The warming has triggered large-scale insect disturbances and fires in North American boreal forests "potentially turning some regions from a carbon sink to a carbon source," the team said.
|
|
Cochineal, created by crushing up Dactylopius coccus, a species of scale insect, is safe to handle and consume, but its safety is trumped in the minds of some by its animal origin.
|
|
This species is host to the scale insect Lecanodiaspis tarsalis Newstead, 1917.
|
|
Pseudaulacaspis pentagona is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Pinnaspis strachani is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Ischnaspis longirostris is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Parlatoria ziziphi is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Lepidosaphes gloverii is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Diaspis bromeliae is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Parasaissetia nigra is a species of soft scale insect in the family Coccidae.
|
|
Chrysomphalus dictyospermi is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Parlatoria pergandii is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Paratachardina decorella, the rosette lac scale, is a scale insect in the Kerriidae family.
|
|
Aspidiotus destructor, the coconut scale, is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae.
|
|
Aulacaspis, is a scale insect genus in the family Diaspididae. The type species is Aulacaspis rosae.
|
|
Pulvinaria is a scale insect genus in the family Coccidae. The type species is Coccus vitis Linnaeus.
|
|
Olliffiella cristicola, the gall kermes, is a species of gall-like scale insect in the family Kermesidae.
|
|
Distribution map of American Beech and the beech scale insect. Beech bark disease was first documented in Europe in 1849. At first, it was believed that the scale insect was the main cause of the disease. It wasn’t until 1914 that the Neonectria fungus was associated with the disease.
|
|
The woolly, white tufts and broad strips are the colonies of the beech scale insect that are formed in tiny crevices along the bark. An adult beech scale insect has a soft body, is yellow in color, ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 millimeter long, and has an elliptical shape. The beech scale insect also has a stylet that it uses to penetrate the bark of the tree for feeding purposes. There are no male beech scale insects and the female insects reproduce parthenogenetically.
|
|
This species of scale insect is native to Australia where it occurs in Queensland and New South Wales.
|
|
Pulvinaria psidii (guava scale; green shield scale; guava mealy scale), is a species of soft scale insect in the family Coccidae.
|
|
Coccus longulus, the long brown scale, is a species of soft scale insect in the family Coccidae. It is found in Europe.
|
|
Ceroplastes cirripediformis, known generally as the barnacle scale or barnacle wax scale, is a species of soft scale insect in the family Coccidae.
|
|
The first visible sign of a beech scale insect infestation is a woolly, white, waxy covering that the insect secretes. This sign can be observed covering small areas or most of the tree. The amount of waxy material observed depends on the population of the beech scale insect on that tree. The Neonectria fungi also show signs of its presence.
|
|
Ceroplastes rubens, known generally as the red wax scale or pink wax scale, is a species of soft scale insect in the family Coccidae.
|
|
The host species of the larvae of I. restincta is unknown. However it has been hypothesised that it is a scale insect predator like Isonomeutis amauropa.
|
|
The scale insect genus Porphyrophora is a large group in the family Margarodidae, which includes the insects Polish cochineal and Armenian cochineal formerly used in dye production.
|
|
Cryptococcus fagisuga aka Beech bark disease has been recorded as affecting common beech trees, Fagus sylvatica, in Europe since before 1849. Until 1914 it was thought that the beech scale insect itself was responsible for the disease. Subsequently it was discovered that a fungus, then identified as Nectria ditissima, was in fact killing the trees infested by the scale. Around 1890 the scale insect was accidentally introduced into Nova Scotia.
|
|
Saissetia coffeae, known generally as hemispherical scale, is a species of soft scale insect in the family Coccidae. Other common names include the helmet scale and coffee brown scale.
|
|
Traditional "Zapotec nest" farming of the cochineal scale insect on O. ficus-indica, Oaxaca Dactylopius coccus is a scale insect from which cochineal dye is derived. D. coccus itself is native to tropical and subtropical South America and Mexico. This insect, a primarily sessile parasite, lives on cacti from the genus Opuntia, feeding on moisture and nutrients in the cactus sap. The insect produces carminic acid, which deters predation by other insects.
|
|
Conchaspis capensis is a species of scale insect from South Africa found on Metalasia muricata and Phylica species. It was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1763 work Centuria Insectorum.
|
|
Ultracoelostoma assimile, commonly known as sooty beech scale, is a scale insect in the Margarodidae family. It is endemic to New Zealand. It was first described by William Miles Maskell in 1890.
|
|
Albicoccus is an extinct genus of scale insect in the extinct monotypic family Albicoccidae, containing a single species, Albicoccus dimai. The genus is solely known from the Albian - Cenomanian Burmese amber deposits.
|
|
Burmacoccus is an extinct genus of scale insect in the extinct monotypic family Burmacoccidae, containing a single species, Burmacoccus danyi. The genus is solely known from the Albian – Cenomanian Burmese amber deposits.
|
|
Marmyan is an extinct genus of scale insect, containing a single species, Marmyan barbarae and unplaced in any coccid family. The genus is solely known from the Albian – Cenomanian Burmese amber deposits.
|
|
Nectria coccinea is a fungal plant pathogen. The variant Nectria coccinea var. faginata causes beech bark disease, and can infect the tree via the feeding holes made by the beech scale insect Cryptococcus fagisuga.
|
|
Callipappus australis, commonly known as the bird of paradise fly, is a species of scale insect in the family Callipappidae. It is native to Australia where it occurs in Queensland and New South Wales.
|
|
Aulacaspis yasumatsui, or cycad aulacaspis scale (CAS), is a scale insect species in the genus Aulacaspis that feeds on cycad species such as Cycas revolutaAulacaspis yasumatsui (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Diaspididae), a Scale Insect Pest of Cycads Recently Introduced into Florida. Forrest W. Howard, Avas Hamon, Michael Mclaughlin, Thomas Weissling and Si-lin Yang, The Florida Entomologist, March 1999, Vol. 82, No. 1, pages 14–27 (article) or Dioon purpusii (Purpus' cycad). Other common names include the cycad scale, the sago palm scale, and the Asian cycad scale.
|
|
Drosicha corpulenta is a species of giant scale insect in the family Monophlebidae, in the superfamily Coccoidea. It is native to eastern Asia where it feeds on a range of trees, shrubs and non-woody plants.
|
|
Protopulvinaria pyriformis, commonly known as the pyriform scale, is a species of soft scale insect in the family Coccidae. It is a pest of avocado and is found in many countries around the world where avocados grow.
|
|
The species is critically endangered within Armenia. The Armenian cochineal scale insect, Porphyrophora hamelii, is in a different taxonomic family from the cochineal found in the Americas. Both insects produce red dyestuffs that are also commonly called cochineal.
|
|
Chrysomphalus aonidum, known generally as Florida red scale, is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae. Other common names include the Egyptian black scale, circular black scale, and citrus black scale. It is found in Europe.
|
|
Pulvinaria regalis is known to be hosted by 65 species of plant from 25 families. The main species of tree which act as hosts for this scale insect are horse chestnut, sycamore, maple, lime, elm, magnolia, bay and dogwood.
|
|
Coccus viridis is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae with a wide host range. It is commonly known as green scale or sometimes coffee green scale because it is a major pest of coffee crops throughout the world.
|
|
Aspidiotus nerii is a species of armored scale insect with the common names Oleander scale and ivy scale. The species are pests of citrus, sago palm, oleander, English ivy, and palm, among others. Three to four generations are born inside each year.
|
|
Many species that fall within Pinnaspis are not pests, but the genus includes some serious pests. Pinnaspis aspidistrae and Pinnaspis strachani have been identified as serious pests.Miller, D.R. & Davidson, J.A. (1990) 3.1.1 "A List of the Armored Scale Insect Pests". pp. 299–306.
|
|
Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli, known generally as false oleander scale, is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae. Other common names include the fullaway oleander scale, magnolia white scale, mango scale, oleander scale, and oyster scale. It is found in Europe.
|
|
Asterolecanium coffeae or yellow fringed scale is a pit scale insect pest on coffee plants, especially Coffea arabica, throughout tropical Africa, including Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. In addition to coffee plants it feeds on jacaranda and Photinia japonica.
|
|
Cylindrococcus is currently classified in the scale insect family EriococcidaeMiller D.R. & Gimpel M.E. (2000). A Systematic Catalogue of the Eriococcidae (Felt Scales) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) of the World. Intercept Ltd, Andover, UK. although, at times, it has been placed in its own family, Cylindrococcidae.Balachowsky A. (1942).
|
|
The pine needle scale insect Chionaspis pinifoliae Fitch is a common pest on pine, spruce and other conifers across Canada and throughout the United States (Rose and Lindquist 1985).Rose, A.H.; Lindquist, O.H. 1985. Insects of eastern spruces, fir and, hemlock, revised edition. Gov’t Can.
|
|
Euzophera cocciphaga is a species of snout moth in the genus Euzophera. It was described by George Hampson in 1908 and is known from India. This species has a wingspan of 24 mm and the larvae lives under a Coccidae (scale insect) on which it feeds.Hampson, 1907.
|
|
Melaleuca incana subspecies incana is widely cultivated. It is a hardy plant, fast growing, tolerating a range of soils and conditions after initial establishment and is frost hardy. It is widely available in commercial nurseries and tolerates pruning to form a hedge. It is susceptible to scale insect attack.
|
|
Crimson is a strong, red color, inclining to purple. It originally meant the color of the kermes dye produced from a scale insect, Kermes vermilio, but the name is now sometimes also used as a generic term for slightly bluish-red colors that are between red and rose.
|
|
Coccus hesperidum is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae with a wide host range. It is commonly known as brown soft scale. It has a cosmopolitan distribution and feeds on many different host plants. It is an agricultural pest, particularly of citrus and commercial greenhouse crops.
|
|
The scale insect genus Margarodes is a group in the family Margarodidae. The type species is Margarodes formicarum. The genus was erected in 1828 by Lansdown Guilding who found these waxy "pearls" in the soil on the island of Bahama, associated with ants, and named a species Margarodes formicarum.
|
|
The scale insect lives in the bark of beech trees drawing in sap, which it then excretes as honeydew and is an important energy source for tui, bellbirds and kaka. The Victoria Forest Park provides essential habitat for a large array of fauna, just a fraction of which are described below.
|
|
Mature beech scale insects. Beech scale nymph. The beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, is invasive to North America and is host- specific, feeding exclusively on beech trees. It can be observed on the trunk and limbs of the tree as woolly, white tufts that will later develop into broad strips.
|
|
The larvae are produced and processed in industrial-scale insect factories globally by biotechnology companies such as AgriProtein, InnovaFeed and Protix, the latter operating the world's largest insect factory in the Netherlands.Forbes/Davide Banis (14 June 2019): Can Using Insects As Animal Feed Reduce The Climate Impact Of Meat Production?.
|
|
Other glands produce long white filaments of wax that serve a function in the construction of the sac that surrounds the eggs. To avoid getting contaminated by its own honeydew, the scale insect has a six-bristled mechanism close to the anus, with which it can flick away its excrement.
|
|
This species, especially the nominate subspecies incana is widely cultivated. It is a hardy plant, fast growing, tolerating a range of soils and conditions after initial establishment and is frost hardy. It is widely available in commercial nurseries and tolerates pruning to form a hedge. It is susceptible to scale insect attack.
|
|
Pseudococcus maritimus, the grape mealybug, is a scale insect species in the genus Pseudococcus infecting grapevines. It is also a vector of little cherry disease.Mekuria, T.A.; Smith, T.J.; Beers, E.; Watson, G.W.; Eastwell, K.C. (2013). "First Report of Transmission of Little cherry virus 2 to Sweet Cherry by Pseudococcus maritimus (Ehrhorn) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)".
|
|
The Coronation Mantle of Roger II of Sicily, silk dyed with kermes and embroidered with gold thread and pearls. Royal Workshop, Palermo, Sicily, 1133–34. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Kermes is a red dye derived from the dried bodies of the females of a scale insect in the genus Kermes, primarily Kermes vermilio.
|
|
P. aspidistrae is recorded to feed on around 60 genera, including, Citrus, and several types of ferns.Miller, D.R. & Davidson, J.A. (2005) Armored Scale Insect Pests of Trees and Shrubs (Hemiptera: Diaspididae). Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing Associates. P. strachani is recorded to feed on over 60 genera, most commonly found on, Citrus, Cocus and Hibiscus.
|
|
Aonidiella aurantii or red scale is an armored scale insect and a major pest of citrus. It is thought to be a native of South ChinaLongo, S., Marotta, S., Pellizzari, G., Russo, A. and A. Tranfaglia, 1995. "An annotated list of the scale insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea) of Italy". Israel Journal of Entomology 29: 113–130.
|
|
A pest which spreads through olive trees is the black scale bug, a small black scale insect that resembles a small black spot. They attach themselves firmly to olive trees and reduce the quality of the fruit; their main predators are wasps. The curculio beetle eats the edges of leaves, leaving sawtooth damage.Burr, M. (1999).
|
|
Aulacaspis tegalensis, known as sugarcane scale or white scale, is a scale insect species in the family Diaspididae. The species is distributed across east Africa and southern Asia, with records from Madagascar, Kenya, Thailand, Tanzania, Taiwan, Reunion, Singapore, Uganda, Seychelles, Papua New Guinea, Mauritius, Indonesia, India, Federated States of Micronesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.
|
|
Callococcus is a genus of Australian scale insect that feeds on species of Leptospermum, Hypocalymma, Kunzea and some other members of the tribes Chamelaucieae and LeptospermeaeGullan P.J., Miller D.R. & Cook L.G. (2005). Gall-inducing scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea). In: Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Gall-Inducing Arthropods (eds. Raman A, Schaefer CW & Withers TM).
|
|
Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand 26, 65-105. Adult females of Callococcus newmanni and C. pulchellus are similar to each other,Miller D.R., Gullan P.J. & Williams D.J. (1998). Family placement of species previously included in the scale insect genus Sphaerococcus Maskell (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash., 100, 286-305.
|
|
It was first found on neem in Cameroon in 1985 and had spread over one million kilometers by 1998, infesting many economically important trees.Lale, N. (1998). Neem in the Conventional Lake Chad Basin area and the threat of Oriental yellow scale insect (Aonidiella orientalis Newstead) (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Journal of Arid Environments 40(2) 191–197.
|
|
Paleoophiocordyceps coccophagus is an extinct parasitic fungus in the family Ophiocordycipitaceae from Cretaceous-aged Burmese amber. P. coccophagus' morphology is very similar to the species of Ophiocordyceps. The only known specimen consists of two whip-like fruiting bodies emerging from the head of a male scale insect of an undescribed species very similar to the extinct species Albicoccus dimai.
|
|
This then allowed honeybees (Apis mellifera) to retrieve nectar the same way. Epacris impressa is host to the scale insect Lecanodiaspis microcribraria. A field study of the invasion of the pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi into the Brisbane Ranges National Park in Victoria in 1971 indicated that Epacris impressa was moderately susceptible to the pathogen. Inoculation of seedlings confirmed this.
|
|
There are two fungi common to North America that are important to the beech bark disease process. They are Neonectria faginata and Neonectria ditissima. The primary fungus is N. faginata, though N. ditissima is very important in some areas. These fungi infect the tree through the wounds caused by the beech scale insect and then begin to produce spores.
|
|
Lepidosaphes ulmi on Ceanothus in England Lepidosaphes ulmi also known as apple mussel scale or oystershell scale is a scale insect that is a pest of trees and woody plants. The small insects attach themselves to bark and cause injury by sucking the tree's sap; this metabolic drain on the plant may kill a branch or the entire tree.
|
|
The adult female scale insect is oval and dome-shaped, about long. It retains its legs and antennae throughout its life. Its cuticle is made of chitin but it does not produce the copious quantities of wax that armoured scales do. It is a pale yellowish-brown or greenish-brown colour with brown irregular speckles, and darkens with age.
|
|
As a dominant species they are stable in the environment. What happens, in terms of replacement, in the event of removal is still unclear. A native scale insect in the genus Pulvinaria has been shown to be valuable in the control of E. sturtii and E. mitchellii but to be effective, the insect needs to be manually transferred.
|
|
Scale insect species such as Ceroplastes cerciferus, C. rubens, and Aspidiotus aurantii can attack the plant. The seed immediately begins to germinate and soon penetrates the vascular system of the tree and creates a physiological connection with the xylem of the new host. From that point, the seedling begins to obtain water and mineral nutrients from the host.
|
|
Retrieved 2016-02-22. The scale insect Dactylopius coccus produces the brilliant red-coloured carminic acid to deter predators. Up to 100,000 scale insects need to be collected and processed to make a kilogram (2.2 lbs) of cochineal dye. A similar number of lac bugs are needed to make a kilogram of shellac, a brush-on colourant and wood finish.
|
|
Most of the introduced species do little harm to the ecology of Hong Kong. However, some species are invasive and cause massive damage to the ecology and/or economy of Hong Kong. For example, the pinewood nematode from North America and pine-needle scale insect from Taiwan, which together virtually eliminated the native Pinus massoniana in the 1970s and 1980s.
|
|
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005. In North America, the disease occurs after extensive bark invasion by the beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga. Through a presently unknown mechanism, excessive feeding by this insect causes two different fungi (Neonectria faginata (previously Nectria coccinea var. faginata) and Neonectria ditissima (previously Nectria galligena)) to produce annual cankers on the bark of the tree.
|
|
The adult scale insect is a glossy pale green colour with black internal markings that are visible through the chitinous body wall. It has a flattish elongated oval dome shape and is about three millimetres in width. The front end is rounded while the rear end has a distinctive groove. Adults retain their legs and antennae but mostly remain sedentary.
|
|
Populations have been vandalized with machetes. Cacti have died from being buried in sand, and have been stolen by cactus enthusiasts and collectors. A scale insect, Diaspis echinocacti, sometimes eats the stems of the cactus, and some sort of caterpillar has been noted to inflict some damage. Woodpeckers have been observed poking holes in the stems, which injures the plants.
|
|
Apiomorpha is a genus of scale insect that induces galls on species of Eucalyptus. Galls are initiated by first-instar nymphs (crawlers) on new plant growth and, when mature, the galls exhibit marked sexual dimorphism. Those induced by females are among the largest and most spectacular of arthropod- induced galls whereas those of males are small and most are tubular.Gullan, P.J. 1984.
|
|
Cochineal is a red dye produced by a scale insect that lives on species of Opuntia. Long used by the peoples of Central and North America, demand fell rapidly when European manufacturers began to produce synthetic dyes in the middle of the 19th century. Commercial production has now increased following a rise in demand for natural dyes. Cacti are used as construction materials.
|
|
Aphytis mytilaspidis parasitises a number of scale insects including Asterolecanium pustulans, Asterolecanium variolosum in the Asterolecaniidae family, Chloropulvinaria psidii and Pulvinaria psidii in the Coccidae family and many armoured scales in the Diaspididae family. In Serbia this species is an ectoparasitoid of Epidiaspis leperii, an armoured scale insect found on fruit trees.Parasitoids and predators of armored scales in some orchards in Serbia.
|
|
Beeson returned to Oxford, where he became Director of the Imperial Forestry Bureau from 1945 to 1947. While he was Director of the IFB, Beeson and his wife moved to Adderbury in North Oxfordshire. The scale insect genus Beesonia was named after Beeson who collected specimens described by Edward Ernest Green in 1926. It is placed in a family Beesoniidae.
|
|
Nipponaclerda biwakoensis is a scale insect originally described from Japan, and naturally occurring in China; in these countries it is most often associated with reeds in the genus Phragmites.Scalenet entry for Nipponaclerda biwakoensis This species has become established (as of 2017) in the United States in the state of Louisiana, where it has rapidly become a serious pest of roseau cane, damaging over 80% of the reeds in some areas such as the Pass a Loutre Wildlife Management Area,Scientists identify pest laying waste to Mississippi River Delta wetlands grass where it is referred to by the older common name Phragmites scale insect or the more recently-coined name, roseau cane mealybug.Roseau Cane Mealybug Several species of parasitoid wasps are known to attack this scale, with initial investigations focusing on the species Neastymachus japonicus, known only to attack this one pest.
|
|
K. lacca also produces a dye and a wax as natural secretions. The life cycle of this scale insect proceeds with the first instar of the larval stages, which are known as "crawlers". Larvae in this stage crawl along the branches of their host plants and feed on the phloem. As they pierce the branches to reach the phloem, they cover the holes with their wax secretions.
|
|
A field guide to the beetles of North America. Peterson Field Guide Series #29. The majority of coccinellid species are generally considered useful insects, because many species prey on herbivorous homopterans such as aphids or scale insects, which are agricultural pests. Many coccinellids lay their eggs directly in aphid and scale insect colonies in order to ensure their larvae have an immediate food source.
|
|
However, it will usually not sting without being provoked by sudden movement or other violent behavior. Research indicates the wasps use odor to identify and attack rival wasps from other colonies, and nest odor frequently changes. Vespula vulgaris wasps have been observed aggressively competing with honey bees for the honeydew secreted by the scale insect Ultracoelostoma brittini in New Zealand's South Island black beech forests.
|
|
Dynamic Ad., Nelspruit, South Africa: 132–134. They soon begin to develop their own round, waxy covers. The male scale insect develops similarly until after the second moult when it becomes oval and darker than the female, measuring about one millimetre in diameter with an eccentric cover. The adult male is a small, yellowish two-winged insect that emerges from under its elongated cover after four molts.
|
|
Eulecanium cerasorum, the calico scale, is species of scale insect. It can be identified by its white and brown color on its outer circular shell which will continuously darken over age. It is approximately one quarter of an inch in diameter. The Calico Scale is a pest to many trees in the United States, including dogwoods, honey locust, magnolias, maples, sweetgums and fruit trees.
|
|
Other species named after Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay include: Colastomion maclayi (a wasp from New Guinea), and Dysmicoccus maclayi (a scale insect from New Guinea) The asteroid 3196 Maklaj, discovered in 1978, was named in his honour.Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Lutz Schmadel (ed.) available online at www.springerreference.com Maklaj is the basis of the main character in the Esperanto historical novel "Sed Nur Fragmento" by Trevor Steele.
|
|
Callococcus had been placed in the family Asterolecaniidae (the pit scales) based on the presence of 8-shaped pores on the dorsum of nymphs,Ben-Dov Y. (2006). A Systematic Catalogue of Eight Scale Insect Families (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) of the World: Aclerdidae, Asterolecaniidae, Beesoniidae, Carayonemidae, Conchaspididae, Dactylopiidae, Kerriidae and Lecanodiaspididae. Elsevier, San Diego. 388pp because this character was interpreted as being diagnostic for this family.
|
|
This is a scale insect, a tiny insect which is most easily identified by the female, which attaches itself to a host plant, loses its legs, and remains stationary covered by a somewhat rounded scale-like shield of wax. In this species, the female forms a flat, circular scale which is white, brown, or yellow in color. It is up to 2.6 millimeters long.Aonidiella orientalis (Oriental scale).
|
|
At this point, they begin to secrete the woolly wax cover that they use for protection. This is the second stage of their life cycle and when the spring season arrives they molt again and become adult females. A second type of scale insect, Xylococcus betulae, which is non-host-specific, is native to North America and causes beech bark disease to a lesser degree than Cryptococcus fagisuga.
|
|
Icerya purchasi (common name: cottony cushion scale) is a scale insect that feeds on more than 65 families of woody plants,ScaleNet most notably on Citrus and Pittosporum. Originally described in 1878 from specimens collected in New Zealand as pests of kangaroo acacia and named by W.M. Maskell "after the Rev. Dr. Purchas who, [he] believe[d], first found it". it is now found worldwide where citrus crops are grown.
|
|
Pulvinaria regalis is a species of scale insect in the family Coccidae. Although it is commonly known as the horse chestnut scale, it affects other trees besides horse chestnuts as well as many species of woody shrubs. Adults are normally all female and produce eggs by parthenogenesis. The insects are thought to have originated in Asia but arrived in Europe in the second half of the twentieth century.
|
|
Sandbank poverty bush is an indicator species that pasture is in poor condition due to overgrazing, especially of grasses such as broad-leaf wanderrie grass (Monachather paradoxus) and buck wanderrie grass (Eriachne helmsii). This poverty bush is not palatable to stock. This species is susceptible to predation by the hopbush scale insect (Pulvinaria dodonaeae, Order Hemiptera, Family Coccidae). About 10% of plants are killed although other species of eremophlias are not affected.
|
|
It was probably introduced in the late 19th century, but did not appear in large numbers until around 1940.Pest Animal Control Bay of Plenty environment report. Retrieved 7 January 2007 Wasp numbers reach their greatest densities in beech forest of the South Island, due to the abundant honeydew produced by the beech-scale insect there. It has a serious effect on forest ecology, as less honeydew remains available for native birds.
|
|
141 In its native Australia this pest was kept in check (so F. S. Crawford found) by a dipterous fly Cryptochetum iceryae which injected its eggs into the scale insect, which was then devoured by the resultant larvae. Maskell also studied arthropods, protozoa and microscopic algae, publishing more than 70 research papers on these topics. He was also a strong opponent of Darwinism and his arguments helped to shape several scientific debates of the time.
|
|
Specimen The female scale insect has a circular, brownish-red cover about 1.8 millimetres in diameter. It is firmly attached to the surface when the female is moulting or reproducing. The insect itself is visible through the cover and has an oval body which becomes kidney-shaped at the last instar stage. The female molts twice, exuding the material from which the cover is formed and developing a concentric ring in the center each time.
|
|
In particular, there is a scale insect that feeds on tamarisk, the Tamarisk manna scale (Trabutina mannipara), which is often considered to be the prime candidate for biblical manna. Another type is turkey oak manna, also called Persian gezengevi- gezo, men, Turkish Kudret helvasi, man-es- simma, also Diarbekir manna, or Kurdish manna. It is formed by aphids and appears white. It was common in western Iran, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey.
|
|
The adult cells have one set of inactive H chromosomes and one set of euchromatin E chromosomes. These H chromosomes are eliminated from the sperm during or just before spermatogenesis. In a few other species all the cells in an adult are haploid due to elimination of the paternal chromosomes at an early developmental stage. This variant is called the diaspidid system after the scale insect clade (Diaspididae) where it was discovered.
|
|
Beech bark disease has become a major killer of beech trees in the Northeastern United States. This disease occurs when the beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, attacks the bark, creating a wound that is then infected by one of two different species of fungi in the genus Nectria. This causes a canker to develop and the tree is eventually killed. Beech blight aphids colonize branches of the tree, but without serious harm to otherwise healthy trees.
|
|
It is produced by bees that collect honeydew (sugary secretions) from a scale insect species called Marchalina hellenica, which lives on the sap of certain pine trees. The marchalina hellenica can be found on the Turkish Pine (Pinus brutia), as well as the Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis), Austrian Pine (Pinus nigra), Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Stone Pine (Pinus pinea). Pine honey is produced in eastern Mediterranean Pinus brutia forests. Turkey produces 92% of the world’s pine honey.
|
|
In mid to late summer, the beech scale insect lays its eggs and dies. The eggs are pale yellow and are laid on the bark in strings of four to eight eggs. The first-stage nymphs begin to hatch in late summer and eggs will continue until early winter. They have short antennae and legs, and move around until they find a suitable and safe place to settle down and force their stylet into the bark to begin feeding.
|
|
Hemiberlesia lataniae, the latania or palm scale, is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae. It was first described by the French entomologist Victor Antoine Signoret in 1869 using Latania lontaroides, a species of palm tree endemic to Réunion as its host; since then, it has been found on avocado trees growing in South Africa, Australia, Israel, the United States, and on a range of other plants in many parts of the world.
|
|
P. americana, avocado plant flowers Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal, and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration. The pyriform scale insect (Protopulvinaria pyriformis) is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida, and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit.
|
|
Tectococcus ovatus (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae), also called the Brazilian Scale, is a scale insect in the family Eriococcidae. It is most widely known for being a potential biological control agent for Psidium cattleyanum (strawberry guava) in Florida,Wessels, Frank J., James P. Cuda, M. Tracy Johnson and José Henrique Pedrosa-Macedo. 2007. Host specificity of Tectococcus ovatus (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae), a potential biological control agent of the invasive strawberry guava, Psidium cattleyanum (Myrtales: Myrtaceae), in Florida. BioControl. Volume 52, Number 4 / August, 2007.
|
|
Ants, especially the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile, and the native gray ant should also be controlled as they disrupt the relationship between the wasp and the scale insects. In Australia, the parasitic wasp Aphytis lingnanensis is used for biological pest control. It is usually released annually as, although the wasps may build up naturally without being released, the life cycle is not well synchronized with the pest and significant populations of scale insect may build up before many wasps are available.
|
|
The mould can reduce photosynthesis by the leaves and detracts from the appearance of ornamental plants. The scale's activities can result in stress for the plant, causing reduced growth and giving it a greater susceptibility to plant diseases. Mutualistic Formica fusca ants tending a herd of mealybugs Scale insect in the genus Cryptostigma live inside the nests of neotropical ant species. Many tropical plants need ants to survive which in turn cultivate scale insects thus forming a three-way symbiosis.
|
|
This suggests that the symbiotic relationships within this genus are complex, and merit further investigation. Additionally, no clear benefit has been demonstrated for scale insects associated with the fungus compared to free- living scale insects. The scale insect itself is a parasite of the host tree or shrub, resulting in a tri-partite symbiosis between the fungus, insect, and tree. The fungus itself does not parasitize the tree tissue and the scale insects do not need the fungus to survive.
|
|
Saissetia oleae (syn. Coccus oleae) is a scale insect in the family Coccidae. It is considered one of the three main phytophagous parasites of the olive tree (Olea europaea), together with the olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) and the olive moth (Prays oleae). Although it is a common parasite which occurs most often in olive trees, it is a polyphagous species, also attacking (but less frequently) citrus trees as well as various ornamental shrubs such as oleanders, pittosporums and euonymus.
|
|
As a member of the board of agriculture in India, Coleman headed various committees and was responsible for the establishment of a statistical unit at the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute. A grasshopper genus, Colemania and another species Parahieroglyphus colemani were named after him by Ignacio Bolívar. Coleman made an extensive study of Colemania sphenarioides, a pest in some regions that affected millet crops. The scale insect Coccus colemani found on coffee was named after him by his assistant entomologist Kunhi Kannan in 1918.
|
|
Halmus chalybeus, commonly known as the steelblue ladybird, is a species of ladybird (the beetle family Coccinellidae) native to Australia. It has a rounded appearance with an iridescent blue/green colouration and is a predator of other insects. It was introduced to New Zealand from Australia in 1899 and 1905 to control black scale and blue gum scale (see scale insect) on citrus trees, where it is now common in northern regions. It has also been recorded eating San Jose scale.
|
|
In August 1993, shortly before Tryon Island was incorporated into the Capricornia Cays National Park in 1994, an outbreak of the scale insect Pulvinaria urbicola was detected on the island's pisonia forest. At this time, Tryon's pisonia covered nearly half the island. This was the first known scale outbreak in a pisonia forest of the Capricornia Cays, and one of the world's earliest records. Expectations were that natural predators, such as ladybirds and parasitic wasps, would bring the outbreak under control.
|
|
The first major pest that attacked orange trees in the United States was the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), imported from Australia to California in 1868. Within 20 years, it wiped out the citrus orchards around Los Angeles, and limited orange growth throughout California. In 1888, the USDA sent Alfred Koebele to Australia to study this scale insect in its native habitat. He brought back with him specimens of Novius cardinalis, an Australian ladybird beetle, and within a decade the pest was controlled.
|
|
There is a certain disagreement over the fertility of the 'Aglandau' trees, but generally they are considered self-sterile, so it can take advantage of other local varieties as pollinators. It is vulnerable to certain biological pests, such as the black scale insect of olives Saissetia oleae, sooty mold and the olive leaf-spot fungus Spilocaea oleaginea. Its resistance to the Verticillium dahliae and the Pseudomonas syringae, on the other hand, is good. It has a good tolerance to drought; less so to cold.
|
|
The San Jose scale derives its popular name from San Jose, California where Comstock discovered and named it in 1881. It has been considered the most pernicious scale insect in the United States. It was probably introduced at San Jose about 1870 on trees imported from China by James Lick. By 1890 it had spread over the greater part of California, but was not recognized east of the Rocky Mountains until August, 1893, when it was found by Howard on a pear received from Charlottesville, Virginia.
|
|
Among the most conspicuous is that of the introduced gypsy moth ('), which infests primarily oaks, causing severe defoliation and tree mortality. But it also has the benefit of eliminating weak individuals, and thus improving the genetic stock, as well as creating rich habitat of a type through accumulation of dead wood. Because hardwoods sprout so readily, this moth is not as harmful as the hemlock woolly adelgid. Perhaps more serious is the introduced beech bark disease complex, which includes both a scale insect (') and fungal components.
|
|
In the larval stage, bagworms extend their head and thorax from their mobile case to devour the leaves of host plants, often leading to the death of their hosts. Trees infested with bagworms exhibit increasingly damaged foliage as the infestation increases until the leaves are stripped bare. Some bagworms are specialized in their host plants (monophagous), while others can feed on a variety of plant species (polyphagous). A few species also consume small arthropods (such as the camphor scale Pseudaonidia duplex, a scale insect).
|
|
Marchalina hellenica is a scale insect that lives in the eastern Mediterranean region, mainly in Greece and Turkey. It is an invasive species in Melbourne, Australia. It lives by sucking the sap of pine trees, mainly the Turkish Pine (Pinus brutia) and, to smaller extent, Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis), Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Stone Pine (Pinus pinea). It can be found in the cracks and under the scales of the bark of these trees, hidden under the white cotton-like wax it secretes.
|
|
By 1900, when the human population neared 20,000, the islands were again covered densely with juniper, although many of these were juvenile trees. The respite proved temporary, however. In the 1940s, it was realised that two species of scale insect, Lepidosaphes newsteadi and Carulaspis minima, had accidentally been introduced, and were rapidly killing off the junipers, which had no immunity to their toxicological effect. Attempts were made to control the infestation naturally, which involved the large-scale introduction of ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae), but these were to no avail.
|
|
Black beech is known as black beech because it is prone to a sooty mold which covers the trunk and branches. This, in turn, is the result of a scale insect which sucks sap from the tree, and excretes honeydew, a sweet liquid, in small droplets (less than 1 mm diameter) on the end of stalks. This feeds the sooty mold, and also forms a valuable high-energy food source for various birds and insects including the kaka. The infestation is common and does not appear to harm the tree.
|
|
A Bush coconut The Bush coconut, or bloodwood apple, is an Australian bush tucker food, often eaten by Indigenous people of Central Australia. The bush coconut is, in fact, a combination of plant and animal: an adult female scale insect, Cystococcus pomiformis, lives in a gall induced on a bloodwood eucalypt (Corymbia terminalis). The gall looks like a small, knobbly woody fruit, ranging in size from a golf ball to a tennis ball, with a milky white flesh inside upon which the insect and its male offspring feed.Gullan, P. J. and A. Cockburn. 1986.
|
|
InnovaFeed SAS, a French biotechnology company founded in 2016, develops innovative large-scale insect-breeding and -processing processes. It sells ingredients derived from insects for animal nutrition and in particular aquaculture. Through to the production of a new source of quality, natural and competitive protein, InnovaFeed aims to participate in the development of sustainable aquaculture. According to the SOFIA report, it is expected that by 2030, production from capture fisheries and aquaculture will increase to 201 million tons/year, an 18-percent increase from the current level of production of 171 million tones/year.
|
|
Red lac was made from the gum lac, the dark red resinous substance secreted by various scale insects, particularly the Laccifer lacca from India. Carmine lake was made from the cochineal insect from Central and South America, Kermes lake came from a different scale insect, kermes vermilio, which thrived on oak trees around the Mediterranean. Other red lakes were made from the rose madder plant and from the brazilwood tree. Red lake pigments were an important part of the palette of 16th-century Venetian painters, particularly Titian, but they were used in all periods.
|
|
P. regalis infecting horse chestnut in Denmark The adult scale insect resembles a limpet and remains stationary on the bark of its host tree where it feeds on sap. Although males can occur, the insects are normally all female, and reproduce by parthenogenesis. In early summer, the mature female lays white, circular egg masses which become visible as they protrude slightly from under her brown scale. The eggs hatch into nymphs which crawl away from the mother along the branches to find foliage, where they start to suck sap.
|
|
Woollens were frequently dyed in the fleece with woad and then piece-dyed in kermes, producing a wide range colors from blacks and grays through browns, murreys, purples, and sanguines. By the 14th and early 15th century, brilliant full grain kermes scarlet was "by far the most esteemed, most regal" color for luxury woollen textiles in the Low Countries, England, France, Spain and Italy. Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect of Central and North America from which the crimson- colored dye carmine is derived. It was used by the Aztec and Maya peoples.
|
|
A ladybird beetle Chilocorus stigma feeds on this scale and is common throughout most of the Eastern United States, but this predator does not reduce scale populations sufficiently to control infestations. Persistent severely cold weather may kill beech scale and air temperatures of -37 °C have been shown to be lethal to insects not protected by snow. Although trees are weakened when supporting scale colonies, this does not usually cause mortality, which only occurs after the trees have been invaded by the Nectria fungi. It usually takes three to six years of infestation by the scale insect before the fungus reaches critical levels.
|
|
The dyestuff was consumed throughout Europe, and was so highly valued, its price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges. The biggest producers of cochineal are Peru, the Canary Islands, and Chile. Current health concerns over artificial food additives have renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand is making cultivation for insect farming an attractive opportunity in other regions, such as in Mexico, where cochineal production had declined again owing to the numerous natural enemies of the scale insect. Apart from cochineal, the red dye betanin can be extracted from some Opuntia plants themselves.
|
|
Boyce became an associate professor of entomology at Riverside in 1933 while he continued to work at the Citrus Experimentation Station. He was advanced to full professor in 1942 and became the head of the entomology department in 1943. At the urging of Harry Scott Smith, Boyce made an overseas trip in 1951 on behalf of the Foreign Agricultural Service to identify natural predators of the Scale insect as a measure of biological control, to protect California's olive crop. Boyce took his wife Dr. Janet Mabry Boyce (also an entomologist) along to capture and import the appropriate insects.
|
|
The same sale also included an incomplete set of five volumes (Lot 55), a quantity of faulty prints (Lot 93) and a large quantity of good, loose coloured plates (Lot 95). At most, including proofs, just 32 complete first-edition sets, free of reprints, are definitely known to have been issued. ;Proof impressions: Plate 626, proof and normal impressions Detail from proof Plate 717, sycamore scale-insect, Coccus aceris In spite of the finely detailed illustrations being more suited to steel-plate engraving, copper was used throughout. Curtis gives no clue as to why he made this choice.
|
|
Downloaded on 08 September 2015. The armored scale insect Hemiberlesia lataniae was first described from this species of palm, and has since spread around the world and proved to be a serious pest of avocado. This palm was common on Réunion at one time, but the area in which it grows has diminished as land has been cleared for agriculture and for other purposes. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed it as being an endangered species in the wild, however it is also grown as an ornamental plant in various parts of the world.
|
|
Aphytis melinus is an internal parasite of the California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii, which is a pest of citrus in California and elsewhere. This chalcid wasp drums its antennae against the scale insect to find out if it is healthy, if it is already parasitized, how large it is, etc., to decide how to use this prey. It has four choices (from worst to best): leave the scale to keep searching, feed directly on the scale, use the scale as a host for a male A. melinus, or use the scale for a female A. melinus.
|
|
Many species have the XX-XO system where the female is diploid and homogametic while the male is heterogametic and missing a sex chromosome. In some Diaspididae and Pseudococcidae, both sexes are produced from fertilized eggs but during development males eliminate the paternal genome and this system called paternal genome elimination (PGE) is found in nearly 14 scale insect families. This elimination is achieved with several variations. The commonest (known as the lecanoid system) involved deactivation of the paternal genome and elimination at the time of sperm production in males, this is seen in Pseudococcidae, Kerriidae and some Eriococcidae.
|
|
Polish cochineal (Porphyrophora polonica), also known as Polish carmine scales, is a scale insect formerly used to produce a crimson dye of the same name, colloquially known as "Saint John's blood". The larvae of P. polonica are sessile parasites living on the roots of various herbs--especially those of the perennial knawel--growing on the sandy soils of Central Europe and other parts of Eurasia. Before the development of aniline, alizarin, and other synthetic dyes, the insect was of great economic importance, although its use was in decline after the introduction of Mexican cochineal to Europe in the 16th century.
|
|
The tree may also be attacked by the horse chestnut scale insect (Pulvinaria regalis) which sucks sap from the trunk and branches, but does not cause serious damage to the tree. Sometimes squirrels will strip the bark off branches, girdling the stem; as a result whole branches may die, leaving brown, wilted leaves. The sycamore gall mite Eriophyes macrorhynchus produces small red galls, similar to those of the nail gall mite Eriophyes tiliae, on leaves of sycamore and field maple, Acer campestris from April onwards. Another mite, Aceria pseudoplatani causes a 'sycamore felt gall' on the underside of leaves of both sycamore and Norway maple (Acer platanoides).
|
|
Victoria Forest Park is predominantly made up of beech forests which is also the largest remaining indigenous forest type in New Zealand as beech forests are normally located on mountain landscapes not suitable for farming and were therefore not cleared. Dependent on beech forest survival are three types of mistletoe, which include crimson mistletoe (Peraxilla colensoi), pirirangi or red mistletoe (Peraxilla tetrapetala) and the Alepis flavida. All three species of mistletoe are at risk of extinction as a result of possum browse. The beech forests also support the scale insect, which is a vital for the food supply of native bird and insect species.
|
|
Argentine ants sometimes tend aphid, mealybug, and scale insect colonies, sometimes relocating the parasites to unaffected plants, and their protection of these plant pests from predators and parasitoids can cause problems in agricultural areas. In return for this protection, the ants benefit by feeding off an excretion known as honeydew. Thus, when Argentine ants invade an agricultural area, the population densities of these plant parasites can increase followed by an increase in damage to crops. There is also evidence that the presence of Argentine ant may decrease the number of pollinators that visit natural flowering plants via predation on the larvae of the pollinators.
|
|
Paratachardina pseudolobata, the lobate lac scale, is a polyphagous and pestiferous lac scale insect, which damages trees and woody shrubs in Cuba, Florida, the Bahamas and the Australian territory of Christmas Island. It was mistakenly identified as Paratachardina lobata (Chamberlin), an insect native to India and Sri Lanka, but was in 2007 recognized and named as a distinct species based on material from Florida; its native distribution is as yet unknown. The new lac insect was described based on all stages of the female (adult, second-instar nymph and first-instar nymph), during the revision of the genus Paratachardina, wherein all its known species were redescribed.
|
|
Two control agents were introduced to help control the spread of the plant, the cactus moth Cactoblastis cactorum, and the scale insect Dactylopius. Between 1926 and 1931, tens of millions of cactus moth eggs were distributed around Queensland with great success, and by 1932, most areas of prickly pear had been destroyed. The first reported case of a classical biological control attempt in Canada involves the parasitoidal wasp Trichogramma minutum. Individuals were caught in New York State and released in Ontario gardens in 1882 by William Saunders, a trained chemist and first Director of the Dominion Experimental Farms, for controlling the invasive currantworm Nematus ribesii.
|
|
Breeding has been recorded in all months, and eggs have been found from June through to March; however, 75% of the eggs would be found between late August and mid-November in the eastern range of the bird. This is borne out by the observation of newly-hatched chicks being fed by the female bird with dark-coloured larvae of the scale insect around November and December. Later observations on the Mornington Peninsula, near Sorrento, saw fully- fledged chicks in late January being fed by the male bird on red berries, available in the region at that time of year. Both parents take a role in raising the young.
|
|
Ancient alchermes bottle Alchermes (, ; from the , from ) is a type of Italian liqueur (especially in Tuscany, Emilia-Romagna and Sicily) prepared by infusing neutral spirits with sugar, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and vanilla, and other herbs and flavoring agents. Its most striking characteristic is its scarlet color, obtained by the addition of Kermes, a small scale insect from which the drink derives its name. Several proprietary variants are commercially available, where the coloring agent is a coal tar derived dye such as E124 and E126, with alcoholic contents ranging from 21 to 32%. Its chief use is in coloring pastry, although a quick dessert is sometimes made by adding it to mascarpone and sugar.
|
|
The blue spruce is attacked by two species of Adelges, an aphid- like insect that causes galls to form. Nymphs of the pineapple gall adelgid form galls at the base of twigs which resemble miniature pineapples and those of the Cooley's spruce gall adelgid cause cone-shaped galls at the tips of branches. The larva of the spruce budworm eat the buds and growing shoots while the spruce needle miner hollows out the needles and makes them coalesce in a webbed mass. An elongated white scale insect, the pine needle scale feeds on the needles causing fluffy white patches on the twigs and aphids also suck sap from the needles and may cause them to fall and possibly dieback.
|
|
Due to the low biomass and the extensive areas of bare sand, wildfires are probably rare and superficial. Therefore, most Nardouw fountain pincushion specimens are old (50 to 80 years) and have grown into small trees, often over 5 m (15 ft) high, with a trunk of up to 30 cm (1 ft) across. It was reported that about 90% of the specimens in one stand near Clanwilliam died as a consequence of tunneling in the bark by the ant Melissotarsus beccarii, and the sap extraction by their "husbandry", the scale insect Morganella conspicua (family Diaspididae). This animal completes its full life-cycle in these tunnels, and apparently adapted to this life-style by having lost its scales.
|
|
Some species form elaborate chambers and tunnels that house scale insects with top and bottom layers while others form a very thin hyphal network. Microscopic characteristics, such as the number of basidiospores produced on a basidia, presence of pillars supporting the top layer (if applicable), number of cells in a basidia, and shape of haustoria (infectious cells) that form within the scale insects are used to distinguish species. Septobasidium is unique in that it is one of a few genera within the family Septobasidaceae that exists in symbiotic relationships with scale insects ranging from obligately parasitic to mutualistic. This type of fungus is fairly unique for having a mutualistic relationship with scale insect hosts, rather than killing them.
|
|
The white-footed ant forages widely, entering dwellings and scavenging in kitchens and other rooms where it is considered a pest. It is largely arboreal and feeds on the honeydew of sap-sucking insects such as aphids, mealybugs, and scale insects. For this purpose it protects the insects and drives off predators, thereby encouraging the insects which may be agricultural pest species; the mealybug Dysmicoccus brevipes for example transmits pineapple wilt disease in Sri Lanka, and biological control of the mealybug has proved difficult because of the activities of the ant. Similarly in South Africa, the ant has encouraged outbreaks of the red scale insect (Aonidiella aurantii), a major pest of citrus in the country.
|
|
It is most commonly seen in regions dominated by common heather (Calluna vulgaris), including common lowland heaths with bell heather (Erica cinerea), maritime heaths with spring squill (Scilla verna), submontane heaths dominated by red peat moss (Sphagnum capillifolium) and common bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), and the mountain heathlands of Scotland with alpine juniper (Juniperus communis ssp. alpina). The leaves of cinquefoils are eaten by the caterpillars of many Lepidoptera, notably the grizzled skippers (genus Pyrgus), butterflies of the skipper family. Adult butterflies and moths visit cinquefoil flowers; for example, the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Plebejus melissa samuelis) takes nectar from common cinquefoil (P. simplex). The Polish cochineal (Porphyrophora polonica), a scale insect once used to produce red dye, lives on cinquefoils and other plants in Eurasia.
|
|
Crimson (NR4) is produced using the dried bodies of a scale insect, Kermes, which were gathered commercially in Mediterranean countries, where they live on the kermes oak, and sold throughout Europe.Naturenet article with images and description of Kermes vermilio and its foodplant Kermes dyes have been found in burial wrappings in Anglo-Scandinavian York. They fell out of use with the introduction of cochineal, also made from scale insects, because although the dyes were comparable in quality and color intensity, it needed ten to twelve times as much kermes to produce the same effect as cochineal. Carmine is the name given to the dye made from the dried bodies of the female cochineal, although the name crimson is sometimes applied to these dyes too.
|
|
The dye used for privates' coats of the infantry, guard and line, was rose madder. A vegetable dye, it was recognised as economical, simple and reliable and remained the first choice for lower quality reds from the ancient world until chemical dyes became cheaper in the latter 19th century. Infantry sergeants, some cavalry regiments and many volunteer corps (which were often formed from prosperous middle-class citizens who paid for their own uniforms) used various mock scarlets; a brighter red but derived from cheaper materials than the cochineal used for officers coats. Various dye sources were used for these middle quality reds, but lac dye, extracted from a kind of scale insect "lac insects" which produce resin shellac, was the most common basis.
|
|
Red, black and white were the first colors used by artists in the Upper Paleolithic age, probably because natural pigments such as red ochre and iron oxide were readily available where early people lived. Madder, a plant whose root could be made into a red dye, grew widely in Europe, Africa and Asia. The cave of Altamira in Spain has a painting of a bison colored with red ochre that dates to between 15,000 and 16,500 BC. A red dye called Kermes was made beginning in the Neolithic Period by drying and then crushing the bodies of the females of a tiny scale insect in the genus Kermes, primarily Kermes vermilio. The insects live on the sap of certain trees, especially Kermes oak trees near the Mediterranean region.
|
|
Casuarina on Gold Rock Beach, Grand Bahama C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia have become naturalized in several countries, including Argentina, Bermuda, Cuba, China, Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Mauritius, Kenya, Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, the Bahamas, Uruguay and the southern United States; in the United States it was introduced in the early 1900s, and is now considered an invasive species.USFS FEIS: CasuarinaUSDA Forest service: Casuarina The species has nearly quadrupled in southern Florida between 1993 and 2005, where it is known as Australian pine. C. equisetifolia is widespread in the Hawaiian Islands where it grows both on the seashore in dry, salty, calcareous soils and up in the mountains in high rainfall areas on volcanic soils. It is also an invasive plant in Bermuda, where it was introduced to replace the Juniperus bermudiana windbreaks killed by a scale insect in the 1940s.
|
|
The Armenian cochineal (Porphyrophora hamelii (Brandt)), also known as the Ararat cochineal or Ararat scale, is a scale insect indigenous to the Ararat plain and Aras (Araks) River valley in the Armenian Highlands. It was formerly used to produce an eponymous crimson carmine dyestuff known in Armenia as vordan karmir (, literally "worm's red") and historically in Persia as kirmiz. Vedeler, citing Cardon (2007), notes that "the Persian name Kirmiz originally referred to the Armenian carmine, a parasitic insect living on Gramineae grass, but the same name was also used by Arab geographers for insects living on oak trees in Maghreb and Al-Andalus, probably referring to Kermes vermilio", although "[i]t is ... not clear whether the 'Kirmiz' dyestuff mentioned in early Arab texts always refers to the use of the insect Kermes Vermilio." English translation by Caroline Higgitt of Cardon's French-language book Le monde des teintures naturelles (Éditions Belin, Paris, 2003).
|
|
Like many species of ladybirds, the transverse ladybird plays an important role in agriculture as it preys on a wide array of plant-eating insects which damage crops, particularly early in the growing season. Among those insects hunted include many species of aphids, including the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum), Aphis affinis, cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora), cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), milkweed aphid (Aphis nerii), spirea aphid (Aphis spiraecola), leafcurling plum aphid (Brachycaudus helichrysi), cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae), Cervaphis quercus, Cervaphis rappardi indica, turnip aphid (Lipaphis pseudobrassicae), Macrosiphoniella yomogifoliae, potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), rose aphid (Macrosiphum rosae), Melanaphis donacis, Melanaphis sacchari, Myzus nicotianae, green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), Pentalonia nigronervosa, corn aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis), Sitobion rosaeiformis, Taoia indica, Toxoptera aurantii, Therioaphis ononidis, Therioaphis trifolii, Uroleucon compositae and Uroleucon sonchi, species of leafhopper including Empoascanara indica and Idioscopus clypealis, the scale insect species Orthezia insignis, the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri), the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), and oriental leafworm moth (Spodoptera litura).
|
|
A proof set can most easily be identified by reference to plate 717 (sycamore scale-insect - Coccus aceris), the first plate in Volume VII of a systematically bound set. The two setae of this insect are each delineated by two clearly separated, very fine lines; the left most of which is so fine as to be barely visible. Curtis significantly emboldened these lines for the standard impressions. ;Reprint of Parts 1 to 8 (plates 1–34) and Parts 9 to 30: Demand from later, new subscribers required Curtis retrospectively to print at least an additional 72 sets of parts 1 to 30. This reprinting commenced in January 1829 and continued until 1840 and was concurrent with the printing of the remaining parts 31 to 192 of the first edition which were increased in number to accommodate the additional demand. Reprints of the plates and text of parts 1 to 8 (plates 1 to 34) can be all identified by an underscore to the plate number and in the case of plate 30, also by the addition of the systematic reference number 283.
|
|
Black, p. 172 He transferred to the guard ship HMS Superb at Portsmouth in December 1825 and to the second-rate HMS Ganges, flagship of Admiral Sir Robert Otway serving as Commander-in-Chief of the South America Station, in March 1826. Promoted to commander on 30 April 1827, he saw action again when HMS Ganges took part in an operation to land a naval brigade in Brazil to protect Pedro I, the Emperor of Brazil, in the face of the Irish and German Mercenary Soldiers' Revolt in June 1828. He returned home when HMS Ganges became the guard ship at Portsmouth in 1829. Maitland became commanding officer of the sloop HMS Sparrowhawk on the North America and West Indies Station in June 1832 and brought home a treasure freight of $589,405 and 42 bales of cochineal (a scale insect from which the crimson-coloured natural dye carmine is derived) when he returned in May 1833. He became commanding officer of the sixth-rate HMS Tweed and took part in the Battle of Luchana, an operation to defend the Port of Bilbao on the north coast of Spain, in December 1836 during the First Carlist War.
|
|