While some research has linked the main type of saturated fatty acid in coconut oil, lauric acid, to increased levels of HDL, or "good," cholesterol, it still appears to raise LDL cholesterol.
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Melissic acid (or triacontanoic acid) is a saturated fatty acid.
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Lacceroic acid (or dotriacontanoic acid) is a saturated fatty acid.
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Heptatriacontanoic acid, or heptatriacontylic acid, is a 37-carbon saturated fatty acid.
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Psyllic acid (also pysslostearic acid, tritriacontanoic acid or ceromelissic acid) is a saturated fatty acid.
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Hexatriacontylic acid, or hexatriacontanoic acid is a 36-carbon-long carboxylic acid and saturated fatty acid.
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Hentriacontylic acid (also hentriacontanoic acid, henatriacontylic acid, or henatriacontanoic acid) is a carboxylic saturated fatty acid.
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As a dietary oil, behenic acid is poorly absorbed. In spite of its low bioavailability compared with oleic acid, behenic acid is a cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acid in humans.Caterm, Nilo B and Margo A Denke. January 2001 Behenic acid is a cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acid in humans.
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Tridecylic acid, or tridecanoic acid, is a 13-carbon saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)11COOH.
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Geddic acid (sometimes gheddic acid), or tetratriacontanoic acid, is a 34-carbon-long carboxylic acid and saturated fatty acid.
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Tricosylic acid, or tricosanoic acid, is a 23-carbon long-chain saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)21COOH.
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Nonacosylic acid, or nonacosanoic acid, is a 29-carbon long-chain saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)27COOH.
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10-Hydroxydecanic acid is a specialized saturated fatty acid that is a minor constituent of royal jelly. It was scientifically discovered in 1957.
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Pentacosylic acid, or pentacosanoic acid, or hyenic acid, is a 25-carbon long- chain saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)23COOH.
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Carboceric acid, or heptacosanoic acid or heptacosylic acid, is a 27-carbon long-chain saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)25COOH.
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Tuberculostearic acid is a saturated fatty acid produced by Actinomycetales bacteria. The name 'Tuberculostearic acid' was coined because it was first isolated in 1927 from the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
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Monoglyceride of a fatty acid, in this example with a saturated fatty acid residue (blue marked). Diglyceride, in this example with a saturated fatty acid residue (highlighted blue) and an unsaturated fatty acid residue (highlighted green). Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (E471) refers to a naturally occurring class of food additive composed of diglycerides and monoglycerides which is used as an emulsifier. These of diglycerides and monoglycerides have no limit for daily intake and are used as a fruit coating agent.
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Heneicosylic acid, or heneicosanoic acid, is a 21-carbon long-chain saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)19COOH. It has shown relevance in the production of foams, paints, and related viscous materials.
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The saturated fatty acid profile was 53.9 to 66.8 percent, the unsaturated fatty acid profile was 22.8 to 38.0 and the other fatty acids was 3.5 to 10.4. Cholesterol amounts ranged from 252 to 284 mg/100 grams.
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General chemical structure of phosphatidic acids Phosphatidic acid consists of a glycerol backbone, with, in general, a saturated fatty acid bonded to carbon-1, an unsaturated fatty acid bonded to carbon-2, and a phosphate group bonded to carbon-3.
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Prostanoic acid (7-[(1S,2S)-2-octylcyclopentyl]heptanoic acid) is a saturated fatty acid which contains a cyclopentane ring. Its derivatives are prostaglandins - physiologically active lipid substances. Prostanoic acid is not found in nature, but it can be synthesized in vitro.
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The chemical composition for fats differs from that of carbohydrates in that fats contain considerably fewer oxygen atoms in proportion to atoms of carbon and hydrogen. When listed on nutritional information tables, fats are generally divided into six categories: total fats, saturated fatty acid, polyunsaturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acid, dietary cholesterol, and trans fatty acid. From a basal metabolic or resting metabolic perspective, more energy is needed to burn a saturated fatty acid than an unsaturated fatty acid. The fatty acid molecule is broken down and categorized based on the number of carbon atoms in its molecular structure.
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Aerobic desaturation is the most widespread pathway for the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids. It is utilized in all eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. This pathway utilizes desaturases to synthesize unsaturated fatty acids from full- length saturated fatty acid substrates.Mansilla, Mara C, and Diegode Mendoza.
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An example of a phosphatidylcholine, a type of phospholipid in egg lecithin. Red - choline and phosphate group; Black - glycerol; Green - unsaturated fatty acid; Blue - saturated fatty acid Egg lecithin is a type of lecithin, a group of compounds primarily containing phospholipids, that is derived from eggs.
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Mechanism of the synthesis of tuberculostearic acid Tuberculostearic acid (D-10-Methylstearic acid) is a saturated fatty acid that is known to be produced by Mycobacterium spp. and two species of Streptomyces. It is formed from the precursor oleic acid (a monounsaturated fatty acid).Ratledge, Colin, and John Stanford.
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Phosphatidylcholine, found in lecithin, is a pervasive biological surfactant. Shown in – choline and phosphate group; – glycerol; – monounsaturated fatty acid; – saturated fatty acid. The human body produces diverse surfactants. Pulmonary surfactant is produced in the lungs in order to facilitate breathing by increasing total lung capacity, and lung compliance.
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The British Heart Foundation also advises people to cut down on saturated fat. People are advised to cut down on saturated fat and read labels on food they buy.Eat less saturated fatFats explained A 2004 review stated that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies. Blanket recommendations to lower saturated fat were criticized at a 2010 conference debate of the American Dietetic Association for focusing too narrowly on reducing saturated fats rather than emphasizing increased consumption of healthy fats and unrefined carbohydrates.
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Behenic acid comes from the ben oil tree, Moringa oleifera Behenic acid (also docosanoic acid) is a carboxylic acid, the saturated fatty acid with formula C21H43COOH. In appearance, it consists of white to cream color crystals or powder with a melting point of 80 °C and boiling point of 306 °C.
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Lauric acid or systematically, dodecanoic acid, is a saturated fatty acid with a 12-carbon atom chain, thus having many properties of medium-chain fatty acids, is a bright white, powdery solid with a faint odor of bay oil or soap. The salts and esters of lauric acid are known as laurates.
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Lignoceric acid, or tetracosanoic acid, is the saturated fatty acid with formula C23H47COOH. It is found in wood tar, various cerebrosides, and in small amounts in most natural fats. The fatty acids of peanut oil contain small amounts of lignoceric acid (1.1% – 2.2%). This fatty acid is also a byproduct of lignin production.
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Two-dimensional representation of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid A space-filling model of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid The two-dimensional illustration has implicit hydrogen atoms bonded to each of the carbon atoms in the polycarbon tail of the myristic acid molecule (there are 13 carbon atoms in the tail; 14 carbon atoms in the entire molecule). Carbon atoms are also implicitly drawn, as they are portrayed as intersections between two straight lines. "Saturated," in general, refers to a maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to each carbon of the polycarbon tail as allowed by the Octet Rule. This also means that only single bonds (sigma bonds) will be present between adjacent carbon atoms of the tail.
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Montanic acid is a saturated fatty acid isolated and detected mainly in montan wax. It also occurs in beeswax and Chinese wax. Montanic acid ethylene glycol esters and glycerol esters are used as protective layer on fruit skins and coating on foods. "Documenta Geigy: Scientific tables" Konrad Diem, C. Lentner; Geigy Pharmaceuticals, sixth edition, 1965.
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Myristic acid (IUPAC systematic name: 1-tetradecanoic acid) is a common saturated fatty acid with the molecular formula CH3(CH2)12COOH. Its salts and esters are commonly referred to as myristates or tetradecanoates. It is named after the binomial name for nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), from which it was first isolated in 1841 by Lyon Playfair.
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Arachidic acid, also known as eicosanoic acid, is a saturated fatty acid with a 20-carbon chain. It is a minor constituent of cupuaçu butter (7%), perilla oil (0–1%), peanut oil (1.1–1.7%), corn oil (3%),U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2007. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20.
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Capric acid, also known as decanoic acid or decylic acid, is a saturated fatty acid. Its formula is CH3(CH2)8COOH. Salts and esters of decanoic acid are called caprates or decanoates. The term capric acid is derived from the Latin "caper / capra" (goat) because the sweaty, unpleasant smell of the compound is reminiscent of goats.
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It has a high saturated fatty acid content and no trans fat. At retail, refined lard is usually sold as paper-wrapped blocks. Many cuisines use lard as a cooking fat or shortening, or as a spread in the same ways as butter. It is an ingredient in various savoury dishes such as sausages, pâtés, and fillings.
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Pentadecylic acid, or pentadecanoic acid, is a saturated fatty acid. Its molecular formula is CH3(CH2)13CO2H. It is one of the most common odd-chain fatty acids, although it is rare in nature, comprising 1.2% of milk fat from cows. The butterfat in cows milk is its major dietary source and it is used as a marker for butterfat consumption.
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Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol. Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a major constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family.
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Nonadecylic acid, or nonadecanoic acid, is a 19-carbon saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)17COOH. It forms salts called nonadecylates. Nonadecylic acid can be found in fats and vegetable oils, although it is rare. It is also present in the world of insects as the major constituent of the substance secreted by soldiers of the termite Rhinotermes marginalis for defence purposes.
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Margaric acid, or heptadecanoic acid, is a saturated fatty acid. Its molecular formula is CH3(CH2)15CO2H. Classified as an odd-chain fatty acid, it occurs as a trace component of the fat and milkfat of ruminants, but it does not occur in any natural animal or vegetable fat at high concentrations. For example, it comprises only 2.2% of the fats from the fruit of the durian species Durio graveolens.
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Another pathway uses two proteins, DesC and DesB, together to act as a Δ9-desaturase, which inserts a double bond into a saturated fatty acid-CoA molecule. This second pathway is regulated by repressor protein DesT. DesT is also a repressor of fabAB expression for anaerobic desaturation when in presence of exogenous unsaturated fatty acids. This functions to coordinate the expression of the two pathways within the organism.
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All G protein α sub-units contain palmitate, which is a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, that is attached near the N-terminus through a labile, reversible thioester linkage to a cysteine amino acid. It is this palmitoylation that allows the G protein to interact with membrane phospholipids due to the hydrophobic nature of the alpha sub-units. The gamma sub-unit is also lipid modified and can attach to the plasma membrane as well.
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In the first reaction step, one hydrogen is added, with the other, coordinatively unsaturated, carbon being attached to the catalyst. The second step is the addition of hydrogen to the remaining carbon, producing a saturated fatty acid. The first step is reversible, such that the hydrogen is readsorbed on the catalyst and the double bond is re-formed. The intermediate with only one hydrogen added contains no double bond and can freely rotate.
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Cerotic acid, or hexacosanoic acid, is a 26-carbon long-chain saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)24COOH. It is most commonly found in beeswax and carnauba wax, and is a white crystalline solid. Cerotic acid is also a type of very long chain fatty acid that is often associated with the disease adrenoleukodystrophy, which involves the excessive saturation of unmetabolized fatty acid chains, including cerotic acid, in the peroxisome.
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When there are high levels of palmitoyl-CoA, the final product of saturated fatty acid synthesis, it allosterically inactivates acetyl-CoA carboxylase to prevent a build-up of fatty acids in cells. Citrate acts to activate acetyl-CoA carboxylase under high levels, because high levels indicate that there is enough acetyl-CoA to feed into the Krebs cycle and produce energy.Diwan, Joyce J. "Fatty Acid Synthesis." Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) :: Architecture, Business, Engineering, IT, Humanities, Science. Web.
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When there are high levels of palmitoyl-CoA, the final product of saturated fatty acid synthesis, it allosterically inactivates acetyl-CoA carboxylase to prevent a build-up of fatty acids in cells. Citrate acts to activate acetyl-CoA carboxylase under high levels, because high levels indicate that there is enough acetyl-CoA to feed into the Krebs cycle and conserve energy.Diwan, Joyce J. "Fatty Acid Synthesis." Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) :: Architecture, Business, Engineering, IT, Humanities, Science. Web.
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The value of sorbic acid is estimated to be between 7.4 and 10 g/kg. Sorbic acid and sorbates therefore have a very low mammalian toxicity – hence their extensive use in food and beverage preservation. Sorbic acid occurs naturally in wild berries, is relatively unstable and rapidly degraded in soil, hence it is considered environmentally friendly. In the body it is generally metabolized by the same oxidation pathway as the 5-carbon saturated fatty acid caproic acid.
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In myristoylation, a myristoyl group (derived from myristic acid, pictured above) is added. Co-translational addition of myristic acid by N-myristoyltransferase to N-terminal glycine of a nascent protein. Myristoylation is a lipidation modification where a myristoyl group, derived from myristic acid, is covalently attached by an amide bond to the alpha-amino group of an N-terminal glycine residue. Myristic acid is a 14-carbon saturated fatty acid (14:0) with the systematic name of n-Tetradecanoic acid.
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Stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 is a key enzyme in fatty acid metabolism. It is responsible for forming a double bond in Stearoyl-CoA. This is how the monounsaturated fatty acid oleic acid is produced from the saturated fatty acid stearic acid. A series of redox reactions, during which two electrons flow from NADH to flavoprotein cytochrome b5, then to the electron acceptor cytochrome b5 as well as molecular oxygen introduces a single double bond within a row of methylene fatty acyl-CoA substrates.
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Caprylic acid (from the Latin word capra, meaning "goat"), also known under the systematic name octanoic acid is a saturated fatty acid, and a carboxylic acid, with the structural formula CH3(CH2)6CO2H. Classified as a carboxylic acid, it is a colorless oily liquid that is minimally soluble in water with a slightly unpleasant rancid-like smell and taste. Salts and esters of octanoic acid are known as octanoates or caprylates. It is a common industrial chemical, which is produced by oxidation of the C8 aldehyde.
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Lithophilic lichens from the genus Collema form tight symbiotic relationships between fungi and photosynthetic algae such as Elliptochloris in order to produce necessary saturated fatty acid secondary metabolites. Lithophilic algal species colonizing fractured rock outcroppings individually exhibit coccal morphological shape while aggregating into an elliptical or globular arrangement during adulthood. Lithobiontic Ecological Niches further classify lithophiles into sub-categories determined by their spatial niche specificity. The term, Lithic, refers to an association with rock and can be further explained by the term, lithobiontic, regarded as organisms living both on, and within rock surfaces.
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An example of a phosphatidylcholine, a type of phospholipid in lecithin. Shown in – choline and phosphate group; – glycerol; – monounsaturated fatty acid; – saturated fatty acid. Lecithin (, from the Greek lekithos "yolk") is a generic term to designate any group of yellow-brownish fatty substances occurring in animal and plant tissues which are amphiphilic – they attract both water and fatty substances (and so are both hydrophilic and lipophilic), and are used for smoothing food textures, emulsifying, homogenizing liquid mixtures, and repelling sticking materials. Lecithins are mixtures of glycerophospholipids including phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidic acid.
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Palmitoyl-oleyl-sn- phosphatidylcholine, a phosphatidylcholine. This phospholipid is composed of a choline head group and glycerophosphoric acid, with a variety of fatty acids. Usually, one is a saturated fatty acid (in the given figure, this is palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid, H3C-(CH2)14-COOH); margaric acid (heptadecanoic acid, H3C-(CH2)15-COOH), identified by Gobley in egg yolk, also belong to that class); and the other is an unsaturated fatty acid (here oleic acid, or 9Z-octadecenoic acid, as in Gobley's original egg yolk lecithin). However, there are also examples of disaturated species.
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For example, when the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus was grown in 37◦C for 24h, the membrane exhibited a more fluid state instead of a gel-like state. This supports the concept that in higher temperatures, the membrane is more fluid than in colder temperatures. When the membrane is becoming more fluid and needs to become more stabilized, it will make longer fatty acid chains or saturated fatty acid chains in order to help stabilize the membrane. Bacteria are also surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (amino acids and sugars)or murein .
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Fatty acid synthase (FAS) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the FASN gene. Fatty acid synthase is a multi-enzyme protein that catalyzes fatty acid synthesis. It is not a single enzyme but a whole enzymatic system composed of two identical 272 kDa multifunctional polypeptides, in which substrates are handed from one functional domain to the next. Its main function is to catalyze the synthesis of palmitate (C16:0, a long-chain saturated fatty acid) from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA, in the presence of NADPH.
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Later studies expanded the egg yolk lecithin into a wide family of lecithins answering to this structure, combining with a choline head and glycerophosphoric acid a variety of fatty acids. In general, a lecithin, or more precisely a phosphatidylcholine is obtained using a saturated fatty acid, in the example here palmitic acid or hexadecanoic acid H3C-(CH2)14-COOH (margaric acid identified by Gobley in egg yolk, now named heptadecanoïc acid H3C-(CH2)15-COOH, belongs to that class) and an unsaturated fatty acid, here oleic acid or 9Z-octadecenoic acid as in Gobley's original egg yolk lecithin).
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Interest in ben oil in Jamaica began in the first half of the 19th century. The oil had a reputation for being extremely durable and was often used to lubricate fine mechanics (clocks, for example). In 1848 the oil was analyzed for the first time and a new type of saturated fatty acid was found and was given the name behenic acid. At the perfume manufactury in Grasse, France, ben oil was used as a maceration oil for herbal oil until it was replaced by cheaper types of oil, alcohol and newly invented solvent agents in the 1870s.
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Furthermore, it has been shown to be safe for use, and with no severe adverse effects. Aramchol was initially intended to combine a cholesterol solubilizing moiety (a saturated fatty acid) with a bile acid (cholic acid) acting as a vehicle to enable secretion into bile and entry into the enterohepatic circulation to solubilise bile stones. However, early in the development, it was observed that Aramchol reduced liver fat infiltration in animals fed a high fat, lithogenic diet. This effect was confirmed in other animal models and the development plan was modified according to these findings, as fatty liver is an unmet need.
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The preen oil contained several odd-chain fatty acids, which suggests they may be derived from lipolysis by the uropygial gland and/or its microbiome. Diet and gender had small but significant effects on levels of specific saturated fatty acid in the preen oil. The fatty acid composition of the preen oil did not reflect the more diverse fatty acid compositions of the diet or whole blood. Therefore, this clearly indicate that measuring the fatty acid profile of preen oil is not a suitable alternative approach for predicting the fatty acid composition of the blood of meat chickens.
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A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the chemical structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length.
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Because triglycerides cannot be absorbed by the digestive system, triglycerides must first be enzymatically digested into monoacylglycerol, diacylglycerol, or free fatty acids (see Dietary sources of fatty acids, their digestion, absorption, transport in the blood and storage for more detail). Diacylglycerol is a precursor to triacylglycerol (triglyceride), which is formed in the addition of a third fatty acid to the diacylglycerol under the catalysis of diglyceride acyltransferase. Since diacylglycerol is synthesized via phosphatidic acid, it will usually contain a saturated fatty acid at the C-1 position on the glycerol moiety and an unsaturated fatty acid at the C-2 position. Diacylglycerol can be phosphorylated to phosphatidic acid by diacylglycerol kinase.
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Replacing animal fats with tropical vegetable oils, such as palm oil, simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. For many years partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were used as a means of avoiding cholesterol and reducing saturated fatty acid content, but in time the trans fat content of these oils was perceived as contributing to cardiovascular disease. Starting in 2008, many restaurant chains and manufacturers of pre-cooked frozen french fries for home reheating phased out trans fat containing vegetable oils. French fries contain some of the highest levels of acrylamides of any foodstuff, and experts have raised concerns about the effects of acrylamides on human health.
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Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the kernel of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis. It should not be confused with the other two edible oils derived from palm fruits: palm oil, extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit, and coconut oil, extracted from the kernel of the coconut. Palm kernel oil, palm oil, and coconut oil are three of the few highly saturated vegetable fats; these oils give the name to the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid that they contain. Palm kernel oil, which is semi-solid at room temperature, is more saturated than palm oil and comparable to coconut oil.
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Fatty acid desaturase appear in all organisms: for example, bacteria fungus plants animals and humans. Four desaturases occur in humans: Δ9 desaturase, Δ6 desaturase, Δ5 desaturase, and Δ4 desaturase. Δ9 desaturase, also known as stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1, is used to synthesize oleic acid, a monounsaturated, ubiquitous component of all cells in the human body. Δ9 desaturase produces oleic acid by desaturating stearic acid, a saturated fatty acid either synthesized in the body from palmitic acid or ingested directly. Δ6 and Δ5 desaturases are required for the synthesis of highly unsaturated fatty acids such as eicosopentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids (synthesized from α-linolenic acid); arachidonic acid and adrenic acid (synthesized from linoleic acid).
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Oils from sea buckthorn seeds and pulp differ considerably in fatty acid composition. While linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid are the major fatty acids in seed oil, sea buckthorn pulp oil contains approximately 65% combined of the monounsaturated fatty acid, palmitoleic acid, and the saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid. This results in a major difference between the sea buckthorn oil extracted from seeds and the sea buckthorn oil extracted from the fleshy part of the fruit, in term of appearance and consistency. Sea buckthorn fruit oil is dark orange in color and has a thick consistency (it is liquid at room temperature, but becomes much thicker if refrigerated), whereas the seed oil is pale yellow and does not solidify under refrigeration.
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In enzymology, a stearoyl-CoA 9-desaturase () is an enzyme used to produce the monounsaturated fatty acid oleic acid from the saturated fatty acid stearic acid. It catalyzes the chemical reaction :stearoyl-CoA + 2 ferrocytochrome b5 \+ O2 \+ 2 H+ \rightleftharpoons oleoyl-CoA + 2 ferricytochrome b5 \+ 2 H2O The 4 substrates of this enzyme are stearoyl-CoA, ferrocytochrome b5, O2, and H+, whereas its 3 products are oleoyl-CoA, ferricytochrome b5, and H2O. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on paired donors, with O2 as oxidant and incorporation or reduction of oxygen. The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O2 with oxidation of a pair of donors resulting in the reduction of O to two molecules of water.
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However, in fatty acid synthesis the original molecules are Acyl-CoA or Malonyl-CoA but poyketide synthases can use multiple primers including Acetyl-CoA, Propionyl-CoA, Isobutyrl-CoA, Cyclohexanoyl-CoA, 3-amino-5-hydroxybenzoyl-CoA, or Cinnamyl-CoA. In both fatty acid synthesis and polyketide synthesis these CoA carriers will be exchanged for ACP before they are incorporated into the growing molecule. During the elongation steps of fatty acid synthesis, ketosynthase, ketoreductase, dehydratase, and enoylreductase are all used in sequence to create a saturated fatty acid then postsynthetic modification can be done to create an unsaturated or cyclo fatty acid. However, in polyketide synthesis these enzymes can be used in different combinations to create segments of polyketide that are saturated, unsaturated, or have a hydroxyl or carbonyl functional group.
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