Third Estate the rest of the population. The Second Estate was divided into two subsets: the nobility of the sword and the nobility of the robe.Doyle, W. (2001).

The Second Estate is home to Nos. 4 and 5 beaches as well as the popular fishing jetty on Anderson's Inlet. At the edge of the Second Estate is an elevated viewing platform that allows visitors to look out across Anderson's Inlet and view the many kangaroos that call the quiet eastern shores home. The Third Estate is a sparsely populated and underdeveloped area leading to the tip of the peninsula (Point Smythe).

The Scottish Parliament (also known as the Three Estates) and the Convention of the Estates were unicameral legislatures, so commissioners sat alongside prelates (the first estate) and members of the nobility (the second estate).

Caricature from 1789 with the Third Estate carrying the First Estate and Second Estate on its back At the time of the revolution, the First Estate comprised 100,000 Catholic clergy and owned 5–10% of the lands in France—the highest per capita of any estate. All property of the First Estate was tax exempt. The Second Estate comprised the nobility, which consisted of 400,000 people, including women and children. Since the death of Louis XIV in 1715, the nobles had enjoyed a resurgence in power.

Chapter 4 (pages 49–62): Revolutie en Keizerrijk (Revolution and Empire). exclusive hunting rights and other seigneurial rights of the Second Estate (nobility). The tithe was also abolished which had been the main source of income for many clergymen.

The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (The First Estate), nobles (The Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (The Third Estate). In some regions, notably Scandinavia and Russia, burghers (the urban merchant class) and rural commoners were split into separate estates, creating a four- estate system with rural commoners ranking the lowest as the Fourth Estate. Furthermore, the non-landowning poor could be left outside the estates, leaving them without political rights. In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with "commons" as the second estate.

The Second Estate was also exempt from the gabelle, which was the unpopular tax on salt, and also the taille, a land tax paid by peasants, and the oldest form of taxation in France.In the Pays d'État, the taille was called réelle, based on land ownership, and determined by a council; in the Pays d'Élection the taille was called personnelle, based on the global capacity to pay, and assessed by the Intendant. In both cases, the tax was often considered arbitrary. The Second Estate feared they would have to pay the tax replacing the suppressed corvée.

Charles-Grégoire, the Marquis of Beauchamps (25 July 1731 - 5 May 1817) was a French military general and politician. During the run up to the revolution he sat as a "second estate" member of the States General in the summer of 1789.

Lafayette was elected as a representative of the nobility (the Second Estate) from Riom.Tuckerman, p. 210 The Estates General, traditionally, cast one vote for each of the three Estates: clergy, nobility, and commons, meaning the much larger commons was generally outvoted.Unger, loc.

The First Estate represented 100,000 Catholic clergy; the Church owned about 10 percent of the land and collected its own taxes (the tithe) from peasants. The lands were controlled by bishops and abbots of monasteries, but two-thirds of the 303 delegates from the First Estate were ordinary parish priests; only 51 were bishops.William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (1989) p. 59 The Second Estate represented the nobility, about 400,000 men and women who owned about 25 percent of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their peasant tenants. About a third of the 282 deputies representing the Second Estate were landed, mostly with minor holdings.

In January 1484, deputies of the Estates General began to arrive in Tours, France. The deputies represented three different "estates" in society. The First Estate was the Church; in France this meant the Roman Catholic Church. The Second Estate was composed of the nobility and the royalty of France.

France under the Ancien Régime (before the French Revolution) divided society into three estates: the First Estate (clergy); the Second Estate (nobility); and the Third Estate (commoners). The king was considered part of no estate. Representation of the Three Estates under Jesus. They are labeled "Tu supplex ora" (you pray), "Tu protege" (you protect), "Tuque labora" (and you work).

Under the ancien régime ("old rule/old government"), the Second Estate were exempt from the corvée royale (forced labour on the roads) and from most other forms of taxation such as the gabelle (salt tax) and most important, the taille (the oldest form of direct taxation). This exemption from paying taxes led to their reluctance to reform.

It was extremely rare for people of this ascribed status to make it into another estate. Those who did so managed as a result of either being recognized for their extraordinary bravery in a battle or entering religious life. A few commoners were able to marry into the Second Estate, but this was a rare occurrence.

His ultimate goal was to make the French people happy, while still preserving the nobility. He was the deputy of Montfort-l'Amaury from 28 March 1789 til 30 September 1791. He joined the Estates General (France) as its youngest member. He moved to the left side of the National Assembly, shifting from the Second Estate, the nobility.

The Nobles in the Second Estate were the richest and most powerful in the kingdom. The King could count on them, but that was of little use to him in the succeeding course of history. He had also expected that the First Estate would be predominantly the noble Bishops. The electorate, however, returned mainly parish priests, most of whom were sympathetic to the Commons.

Before the Revolution, French society—aside from royalty—was divided into three estates. The First Estate comprised the clergy; the Second Estate was the nobility. The rest of France—some 98 per cent of the population—was the Third Estate, which ranged from very wealthy city merchants to impoverished rural farmers. The three estates met from time to time in the Estates General, a legislative assembly.

Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back The Estates- General was split into three bodies; the First Estate or clergy, the Second Estate or nobility, and the Third Estate, or commons. Each Estate sat and voted separately, enabling the clergy and nobility to unite against the Commons, despite representing less than 4% of the population. In the 1789 elections, the First Estate returned 303 deputies, representing 100,000 Catholic clergy; nearly 10% of French lands were controlled by bishops and monasteries, while the Church collected its own taxes from peasants. Fifty-one were bishops, the wealthiest of whom had incomes of 50,000 livres a year; more than two-thirds were ordinary parish priests who lived on less than 500 and were more representative of the working classes than the lawyers and officials of the Third Estate.

The Estates-General reached an impasse. The Second Estate pushed for meetings that were to transpire in three separate locations, as they had traditionally. The Comte de Mirabeau, a noble himself but elected to represent the Third Estate, tried but failed to keep all three orders in a single room for this discussion. Instead of discussing the King's taxes, the three estates began to discuss separately the organization of the legislature.

This system produced the two houses of parliament, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. In southern Germany, a three-estate system of nobility (princes and high clergy), knights, and burghers was used. In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or "burghers" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class. The Estates made up a Scottish Parliament.

The First Estate comprised the entire clergy, traditionally divided into "higher" and "lower" clergy. Although there was no formal demarcation between the two categories, the upper clergy were, effectively, clerical nobility, from the families of the Second Estate. In the time of Louis XVI, every bishop in France was a nobleman, a situation that had not existed before the 18th century.R.R. Palmer, A History of the Modern World 1961, p. 334.

Ace of Swords from the 1JJ Tarot pack The Suit of Swords is one of the four suits of the Minor Arcana in a 78-card tarot deck. It is used in Latin suited playing cards, such Spanish, Italian and tarot decks. Like the other tarot suits, it contains fourteen cards: ace (one), two through ten, page, knight, queen and king. The suit represents the Second Estate (The Nobles).

The Third Estate was generally composed of commoners and the class of traders and merchants in France. Louis, the current Duke of Orleans and future Louis XII, attended as part of the Second Estate. Each estate brought its chief complaints to the Estates General in hopes to have some impact on the policies that the new King would pursue. The First Estate (the Church) wanted a return to the "Pragmatic Sanction".

General collection of writs and instructions relating to the French Revolution (Collection generale des brefs et instructions relatifs a la revolution francoise) of Pope Pius VI, 1798 A milestone event of the Revolution was the abolition of the privileges of the First and Second Estate on the night of 4 August 1789. In particular, it abolished the tithes gathered by the Catholic clergy.Furet, François. "Night of August 4," in François Furet, and Mona Ozouf, eds.

His usage was a reference to the Third Estate, the commoners of France who, before and during the French Revolution, opposed the clergy and nobles, who composed the First Estate and Second Estate, respectively. Sauvy wrote, "This third world ignored, exploited, despised like the third estate also wants to be something."Literal translation from French He conveyed the concept of political non-alignment with either the capitalist or communist bloc.Wolf-Phillips, Leslie (1987).

Fréteau de Saint-Just Emmanuel Marie Michel Philippe Fréteau de Saint-Just (28 March 1745 – 14 June 1794) was a French nobleman and an elected representative of the Second Estate during the French Revolution. He was a politically liberal deputy to the Estates-General of 1789 and worked for the cause of constitutional monarchy. In 1789, Fréteau de Saint-Just served two terms as President of the National Constituent Assembly.Assemblée nationale de France.

Plebeians. Ten years later, in 123 BC, Gaius took the same office as his brother, as a Tribune of the Plebs. Gaius was more practically minded than Tiberius and consequently was considered more dangerous by the senatorial class. He gained support from the agrarian poor by reviving the land reform programme and from the urban poor with various popular measures. He also sought support from the second estate, those equestrians who had not ascended to become senators.

During the reign of Louis XVI, France faced a major economic crisis. This crisis was caused in part by the cost of intervening in the American Revolution and exacerbated by a regressive system of taxation.Simon Schama. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution, pp. 60–71. On 5 May 1789, the Estates General of 1789 convened to deal with this issue, but were held back by archaic protocols and the conservatism of the second estate: representing the nobilityMunro Price.

After Louis XV died, the parlements were restored.William Doyle, "The parlements of France and the Breakdown of the Old Regime 1771-1788." French Historical Studies (1970): 415-458 in JSTOR. The beginning of the proposed radical changes began with the protests of the Parlement of Paris addressed to Louis XVI in March 1776, in which the Second Estate, the nobility, resisted the beginning of certain reforms that would remove their privileges, notably their exemption from taxes.

The term Fourth Estate refers here to the exploited working class. Before the revolution, French society was divided into three estates or orders: the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (nobility) and Third Estate (commoners). Although the Third Estate was by far the largest, it was very heterogeneous comprising everything from urban professionals and businessmen, to farmers and labourers. The French Revolution marks the ascent of the bourgeoisie as the ruling class from within the Third Estate.

The nobles saw this tax as especially humiliating and below them, as they took great pride in their titles and their lineage, many of whom had died in defense of France. They saw this elimination of tax privilege as the gateway for more attacks on their rights and urged Louis XVI throughout the protests of the Parlement of Paris not to enact the proposed reforms. These exemptions, as well as the right to wear a sword and their coat of arms, encouraged the idea of a natural superiority over the commoners that was common through the Second Estate, and as long as any noble was in possession of a fiefdom, they could collect a tax on the Third Estate called Feudal Dues, which would allegedly be for the Third Estate's protection (this only applied to serfs and tenants of farmland owned by the nobility). Overall, the Second Estate had vast privileges that the Third Estate did not possess, which in effect protected the Second Estate's wealth and property, while hindering the Third Estate's ability to advance.

After the end of the official celebration, the day ended in a huge popular feast. It was also a symbol of the reunification of the Three Estates, after the heated Estates-General of 1789, with the Bishop (First Estate) and the King (Second Estate) blessing the people (Third Estate). In the gardens of the Château de La Muette, a meal was offered to more than 20,000 participants, followed by much singing, dancing, and drinking. The feast ended on the 18 July.

The comte de Virieu was a Freemason, participating in the 1782 Convent of Wilhelmsbad where he assisted in the development of masonic rituals. This particular convent figures in conspiracy theories regarding the origin of the Illuminati. He was elected by the Estates of the Dauphiné (along with Jean Joseph Mounier and Antoine Barnave) to the Estates General of 1789, as one of their representatives to the Second Estate. He joined the counter-revolution after the declaration of the French Republic in September 1792.

Members of the nobility were not required to stand for election to the Second Estate, and many of them were elected to the Third Estate. The total number of nobles in the three Estates was about 400. Noble representatives of the Third Estate were among the most passionate revolutionaries in attendance, including Jean Joseph Mounier and the comte de Mirabeau. Despite their status as elected representatives of the Third Estate, many of these nobles were executed by guillotine during the Terror.

He was also in charge of buildings chosen for the États généraux/States-General or Estates-General (early medieval-"Old Regime" era national parliament), with three "estates" (houses) - "First Estate" (bishops/clergy), "Second Estate" (nobility), and "Third Estate" (commoners/tradesmen), later abolished after beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 when the "Third Estate" along with a few revolutionary progressive/republican members of the other two estates, walked out and declared themselves to be the new National Assembly of the First French Republic.

The law was met with public outcry from members of the Third Estate. Many saw the ordinance as a way for the Second Estate to shut out the Bourgeois from army prestige, even though the original intent behind the law was only to exclude other nobles. The law also managed to further facilitate the niche status of robe nobility. These rich aristocrats were not bourgeois, yet their lack of long-term patrilineal legacies prevented them from being accepted among the court nobles.

Insurrection and the spirit of popular sovereignty spread throughout France. In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of châteaux, as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the Great Fear). On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudalism, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges.

Carl Emil Moltke Aagaard was in 1803 purchased by Bjelke and Joachim Moltke for 165,000 rigsdaler. Carl Emil Moltke, Joachim Moltke, acquired it the following year. He had embarked on a career in the diplomacy and therefore spent most of his time abroad, serving as Danish envoy in Stockholm, the Hague and London, but settled on the estate after his retirement from diplomacy in 1822. He bought Nørager in 1837 and spent most of his time on his second estate during the last part of his year.

Georges Picot in his collection of Documents inédits pour servir à l'histoire de France. During the same reign they were subsequently assembled several times to give him aid by granting subsidies. Over time, subsidies came to be the most frequent motive for their convocation. The composition and powers of the Estates General remained the same: they always included representatives of the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (the nobility), and Third Estate (commoners: all others), and monarchs always summoned them either to grant subsidies or to advise the Crown, to give aid and counsel.

Winsor is first recorded as Windesore in 1167, and Windlesore in 1222.Winsor, Old Hampshire Gazetteer The name apparently derives from "windels-ora" meaning "winch on a bank". In the 13th century there was an estate at Winsor and at nearby Cadnam which belonged to the nuns of Amesbury, who in 1286 obtained a grant of free warren in both estates.Victoria County History of Hampshire: Eling About the same time a second estate at Winsor was held by the Abbot of Netley, which probably formed a part of the abbot's estate at Totton.

The second choice was to sell part of the landed estate, especially if had been purchased in order to expand political territory. In fact, the buying of land in earlier times, before the reforms of 1885, to expand political territory had had a detrimental effect on country houses too. Often when a second estate was purchased to expand another, the purchased estate also had a country house. If the land (and its subsequent local influence) was the only requirement, its house would then be let or neglected, often both.

In the elections to the Estates General, Bon Albert de Beaumetz was elected as a member by the Second Estate of the Artois, while Maximilien Robespierre managed to get elected by the Third Estate. In the subsequent National Constituent Assembly, Beaumetz sat on the right side with conservatives such as the comte de Clermont-Tonnerre, yet is moderate in his conservatism. His interventions are many. He opted for the meeting of the three orders, called for the abolition of torture in the judicial procedure and requested the emission of 800 million assignat.

Poorly supplied after his hasty retreat, Cofresí docked at Jobos Bay on June 2, 1824; about a dozen pirates invaded the hacienda of Francisco Antonio Ortiz, stealing his cattle. The group then broke into a second estate, owned by Jacinto Texidor, stole plantains and resupplied their ship. It is now believed that Juan José Mateu gave the pirates refuge in one of his haciendas, near Jobos Bay. The next day the news reached Guayama mayor Francisco Brenes, who quickly contacted the military and requested operations by land and sea.

During the same reign they were subsequently assembled several times to give him aid by granting subsidies. Over time subsidies came to be the most frequent motive for their convocation. The Estates-General included representatives of the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (the nobility), and Third Estate (commoners: all others), and monarchs always summoned them either to grant subsidies or to advise the Crown, to give aid and counsel. In their primitive form in the 14th and the first half of the 15th centuries, the Estates-General had only a limited elective element.

During an economic decline fueled by the oil crisis, Robert's diamond business suffered in the 1980s, and the couple turned the arboretum over to the Province of Antwerp. They relocated to their second estate at Hemelrijk and de Belder continued to propagate ornamental plants. She was the author of a cookbook, Okus po cvetju: kulinarično popotovanje (Ljubljana: DZS, 1994 [A taste for flowers: a culinary journey]) and Life Begins in Autumn (1998). De Belder made a series of documentaries which were broadcast in Solvenia on the national Radiotelevizija Slovenija.

From the 16th century, the second estate of the nobility was reorganised by the selection of shire commissioners from the lower nobility: this has been argued to have created a fourth estate. Each shire, stewartry or constabulary sent two shire commissioners to parliament, with the exception of the small shires of Clackmannan and Kinross which only sent one. However, each shire had only one vote, meaning that the two commissioners had to cooperate and compromise with each other. They appear to have possessed plena potestas, and were not necessarily required to consult their electorates.

Meeting of the night of 4 August 1789 by Charles Monnet, (Musée de la Révolution française). One of the central events of the French Revolution was to abolish feudalism, and the old rules, taxes and privileges left over from the age of feudalism. The National Constituent Assembly, acting on the night of 4 August 1789, announced, "The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely."Stewart, p 107 for full text It abolished both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate (the nobility) and the tithes gathered by the First Estate (the Catholic clergy).

In 1789, when King Louis XVI was forced to summon the Estates-General, he was elected as one of the representatives of the Paris clergy to the Second Estate. When the Etats- General were reconstituted as the National Assembly and then the National Constituent Assembly. he took his place with the conservative element, seated on the right side of the assembly. He, along with many of the French clergy, opposed the revolutionary Civil Constitution of the Clergy that formalized the nationalization of church property and dissolved the remaining monastic establishments.

La Luzerne was elected by the Second Estate of the bailiwick of Langres to the Estates-General (1789). He was from the very beginning an opponent of the doubling of the Third Estate and of the union of orders, and despaired at the foundation of the National Assembly. He was elected president of the assembly (31 August 1789 - 9 September) but resigned within days in protest of a speech made by the marquis de Lally-Tollendall. He withdrew from the National Assembly after the October Days (5–6 October 1789) and officially resigned in December 1789.

This is reflected by cahiers submitted by members of the Third Estate in March to April 1789: those of Carcassonne demanded that Louis "assure to the third estate the influence to which it is entitled in view of...its contribution to the public treasury". This desire for higher social position resulted in high levels of bourgeois entry into the Second Estate throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This was enabled by several factors. The poverty of many noble families meant that they married bourgeois families; the nobles gained bourgeois wealth, while the bourgeoisie gained noble status.

Meanwhile, the marriage of Princely Count Charles to Anne de Croÿ, the sister and heiress of the last Croÿ Duke of Aarschot, had brought the Arenbergs a series of titles, as well as vast estates in the Habsburg Netherlands in 1612. The senior title was that of Duke of Aarschot. It had been created in 1534, it was the first (and until 1627 the only) ducal title in the Netherlands, and it carried the dignity of a Spanish Grandee. The lands of the Arenbergs gave them a seat in the second estate of the Provincial States of Brabant and of Hainaut.

In the centuries preceding the French Revolution, the Church had functioned as an autonomous entity within French borders. It controlled roughly 10% of all French land, levied mandatory tithes upon the populace, and collected revenues from its estates, all of which contributed to the Church’s total income which it was not obliged to disclose to the state.William Doyle, Origins of the French Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 66. Under the ancien regime, France was divided into three Estates, and the clergy occupied the First Estate, with the aristocracy comprising the Second Estate, and the commoners the Third Estate.

Blackacre, Whiteacre, Greenacre, Brownacre, and variations are the placeholder names used for fictitious estates in land. The names are used by professors of law in common law jurisdictions, particularly in the area of real property and occasionally in contracts, to discuss the rights of various parties to a piece of land. A typical law school or bar exam question on real property might say: Where more than one estate is needed to demonstrate a pointperhaps relating to a dispute over boundaries, easements or riparian rightsa second estate will usually be called Whiteacre,Black’s Law Dictionary, “blackacre” a third, Greenacre, and a fourth, Brownacre.

He was elected by the bailiwicks of Melun and Moret-sur-Loing by the Second Estate to the Estates General 20 March 1789. Once at Versailles, he quickly joined the liberal nobles such as the marquis de Lafayette and the comte de Clermont- Tonnerre who wanted to challenge absolutism and combine the three orders in a National Assembly. He was a strong supporter of the constitutional monarchy, and it was he who proposed to give the King the title of "King of the French". He twice served early on as president of the National Assembly (10–28 October 1789; 5–22 December 1789).

The deputies representing the Second Estate (the nobility) at the Estates General of 1484 wanted all foreigners to be prohibited from command positions in the military. The deputies of the Third Estate (the merchants and traders) wanted taxes to be drastically reduced and that the revenue needs of the crown be met by reducing royal pensions and the number offices. All three of the estates were in agreement on the demand for an end to the sale of government offices. By 7 March 1484, the King announced that he was leaving Tours because of poor health.

Reflecting his disdain for ordinary people, Gobineau claimed French aristocrats like himself were the descendants of the Germanic Franks who conquered the Roman province of Gaul in the fifth century AD, while common French people were the descendants of racially inferior Celtic and Mediterranean people. This was an old theory first promoted in a tract by Count Henri de Boulainvilliers. He had argued that the Second Estate (the aristocracy) was of "Frankish" blood and the Third Estate (the commoners) were of "Gaulish" blood. Born after the French Revolution had destroyed the idealized Ancien Régime of his imagination, Gobineau felt a deep sense of pessimism regarding the future.

After the Norman Conquest of England Robert D'Oyly gave an estate of three hides at Hampton Gay to his brother in arms Roger d'Ivry, while a second estate of two hides at Hampton Gay belonged to the Crown. D'Ivry's holding became part of the honour of St. Valery, which in the 13th century was owned by Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall. Under his successor Edmund, 2nd Earl of Cornwall towards the end of the 13th century the d'Ivry holding was merged with the Duchy of Cornwall. The royal estate at Hampton Gay became part of the honour of Gloucester and thereby followed the same descent as the manor of Finmere.

Engraving by Isidore-Stanislaus Helman (1743–1806) following a sketch by Charles Monnet (1732–1808). The engraving, L'Ouverture des États Généraux à Versailles le 5 Mai 1789, "Opening of the Estates-General in Versailles 5 May 1789", was one of Helman's series Principales Journées de la Révolution. Opening session of the General Assembly, 5 May 1789, by Auguste Couder (1839) shows the inauguration of the Estates-General in Versailles The Estates General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate). It was the last of the Estates General of the Kingdom of France.

He could not be made an official minister because he was a Protestant.Hibbert, pp. 35, 36 Drastic inflation and widespread food scarcity helped cause a huge famine in the winter of 1788–89. This led to widespread popular discontent and produced a group of Third Estate representatives (612 exactly) pressing a comparatively radical set of reforms, much of it in alignment with the goals of Finance Minister Jacques Necker, but very much against the wishes of Louis XVI's court and many of the hereditary nobles forming his Second Estate allies (at least allies against taking more taxes upon themselves and keeping the unequal taxation on the commoners).

Actually one of the first democratic decisions in feudal Europe. The control organ, a precursor of the later "Estate assembly" (namely, the first estate was the clergy, the second estate was the nobility, and the third estate was the municipalities) gathered in the Kortenberg Abbey and elsewhere with ups and downs until 1375. From 1332 on the council was extended by two more members, so that there were 16 Lords; Antwerp got a second member and the Walloon Brabant town of Nivelles () also got a member. In 1340 documents were sealed with a special seal on which a tree was planted on a little hill (the "short" or "sharp"?).

The 17th-century French playwright Molière (1622–73) catalogued the social-climbing essence of the bourgeoisie in left Throughout the early modern period a class of wealthy middlemen who connected producers emerged: the bourgeoisie. These bourgeoisie played a fundamental role in the French economy, accounting for 39.1% of national income despite only accounting for 7.7% of the population. Under the Ancien Régime they were part of the Third Estate, as they were neither clergymen (the First Estate) nor nobles (the Second Estate). Given their powerful economic position, and their aspirations on a class-wide level, the bourgeois wanted to ascend through the social hierarchy, formalised in the Estate system.

The noble dedicates his blood to the > defense of the state and assists to sovereign with his counsel. The last > class of the nation, which cannot render such distinguished service to the > state, fulfills its obligation through taxes, industry, and physical labor. The Second Estate (the nobility) consisted of approximately 1.5% of France's population, and was exempt from almost all taxes, including the Corvée Royale, which was a recent mandatory service in which the roads would be repaired and built by those subject to the corvée. In practice, anyone who paid a small fee could escape the corvee, so this burden of labor fell only to the poorest in France.

Born in Boussay in central France to an ancient family, he had already attained the rank of Maréchal de camp in 1789, when he was elected by the Second Estate of the bailiwick of Touraine to the Estates General in 1789. He was a liberal nobleman and supported the reforms of the National Constituent Assembly, of which he was elected secretary in December and president for a standard two weeks term (27 March - 12 April 1790). He served as a member of the diplomatic committee. With the closing of the National Assembly in September 1791, he was employed as Maréchal de camp in Paris, and then to the Armée de l'Ouest.

René-Louis de Voyer de Paulmy was born 18 October 1694, eldest son of Marc-René de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson (1652-1721) and Marguerite Le Fèvre de Caumartin (1672-1719). He had a younger brother, Marc-Pierre, Comte d'Argenson (1696-1764), who served as Minister of War from 1743 to 1747. His father was Lieutenant General of Police and Controller-General of Finances, one of the most important positions in the Ancien Régime. He was a member of the Noblesse de robe or Nobles of the robe, a class that formed the Second Estate whose rank derived from holding judicial or administrative posts.

Now he could put it to use. On 10 August 1499, after marching across Savoy and through the town of Asti, the French army crossed the border into the Duchy of Milan. Contrary to the wishes of the Second Estate (the nobles and royalty of France), expressed at the Estates General in 1484, this French army was being led by a foreigner, Gian Giacomo Trivulzio. Marshall Trivulzio had been in the service of the French throne since the reign of Louis XI, but he had been born and raised in Milan. The French army that Marshal Trivulzio now commanded consisted of 27,000 men of which 10,000 were mounted.

He was elected to the Estates-General of 1789 by the Second Estate of Paris, and was the spokesman of the minority of Liberal nobles (including the duc d'Orléans and the marquis de Lafayette) who joined the Third Estate on the 25th of June. In July 1789, Stanislas wrote and shared two propositions based on varying cahiers from across the Assembly, one known as the Rapport du Comité de Constitution. Both liberals and conservatives alike felt the proposals were not rooted in the best interest of either faction. He was chiefly concerned with keeping the kingdom intact, yet he voted for the motion of the vicomte de Noailles to abolish feudalism in France 4–5 August 1789.

5 May 1789, opening of the Estates-General in Versailles in 1789, as the conservatives sat on the right The political term right-wing was first used during the French Revolution, when liberal deputies of the Third Estate generally sat to the left of the presiding officer's chair, a custom that began in the Estates General of 1789. The nobility, members of the Second Estate, generally sat to the right. In the successive legislative assemblies, monarchists who supported the Old Regime were commonly referred to as rightists because they sat on the right side. A major figure on the right was Joseph de Maistre, who argued for an authoritarian form of conservatism.

The second estate, held by Robert of Bucy contained two villagers, eight smallholders and one slave. The Peverel Family were the main tenants in the later 13th century, and the estate was held by Walter de Langton (died 1321),J M Lee and R A McKinley, 'Church Langton', in Victoria County History, A History of the County of Leicestershire: Volume 5, Gartree Hundred (London, 1964), pp. 193-213 Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield and Treasurer of England, a member of the Peverel family. The land was declared forfeit numerous times before it was passed to the Duchy of Lancaster where the Roberts Family were principle tenants for most of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries.

In August 1788, the King agreed to convene the Estates-General in May 1789. While the Third Estate demanded and was granted "double representation" so as to balance the First and Second Estate, voting was to occur "by orders" votes of the Third Estate were to be weighted effectively canceling double representation. This eventually led to the Third Estate breaking away from the Estates-General and, joined by members of the other estates, proclaiming the creation of the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People." In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met.

List of Constituencies in the Parliament of Scotland at the time of the Union is a list of the constituencies of the Parliament of Scotland (the Estates of Scotland) during the period shortly before the Union between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England. The unicameral Estates of Scotland existed from medieval times until 1707. The Commissioners for the burghs (the "Third Estate") and shires and stewartries (sometimes called the "Fourth Estate", or classified as a subgroup within the "Second Estate") were elected, but on a very restrictive franchise. Commissioner was the title for ordinary, representative members of the parliament (junior peers were called Lords of Parliament; and senior peers, representatives of the monarch, and certain members of the clergy also sat in parliament).

Cardinal Mazarin, French chief minister 1642 to 1661; for reasons that are unclear, he removed D'Argenson from Venice, ending his career D'Argenson's father was a councillor in the Parlement de Paris, and a Maîtres des Requêtes, a class of lawyers who acted as professional bureaucrats, government officials and diplomats. They were part of the Noblesse de robe or Nobles of the robe, or the Second Estate in pre-Revolutionary France. Rank derived from holding judicial or administrative posts, and its members were hard-working professionals, unlike the aristocratic Noblesse d'épée or Nobles of the Sword. As was customary for eldest sons, D'Argenson followed the same career path; in 1642, he became councillor in the Parlement de Normandie, or Rouen, and later Maîtres des Requêtes.

At the onset of the French Revolution he was a conseiller at the Parliament of Aix-en-Provence. Elected by the Second Estate as a representative of the sénéchaussée of Aix-en-Provence to the Estates-General of 1789 (also elected from Aix was the comte de Mirabeau, who though he was a nobleman was elected by the Third Estate). Following the example of Philippe, duc d'Orléans, he joined the Third Estate which became the National Constituent Assembly. He was elected president of the National Assembly three times (1–16 August 1790; 22 December 1790 – 4 January 1791; 10–27 May 1791) and he was the second most prolific speaker, addressing the Assembly on 497 occasions (only Armand-Gaston Camus spoke more frequently).

In an attempt to find a peaceful resolution to mounting popular unrest and calls for reform, King Louis XVI first convened the Assembly of Notables in 1787 and then revived the Estates-General in 1789. During the 1787 Assembly, clerical representatives strongly opposed any reforms directed towards the Church,William Doyle, Origins of the French Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 93. but by the meeting of the Estates-General, internal divisions began to form. Bishops and other ‘high clergy’ (who were often of noble stock) allied strongly with the Second Estate in the preservation of official privileges. However, many parish priests and other ‘low clergy’ sided with the Third Estate, representing their own class and the class of their flocks.

Babette Cochois (1725-1780), whom Jean-Baptiste married in 1749 Jean- Baptiste de Boyer, later Marquis d’Argens, was born on 24 June 1704 in the southern French town of Aix-en-Provence. He was the eldest of seven children of Pierre-Jean de Boyer and Angélique de L'Enfant, daughter of Luc de L'Enfant (1656-1729), President of the Regional Parliament. Pierre-Jean de Boyer was Procureur général or Attorney-General for the Regional Parliament of Provence and a member of the Second Estate, the Noblesse de robe or Nobles of the robe. Their rank derived from the possession of judicial or administrative posts and unlike the aristocratic Noblesse d'épée or Nobles of the Sword, they were often hard-working middle-class professionals.

In the political system of pre-Revolutionary France, the nobility made up the Second Estate of the Estates General (with the Catholic clergy comprising the First Estate and the bourgeoisie and peasants in the Third Estate). Although membership in the noble class was mainly inherited, it was not a fully closed order. New individuals were appointed to the nobility by the monarchy, or they could purchase rights and titles, or join by marriage. Sources differ about the actual number of nobles in France; however, proportionally, it was among the smallest noble classes in Europe. For the year 1789, French historian François Bluche gives a figure of 140,000 nobles (9,000 noble families) and states that about 5% of nobles could claim descent from feudal nobility before the 15th century.

The Second Estate elected 291 deputies, representing about 400,000 men and women, who owned about 25% of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their peasant tenants. Like the clergy this was not a uniform body, being divided into the Noblesse d'épée, or traditional aristocracy, and the Noblesse de robe. The latter derived rank from judicial or administrative posts and tended to be hard-working professionals, who dominated the regional Parlements and were often intensely socially conservative. Neither the First or Second Estates paid tax. 610 deputies sat for the Third Estate, in theory representing 95% of the population, although voting rights were restricted to French-born or naturalised males, aged 25 years or more, residing where the vote was to take place and who paid taxes.

As was customary, each Estate assembled in separate rooms, whose furnishings and opening ceremonies deliberately emphasised the superiority of the First and Second Estates. They also insisted on enforcing the rule only those who owned land could sit as deputies for the Second Estate, thus excluding the immensely popular aristocrat Mirabeau. Since the Third Estate could always be outvoted by the other two, despite representing over 95% of the population, from the beginning a key objective was for all three to sit as one house. Led by Sieyès, they therefore demanded the credentials of all deputies be approved by the Estates- General as a whole, rather than each Estate verifying its own; once approved, the built-in weighting of the Estates-General in favour of a minority would be dissolved.

She accepted Necker's proposition to double the representation of the Third Estate (tiers état) in an attempt to check the power of the aristocracy. On the eve of the opening of the Estates-General, the queen attended the mass celebrating its return. As soon as it opened on 5 May 1789, the fracture between the democratic Third Estate (consisting of bourgeois and radical aristocrats) and the conservative nobility of the Second Estate widened, and Marie Antoinette knew that her rival, the Duc d'Orléans, who had given money and bread to the people during the winter, would be acclaimed by the crowd, much to her detriment. The death of the Dauphin on 4 June, which deeply affected his parents, was virtually ignored by the French people,Nicolardot, Louis, Journal de Louis Seize, 1873, pp.

The term edelfrei or hochfrei ("free noble" or "free knight") was originally used to designate and distinguish those Germanic noblemen from the Second Estate (see Estates of the realm social hierarchy), who were legally entitled to atonement reparation of three times their "Weregild" (Wergeld) value from a guilty person or party. Such knights were known as Edelfreie or Edelinge. This distinguished them from those other free men or free knights who came from the Third Estate social hierarchy, and whose atonement reparation value was the standard "Weregild" (Wergeld) amount set according to regional laws. In the Holy Roman Empire, the "high nobility" (') emerged from the Edelfreie during the course of the 12th century, in contrast to the so-called ministeriales, most of whom were originally unfree knights or '.

In particular, Le Roy Ladurie argued that periods of authoritarianism in domestic policy coincided with periods of aggression in foreign policy, and that periods of liberalism in domestic policy coincided with periods of a pacific foreign policy. In order to pay for war, the French state had to increase taxation to raise the necessary funds. In Ancien Régime France, society was divided into three legal categories; the First Estate (the Catholic Church), the Second Estate (the nobility) and the Third Estate (the commoners). The first two estates, which comprised the more wealthier elements of French society were exempt from taxation and to make up the shortfall in revenue, the Third Estate was taxed more heavily than what had been the case if the tax burden in French society was spread with greater equality.

The Marquis of Beauchamps, by now a cavalry colonel, had been elected in March to the Second Estate and proved a passionate supporter of the threatened Ancien Régime. Mindful that his skills were better suited to fighting with a sword than with words, he persuaded his friend Michel-Louis-Étienne Regnaud de Saint-Jean d'Angély to present a powerful protest on his behalf against the actions of the States General, which d'Angély duly did, even though Beauchamps's conservative views were contrary to his own position. The early years of the French Revolution found the Marquis of Beauchamps on the wrong side of events, and he emigrated to Liège where he had property and family connections. His wife was the sister of one mayor of that city and had been the widow of another.

The Cahiers de doléances (or simply Cahiers as they were often known) were the lists of grievances drawn up by each of the three Estates in France, between March and April 1789, the year in which the French Revolution began. Their compilation was ordered by Louis XVI, who had convened the Estates-General of 1789 to manage the revolutionary situation, to give each of the Estates – the First Estate (the clergy), the Second Estate (the nobility) and the Third Estate, which consisted of everyone else, including the urban working class, the rural peasantry, and middle class and professional people, who were the only ones in the group likely to have their voices heard – the chance to express their hopes and grievances directly to the King. They were explicitly discussed at a special meeting of the Estates-General held on 5 May 1789. Many of these lists have survived and provide considerable information about the state of the country on the eve of the revolution.

The end of the century saw the birth of the United States, with the help of French ideas and military forces; the declaration of the French Republic in 1792, and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, setting the stage for the history of modern France Marie Antoinette The Toilet of Venus (1751) typifies the superficially pleasing elegance of Boucher's mature style. The 18th century also brought enormous social changes to France; an enormous growth in population; and, even more important, the growth of the wealthy class, thanks to new technologies (the steam engine, metallurgy), and trade with France's colonies in the New World and India. French society was hierarchal with the Clergy (First Estate) and Nobility (Second Estate) at the top and The Third Estate who included everyone else. Members of the Third Estate, especially the more wealthy and influential, began to challenge the cultural and social monopoly of the aristocracy; French cities began to have their own theaters, coffee houses and salons, independent of the aristocracy.

The central principle of the medieval, Renaissance, and ancien régime periods, monarchical rule "by God's will", was fundamentally challenged by the 1789 French Revolution. The revolution began as a conjunction of a need to fix French national finances and a rising middle class who resented the privileges of the clergy (in their role as the First Estate) and nobility (in their role as the Second Estate). The pent-up frustrations caused by lack of political reform over a period of generations led the revolution to spiral in ways unimaginable only a few years earlier, and indeed unplanned and unanticipated by the initial wave of reformers. Almost from the start, the revolution was a direct threat to clerical and noble privilege: the legislation that abolished the feudal privileges of the Church and nobility dates from August 4, 1789, a mere three weeks after the fall of the Bastille (although it would be several years before this legislation came fully into effect).

The objections were made in reaction to the essay, Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses ("Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth") by Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot. The Second Estate reacted to the essay with anger to convince the king that the nobility still served a very important role and still deserved the same privileges of tax exemption as well as for the preservation of the guilds and corporations put in place to restrict trade, both of which were eliminated in the reforms proposed by Turgot.Doyle, "The parlements of France and the Breakdown of the Old Regime 1771-1788." In their remonstrance against the edict suppressing the corvée (March 1776), the Parlement of Paris – afraid that a new tax would replace the corvée, and that this tax would apply to all, introducing equality as a principle – dared to remind the king: > The personal service of the clergy is to fulfill all the functions relating > to education and religious observances and to contribute to the relief of > the unfortunate through its alms.

The territory of Lodève had its own Estates from an early period, and it retained it even after it became part of the Estates of Languedoc in the fourteenth century. The Bishop of Mende was the President of the Estates of Gévaudan; the First Estate (clergy) were represented by a Canon of the Cathedral (representing the Chapter), the Dom d'Aubrac, the Prior of Saint-Enemie, the Prior of Langogne, the Abbot of Chambons, the Commander of Palhers, and the Commander of Saint-Jean. The Second Estate (nobility) were represented by the eight Barons who were Peers of Gévaudon (d'Apchier, de Peyre, de Cenaret, du Tournel, de Randon, de Florac, de Mercoeur, de Canilhac), twelve gentlemen (the Seigneurs d'Allene, de Montauroux, de Saint- Alban, de Montrodat, de Mirandol, de Séverac, de Barre, de Gabriac, de Portes, de Servières, d'Arpajon, and the Consuls of la Garde-Guérin); the Third Estate were represented by the three Consuls of Mende, the three Consuls of Marvejols (when the meeting took place at Marvejols), and a Consul (or deputy) from each of sixteen communities. The Estates met annually, alternately at Mende and at Marvejols.