Important regional satraps have seemed wary of Rahul Gandhi (pictured, in cardboard cutout), Congress's youngish leader and scion of its founding family.
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There are 39, crossing and overlapping, defying the sun, some offset by 30 minutes or even 45, and fluctuating on the whims of local satraps.
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The goal is to curb the powers of the heritage ministry's regional satraps, known as soprintendenti, and grant more freedom to the directors of big museums and archaeological sites.
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In addition, a surprising number of New York business leaders, politicians, and real-estate satraps have convinced themselves that new cultural institutions are the handmaidens of commerce—especially when building permits call for them.
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In his Wheeling speech, McCarthy asserted — without offering any proof to back up his sensational charges — that homegrown traitors were causing America to lose the Cold War to the Soviet Union and its communist bloc satraps.
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He replaced the freewheeling anarchy of Yeltsin's rule with something more systematized, casting aside or coöpting the oligarchs of the nineteen-nineties and elevating a cast of corrupt satraps loyal to him—an arrangement that became known as Kremlin, Inc.
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The Congress dominated politics in the state for a long time with support from the upper castes, Dalits and Muslims, but the rise of regional satraps like the BSP and the SP marked a major realignment of the caste calculus and ushered in identity politics.
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Caroline Glick suggests that economic sanctions, part of U.S. President Donald TrumpDonald John TrumpGOP senators balk at lengthy impeachment trial Warren goes local in race to build 2020 movement 2020 Democrats make play for veterans' votes MORE's "maximum pressure" campaign have reduced Iran's military budget, forcing its Iraqi and Lebanese satraps to loot public funds and extort money from citizens to fund their operations.
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According to the Roman historian Appian, Seleucus, Alexander had appointed satraps in control of his territories. Similarly satraps were appointed to govern the Indus Valley. The Mauryans had annexed the areas governed by four such satraps: Nicanor, Phillip, Eudemus and Peithon. This established Mauryan control to the banks of the Indus.
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The Pharaoh Nectanebo provided financial support to the rebelling satraps and re-established ties with both Sparta and Athens. Artaxerxes II finally quashed the revolt of the satraps by 362 BC.
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The Northern Satraps, or sometimes Satraps of Mathura, are a dynasty of Indo- Scythian rulers who held sway over the area of Eastern Punjab and Mathura after the decline of the Indo-Greeks, from the end of the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE. They are called the "Northern Satraps" to differentiate them from the "Western Satraps", who ruled in Gujarat and Malwa at roughly the same time and until the 4th century CE. They are thought to have replaced the last of the Indo-Greek kings in the Eastern Punjab, as well as the Mitra dynasty and the Datta dynasty of local Indian rulers in Mathura. The Northern Satraps were probably displaced by, or became vassals of, the Kushans from the time of Vima Kadphises, who is known to have ruled in Mathura in 90–100 CE, and they are known to have acted as Satraps and Great Satraps in the Mathura region for his successor Kanishka (127–150 CE).
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Satraps (Old Persian: xšaθrapāwn) were the governors of the provinces in the Hellenistic empires.
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When Pharnabazos' other son, Artabazos II of Phrygia, wanted to regain the satrapy from his brother, Ariobarzanes refused. Ultimately, in about 366 BCE, Ariobarzanes joined an unsuccessful revolt of the satraps of western Anatolia against the Achamenian King Artaxerxes II (Revolt of the Satraps). Several other satraps sided with Ariobarzanes, including Mausolus of Caria (briefly), Orontes I of Armenia, Autophradates of Lydia and Datames of Cappadocia. The rebel satraps also received support from the pharaoh of Egypt, Teos, as well as from some of the Greek city states, with the Spartan king Agesilaus II coming to their assistance with a mercenary force.
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Most satraps had died. In theory, Polyperchon was still the lawful successor of Antipater and the official regent of the Macedonian kingdom. It was his duty to select the satraps. However, Polyperchon was still allied with Antigonus and thus an enemy of Seleucus.
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Some of their satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, who were in turn followed by Rajuvula.
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Coinage of Pharnabazus II, Tarsos, Cilicia. From 368 BCE many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in the Great Satraps' Revolt, so Nectanebo provided financial support to the rebelling satraps and re-established ties with both Sparta and Athens.
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In 321 BC, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in India and overthrew the Greek satraps.
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This page lists the Achaemenid satraps and Hellenistic kings of Cappadocia, an ancient region in central Anatolia.
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He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal. The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards.
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He wanted the Persians to destroy the land in front of Alexander, which he hoped would force Alexander's army to starve, and then to turn back. The satraps in Anatolia rejected this advice, considering it their duty to defend their land. Eventually, with Alexander advancing deeper into Persian territory, Darius ordered all five satraps of the Anatolian provinces to pool their military resources together and confront Alexander. This army was guided by Memnon, while absolute command was split among the five satraps.
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525 by the Ephesians. The Persian satraps of Lydia also occasionally resided in the place.Herod, i. 161, iii. 122.
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For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century AD, Saka rulers played a prominent part in Gujarat's history. Weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the Ruler Rudradaman I (100 AD) of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to Aparanta region which bordered Punjab. In Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps.
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The weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the ruler Rudradaman I (100 CE) of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to the Aparanta region which bordered Punjab. In Gujarat, several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest and the mightiest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps and conquered some parts of Gujarat in the 2nd century CE.Trade And Trade Routes In Ancient India von Moti Chandra page: 99 The Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta Empire with the conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
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The south Indian ruler Yajna Sri Satakarni (170-199 CE) of the Satavahana dynasty defeated the Western Satraps in the late 2nd century CE, thereby reconquering their southern regions in western and central India, which led to the decline of the Western Satraps."later Satavahana named Yajna Satakarni seems to have conquered the Southern Dominions of the Western Satraps. His coins contain figures of ships, probably indicating the naval power of the Andras. He not only ruled Aparanta, but probably also the eastern part of the Central Provinces".
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The inscription on the Bodhisattva explains that it was dedicated by a "Brother" (Bhikshu) named Bala, in the "Year 3 of Kanishka". This allows to be a rather precise date on the sculptural style represented by the statue, as year 3 is thought to be approximately 123 CE. The inscription further states that Kanishka (who ruled from his capital in Mathura) had several satraps under his commands in order to rule his vast territory: the names of the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps Mahakshatrapa ("Great Satrap") Kharapallana and the Kshatrapa ("Satrap") Vanaspara are mentioned as satraps for the eastern territories of Kanishka's empire. At the same time a "General Lala" and Satraps Vespasi and Liaka are mentioned as in charge of the north.Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999, p.
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The Orontid dynasty ruled as satraps of the Achaemenid Empire for three centuries until the empire's defeat against Alexander the Great's Macedonian Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, a Macedonian general named Neoptolemus obtained Armenia until he died in 321 BC and the Orontids returned, not as satraps, but as kings.
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Cave No.10 "Nahapana Vihara" (circa 120 CE). 3D tour. The Indo- Scythian Western Satraps ruler Nahapana built Cave No.10 circa 120 CE.
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During the Parthian period, this land was one of the Satraps (states) of this dynasty and finally, during the Sassanid period, the area was named "Pahla".
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Damajadasri III as portrayed in his coin. Damajadasri III was a ruler of the Western Satraps. His reign lasted possibly from c. 251 AD to 256 AD.
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In return, they received their royal insignia, including red shoes, from the emperor.Hovannisian (2004), p. 104 The situation remained unchanged for near a century, until a large-scale revolt by the satraps in 485 against Emperor Zeno (r. 474–491). In its aftermath, the satraps were stripped of their sovereignty and their rights of hereditary succession, being in effect reduced to the status of tax-paying and imperially-administered civitates stipendariae.
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The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and were members of the royal house or the six great noble families. These satraps were personally picked by Darius to monitor these provinces. Each of these provinces were divided into sub- provinces with their own governors which were chosen either by the royal court or by the satrap. To assess tributes, a commission evaluated the expenses and revenues of each satrap.
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Seleucus further made claim to the former satraps in Gandhara and in the Indus. However these ambitions were contested by Chandragupta Maurya, resulting in the Seleucid–Mauryan War (305–303 BC). The conflict was ultimately resolved by a treaty resulting in the Maurya Empire annexing the eastern satraps. Additionally, a marriage alliance between the two empires was formalized with Chandragupta marrying the Seleucid Princess Berenice (Suvarnnaksi in Pali).
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Achaemenid coinage includes the official imperial issues (Darics and Sigloi), as well as coins issued by the Achaemenid governors (Satraps), such as those stationed in ancient Asia Minor.
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The break up of the Vijayanagara empire had resulted in the satraps setting up their own separate kingdoms and the Brahmins were sought to legitimatise their rebel rule.
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The Greek mercenary general Memnon of Rhodes unsuccessfully suggested to the Persian satraps to use a scorched-earth policy against Alexander the Great, who was moving into Asia Minor.
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Coins and pillar inscriptions of the Western Satraps were found in Pauni. Coins were found belonging to the Satavahanas and the Western Satraps (Rudrasimha)."The numismatic evidence comprised coins of the Satavahana king Satakarni and those of the Kshatrapas." These Satavahana coins, among them coins of the early Satavahana king Satakarni, were found at the two stupa sites, confirming that ancient Vidarbha was part of the Satavahana Empire (1st century BCE - 2nd century CE).
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Rudrasimha III was the last ruler of the Western Satraps in India, in the 4th century. Rudrasimha III succeeded Rudrasena IV as the leader of the Indo- Scythians in India. Both were the sons of the Saka ruler Satyasimha, making them at least half-brothers, if not first-degree relatives. The Western Satraps were ultimately conquered by the Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II. This event completely ended the rule of the Sakas on the Indian subcontinent.
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In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces.Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 13,6-7. When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus.Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State p.90.
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Orontes coin with running Achaemenid king. Legend OΡONTA (Orontes). Minted in Caria. In 362 BC a great rebellion occurred in Anatolia, led by Datames, Satrap of Cappadocia (Revolt of the Satraps).
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Coin of Azes with Demeter and Hermes. Maues and his successors had conquered the areas of Gandhara, as well as the area of Mathura from 85 BCE forming the Northern Satraps.
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After the administrative reorganization of the Persian Empire, Armenia was converted into several satrapies. Armenian satraps regularly intermarried with the family of the King of Kings. These satraps provided contingents to Xerxes' invasion of Greece in 480 BC. Herodotus says that the Armenians in the army of Xerxes "were armed like the Phrygians." In 401 BC Xenophon marched through Armenia with a large army of Greek mercenaries as part of the March of the Ten Thousand.
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Source: "A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson, p ciii Yet the Saka continued to govern as satrapies,"The titles "Kshatrap" and "Mahakshatrapa" certainly show that the Western Kshatrapas were originally feudatories" in Rapson, "Coins of the British Museum", p.cv forming the Northern Satraps and Western Satraps. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Indo-Scythians were defeated by the Satavahana emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.
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Kharoshthi, a script in use in more northern territories (area of Gandhara), is employed together with the Brahmi script and the Greek script on the first coins of the Western Satraps, but is finally abandoned from the time of Chastana.Rapson p. CIV From that time, only the Brahmi script would remain, together with the pseudo-Greek script on the facing, to write the Prakrit language employed by the Western satraps. Occasionally, the legends are in Sanskrit instead.
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Rudrasena II (256–278) was a king of the Western Satraps, and the 19th ruler of the Kshatrapa dynasty. The Kshatrapa dynasty seems to have reached a high level of prosperity under his rule. The region of Sanchi-Vidisha was again captured from the Satavahanas during the rule of Rudrasena II, as shown by finds of his coinage in the area. The region had already been held once by the Western Satraps under Rudradaman (circa 130 CE).
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An alternative view is that the cult was started at a moment of weakness in the Seleucid Empire, and was useful in promoting unity throughout the empire.Capdetrey, Le pouvoir séleucide, 324. Rather than include the cult in legal acts, or writing to local governors (satraps) to spread the cult, Antiochus III wrote directly to the satraps to spread the cult, such as Anaximbrotos in Phrygia and Menedemos in the east.Iossif, Lober, “Laodikai and the Goddess Nikephoros,” 65.
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The expansion of the Sasanians in northwestern India, which put an end to the remnants of Kushan rule, may also have been done at the expense of the Western Satraps and the Satavahanas.
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Coins and pillar inscriptions of the Western Satraps were found in Pauni. There are no coins of Rupiamma known, but coins belonging to the Western Satraps (Rudrasimha) were also discovered in the ruins of Buddhist stupas at Pauni."The numismatic evidence comprised coins of the Satavahana king Satakarni and those of the Kshatrapas." A few dozen donative inscriptions in the Brahmi script have been found at the site of Pauni, in a style similar to the inscriptions of Bharhut and Sanchi.
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In central India, the Indo-Scythians are thought to have conquered the area of Mathura over Indian kings, presumably the Datta dynasty, around 60 BCE. Due to being under the scrutiny of the Kushan Empire, as a satrapy and not wholly independent, they were called the Northern Satraps. Some of their first satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, they were in turn followed by Rajuvula who gained the title Mahakshatrapa or great satrap. However, according to some authors, Rajuvula may have been first..
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Finally, following the period of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara are known from an inscription in Sarnath to have been feudatories of the Kushans. Generally, the position taken by modern scholarship is that the Western Satraps were vassals of the Kushans, at least in the early period until Rudradaman I conquered the Yaudheyas, who are usually thought to be Kushan vassals. The question is not considered perfectly settled.
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They were conquered by Antiochus III the Great in 200 BC. Seleucids struck some coins in the Ptolemaic standard to be used in the region, and both standards coexisted there. Seleucid regulations on coinage different from Achaemenid Persia on several aspects. Achaemenid rulers did not try to unify standards for the coinage, and they allowed local satraps to strike coins in their own name. While the Seleucids preserved the system of satraps, they banned local rulers from striking coins in their own name.
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Hagamasha was an Indo- Scythian Northern Satrap (ruled in Mathura in the 1st century BCE, probably after 60 BCE). In central India, the Indo-Scythians are thought to have conquered the area of Mathura over Indian kings around 60 BCE, thus founding the Northern Satraps. Some of their first satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, who were in turn followed by Rajuvula, but according to some authors, Rajuvula may have been first.Indian Numismatic Studies, K. D. Bajpai Abhinav Publications, 2004, p.
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The findings of ancient stone inscriptions in Maghera, a town from Mathura, provide historical artifacts giving more details on this era of Mathura. The opening of the 3 line text of these inscriptions are in Brahmi script and were translated as: "In the 116th year of the Greek kings..." The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the "Northern Satraps", as opposed to the "Western Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and Malwa. After Rajuvula, several successors are known to have ruled as vassals to the Kushans, such as the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara, who are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of Kanishka (c 130 AD), in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushans.A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum.
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Alexander founded several new settlements in Gandhara, Punjab and Sindh. and nominated officers as Satraps of the new provinces: In Gandhara, Oxyartes was nominated to the position of Satrap by Alexander in 326 BC.
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From 368 BCE many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, so Nectanebo provided financial support to the rebelling satraps and re-established ties with both Sparta and Athens.
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Trade with the Indian harbour of Barygaza is described extensively in the Periplus. Nahapana, ruler of the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps is mentioned under the name Nambanus,"History of the Andhras" by Durga Prasad as ruler of the area around Barigaza: Coin of Nahapana (119–124). Obv: Bust of king Nahapana with a legend in Greek script "ΡΑΝΝΙΩ ΞΑΗΑΡΑΤΑϹ ΝΑΗΑΠΑΝΑϹ", transliteration of the Prakrit Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa: "King Kshaharata Nahapana". Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centers of Roman trade in the subcontinent.
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In the winter of 327 BC, Alexander invited all the chieftains in the remaining five Achaemenid satraps to submit to his authority. Ambhi, then ruler of Taxila in the former Hindush satrapy complied, but the remaining tribes and clans in the former satraps of Gandhara, Arachosia, Sattagydia and Gedrosia rejected Alexander's offer. The first tribe they encountered were the Aspasioi tribe of the Kunar Valley, who initiated a fierce battle against Alexander, in which he himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart. However, the Aspasioi eventually lost and 40,000 people were enslaved.
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Mahakshatrapa Rupiamma pillar inscription, Pauni. Brahmi inscription: 𑀲𑀺𑀥𑀁 𑀫𑀳𑀔𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀯 𑀓𑀼𑀫𑀭𑀲 𑀭𑀼𑀧𑀺𑀅𑀁𑀫𑀲 𑀙𑀬𑀸 𑀔𑀁𑀪𑁄 Sidhaṃ Mahakhattava Kumarasa Rupiaṃmasa chayā Khambo "Sculpted pillar of Lord Prince and Great Satrap Rupiamma". A memorial pillar with an inscription in the name of "Mahakshatrapa Kumara Rupiamma" has been recovered in Pauni, and is dated to the 2nd century CE. Rupiamma is probably related to the Saka Western Satraps. This memorial pillar is thought to mark the southern extent of the conquests of the Western Satraps, much beyond the traditionally held boundary of the Narmada River.
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After his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander the Great established his own satraps in the conquered territories, some of them Achaemenids who had been favorable to the invader, such as Mazaios, others some of Alexander's closest supports, such as Balacrus. Several satraps continued to use an Achaemenid type for their coinage, such as Balacrus when he became Hellenistic satrap of Cilicia, complete with the local deity of Tarsus, Baal. This coinage is said to have later influenced Alexander's imperial coinage, which was often minted in the same mints. Double Daric (16.65 g).
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He was in consequence entrusted by the Persian king with the chief command of a force designed for the recovery of Egypt, following the failure of Pharnabazus II; but the machinations of his enemies at the Persian court, and the risks to which he was in consequence exposed, induced him to change his plan, and throw off his allegiance to the king (c.370 BC). He withdrew with the troops under his command into Cappadocia, and made common cause with the other satraps who had revolted from Persia (the "Satraps' Revolt"). Achaemenid Cappadocia.
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600 BC or 576–530 BC), overthrowing his grandfather Astyages (585–550 BC) in 550 BC. The Medes then became subject to the Persians. The Persians, who had scant resources for governing their vast empire, ruled relatively benignly as conquerors, attempting to obtain the cooperation of the local elite in governance. They ruled their vassal states by appointing local rulers, or satraps with responsibility for their satrapies (Greek: Satrapeia). However, the Greeks referred to these satraps as 'tyrants', meaning they were neither democratically elected or derived authority from dynasty.
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As long as the power of Athens remained intact he did not meddle in Greek affairs. When in 413 BC, Athens supported the rebel Amorges in Caria, Darius II would not have responded had not the Athenian power been broken in the same year at Syracuse. As a result of that event, Darius II gave orders to his satraps in Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, to send in the overdue tribute of the Greek towns and to begin a war with Athens. To support the war with Athens, the Persian satraps entered into an alliance with Sparta.
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170 In Mathura, he sometimes used the term "Basileus" (king) next to his title of Satrap, which implies a higher level of autonomy from the Indo-Scythian center in northwestern India. On the obverse of his coinage, he often uses in the Greek script the title "King of Kings, the Saviour". In Mathura, Rajuvula established the famous Mathura lion capital, now in the British Museum, which confirms the presence of Northern Satraps in Mathura, and sheds some light on the relationships between the various satraps of Northern India.The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, by John M. Rosenfield, University of California Press, 1967 p.
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It is still unclear whether the Western Satraps were independent rulers or vassals of the Kushan Empire (30–375 CE). The continued use of the word "Satrap" on their coin would suggest a recognized subjection to a higher ruler, possibly the Kushan emperor."The titles "Kshatrap" and "Mahakshatrapa" certainly show that the Western Kshatrapas were originally feudatories" in Rapson, "Coins of the British Museum", p.cv The Western Satraps (orange) and the Kushan Empire (green), in the 2nd century CE Also, a statue of Chastana was found in Mathura at the Temple of Mat together with the famous statues of Vima Kadphises and Kanishka.
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However, Antiochus the Great, the Seleucid King (223–187 BC), led the last expansion of his kingdom, overthrowing and killing Orontes IV and bringing Armenia directly under Seleucid control in 212 BC, and appointing two satraps (strategos), Artaxias (Artaxerxes) and Zariadris. The retreat of the Seleucid forces from Europe and their defeat at the Battle of Magnesia (190 BC) allowed Armenia to throw off Seleucid rule, the satraps assuming kingship under a new Artaxiad dynasty (189 BC – 12 AD). Zariadris took the south (Sophene) following Xerxes' assassination. Artaxias I (190–160 BC) led a revolt against Antiochus.
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After the conquest of Central India, Western Satraps are then known to have remained in the area well into the 4th century, as shown by the nearby Kanakerha inscription mentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" Sridharavarman.Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 p58-59 They were also in control of the region of Eran, as shown by another inscription. A marital alliance between the Andhra Ikshvaku and the Western Satraps seems to have occurred during the time of Rudrasena II, as the Andhra Ikshvaku ruler Māṭharīputra Vīrapuruṣadatta seems to have had as one of his wives Rudradhara-bhattarika, the "daughter of the ruler of Ujjain" (Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika), possibly king Rudrasena II. The Western Satraps were finally ousted by Samudragupta (335-75) of the Gupta Empire.
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13-20 The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.Allan, J. & Stern, S. M. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.
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He further improved and expanded the network of roads and way stations throughout the empire, so that there was a system of travel authorization for the King, satraps and other high officials, which entitled the traveller to draw provisions at daily stopping places.
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She is mentioned as the "daughter of Kharahostes" (See: Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions). The lion capital also mentions the genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura. It mentions Sodasa, son of Rajuvula, who succeeded him and also made Mathura his capital.
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Kushan rulers are recorded for a period of about three centuries, from circa 30 CE, to circa 375 CE, until the invasions of the Kidarites. They ruled around the same time as the Western Satraps, the Satavahanas, and the first Gupta Empire rulers.
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"QUEENS AND COINS OF INDIA."Deo, S. B. "The Genesis of Maharashtra History and Culture." Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 43 (1984): 17-36. Indo-Scythians Western Satraps ruled part of the region during the early part of the first millennium.
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"Ptolemy was one of the few to realize that limiting his ambitions would actually get him farther in the long run."Green 1990, p. 9. Europe had not yet been divided into satrapies. There was no need to replace any eastern satraps.
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Mausolus was the eldest son of Hecatomnus, a native Carian who became the satrap of Caria when Tissaphernes died, around 395 BC. Mausolus participated in the Revolt of the Satraps, both on his nominal sovereign Artaxerxes Mnemon's side and (briefly) against him. In 366 BC, Mausolus together with Autophradates of Lydia, at the request of Artaxerxes, led the siege of Adramyttium against Ariobarzanes, one of the members of the Great Satraps' Revolt, until Agesilaus, king of Sparta, negotiated the besiegers' retreat.Gershevitch 1985, p. 378 Mausolus conquered a great part of Lycia circa 360 BC, putting an end to the line of dynasts that had ruled there.
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Banquet scene of a Satrap, on the "Sarcophagus of the Satrap", Sidon, 4th century BC. Whenever central authority in the empire weakened, the satrap often enjoyed practical independence, especially as it became customary to appoint him also as general-in-chief of the army district, contrary to the original rule. "When his office became hereditary, the threat to the central authority could not be ignored" (Olmstead). Rebellions of satraps became frequent from the middle of the 5thcentury BCE. Darius I struggled with widespread rebellions in the satrapies, and under Artaxerxes II occasionally the greater parts of Asia Minor and Syria were in open rebellion (Revolt of the Satraps).
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There are many other Mathura Sanskrit inscriptions overlapping the era of Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and early Kushanas, although they are still dwarfed by the number of contemporary inscriptions in Prakrit. Other significant 1st-century inscriptions in reasonably good classical Sanskrit include the Vasu Doorjamb Inscription and the Mountain Temple inscription. The early ones are related to the Brahmanical and possibly Jain traditions, as in the case of an inscription from Kankali Tila,Inscription No21 in and none are Buddhist. The development of Sanskrit epigraphy in western India under the Western Satrap, is also thought to have been the result of the influence of the Northern Satraps on their western relatives.
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The Western Satraps, Western Kshatrapas, or Kshaharatas (35–405 CE) were Indo- Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India (Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states). The Western Satraps were contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly their overlords, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers were defeated by the Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty.World history from early times to A D 2000 by B .
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Following the capture and death of his brother, Artabazos was made satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, but in 356 BC he refused obedience to the new Persian king, Artaxerxes III. Artaxerxes had ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt. The order was ignored by Artabazus, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Artabazos then became involved in a revolt against the king and against other satraps who acknowledged the authority of Artaxerxes III.
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Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents. Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with the Babylonian talent. Those paid in gold were measured with the Euboic talent. The total tribute from the satraps came to an amount less than 15,000 silver talents.
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550 CE Persian War, "stated that the five hereditary satraps (governors) of Armenia who received their insignia from the Roman Emperor were given chlamys (or cloaks) made from lana pinna. Apparently only the ruling classes were allowed to wear these chlamys."Turner and Rosewater 1958, p. 294.
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In 362 BC, Artabazos was sent by Artaxerxes II to capture Datames, the satrap of Cappadocia, who had joined in the Satraps' revolt to which participated Artabazus' brother, Ariobarzanes. However, Artabazos was defeated by Datames. Artaxerxes II ultimately prevailed, and Ariobarzanes was crucified and Datames assassinated.
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For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the Rajputs. On the artistic side however, the Alchon Huns may have played a role, just like the Western Satraps centuries before them, in helping spread the art of Gandhara to the western Deccan region.
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XV.-2) and > Josephus (Antiqua. XX. iii.-2). This surmise is very much strengthened by > the date of the revolt, A.D. 41, which would make Gondophares a contemporary > of Saint Thomas.A. Cunningham, "Coins of Indian Buddhist Satraps with Greek > inscriptions", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol.
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The Nashik inscription of Ushavadata is an inscription made in the Nashik Caves by Ushavadata, a viceroy of the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana, in the years circa 120 CE. It is the earliest known instance of the usage of Sanskrit, although a rather hybrid form, in western India.
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In 366 BC, Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with the Persian king's support of Thebes following the embassy of Philiscus of Abydos, decided to provide careful military support to the opponents of the Achaemenid king. Athens and Sparta provided support for the revolting satraps in the Revolt of the Satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes: Sparta sent a force to Ariobarzanes under an aging Agesilaus, while Athens sent a force under Timotheus, which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king. An Athenian mercenary force under Chabrias was also sent to the Egyptian Pharao Tachos, who was also fighting against the Achaemenid king. According to Xenophon,Xenophon, Agesilaus, ii.
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The First Achaemenid Period (525–404 BC) began with the Battle of Pelusium, which saw Egypt ( Mudrāya) conquered by the expansive Achaemenid Empire under Cambyses, and Egypt become a satrapy. The Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt consists of the Persian emperors - including Cambyses, Xerxes I, and Darius the Great - who ruled Egypt as Pharaohs and governed through their satraps, as well as the Egyptian Petubastis III (522–520 BC) (and possibly the disputed Psammetichus IV), who rebelled in defiance of the Persian authorities. The unsuccessful revolt of Inaros II (460-454), aided by the Athenians as part of the Wars of the Delian League, aspired to the same object. The Persian satraps were Aryandes (525–522 BC; 518–c.
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When Philip's son Alexander invaded the Persian Achaemenid Empire in 334 BC, Memnon, aware of the political issues the Macedonians dealt with, urged king Darius III (336–330 BC) to orchestrate a rebellion in Greece and he advised the Persian satraps to lay waste to the land that Alexander would have to pass, depriving his army of food and supplies. This would make it harder for Alexander and his army to survive on their long journey before the battle. The satraps did not trust Memnon because of his nationality, and did not ravage their territories. Initially hesitant, Darius made Memnon the commander of the western satrapies (provinces) after the defeat at the Battle of Granicus.
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Rapson p.clxxxv. The coins of the Traikutaras are found extensively in southern Gujarat, and southern Maharashtra beyond the Ghats. Their design is very close to that of the Western Satraps, from which they probably inherited some territories, and traces of the obverse legend with Greek letters can still be seen.Rapson, p.cixxiv.
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He ruled c. 25 BCE to 10 CE according to Bopearachchi. R. C. Senior suggests that his reign ended perhaps a decade earlier. He may have been supplanted by the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps, particularly Rajuvula and Bhadayasa, whose coins were often copied on those of the last Indo-Greek kings.
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Only the king could mint gold darics. Important generals and satraps minted silver darics, the latter usually to recruit Greek mercenaries in Anatolia. The daric was a major boost to international trade. Trade goods such as textiles, carpets, tools and metal objects began to travel throughout Asia, Europe and Africa.
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Given the absence of any named satraps (i.e. Achaemenid provincial governors) for Sogdiana in historical records, modern scholarship has concluded that Sogdiana was governed from the satrapy of nearby Bactria.Pierre Briant (2002), From Cyrus to Alexander: a History of the Persian Empire, trans. Peter T. Daniels, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, p.
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This became a very successful model for centralized administration and establishing a government working to the advantage and profit of its subjects. In fact, the administration of the empire through satraps and the vital principle of forming a government at Pasargadae were the works of Cyrus.The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV p. 42.
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Just as the Yuezhi had copied the coins of the last Greco-Bactrian ruler Heliocles in Bactria, or the Indo-Scythians had copied the coins of the last western Indo-Greek ruler Hermaios in the area of Kabul, here again the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps relied heavily on the numismatics of their predecessors.
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Herodotus, The Histories, p. 93. In the new empire they retained a prominent position; in honour and war, they stood next to the Persians; their court ceremony was adopted by the new sovereigns, who in the summer months resided in Ecbatana; and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and generals.
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Eumenes hurried out of Phoenicia and marched his army east to gather support in the eastern provinces.Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 73,1-2. In this he was successful, because most of the eastern satraps joined his cause (when he arrived in Susiana) more than doubling his army.Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 15,1-2.
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Charles Robinson Jr., Ancient History, 2nd ed., MacMillan Company, New York, 1967, pp. 391, 347 Additionally, one of the satraps, Harpalus, had made off to Greece with some 6,000 talents, which Athens used to rebuild its economy after seizing it during the struggles with the Corinthian League.Charles Robinson Jr., Ancient History, 2nd ed.
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It was at this time that Mithridates wrote in Iranian to the countrymen of his ancestors, the Parthians, asking for military assistance. They were remnant kingdoms of Alexander's Empire. He had kept the same satrapies and in many cases the same satraps. After his death they restructured into a new Iranian empire.
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In what has been described as "the great linguistical paradox of India", Sanskrit inscriptions first appeared much later than Prakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language. This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influential Edicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE). Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of the Indo-Scythian rulers, either the Northern Satraps around Mathura for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India. It is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture.
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The Achaemenid defeat in Egypt led to unrest among the Achaemenid nobility. From 372 BC, many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in the Great Satraps' Revolt, starting with the powerful satrap Datames. Following the failure of Pharnabazus II in Egypt, Datames had been entrusted by the Persian king with the chief command of a force designed for the recovery of Egypt, but the machinations of his enemies at the Persian court, and the risks to which he was in consequence exposed, induced him to change his plan, and throw off his allegiance to the king. He withdrew with the troops under his command into Cappadocia, and made common cause with the other satraps who were revolting from Persia.
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For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals.
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Eroberer der Welt., Stuttgart 2004, p. 61; Elizabeth D. Carney: Woman in Alexander's Court, in: Roisman, Joseph (Hg.): Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great, Leiden, Boston 2003, p. 243 Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa.
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The provinces of Sindh and Panjab were said to be the richest satraps of the Persian Empire and contributed many soldiers to various Persian expeditions. It is known that an Indian contingent fought in Xerxes' army on his expedition to Greece. Herodotus mentions that the Indus satrapy supplied cavalry and chariots to the Persian army.
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The satraps of Ionia, Pharnabazus and Tissaphernes, are prominent characters with shifting allegiances throughout the Hellenica. Book 4 narrates BCE 395-388, and is primarily concerned with the Corinthian War. Book 4 recalls King Agesilaus’s Ionian campaign against Persian BCE 396-395. During this time, Satrap Pharnabazus bribed Greek states into revolting against Sparta.
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The Dhank Caves are located near Dhank village near Upleta, Rajkot district, Gujarat, India. They were chiseled out of a calcareous sandstone outcropping during the regime of the Western Satraps. The caves are influenced by Buddhist and Jain cultures. The Buddhist cave include figures of Bodhisattva and the Jain cave includes figures of Adinath, Shantinath and Pārśva.
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Vijayasena (reigned 238-250) was a Saka ruler of the Western Satraps in India during the 2nd century CE. He was one of 4 sons of Damasena that ascended to the throne. In 242 CE, he was usurped by Isvaradatta, and regained the throne about a year and a half later. He was succeeded by his brother, Damajadasri III.
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Hence, Dr Konow's interpretation appears more convincing. The capital also mentions the genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura. The presence of the Buddhist symbol triratana at the center of the capital suggests that Rajuvula was, at least nominally, following the Buddhist faith. Several other inscription from Mathura mention Rajuvula, such as the Mora Well Inscription.
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After the death of Antipater in 319 BC, the satrap of Media began to expand his power. Peithon assembled a large army of perhaps over 20,000 soldiers. Under the leadership of Peucestas the other satraps of the region brought together an opposing army of their own. Peithon was finally defeated in a battle waged in Parthia.
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After the Persians defeated Croesus, the Ionians offered to make peace, but Cyrus insisted that they surrender and become part of the empire.Herodotus i. 141 They were defeated by the Persian army commander Harpagos in 547 BC. The Persians then incorporated the Greek cities of Asia Minor into the Achaemenid Empire. Those cities were then ruled by satraps.
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Coins, reliefs and Babylonian astronomical diaries label Gotarzes as the son and heir of Mithridates II (). According to a heavily damaged relief at Behistun, Gotarzes had served as "satrap of satraps" under his father. After the death of his father, Gotarzes was proclaimed king at Babylon. At his accession, Gotarzes appointed Mitratu as the general of Babylonia.
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They are comparable to Andhra-Satrap period caves in Deccan. As they have almost no carvings, the determination of their date and chronology is difficult. The Uparkot Caves of Junagadh and the Khambhalida Caves belong to the later years of the Satraps. The stupas excavated at Boria and Intwa near Junagadh belonged to the Satrap period.
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When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus.Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State p.90. Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements.Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 17,3-7.
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746, . The satraps were often relatives of the ruling Persian kings, especially sons who were not designated as the heir apparent. Sogdiana likely remained under Persian control until roughly 400 BC, during the reign of Artaxerxes II.Christoph Baumer (2012), The History of Central Asia: the Age of the Steppe Warriors, London, New York: I.B. Tauris, p. 207, .
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Maratha Empire in the 18th century. Parts of Gujarat were the site of Indus Valley Civilization. Places have been uncovered in Gujarat at Lothal, Surkotada, and around Ghaggar river in Rajasthan. The Western Indian region was ruled by the Rashtrakuta Empire, the Maurya Empire, the Gupta Empire, Gurjars, Rajputs, Satavahanas, Western Satraps, Indo Greeks, Kadambas etc.
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To this point it appears to be a list of successions, or promotions. Then Diodorus says: "the satrapies were partitioned (emeristhesan) in this way." The word is based on "part" (meros). It is not the Companions who are being promoted to Satraps, but the satrapies that are being divided and distributed to the Companions, which is a different concept.
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Some of the satraps revolted periodically but did not pose a serious threat. In the 5th century BC, Darius I built the Royal Road, which linked the principal city of Susa with the west Anatolian city of Sardis.A modern study is D.F. Graf, The Persian Royal Road System, 1994. Anatolia played a pivotal role in Achaemenid history.
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During the Great Satraps' Revolt, Ariobarzanes, satrap of Hellespontine Phygia, joined the revolt against Artaxerxes II in 367 BC.Lendering (2005) Autophradates, satrap of Lydia, and Mausolus, satrap of Caria, besieged Ariobarzanes at Adramyttium in 366 BC.Almagor (2012) However, the siege of Adramyttium was abandoned following the arrival of Agesilaus II, King of Sparta, in 365 BC.
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The Buddha images in Devnimori clearly show the influence of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2 and have been described as examples of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps. It has been suggested that the art of Devnimori represented a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior to the rise of Gupta Empire art, and that it may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of the Ajanta Caves, Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward. Overall, the Western Satraps may have played a role in the transmission of the art of Gandhara to the western Deccan region.
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After several weeks the Persians, and their Greek mercenaries under Iphicrates, had to reembark. The expedition against Egypt had failed. It was the end of the career of Pharnabazus, who was now over 70 years old. Pharnabazus was replaced by Datames to lead a second expedition to Egypt, but he failed and then started the "Satraps' Revolt" against the Great King.
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The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya, would first conquer the Nanda Empire. Chandragupta would then defeat the Seleucid Empire during the Seleucid-Mauryan War. This resulted in the transfer of the Macedonian satraps in the Indus Valley and Gandhara to the Mauryan Empire. Furthermore, a marriage alliance was enacted which granted Seleucus's daughter as Chandragupta's wife for diplomatic relations.
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The earliest known users of the era are the Western Satraps, the Shaka (Indo-Scythian) rulers of Ujjain. From the reign of Rudrasimha I (178–197), they recorded the date of minting of their coins in the Shaka era, usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in Brahmi numerals.Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc." p.
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That both attempts, unlike the King's Peace, were rejected is a result of the fact that the Great King had lost power as a peacebroker, as a result of the revolt of Ariobarzanes and other satraps. The most important reason for the course of events, however, may have been the experiences of the Greek cities with Paris after the King's Peace.
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During that time he also conquered and occupied the town of Pergamum, but finally he must have become reconciled with the king. In 349 he was honored by a decree of the Athenians with civic rights and a golden wreath. Many coins were struck by him during the Satraps' Revolt in Clazomenae, Phocaea, and Lampsacus. All subsequent Orontids are his descendants.
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He was a victor over his predecessor Arttum̃para (Aetembares). Perikles took an active part in the Revolt of the Satraps against Achaemenid power, but lost his territory when defeated. After Perikles, Persian rule was reestablished firmly in Lycia in 366 or 362 BCE. Control was taken by Mausolus, the satrap of nearby Caria, who moved the satrap's residence to Halicarnassus.
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Coin of Northern Satrap Rajuvula (c. 10 CE), an imitation of Strato II, Mathura. Subsequent Indo-Scythian rulers, who replaced the Stratos in their territories, designed their coins in direct imitation of those of Strato II and Strato III. This is the case of the Northern Satraps, who ruled in the territories from Sagala in Eastern Punjab to Mathura, such as Rajuvula.
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Unable to sway Seleucus and Peithon, Eumenes left his winter quarters early and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana.Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 12,5-13,5. In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces.Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 13,6-7.
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After several weeks, the Persians and their Greek mercenaries under Iphicrates had to re-embark. The expedition against Egypt had failed. It was the end of the career of Pharnabazus, who was now over 70 years old. Pharnabazes was replaced by Datames to lead a second expedition to Egypt, but he failed and then started the "Satraps' Revolt" against the Great King.
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In 334 BC, Alexander joined Parmenion in Anatolia with reinforcements, thus starting Alexander's campaign against Persia. During the great battles that followed, Parmenion commanded the left wing while Alexander himself commanded the right wing. Meanwhile, the Persian satraps of Cilicia, Lydia, Hellespontine Phrygia and other territories had assembled at Zelea, near Dascylium. The two armies met near the river Granicus.
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The Western Satraps successors of Rudradaman, however, were not influenced by this inscription's literary style, but preferred a less formal hybrid Sanskrit language. The inscription also is significant in recording that the modern era town of Junagadh has ancient roots and it was known as Girinagara in the 2nd- century CE. The mountain Girnar used to be called Urjayat then.
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1 Coins depicting Pārata monarchs have been found in and around the district of Loralai, Balochistan, western Pakistan. This was the seat of their capital. Many similarities have been noted between Parataraja and Indo-Parthian coinage, as well as with the coinage of the Western Satraps, who were roughly contemporary and contiguous to the Paratarajas."New light on the Paratarajas" Pankaj Tandon p.
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Aji Saka is said to have come from Bhumi Majeti, a mythical location in Jambudvipa (ancient India). His name comes from the Javanese word saka or soko meaning essential, important, or in this case primordial. Thus the name Aji Saka literally means "primordial king." A more modern interpretation derives his name from the Saka or Indo-Scythian Western Satraps of Gujarat.
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The Achaemenid Persian Empire, continued its expansion under Darius the Great (521–486 BC). The satrap system of local governors continued to be used and upgraded and other governmental upgrades were carried out. Anatolia was carved up under Persian hegemony into regional administrations (Satrapies or provinces, depending on sources) which replaced the hegemonic kingdoms prior to the conquest. Kings were replaced by Satraps.
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Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, 1981, p. 66 The resistance put up by King Porus and his men won the respect of Alexander, who asked Porus to become one of his satraps. The battle is historically significant for opening up the Indian subcontinent to Ancient Greek political (Seleucid, Greco-Bactrian, Indo-Greek) and cultural influences (Greco-Buddhist art), which continued to have an impact for many centuries.
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Xerxes belonged to the Iranian Orontid dynasty.; ; ; His father was Arsames I, who ruled Sophene, Commagene and possibly Armenia. Xerxes succeeded his father as the ruler of Sophene and Commagene in 228 BC, while his brother Orontes IV ruled Armenia. In 223 BC, several Seleucid satraps rebelled against King Antiochus III, including Artabazanes (Upper Media), Molon (Lower Media), Alexander (Persis), and Achaeus (Asia Minor).
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Maha-kshtrapa was a title meaning "Great Satrap" in early medieval Gujarat. As satraps (kshtrapas) of the failing Scythian Empire, some leaders in western India elevated their titles to Great Satrap when they became increasingly independent of imperial rule. The Maha-kshtrapa Rudradaman I oversaw extensive canal repairs in Gujarat which led to double cropping. He also led battles against his neighbors which increased his property.
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Alexander left trusted lieutenants as well as former Persian satraps to rule his new conquests as he continued on his relentless thrust to the very edge of the known world. Alexander's conquest of Persia replaced the Achaemenids with the Seleucids, but the absence of a clear successor after his untimely death and the in-fighting that inevitably followed, meant that his empire would not long outlive him.
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Seleucus from Seleucia. Obverse: the head of Zeus, Reverse: Athena with elephants. Alexander's army mutinied along the Hyphasis, as they refused to fight the Nanda Empire, making the Beas River the eastern extant of the Macedonian Empire. Following Alexander's death, Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid dynasty and former Diadochi, gained control over Mesopotamia and the eastern satraps of the former Macedonian Empire.
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These are not really caves but actually water cisterns. There is an important inscription over these (No 16 of Gokhale) mentioning that these were donated by a minister named Sateraka. The inscription also mentions the queen of Vashishtiputra Satakarni (130-160 CE), as descending from the race of the Karddamaka dynasty of the Western Satraps, and being the daughter to the Western Satrap ruler Rudradaman.
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Eumenes decided to march to Susa in the spring of 316 BC. The satraps in Susa had apparently accepted Eumenes' claims of his fighting on behalf of the lawful ruling family against the usurper Antigonus. Eumenes marched his army 300 stadions away from Babylon and tried to cross the Tigris. Seleucus had to act. He sent two triremes and some smaller ships to stop the crossing.
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He was martyred and a forty- year-long period of persecution of Christians began. The Council of Seleucia- Ctesiphon gave up choosing bishops since it would result in death. The local mobads – Zoroastrian clerics – with the help of satraps organized slaughters of Christians in Adiabene, Beth Garmae, Khuzistan and many other provinces. Yazdegerd I showed tolerance towards Jews and Christians for much of his rule.
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Indo-Scythian ruler Rajuvula, from his coinage. Rajuvula is considered as one of the main Northern Satraps. He was a Great Satrap (Mahakshatrapa) who ruled in the area of Mathura in northern India in the years around 10 CE, under the authority of the Indo-Scythian king Azilises.History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, p.
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The name Ariobarzanes is a name of Iranian origin.Encyclopaedia Iranica – Ariobarzanes There were Persian Satraps who bore this name as did some of the ancestors of Cleopatra of Pontus. Cleopatra was a Pontian Princess, who was a daughter of King Mithridates VI of Pontus from his first wife, his sister Laodice.Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithradates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.p.
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Eumenes wanted to march westward and cut Antigonus's supply lines, but the satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east. In the late summer of 316 BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly. Eventually, the two armies met in southern Media and fought the indecisive Battle of Paraitakene.
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Cabinet des Médailles. Baaltars (combination of "Baal" and "Tarsus"; Aramaic: בעלתרז) was the tutelary deity of the city of Tarsus in the Persian Empire.Hastings, p.686 His depiction appears on coins of the Persian governors (satraps) of Cilicia at Tarsus before the conquests of Alexander the Great, in the 5th and 4th century BCE, such as Datames, Pharnabazes,Cabinet des Médailles, Paris and Mazaios,Sayles, p.
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The Indo- Scythians were in turn subjugated by the Kushan Empire as the Western Satraps and the Kushan Empire would consolidate power throughout most of Central Asia and North India. The Kushan Emperor Kanishka, was also a devout Buddhist and Buddhism and its art flourished during the Kushan Era. Furthermore, he was responsible for spreading Mahayana Buddhism and Buddhist art throughout the Silk Road.
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Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 73,1-2. In this he was successful; most of the eastern satraps joined his cause (when he arrived in Susiana) more than doubling his army.Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 15,1-2. They marched and counter-marched throughout Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Susiana and Media until they faced each other on a plain in the country of the Paraitakene in southern Media.
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Once there, they helped Seuthes II make himself king of Thrace, before being recruited into the army of the Spartan general Thibron. The Spartans were at war with Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus II, Persian satraps in Anatolia. Filled with a plethora of originality and tactical genius, Xenophon's conduct of the retreat caused Dodge to name the Athenian knight the greatest general that preceded Alexander the Great.Dodge, Theodore Ayrault.
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When the head of Crassus was brought to Orodes II, he, alongside Armenian king Artavasdes II, were busy watching a performance of The Bacchae by the playwright Euripides (c. 480–406 BC). The producer of the play decided to use Crassus' actual severed head in place of the stage-prop head of Pentheus. On his coins, Arsaces I is depicted in apparel similar to Achaemenid satraps.
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This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influential Edicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE). Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of the Indo-Scythian rulers, either the Northern Satraps around Mathura for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India. It is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite". Junagadh rock inscription, inscribed by Rudradaman I circa 150 CE, is "the first long inscription recorded entirely in more or less standard Sanskrit".
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Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of the Indo-Scythian rulers, either the Northern Satraps around Mathura for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India. It is thought that these Indo-Scythian rulers became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite". In western India, the first known inscription in Sanskrit appears to have been made by Ushavadata, son-in-law of the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, at the front of Cave n°10 in the Nasik Caves. The inscription dates to the early 2nd century CE, and has hybrid features.
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Moreover, some manuscripts of Harshacharita mention the king's name as Muladeva. The Deva dynasty was replaced by the Datta dynasty at the end of the 1st century BCE, which itself was replaced by the Mitra dynasty in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, which also ruled in Mathura. It is thought that the Indo- Scythian Northern Satraps ultimately replaced these local kings, until the advent of the Kushan Empire.
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G. & C. Merriam Co., p. 307. Procopius, writing on the Persian wars circa 550 CE, "stated that the five hereditary satraps (governors) of Armenia who received their insignia from the Roman Emperor were given chlamys (or cloaks) made from lana pinna. Apparently, only the ruling classes were allowed to wear these chlamys." Mollusc shells, including those of cowries, were used as a kind of money (shell money) in several preindustrial societies.
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Coin of Northern Satrap Rajuvula (c. 10 CE), an imitation of Strato II, Mathura and Eastern Punjab. This was the main coin type of Rajuvula. Subsequent Indo- Scythian rulers, who replaced the Stratos in their territories, designed their coins in direct imitation of those of Strato II. This is the case of the Northern Satraps, who ruled in the territories from Sagala in Eastern Punjab to Mathura, such as Rajuvula, Bhadayasa.
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The satraps appointed by Alexander the Great during his campaign Bagadates I (Minted 290–280 BC), the first indigenous satrap to be appointed by the Seleucid Empire.Otto Mørkholm, Early Hellenistic Coinage: From the Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (Cambridge University Press) 1991:73f.John Curtis, Nigel Tallis and Béatrice André-Salvini, Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia 2005:258-9, fig. 454, Silver tetradrachm of Bagadates.
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The Indo-Scythian Western Satraps ruled at Junnar during the 2nd century CE as shown by their cave inscriptions in the area of Junnar, at Manmodi Caves. "Yavana" Greeks also left donative inscriptions in the 2nd century CE at Lenyadri and Manmodi Caves. According to Damodar Kosambi, the real name of Junnar may have been Tagara. In his opinion, the name Junnar may be the contracted form of Junapura (Old city).
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The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati (Dharanikota). The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to the Puranas, their first king overthrew the Kanva dynasty. In the post-Maurya era, the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region, and resisted the onslaught of foreign invaders. In particular their struggles with the Saka Western Satraps went on for a long time.
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Chandragupta annexed the Greek satraps, while also gaining Seleucid's daughter in marriage. In exchange Basileus Seleucus received 500 prized war elephant from the Indian Emperor, an asset which was used to decisively win the Battle of Ipsus. Seleucus also sent an ambassador named Megasthenes to Chandragupta's court, who repeatedly visited Chandragupta's capital of Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Megasthenes wrote detailed descriptions of India and Chandragupta's reign.
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Inscriptions in caves 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19 and 20 are legible. Other inscriptions note the names Bhattapalika, Gautamiputra Satkarni, Vashishthiputra Pulumavi of the Satavahanas, two of the Western Satraps, Ushavadata and his wife Dakshamitra, and the Yavana (Indo-Greek) Dhammadeva. Since the caves were inhabited by the Mahayana as well as the Hinayana sects of Buddhism, one can see a nice confluence of structural and carvings.
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The satraps agreed to support Agis; however, they could only spare him 30 talents and 10 ships. The news of the battle of Issus in 333 BC, however, put a check upon their plans. He sent his brother Agesilaus with instructions to sail with them to Crete, that he might secure that island for the Spartan interest. In this he seems in a great measure to have succeeded.
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Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.
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Silver tetradrachm of the Indo-Scythian king Maues (85–60 BC). Indo-Scythian coinage is generally of a high artistic quality, although it clearly deteriorates towards the disintegration of Indo-Scythian rule around AD 20 (coins of Rajuvula). A fairly high-quality but rather stereotypical coinage would continue in the Western Satraps until the 4th century. Indo-Scythian coinage is generally quite realistic, artistically somewhere between Indo-Greek and Kushan coinage.
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Coinage of Hellespontine Phrygia at the time of Pharnabazus I, Kyzikos, Mysia. Circa 500-450 BC. This type of electrum coins were treated as gold coinage, and competed alongside Achaemenid Darics. Pharnabazus (died before 430 BCE), was a member of the Pharnacid dynasty that governed the province of Hellespontine Phrygia as satraps for the Achaemenid Empire. He is a very obscure figure, almost always mentioned alongside his father Artabazus.
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On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kuṣāṇa World, Doris Srinivasan BRILL, 2007, p.320 The Mitra dynasty was replaced by the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps from around 60 BCE. Some sources consider that the Mitra dynasty ruled at a later date, during the 1st or 2nd century CE, and that they ruled from Mathura to Saketa, where they replaced the Deva dynasty.Ayodhya Revisited by Kunal Kishore p.
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Mathura Museum. The Indo-Greeks may have been supplanted by Indo-Scythians around that date, who would then rule in Mathura as the Northern Satraps. From this time also (circa 150 BCE), archaeological research at Mathura reports an important growth of the city and extensive building of fortifications. Stone sculptures in Mathura are also known from this period onwards, although Indo- Greek artistic influence cannot be readily seen.
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Coin of the last Western Satrap ruler Rudrasimha III (388–395). Rudrasimha III seems to have been the last of the Western Satrap rulers. A fragment from the Natya-darpana mentions that the Gupta king Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta II, decided to expand his kingdom by attacking the Western Satraps in Gujarat. The campaign soon took a turn for the worse and the Gupta army was trapped.
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The statue has the inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script: 10px13px10px Sha-sta-na). This also would suggest at least alliance and friendship, if not vassalage. Finally Kanishka claims in the Rabatak inscription that his power extends to Ujjain, the classical capital of the Western Satrap realm. This combined with the presence of the Chastana statue side-by-side with Kanishka would also suggest Kushan alliance with the Western Satraps.
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Buddhist adoption in Asia, Mahayana Buddhism spread through the Silk Road during the Kushan Era. Greco-Buddhist art originated after a series of cultural exchanged between populations. During the time of Alexander's campaign in South Asia, Buddhism was mostly limited to North Eastern India and not common in North Western India where the Greek satraps formed. Buddhism was later widespread throughout South and Central Asia by the Maurya Empire.
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Themistocles was one of the several Greeks aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other famous ones being Hippias, Demaratos, Gongylos or later Alcibiades. In general, those were generously welcomed by the Achaemenid kings, and received land grants to support them, and ruled on various cities of Asia Minor. Conversely, some Achaemenid satraps were welcomed as exiles in western courts, such as Artabazos II.
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Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the bulk of early Sanskrit inscriptions were made from the 1st and 2nd-century CE by the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps in Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), and the Western Satraps in Gujarat and Maharashtra. According to Salomon, the Scythian rulers of northern and western India while not the originators, were promoters of the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions, and "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite". The Brahmi script used in the Edicts of Ashoka, as well as the Prakrit language of these inscriptions was in popular use down through the Kushan period, and remained readable down to the 4th century CE during the Gupta period. After that time the script underwent significant evolutions which rendered the Ashokan inscriptions unreadable.
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The first mention of the "Upper Satrapies" comes from 316 BC, when Peithon was named strategos of Media and of the Upper Satrapies as well by Antigonos I Monophthalmos. Peithon, the satrap of Media, had been elected by the army assembly in 323 BC to supervise the suppression of a revolt by mercenaries in the eastern satrapies, and had received some plenipotentiary powers over the local satraps. Although likely not envisioned at the outset as an overarching military command as it later became, Peithon appears to have attempted to gradually impose just such an authority over the local satraps, which led to the latter banding together against him and evicting him in 217 BC. It was in this context that Antigonos recognized his claims to win him over, although soon after, Antigonos had Peithon arrested and executed. After Peithon's execution, Antigonos appointed two officers to replace him: Orontobates as satrap of Media, and Hippostratos as strategos.
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Carved and plain pottery, Black Grey Ware pottery, remains of burial in graves and urns, beads, coins, carved bangles of conch shells were also recovered. Basements of rooms chiefly built in rubble masonry or undressed stones, brick walls and other relics were also found. A tomb measuring 12 inches by 17 inches by 2 inches was found. Some coins of Western Satraps and possibly of Andhra coins of Gautamiputra Satkarni were found.
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Achaemenid Cappadocia. Ariamnes I ( Ariámnēs; fl. 4th century BC; ruled 362–350 BC) was satrap of Cappadocia under Persian suzerainty. Son of Datames and father of Ariarathes I and his brother Orophernes (Holophernes), Diodorus states that Ariamnes governed fifty years although it is unclear how this could be correct given the dates that his father Datames (ruled 385-362 BC) and his son Ariarathes I (ruled 350-331 BC) were satraps of Cappadocia.
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The Kankali Tila tablet of Sodasa, also called the Iryavati stone tablet,Cultural Contours of India: Dr. Satya Prakash Felicitation Volume, Vijai Shankar Śrivastava - 1981, p.98 or Amohini ayagapata,Orientalia Rheno- traiectina by Hendrik Willem Obbink, Brill Archive p.65 is a large stone slab discovered in Kankali (area of Mathura) which mentions the rule of the Northern Satraps ruler Sodasa in Mathura. The tablet in the State Museum Lucknow (room J.1).
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The Dynastic Art of the Kushans, John Rosenfield, University of California Press, xxxiv The territory of the Western Satraps at the time of Chastana is described extensively by the geographer Ptolemy in his "Geographia", where he qualifies them as "Indo-Scythians". He describes this territory as starting from Patalene in the West, to Ujjain in the east ("Ozena-Regia Tiastani", "Ozene/Ujjain, capital of king Chastana"), and beyond Barigaza in the south.
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Another valuable source differs in some major detail from Plutarch: Plutarch is generally preferred, because he claims to have had access to Sulla's Memoirs (now missing). Appian, however, fills in some gaps in Plutarch, even though sometimes variant. Bithynia and Pontus were independent kingdoms descending from Persian satrapies on the southern coast of the Black Sea never taken by Alexander. The descendants of the satraps remained as the Nicomedid and Mithridatid dynasties respectively.
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King Parbatakhang assisted King Chandra Gupta Maurya in driving the Greek Satraps Seleucus (military governor) away from Punjab and Sindh. For King Parbatak's assistance to Chandra Gupta, he gave lands in northern Bihar to King Parbatakhang and many Kirant people migrated to northern Bihar during that period. They became known as Madhesia Kirant people, King Parbatakhang is also mentioned by Magadha historians as an ally of Maurya Empire. King Samyukhang of Limbuwan / Eastern Nepal (c.
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Indian sources also locate them in the same general area, beyond the Indus river. The Paratarajas must have maintained a strong interaction with their neighbors to the West (the Indo-Parthians), and their neighbors to the east (the Western Satraps), perhaps having a role of intermediary."New light on the Paratarajas" Pankaj Tandon p.37 The presence of the Paratarajas in Baluchistan suggests that the Kushans did not rule in that area.
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26, 27 Agesilaus, in order to gain money for prosecuting the war, supported the satrap Ariobarzanes of Phrygia in his revolt against Artaxerxes II in 364 (Revolt of the Satraps). Again, in 362, Epaminondas almost succeeded in seizing the city of Sparta with a rapid and unexpected march. The Battle of Mantinea, in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy.
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Ruzicka, p.27 Indeed, Hecatomnus had not shown at any other time insubordination or disaffection towards the Persian monarchy. Unlike other rebellious satraps (Cyrus the Younger or Pissuthnes, for example) Hecatomnus was not a Persian of noble or royal blood and could not hope to win the allegiance of other Persian officials. Thus, it seems highly unlikely that he would have engaged in treasonous activity without any tangible hope to benefit from it.
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Kharapallana (ruled c. 130 CE) was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap. He is mentioned as a "Great Satrap" of Kushan ruler Kanishka I on an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of Kanishka (c. 130 CE), in which Kanishka mentions he was, together with Satrap Vanaspara, governor of the eastern parts of his Empire, while a "General Lala" and Satraps Vespasi and Liaka are put in charge of the north.
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Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia. An earlier Belesys is also known, whose palace was destroyed by Cyrus the Younger in 401 BCE, and had first been a Governor of Babylon and then a satrap of Syria.
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They entered the country as raiders but Psamtik made a truce with them and hired them to his cause. Afterwards, he granted land to them alongside the Nile and they are traditionally held to have been the first Greeks to settle in Egypt. In the 5th century BC, Arcadian soldiers fought for Xerxes I in 480 when he led the Persian invasion of Greece. Later in the century, many Greek mercenaries were employed by Persian satraps, especially in Anatolia.
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Antigonus, faced with disaster, decided to abandon the crossing and turned back northward, marching up into Media, threatening the upper satrapies.Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 19, 1–2. Eumenes wanted to march westward, and cut Antigonus's lines of supply, but the satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east. In the late summer of 316 BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly.
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Chitral is also attributed to be the seat of the ancient realm of Kamboja, which contains mentions in Hindu epics. The area which now forms Chitral was reportedly conquered by the Persian Achaemenids and was a part of one of their easternmost satraps. Chitrali culture and vocabulary is heavily influenced by Persian and is said to show a mix of both Avestan and Sanskrit. In the third century CE, Kanishka, the Buddhist ruler of the Kushan empire, occupied Chitral.
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In western India, the first known inscription in Sanskrit appears to have been made by Ushavadata, son-in-law of the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, at the front of Cave n°10 in the Nasik Caves. The inscription dates to the early 2nd century CE, and has hybrid features. The Junagadh rock inscription of Western Satraps ruler Rudradaman I (c. 150 AD, Gujarat) is the first long inscription in fairly standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era.
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S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 11. There was a succession of Hindu and Buddhist states such as the Mauryan Dynasty, Western Satraps, Satavahana dynasty, Gupta Empire, Chalukya dynasty, Rashtrakuta Empire, Pala Empire and Gurjara-Pratihara Empire, as well as local dynasties such as the Maitrakas and then the Chaulukyas. The early history of Gujarat reflects the imperial grandeur of Chandragupta Maurya who conquered a number of earlier states in what is now Gujarat.
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Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999, p. 169 Archeological excavations of cast die-struck coins have also revealed the presence of a Mitra dynasty (coin issuers who did not name themselves "kings" on their coins) in Mathura sometime between 150 BC to 20 BC. Additionally, coins belonging to a Datta dynasty have also been excavated in Mathura. Whether these dynasties ruled independently or as satraps to larger kingdoms is unknown.
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In Cilicia, Syria and Phoenicia Eumenes recruited additional troops for his army and ships for his fleet and renewed the war against Antigonos. Antigonos, having taken care of his enemies in the West, now marched East after Eumenes. When he arrived in Cilicia he found out Eumenes had marched to Mesopotamia trying to get the eastern Satraps to join his cause.Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State, p.88.
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One possible interpretation of the passage would be: > Amyntas was allotted the Bactrians, Scythaeus the Sogdians, Nicanor; the > Parthians, Philippus; the Hyrcanians, Phrataphernes; ~~the Armenians~~ (the > Carmanians), Tleptolemus; the Persians, Peucestes; the Babylonians, Archon; > ~~the Pelasgians~~ Arcesilaus, Mesopotamia. By removing one (apparently meaningless) word and slightly altering the punctuation, five satraps now match the satrapy allotted to them in Diodorus. However, it is clear that the problems with this passage are more extensive, and cannot be easily resolved.
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Formerly Bhamodra was known for its iron-works and the steel produced was famous in the neighbourhood for sword blades, which were styled as being of the Bhamodra ore. Ancient coins are often found at Bhamodra ; amongst these was one of Apollodotus I, besides others of the Western Satraps, Gupta, and Maitraka kings. To the south of the village is a large tank, of which, the northern bank alone has been built with masonry ; it appears of some antiquity.
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The Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts.Section XIII: Samayapalana Parva, Book 4: Virata Parva, Mahabharata. Duels (niyuddham) were often fought to the death. During the period of the Western Satraps, the ruler Rudradaman - in addition to being well-versed in "the great sciences" which included Indian classical music, Sanskrit grammar, and logic - was said to be an excellent horseman, charioteer, elephant rider, swordsman and boxer.
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It was followed by the Junagadh rock inscription, inscribed by Rudradaman I circa 150 CE, is "the first long inscription recorded entirely in more or less standard Sanskrit". Sanskrit inscriptions by the Western Satraps are not found for about two hundred years after the Rudradaman reign, but it is important because its style is the prototype of the eulogy-style Sanskrit inscriptions found in the Gupta Empire era. These inscriptions are all in the Brahmi script.
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Darius III portrayed (in the middle) in battle against Alexander in a Greek depiction; Possible illustration of either Battle of Issus or Battle of Gaugamela Darius's flight at the Battle of Gaugamela (18th-century ivory relief) In the spring of 334 BC, Philip's heir, Alexander, who had himself been confirmed as Hegemon by the League of Corinth, invaded Asia Minor at the head of an army of Macedonian and other Greek soldiers. This invasion, which marked the beginning of the Wars of Alexander the Great, was followed almost immediately by the victory of Alexander over the Persians at Battle of the Granicus. Darius never showed up for the battle, because there was no reason for him to suppose that Alexander intended to conquer the whole of Asia, and Darius may well have supposed that the satraps of the ‘lower’ satrapies could deal with the crisis,George Cawkwell, The Greek Wars: The Failure of Persia, p. 209 so he instead decided to remain at home in Persepolis and let his satraps handle it.
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Claire Bloom as Barsine, grand- daughter of Pharnabazus, and Richard Burton as Alexander the Great, in Alexander the Great (1956 film). Pharnabazus was one of the best known Satraps among the Greeks, and had many exchanges with them. He is one of the main characters in the Hellenica of Xenophon, also appears in his Anabasis, and is also very present in the History of the Peloponnesian War of Thucydides. The family of Pharnabazus was closely related to the Greek world.
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Alexander reached Hyrcania in 330 BC, where he accepted the surrender of Phrataphernes, satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia, and chiliarch Nabarzanes. Alexander seized Zadracarta, the capital of Hyrcania, hereafter known as Syrinx, later that year and received the surrender of other satraps and nobles.Walbank (2015) Whilst in Hyrcania, Alexander appointed his general Amminapes as satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia,Lendering (2004) but was succeeded as satrap of Hyrcania by Autophradates, satrap of Mardia and Tapuria, not long after.Dandamayev (1987), p.
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The Sasanian army was the primary military body of the Sasanian armed forces, serving alongside the Sasanian navy. The birth of the army dates back to the rise of Ardashir I (r. 224–241), the founder of the Sasanian Empire, to the throne. Ardashir aimed at the revival of the Persian Empire, and to further this aim, he reformed the military by forming a standing army which was under his personal command and whose officers were separate from satraps, local princes and nobility.
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To overcome Alexander's great disappointment, Ptolemy becomes a blood brother with him. Returning to the stables, Alexander sees horses dressed in the dazzling wealth of Persia. He learns that two Persian satraps who rebelled against the Great King have been given pardons and will be returning from exile in Macedon. Alexander entertains and questions the envoys who have come to bring them back, gaining useful military information because the amused envoys tell a child more than they would an adult.
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Our knowledge is based on Diodorus Siculus, World History, 19.90-93 and 19.100. He discusses Seleucus' battle against the satraps and Demetrius and offers plausible numbers for the armies, but ignores the campaign of Antigonus. This is described in one of the contemporary Babylonian Chronicles, the Chronicle of the Diadochi (= ABC 10 = BCHP 3), which also offers the chronological framework. Since the publication of this cuneiform tablet, now in the British Museum, our understanding of this conflict has much increased.
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Just as the Yuezhi had copied the coins of the last Greco-Bactrian ruler Heliocles in Bactria, or the Indo- Scythians had copied the coins of the last western Indo-Greek ruler Hermaios in the area of Kabul, here again the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps relied heavily on the numismatics of their predecessors. The fact that powerful new rulers such as Rajuvula extensively adopted these coin designs tends to suggest that Strato II had been quite a significant ruler in his eyes.
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Anup Rai built a fort nearby. During the period of King Tarasingh (the eighth generation from Raja Anup Singh) this area progressed much. At that time the area was known for Ayurvedic medicine and for business by boats in northern India. In the 18th century when the Mughal empire set into a decline and the former satraps attained the status of suzerain rulers Anupshahr came to be located on the western periphery of the 'Nawabi' of Oudh (Avadh) and became an important garrison.
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Beleses believes this to be the prelude to a death sentence. Arbaces agrees: > Why, what other Interpretation should it bear? it is The very policy of > orient monarchs – Pardon and poison – favours and a sword – A distant > voyage, and an eternal sleep […] How many satraps have I seen set out In his > sire's day for mighty vice-royalties, Whose tombs are on their path! I know > not how, But they all sicken'd by the way, it was So long and heavy.
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Both teacher and student were educated in the entire threefold knowledge of Buddhism (the Tripiṭaka) and were noted for their efforts. Accompanied at first by a monk named Pushyavuddhi, beginning in about 117, Buddhamitrā and Bala built monuments at Śrāvastī and at Sārnāth. They had the help of two of the region's satraps or governors, Vanaspara and Kharapallāna, the "great satrap". For the next six years, or until about 123, Buddhamitrā then went to Kosam, where she built several monuments.
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The capital also mentions the genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura. Rajuvula apparently eliminated the last of the Indo-Greek kings Strato II around 10 CE, and took his capital city, Sagala. The coinage of the period, such as that of Rajuvula, tends to become very crude and barbarized in style. It is also very much debased, the silver content becoming lower and lower, in exchange for a higher proportion of bronze, an alloying technique (billon) suggesting less than wealthy finances.
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He is mainly known from his coins. Several have a date in Brahmi numerals on the reverse (such as 142 Saka Era = 220 CE). The reverse shows a three-arched hill or Chaitya, with a river, a crescent moon and the sun, within a legend in Brahmi "Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudrasihaputrasa Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudrasenasa", "The great satrap Rudrasena, son of the great satrap Rudrasiha". Rudrasena succeeded by his cousin Jivadaman, who had no sons, as a ruler of the Western Satraps.
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From around 70 BCE, the region of Mathura fell to the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps under Hagamasha, Hagana and then Rajuvula. During this time, Mathura is described as "a great center of Śaka culture in India". Little is known precisely from that period on terms of artistic creation. The Indo-Scythian Rajuvula, ruler of Mathura, created coins which were copies of the contemporary Indo-Greek ruler Strato II, with effigy of the king and representation of Athena on the obverse.
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Bessus, conspiring with fellow satraps, deposed Darius and, according to sources, put him in golden chains. It is not clear whether Bessus was motivated primarily by personal ambition or by disillusionment with Darius as a leader. He may have intended to surrender the deposed king to the Macedonians, but Alexander ordered his forces to continue to pursue the Persians. According to sources, the panicked conspirators stabbed Darius and left him dying in a cart to be found by a Macedonian soldier.
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Apollodorus () was an Athenian general of the 4th century BCE. He commanded the Persian auxiliaries which the Athenians had solicited from the king of Persia, Artaxerxes III, against Philip of Macedon in 340. Artaxerxes, who was keen to block the advance of Philip, ordered his satraps to render all aid they could, and the satrap Arsites stepped in to provide mercenaries. Apollodorus became engaged with these troops in protecting the town of Perinthus (modern Marmara Ereğlisi) while Philip invaded its territory.
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Although Antigonus was victorious, winning on both flanks and getting the enemy center to retreat off the battlefield, the battle's result was, like Paraitacene, inconclusive, with Eumenes still possessing a strong force. That evening, Eumenes attempted to convince the army to fight Antigonus again the next day. His army was reluctant, as they had just found out their camp had been plundered, the satraps wanted to retire to protect their satrapies. It was the Silver Shields who took matters into their own hands.
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Nicocles (, Nikoklēs) was an Ancient Greek Cyprus king of Salamis, Cyprus. In 374/3 BC, he succeeded his (presumed) father Evagoras I. Nicocles continued the philhellenic politics of his father. Nicocles died probably together with Straton of Sidon during the revolt of satraps (362 to 360 BC v. Chr.). He was followed as the Cypriot king of Salamis by his son Evagoras II. Some authors have proposed that Nicocles had participated in the conspiracy to which his father Evagoras fell a victim.
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When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
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Satraps who own their satrapies do not need a king. Quintus Curtius Rufus, who wrote more extensively about the transition, says much the same thing.X.X.25. Holding a "council of the chief men" (consilium principum virorum); that is, the sunedrion, Perdiccas divides the imperium, or "Empire", between the top rank (summa) held by the king and the satrapes. He clarifies, "the empire having been divided into parts" (divisis imperii partibus), or partitioned between individuals who could defend or choose to expand them.
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The battle line between the > political right in Germany and the Bolsheviks had achieved its aggressive > contour before Stalinism employed methods that led to the death of millions > of people. Thoughts about the extermination of the Jews had long been > current, and not only for Hitler and his satraps. Many of these found their > way to the NSDAP from the Deutschvölkisch Schutz-und Trutzbund [German > Racial Union for Protection and Defiance], which itself had been called into > life by the Pan-German Union.
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Under the Achaemenids, the "Iranization" of Asia Minor had been significant, and a large Iranian presence had been established in western Asia Minor, Pontus and Cappadocia. Ariarathes had been satrap of Cappadocia for 19 years and a loyal supporter of the Achaemenid kings. By blood, he was related to the ruling Achaemenid house ("Cyrus and Darius’ Seven") as well as other satraps. When Alexander of Macedon invaded Cappadocia as part of his conquest of the Persian Empire, he appointed two temporary governors.
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An example of this kind of social organization were the Germanic Peoples who conquered the western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE. Although commonly referred to as tribes, anthropologists classified their society as chiefdoms. They had a complex social hierarchy consisting of kings, a warrior aristocracy, common freemen, serfs, and slaves. The American Indian tribes sometimes had ruling kings or satraps (governors) in some areas and regions. The Cherokee, for example, had an imperial-family ruling system over a long period of history.
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After the battle, in which the foremost Theban commander Epaminondas was killed, both sides considered themselves the victors and again concluded a common peace.Diodorus 15.89.1-2 For the first time, the agreement was reached neither at the instigation of one of more leading powers, nor as a result of the power of the Persian king. In this and in the refusal of the Greek states to support the Great Satraps' Revolt against the Persian king in Asia Minor, many scholars have seen a positive element.e.g.
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People of Amol were the people of Amard they were one of the most important Achaemenid satraps who were the guardians of the Amard Sea, the current Caspian Sea.The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period Further evidence of the power of the Amol people is their fighting in the Battle of Thermopylae, Battle of Gaugamela and other Sardis forces in the Achaemenid Empire.Ancient history of Iran in foreign wars / 447. Quintus Curtius Rufus said, Immortals (Achaemenid Empire) Archers they were all Amard people.
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The Chaldean astrologer Beleses predicts the downfall of Sardanapalus, then meets the satrap Arbaces and plots the king's murder with him. Salemenes enters and tries forcibly to arrest both men, but Sardanapalus arrives unexpectedly and, not wanting to believe that Beleses and Arbaces could be traitors, breaks up the struggle. Salemenes and the king leave, and Arbaces, shamed by the king's clemency, momentarily abandons his regicidal intentions. A messenger arrives from the king, telling the two satraps to return to their respective provinces without their troops.
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The longest Hebrew word is the 19-letter-long (including vowels) וכשלאנציקלופדיותינו (u'chshelentsiklopedioténu), which means "And when our encyclopedias..." The Hebrew word "אנציקלופדיה" (encyclopedia) is of a European origin. The longest word in Hebrew that doesn't originate from another language is "וכשלהתמרמרויותינו," (u'lechshehitmarmeruyoteno) which crudely means "And when, to our resentments...." The 11-letter-long (including vowels) וְהָאֲחַשְׁדַּרְפְּנִים (veha'aḥashdarpením) is the longest word to appear in the Hebrew Bible. Its meaning is "And the satraps". This word also does not have a Hebrew origin.
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Artashata took the regnal name Darius III, and quickly demonstrated his independence from his possible assassin benefactor. Bagoas then tried to poison Darius as well, when he learned that even Darius couldn't be controlled, but Darius was warned and forced Bagoas to drink the poison himself.Diodorus 17.5.6. The new king found himself in control of an unstable empire, large portions of which were governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects, such as Khabash in Egypt and possibly Nidin-Bel in Babylon.
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Constantin et al. (2011), p. 134 However, bedridden with the Spanish flu in Cernăuți, he was unable to follow Pelivan to Alba Iulia, and failed to witness Transylvania's incorporation into Romania on December 1 ("Great Union Day").Constantin et al. (2011), pp. 137; Iorga (1930), p. 126 In his last days as a Sfatul deputy, Buzdugan signed a protest addressed to the Romanian government of Ion I. C. Brătianu, citing cases of abuse by the Gendarme "satraps", including their alleged embezzlement of welfare supplies.
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Map of what would become Alexander's empire The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was fought in Northwestern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), near the site of Troy. After crossing the Hellespont, Alexander advanced up the road to the capital of the Satrapy of Phrygia. The various satraps of the Persian empire gathered their forces at the town of Zelea and offered battle on the banks of the Granicus River. Alexander ultimately fought many of his battles on a river bank.
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In the "Partition of Babylon" however, Perdiccas effectively divided the enormous Macedonian dominion among Alexander's generals. Seleucus was chosen to command the Companion cavalry (hetairoi) and appointed first or court chiliarch, which made him the senior officer in the Royal Army after the regent and commander-in-chief Perdiccas. Several other powerful men supported Perdiccas, including Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Peithon and Eumenes. Perdiccas' power depended on his ability to hold Alexander's enormous empire together, and on whether he could force the satraps to obey him.
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Artaxerxes then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt. The order was however ignored by Artabazus II, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Athens sent assistance. Artabazos was at first supported by Chares, an Athenian general, and his mercenaries, whom he rewarded very generously.
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Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against Sidon by commanding the satrap of Syria Belesys and Mazaeus, the satrap of Cilicia, to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia. Coinage of Tennes, the king of Sidon who revolted against the Achaemenid Empire.
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It is thought that the Shungas did not rule in Mathura. The period in which the Mitra dynasty ruled in Mathura roughly corresponds to the Hindu Sunga dynasty (180 BCE–80 BCE), however it doesn't seem that the Shungas ruled in Mathura or Surasena since no Shunga coins or inscriptions have been found there.History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, p.8-10 The Mitra dynasty was replaced by the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps around 60 BCE.
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Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler Rudrasimha I (178 to 197). An inscription of Rudrasimha I (178-197) was recently found at Setkhedi in Shajapur district, dated to 107 Saka Era, that is 185 CE, confirming the expansion of the Western Satraps to the east at that date. There is also an earlier inscription related to Saka rule in Ujjain, as well as a later one, the Kanakerha inscription, related to Saka rule in the area of Vidisha, Sanchi and Eran in the early 4th century.
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Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against Sidon by commanding Belesys, satrap of Syria, and Mazaeus, satrap of Cilicia, to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia. After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000 men against Sidon.
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King Parbatakhang / Limbuwan (c. 317 BC) A descendant of King Bhauiputahang, King Parbatakhang was a son of King Jeitehang and ruled Limbuwan around 317 BC. During that period, King Parbatakhang was the most powerful king of the Himalayan Limbuwan region and present-day Nepal. King Parbatak was allied with Chandra Gupta Maurya of Magadha, and also assisted him in his military campaigns in the Nanda kingdom. During his father King Jietehang's rule, Alexander the Great had invaded India and established his satraps in Punjab and Sindh.
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Having returned to Athens, in 366 BC he was sent to support Ariobarzanes, satrap of Phrygia. But, finding that the satrap was in open rebellion against Persia (Revolt of the Satraps), Timotheus, in line with his instructions, abstained from helping him and rather used his army against Samos, then occupied by a Persian garrison, and took it after a ten months' siege (366 BC-365 BC). He then took Sestus, Crithote, Torone, Potidaea, Methone, Pydna and many other cities; but two attempts to capture Amphipolis failed.
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Kankali Tila plate, with an inscription mentioning the year 42 of the reign of Northern Satraps ruler Sodasa.The Jain stûpa and other antiquities of Mathurâ by Smith, Vincent Arthur Plate XIV The Kankali Tila inscription of Sodasa (from the above plate). This inscription mentions the rule of Svamisa Mahakṣatrapasya Śodasasa (from the beginning of the second line): "Of the Lord and Great Satrap Śodāsa". Kankali Tila (also Kankali mound or Jaini mound) is a mound located at Mathura in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
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During the absence of Artabazos, Mentor of Rhodes, his brother-in-law, was of great service to the king of Persia in his war against Nectanebo II of Egypt. After the close of this war, in the summer of 342 BC, Artaxerxes gave Mentor the command against the rebellious satraps of western Asia. Mentor took advantage of this opportunity to ask the king to grant a pardon to Artabazos and Memnon. The king agreed and both men and their families were able to return to Persia.
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In 539 BC, Persian forces led by Cyrus The Great defeated Babylonian forces at the Battle of Opis, east of the Tigris. Cyrus entered Babylon and presented himself as a traditional Mesopotamian monarch, restoring temples and releasing political prisoners. Upon assuming power, Cyrus appointed provincial governors (the predecessors of the Persian satraps), and he required from his subjects only tribute and obedience. Following Cyrus's death, a brief period of Babylonian unrest ensued that climaxed in 522 B.C. with a general rebellion of Iranian colonies.
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Inaros II fought with the Athenians against the Persian troops in Egypt, and later against Achaemenid satraps Megabyzus and Artabazus, who defeated him. Inaros (II), also known as Inarus, (fl. ca. 460 BCE) was an Egyptian rebel ruler who was the son of a Libyan prince named Psamtik, presumably of the old Saite line, and grandson of Psamtik III. In 460 BC, he revolted against the Persians with the help of his Athenian allies under Admiral Charitimides, and defeated the Persian army commanded by satrap Achaemenes in 460 BCE.
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Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic inscription reflect the continuous impact of the Assyrian language after the Achaemenid period. In the late fourth century BCE, Alexander the Great led his Greco- Macedonian army to conquer the Achaemenid Empire. The empire's vast territory and numerous tributary peoples ensured that rebellion would be a constant problem. This new Greek Empire relied upon the administrative system put in place by the Persians to govern these new lands; consequently, the Assyrian lands of Athura and Mada were administrated as such by their own satraps.
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He, like Tissaphernes of Caria, entered into negotiations with Sparta and began a war with Athens. The conduct of the war was much hindered by the rivalry between the two satraps, of whom Pharnabazus was by far the more energetic and upright. Pharnabazus initially fought with the Spartans against the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war (431–404 BC), even, in one instance, coming to the rescue of the retreating Spartan forces, and riding his horse into the sea to fend off the Athenians while encouraging his regiment.Xenophon Hellenica, 1.1.
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The Macedonian satraps then conquered by the Mauryan Empire, under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka would convert to Buddhism and spread the religious philosophy throughout his domain, as recorded in the Edicts of Ashoka. Following the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, Greco-Buddhism continued to flourish under the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, Indo-Greek Kingdoms, and Kushan Empire. Mahayana Buddhism was spread from Sanchi amd Mathura in India into Gandhara and then Central Asia during the Mauryan Era, where it became the most prevalent branch of Buddhism in Central Asia.
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The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. Fought in northwestern Asia Minor, near the site of Troy, it was here that Alexander defeated the forces of the Persian satraps of Asia Minor, including a large force of Greek mercenaries led by Memnon of Rhodes. The battle took place on the road from Abydos to Dascylium (near modern-day Ergili, Turkey), at the crossing of the Granicus River (modern-day Biga Çayı).
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118 D.C. Sircar dates the inscription to 1st-century CE based on the epigraphical evidence.D.C. Sircar (1965), Select Inscriptions, Volume 1, 2nd Edition, pages 94-95 and footnote 1 on page 95 The paleography of the inscription is identical to that of the Northern Satraps in Mathura, which gives a 1st century CE date. The damaged inscription is notable for its mention of general Pushyamitra and his descendant Dhana–, his use of Vedic Ashvamedha horse to assert the range of his empire, and the building of a temple shrine.
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Family tree of the Hecatomnids Statue of a Hecatomnid ruler, perhaps Mausolus (British Museum) Caria, under the Hecatomnids. The Hecatomnid dynasty or Hecatomnids were the rulers of Caria and surrounding areas from about 395–334 BCE, after Caria had left the Athenian alliance called the Delian League and returned under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. Before that, during the first period of Achaemenid rule, Caria was governed by the Lygdamid dynasty (520-450 BCE). The Hecatomnids were nominally satraps (governors) under the Achaemenid Empire, but ruled with considerable autonomy, and established a hereditary dynasty.
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The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government. During his reign, Cyrus maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved through retaining and expanding the satrapies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by satraps, was continued by Cyrus's successor Darius the Great. Cyrus's empire was based on tribute and conscripts from the many parts of his realm. Through his military savvy, Cyrus created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers.
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The king is banqueting when news reaches him that the two satraps have refused to leave the city and have led their troops in rebellion. Sardanapalus arms himself and, after admiring his newly martial appearance in a mirror, goes to join Salemenes and his soldiers, now the only ones loyal to him. Myrrha, left behind, hears reports that a battle is in progress, and is going badly for the king. Sardanapalus and Salemenes return, closely followed by the rebels, but they beat the attack off and congratulate themselves on a victory.
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It also emerged as an important center for intellectual learning among Jain, Buddhist and Hindu traditions. After the Mauryans, Ujjain was controlled by a number of empires and dynasties, including local dynasties, the Shungas, the Western Satraps, the Satavahanas, and the Guptas. Ujjain remained as an important city of the Guptas during the 4th and the 5th centuries. Kalidasa, the great Indian classical poet of the 5th century who lived in the times of the Gupta king Vikramaditya wrote his epic work Meghadūta in which he describes the richness of Ujjain and its people.
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The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos and the sacking of the city of Eretria. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it.
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Several satraps were eager to gain more power, and when Ptolemy I Soter, satrap of Egypt, rebelled with other generals, Perdiccas moved against the former but was killed by a mutiny in his camp. Ptolemy declined the regency and instead brought to the office Peithon and Arrhidaeus. This designation met the strong opposition of Eurydice, wife of Philip III, leading, in the meeting called in 321 BC at Triparadisus of all the generals, to their replacement with Antipater. The meeting also proceeded to divide again the satrapies between the various generals.
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Xenophon records that, in 398 BCE, Leucophrys was the site to which the Greek troops, under the command of the Spartan Dercylidas withdrew after the meeting between them and the troops of Achaemenid Empire led by the satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus II. The next day in the place they had agreed to, they negotiated peace. The Persians would allow the Greek cities to be autonomous and the Greek army and the Laconian harmosts would return across the Aegean Sea. Its site was later occupied by Magnesia ad Maeandrum.
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According to Said, in the Middle East, the social, economic, and cultural practices of the ruling Arab elites indicate they are imperial satraps who have internalized a romanticized version of Arab Culture created by French, British and later, American, Orientalists. Examples used in the book include critical analyses of the colonial literature of Joseph Conrad, which conflates a people, a time, and a place into one narrative of an incident and adventure in an exotic land.The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism (3rd ed.). 1994. p. 642.
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The Saptarishi Tila statue, possibly representing Kamuia Ayasa/ Kambojika, the Chief Queen of Mahakshatrapa Rajula. Found in the Saptarishi Mound, the same mound where the Mathura lion capital was found. Circa 1st century CE. Rajuvula was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (Mahakshatrapa), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE. The Mathura lion capital was consecrated under the reign of Rajuvula. In central India, the Indo-Scythians had conquered the area of Mathura from Indian kings around 60 BCE.
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In 521 BC, the Persians defeated the Medes in a battle near Maruš (Mehriz, thirty kilometres south of modern Yazd).Behistun Inscription, Column 2, §25. Hydarnes remained an influential man during the reign of Darius. From tablets found at Persepolis, it is known that he was satrap of Media in 499 BC. The influence of Hydarnes also secured the appointment of his sons as satraps. Herodotus states that Hydarnes’ son Sisamnes was the satrap of Aria and that the younger Hydarnes was "in command of the whole Asian seaboard".
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Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016 Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance of Chanakya, author of Arthasastra, and overthrew the Nanda Empire in . Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India by conquering the satraps left by Alexander the Great, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied northwestern India. The Mauryan Empire then defeated Seleucus I, a diadochus and founder of the Seleucid Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus acquiring territory west of the Indus River.
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The Indo-Scythian king Maues invaded Indo-Greek territories in Punjab and established an Indo-Scythian empire. Maues first conquered Gandhara and Taxila around 80 BCE, but his kingdom disintegrated after his death. The Indo-Scythians ultimately established a kingdom in the northwest south Asia, based near Taxila, with two great Satraps, one in Mathura in the east, and one in Surastrene (Gujarat) in the southwest. The Indo-Scythians seem to have been followers of Buddhism, and many of their practices apparently continued those of the Indo-Greeks.
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Strato III often called "Philopator" ("the Father-loving") was an Indo-Greek king who ruled c. 25 BCE to 10 CE. He is only known through the joint coins with his father Strato II. He may have been supplanted, in conjunction with his father or later as an independent king, by the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps, particularly Rajuvula and Bhadayasa, whose coins were often copied on those of the last Indo-Greek kings.The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M. Rosenfield, University of California Press, 1967, p.135 R.C. Senior, Indo- Scythian coins and history.
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Soon after the failure of the Egyptian campaign of the Achaemenid ruler Artaxerxes III, Phoenicia declared their independence from Persian rule. This was also followed by rulers of Anatolia and Cyprus. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against Sidon by commanding the satrap of Syria Belesys and Mazaeus, the satrap of Cilicia, to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes.
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The state was also ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally, the Yadava rule. The Buddhist Ajanta Caves in present-day Aurangabad display influences from the Satavahana and Vakataka style. The caves were possibly excavated during this period. The Chalukya dynasty ruled from the sixth to the eighth centuries CE, and the two prominent rulers were Pulakeshin II, who defeated the north Indian Emperor Harsha, and Vikramaditya II, who defeated the Arab invaders in the eighth century.
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The battle was the first major blow to the Medes, as this was the first time in a long time that Media had been defeated in a battle.Justin (Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus) I, 6 As Cyrus's first victory in the war, it did not go well with Astyages, the king of the Medes.Athenaeus (Deipnosophistae), 1.14 (633e) 6:419 It also caused the northern satraps to revolt, and ally their provinces with Persia.Fischer, W.B., Ilya Gershevitch, and Ehsan Yarshster, The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press (1993) p. 146-147.
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Perdiccas himself would become regent of the empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed full control. The other cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the empire. Ptolemy received Egypt; Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia; Philotas took Cilicia; Peithon took Media; Antigonus received Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia; Asander received Caria; Menander received Lydia; Lysimachus received Thrace; Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia; and Neoptolemus had Armenia.
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Perdiccas himself would become Regent of the entire Empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed full control. The other cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the Empire. Ptolemy received Egypt; Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia; Philotas took Cilicia; Peithon took Media; Antigonus received Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia; Asander received Caria; Menander received Lydia; Lysimachus received Thrace; Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia; and Neoptolemus had Armenia.
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Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with the Persian king's support of Thebes, decided to provide careful military support to the opponents of the Achaemenid king. Athens and Sparta provided support for the revolted satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes. Sparta sent a force to Ariobarzanes under an aging Agesilaus II, while Athens sent a force under Timotheus, which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king. An Athenian mercenary force under Chabrias was also sent to the Egyptian Pharao Tachos, who was also fighting against the Achaemenid king.
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The other satraps in inner Asia were quick to perceive their danger and united all their forces under Peucestas (also a former Somatophylax), the satrap of Persia, who defeated Peithon, and drove him from Parthia.Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 14,1-2. Peihton returned to Media, and then went on to Babylon to try and persuade Seleucus to back him in an attempt to reassert his authority. While in Babylon Eumenes and his army arrived from the west, Eumenes was gathering forces for a showdown with Antigonus Monopthalmus, the Strategos of Asia.
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109/8 BC onwards. Mithridates I's portrait on the obverse of a tetradrachm, showing him wearing a beard and a royal Hellenstic diadem on his head. The reverse shows Heracles-Verethragna, holding a club in his left hand and a cup in his right hand The Arsacid monarchs preceding Mithridates I are depicted on the obverse of their coins with a soft cap, known as the bashlyk, which had also been worn by Achaemenid satraps. On the reverse, there is a seated archer, dressed in an Iranian riding costume.
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The statuette before reconstitution. The Kharosthi letter śi was inscribed on the base of the statuette. It was initially assumed that the statuette had been produced at Mathura, but according to Dhavalikar, it is now thought that its place of production was Bhokardan since two similar figurines were discovered there. Bhodarkan was a part of the Satavahana territory and cultural sphere, although it might have been held for a few decades by the Western Satraps, who may have been the ones who provided an export route to the Roman world.
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According to the Iranologist Khodadad Rezakhani, Vonones belonged to the royal Arsacid family. Others, however, claim that he was an Indo-Scythian, regardless of his Parthian name. The legend of Vonones' coins also had the name of two of his commanders Spalahores and Spalirisos, who are referred to as "brother of the king". Scholars such as R.C. Senior and Rezakhani consider the two figures to indeed be Vonones' brothers, while others such as K.W. Dobbins argue that it was a honorific title given to them, whom he considered to be Saka satraps.
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Pharismanes received the satrapies of Parthia and Hyrcania under the Macedonian Empire. Pharismanes was a Parthian, son of Phrataphernes, who was appointed Hellenistic satrap of the Parthians and Hyrcanii after his father, circa 320 BCE. After Alexander had crossed the Gedrosian desert in 325 BCE, losing a large part of his army, he was met by Craterus in Carmania in December, who was bringing supplies to relieve the troops. Craterus was also accompanied by several Hellenistic satraps, among them Stasanor, satrap of Aria and Zarangia, and Pharismes, as satrap of Parthia and Hyrcania.
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The Satavahana dynasty of the northern Deccan and the Saka dynasty of the Western Satraps fought for the control of Madhya Pradesh during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE. The south Indian king Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty inflicted a crushing defeat upon the saka rulers and conquered parts of Malwa and Gujarat in the 2nd century CE.Ramesh Chandra Majumdar. Ancient India, p. 134 Northern India was conquered by the Gupta empire in the 4th and 5th centuries, which was India's "classical age". The Parivrajaka and the Uchchhakalpa dynasties ruled as feudatories of the Guptas in Madhya Pradesh.
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Despite Mentor's capable leadership, the rebellion failed, and Artabazus, Barsine and Memnon fled to Macedon, where they were welcomed by Philip II. Mentor fled to Egypt. Pharaoh Nectanebo II immediately enlisted the aid of the Greek mercenary, as he expected a Persian invasion was imminent. The pharaoh sent Mentor, at the head of 4000 mercenaries, to support Sidon, which had rebelled from Persia.Diod. 16.42.2 Although Mentor won significant victories against some of the satraps, he was unable to defeat Artaxerxes' army, and was captured in 346 BC. Upon his capture, Artaxerxes evidently recognized Mentor's skills, and pardoned him.
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Dynasty of Artaxiad According to the geographer Strabo, Artaxias and Zariadres were two satraps of the Seleucid Empire, who ruled over the provinces of Greater Armenia and Sophene respectively. After the Seleucid defeat at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, a coup by the Armenian noble family of Artashes toppled the Yervanduni dynasty and declared their independence, with Artaxias becoming the first king of the Artaxiad dynasty of Armenia in 188. Scholars believe that Artaxias and Zariadres were not foreign generals but local figures related to the previous Orontid dynasty, as their Irano-Armenian (and not Greek) names would indicate.Hovannisian pp.
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Rheomithres () was a Persian noble. He was father of several children, including Phrasaortes whom Alexander the Great appointed satrap of Persis in 330 BC. He joined in the Great Satraps' Revolt of the western Persian provinces from Artaxerxes II, in 362 BC, and was employed by his confederates to go to Tachos, pharaoh of Egypt, for aid. He came back with 500 talents and 50 warships and he is supposed to have left his wife and his children to Tachos as a guarantee for his assistance. Nevertheless, Rheomithres betrayed the rebels and he invited a number of them in a meeting.
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It may have been that the son and heir to the Armenian kingdom would rule another region, just as the son or heir to the Achaemenid Empire had always ruled an outlying region, such as Bactria or Hyrkania. Viewing it from this perspective it would make sense, as his father Orontes III was of the Orontid family. It is suggested that Samos founded the city of Samosata, which has been submerged by the Atatürk Dam since 1989. Shamash was a Babylonian god, equivalent to Mithra; it was a dramatic break from a seemingly continuous tradition of satraps with Armenian and Persian names.
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Authors like Isocrates, Demosthenes and Xenophon do not use it at all. But they do refer to its essential characteristics for each of the peace treaties which the 1st century BC historian Diodorus consistently refers to as a koine eirene. The fact that Diodorus based his account of the period from 386 to 361 on the contemporary author Ephorus makes it very likely that the term was in general use at the time.Ryder, Koine Eirene, S. 11–13 It also appears in mid-4th century BC inscription from Argos, known as the Reply to the Satraps, whose exact date and circumstances are unclear.
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Soon after the time of the author of the Periplus, Kutch was conquered by the Sah (140–380 CE), kings of Saurashtra, possibly of Western Satraps whose kingdom stretched from Tapi river to Sindh. Then probably after forming part of the Gupta Empire dominions, Kutch came about the end of the fifth century under the Maitrakas of Vallabhi. In the seventh century (about 640) Kutch was part of the province of Sindh. It is described by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang as lying 267 miles (1600 lis) south-west of the capital of Sindh, at that time Aror near Bhakar on the Indus.
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They defeated the hero of Mahabharatha war, and did spare him when he disclosed the identity of the members of the family of Sri Krishna. The Gopas, whom Krishna had offered to Duryodhana to fight in his support when he himself joined Arjuna's side, were no other than the Yadavas themselves, who were also the Abhiras.Ethnic history of Gujarat The Abhiras also have been described as Vrata Kshatriyas. The Abhiras did not stop in Rajasthan; some of their clans moved south and west reaching Saurashtra and Maharashtra and taking service under the Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps.
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Coin of Vashishtiputra Satakarni. Pulumavi's successor was his brother Vashishtiputra Satakarni. According to S. N. Sen he ruled during 120–149 CE; according to Charles Higham, his regnal years spanned 138–145 CE. He entered into a marriage alliance with the Western Satraps, marrying the daughter of Rudradaman I. The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I states that he defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha (Deccan), twice. It also states that he spared the life of the defeated ruler because of close relations: According to D. R. Bhandarkar and Dineshchandra Sircar, the ruler defeated by Rudradaman was Gautamiputra Satakarni.
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The Satavahanas were the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Kshatrapas he defeated. The Western Satraps themselves had been following the features of the coins of the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest. Thousands of lead, copper and potin Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region; a few gold and silver coins are also available. These coins do not feature uniform design or size, and suggest that multiple minting locations existed within the Satavahana territory, leading to regional differences in coinage.
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The connection between the 'Lycians' of Zeleia and these Lycians is unclear—if there is any connection at all. Arrian mentions it as the head-quarters of the Persian army before the Battle of the Granicus, in May 334 BCE, where the Persian satraps held a council at Zeleia where they discussed how best to confront Alexander the Great.Arrian Anabasis Alexandri 1.13 It existed in the time of Strabo; but afterwards it disappears. Arthmius () of Zeleia, was declared an outlaw in the territory of Athens and her allies together with his family, because he had brought the gold from Persian Empire into Peloponnese.
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Philip (; died 318 BC) was satrap of Sogdiana. He was first appointed to this position by Alexander the Great in 327 BC. He retained his post, as did most of the satraps of the more remote provinces, in the arrangements which followed the death of the king in 323 BC; but in the subsequent partition at Triparadisus in 321 BC, he was assigned the government of Parthia instead. Here he remained until 318 BC, when Peithon, who was then seeking to establish his power over all the provinces of the East, made himself master of Parthia, and put Philip to death.
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Alexander claimed that, while dying, Darius had named Alexander as his successor to the Achaemenid throne and had asked Alexander to avenge his death, a striking irony since it was Alexander who had pursued him to his death. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is considered to have fallen with the death of Darius. Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and executed this 'usurper'. The majority of the existing satraps were to give their loyalty to Alexander, and be allowed to keep their positions.
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Joraji Singh Badal (Badaliya-Panwar) founded Kenud Village around 1500 AD. The Nimar Region (earlier a part of Khandesh) was ruled by many emperors from many dynasties, which include Mauryas, Shungas, Satavahana dynasty, Kardamakas Western Satraps, Abhiras, Vakatakas, Guptas, Kalachuri, Vardhanas (of Harsha Vardhana fame), Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Paramaras. Since the mid-16th century to the early 18th century, the Nimar region, was under the rule of Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah, Peshwas, Sindhia, Holkar, Panwar, Marathas, and Pindaris. Later from the early part of the mid-18th century, the management of the Nimar region came under the British Raj. Which remained till 1947.
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The early Achaemenid period contained no representation of Ahura Mazda. The winged symbol with a male figure who was formerly regarded by European scholars as Ahura Mazda has been now speculated to represent the royal xvarənah, the personification of divine power and royal glory. However, it was customary for every emperor from Cyrus until Darius III to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses as a place for Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. The use of images of Ahura Mazda began in the western satraps of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 5th century BCE.
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The earliest coins found in Armenia date back to the 6 - 5th centuries BC. These are exclusive samples of silver coins of Achaemenian Iran, Miletus of Asia Minor and Athens of Greece. It is known that even in the 4th century BC Achaemenian dynasty satraps of Armenia Tiribazus and Orantas struck coins portraying their images. Coins were widely used in Armenia from the beginning of Hellenistic age (second half of the 4th century BC). Owing to international trade silver coins of Alexander the Great (336 - 323 BC) appeared in Armenian market from Asia Minor and Mesopotamia.
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During the Seleucid era, the Frataraka (local Persian shahs) ruled Pars at the time of the rebellion of Alexander, Molon's brother, against Antiochus III. That shows those local shahs shared power with Seleucid satraps or each of them ruled part of Pars separately. Also in the Parthian era, the local Persian shahs were entitled to mint coins with their own names like some other semi- dependent shahs of the Parthian Empire. During the time, the Persian governors called themselves "Frataraka", which probably meant "governor" based on its synonym achieved from the Aramaic documents of the Achaemenid era.
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Later Bharuch was part of the Mauryan Empire (322–185 BC), the Western Satraps, the Guptas and the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The Maurya period was between 322 and 185 BC. The post-Maurya period is mentioned between 185 BC and 23 AD. Princess of Sinhal, Sudarshana had built the Shakunika Vihara in the Bhragukutchh during the rule of Sampati (229–220 BC), and a Bharuch trader became responsible for the memories of the princess. This depicts trade relations between Laat and Ceylon. It was known to the Greeks and Romans as Barygaza, and probably had a settlement of Greek traders.
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Coin of Khosrow I (531–579) According to the book and as an ancient Iranian tradition, Ērānšahr is divided into four "mythologically and mentally"..rather than "real"; per Gignoux, cf. defined regions or sides called kusts. These parts/regions/sides of the state during and after Khosrow I, on the pattern of the four cardinal points, are (1) Xwarāsān “northeast”; (2) Xwarwarān “southwest”; (3) Nēmrōz “southeast”; and (4) Ādurbādagān “northwest”. The kusts were named diagonally beginning from northeast to southwest, and from southeast to northwest-a style likely following an Old Persian tradition in naming satraps.
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Several successors are known to have ruled as vassals to the Kushans, such as the Mahakshatrapa ("Great Satrap") Kharapallana and the Kshatrapa ("Satrap") Vanaspara, who are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of Kanishka (c. 130 CE), in which Kanishka mentions they are the governors of the eastern parts of his Empire, while a "General Lala" and Satraps Vespasi and Liaka are put in charge of the north.Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen New Age International, 1999, p.198 Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 p.
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Brahmi inscription: Kshaharatasa Kshatrapasa Bhumakasa. The Western Satraps are thought to have started with the rather short-lived Kshaharata dynasty (also called Chaharada, Khaharata or Khakharata depending on sources).Rapson, p. CVII The term Kshaharata is also known from the 6 CE Taxila copper plate inscription, in which it qualifies the Indo-Scythian ruler Liaka Kusulaka. The Nasik inscription of the 19th year of Sri Pulamavi also mentions the Khakharatavasa, or Kshaharata race."Kharoshthi inscription, Taxila copper plate of Patika", Sten Konow, p25 The earliest Kshaharata for whom there is evidence is Abhiraka, whose rare coins are known.
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The Western Satraps are known for the construction and dedication of numerous Buddhist caves in Central India, particularly in the areas of Maharashtra and Gujarat.Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 p.150 It is thought that Nahapana ruled at least 35 years in the region of Karla, Junnar and Nasik, giving him ample time for construction works there. Numerous inscriptions in the caves are known, which were made by the family of Nahapana: six inscriptions in Nasik Caves, one inscription at Karla Caves, and one by Nahapana's minister in the Manmodi Caves at Junnar.
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Coin of Rudrasimha II. Rudrasimha II (304–348) was a ruler of the Western Satraps He declared on his coins to be the son of a Lord (Svami) named Jivadaman. His coinage is coeval with that of other rulers, who may have been sub-kings and were his sons: Yasodaman II (317–332) and Rudradaman II (332–348). During his rule, a Saka ruler inscribed the Kanakerha inscription,Marshall, The Monuments of Sanchi p.392 on the hill of Sanchi mentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" (dharmaviyagi mahadandanayaka) Sridharavarman (339-368 CE).
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Coin of Yasodaman II. Yasodhaman II (317–332) was a son and probably sub-king of king Rudrasimha II of the Western Satraps He declared on his coins to be the son of Rudrasimha II.Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka dynasty, and the "Bodhi" dynasty, by British Museum. Dept. of Coins and Medals; Rapson, E. J. (Edward James) p.170 He was succeeded by another of Rudrasimha II's sons Rudradaman II (332–348). During his rule, a Saka ruler inscribed the Kanakerha inscription,Marshall, The Monuments of Sanchi p.
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Lord of Asia () was the title given to Alexander the Great after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. The title passed on to his successors (the Antigonids, Ptolemies and Seleucids; and, later, his son, Alexander IV) after his death in Babylon in 323 BC, though none of them held any actual power in Asia or any other part of the Hellenistic Alexandrian Empire; the actual power fell to the numerous regents or the rebellious Persian satraps. With the partition of his empire and the rise of the Diadochi, the title of Lord of Asia fell in abeyance.
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They, and all the rest of Anatolia were relatively soon after incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian Empire. As Persia grew in strength, their system of local government in Anatolia allowed many port cities to grow and to become wealthy. All of Anatolia got divided into various satrapies, ruled by satraps (governors) appointed by the central Persian rulers. The first state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the state of the Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC, which became the Satrapy of Armenia under Achaemenid rule.
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Arachosia, Aria and Bactria were the ancient satraps of the Achaemenid Empire that made up most of what is now Afghanistan during 500 BCE. Afghanistan fell to the Achaemenid Empire after it was conquered by Darius I of Persia. The area was divided into several provinces called satrapies, which were each ruled by a governor, or satrap. These ancient satrapies included: Aria: The region of Aria was separated by mountain ranges from the Paropamisadae in the east, Parthia in the west and Margiana and Hyrcania in the north, while a desert separated it from Carmania and Drangiana in the south.
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In the meantime Ariobarzanes revolted against Artaxerxes II in 367/366 BCE. Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with the Persian king's support of Thebes, decided to provide careful military support to his opponents. Athens and Sparta provided support for the revolted satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes: Sparta sent a force to Ariobarzanes under an ageing Agesilaus II, while Athens sent a force under Timotheus, which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king. An Athenian mercenary force under Chabrias was also sent to the Egyptian Pharaoh Tachos, who was also fighting against the Achaemenid king.
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The first three lines of the inscription consist in an eulogy of Ushavadata, and are written in fairly standard Sanskrit, except for a few hybrid features, including several sandhi hiatuses and hybrid morphology (e.g. bhojāpayitrā). The rest of the inscription records the actual donations, and is more hybrid. Ushavadatta is otherwise known for making inscriptions in Prakrit in the Karla Caves, which, especially for the eulogy portion, are largely similar in content. According to Richard Salomon, Ushavadatta may have followed the example set by the Northern Satraps of Mathura, in using Sanskrit in some of his inscriptions.
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Krath society is ruled by a theocracy and, unlike Diaspra, it is not a benevolent theocracy. While the valley has no effective external enemy, (negating the need for a significant field army), the Krath maintain large field armies because their satraps engage in a certain amount of "ritualistic" warfare to settle disputes (complete with laws of wars designed to avoid the massive damage an all-out fight would entail). The Krath consider themselves the center of the universe, with all other polities subject to them with extensive obeisance rituals. The Shesul Pass - A mountain pass that is on one of two roads from Kirsti to Mudh Hemh.
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Before Alexander and his army were able to cross at Hellespont, the Persian provincial governors, and others in power at that time in Persia, assembled their forces of 10-20,000 cavalry and 5-20,000 infantry to the town of Zelea. Memnon was a high-ranking Greek mercenary employed by the Persians, and he advised the Persians to lay waste to the land that Alexander would have to pass, depriving his army of food and supplies. This would make it harder for Alexander and his army to survive on their long journey before the battle. The satraps did not trust Memnon because of his nationality, and did not ravage their territories.
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Coin of Liaka Kusulaka, an imitation of coins of Eucratides. Liaka Kusulaka (Greek: Λιακο Κοζουλο, Liako Kozoulo, on his coins, Pali: Liaka Kusulaka or Liako Kusuluko) was an Indo-Scythian satrap of the area of Chukhsa in the northwestern South Asia during the 1st century BCE. Liaka Kusulaka is mentioned in the Taxila copper plate (British Museum). He is mentioned in the Taxila copper plate inscription (Konow 1929: 23-29), dated between 90 and 6 BCE, as the father of Patika Kusulaka, and is characterized as a "kshaharata" (also the name of the first dynasty of the Western Satraps) and as kshatrapa of Chukhsa.
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Herodotus, The Histories, p. 93. In the new empire they retained a prominent position; in honor and war, they stood next to the Persians; their court ceremony was adopted by the new sovereigns, who in the summer months resided in Ecbatana; and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and generals. At the beginning the Greek historians referred to the Achaemenid Empire as a Median Empire. After the assassination of the usurper Smerdis, a Mede Fravartish (Phraortes), claiming to be a scion of Cyaxares, tried to restore the Mede kingdom, but was defeated by the Persian generals and executed in Ecbatana (Darius I in the Behistun inscription).
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It has been surmised that Abdissares rose to kingship as a result of the disintegration of Greek Seleucid rule in the Near East. During this period, many local rulers took advantage of the Seleucid weakness to form their own kingdoms, such as Armenia, Sophene, Gordyene and Kommagene. On the obverse of Abdissares' coins, a portrait of him is displayed, wearing the same tiara worn by the satraps of Achaemenid era. The same type of tiara is worn by a king portrayed on the Batas-Herir rock relief in northern Iraq, which has led to the suggestion that the rock relief is a depiction of Abdissares.
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Darius III (c. 380 – July 330 BC), originally named Artashata and called Codomannus by the Greeks, was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, from 336 BC to 330 BC. Artashata adopted Darius as a dynastic name. His empire was unstable, with large portions governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his invasion of the Persian Empire and subsequently defeated the Persians in a number of battles before looting and destroying their capital, Persepolis, by fire in 330 BC. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexander's control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius.
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The Mathura lion capital is an important Indo-Scythian monument dedicated to the Buddhist religion (British Museum). In northern India, the Indo-Scythians conquered the area of Mathura over Indian kings around 60 BCE. Some of their satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, who were in turn followed by the Saca Great Satrap Rajuvula. The Mathura lion capital, an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital in crude style, from Mathura in northern India, and dated to the 1st century CE, describes in kharoshthi the gift of a stupa with a relic of the Buddha, by Queen Nadasi Kasa, the wife of the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura, Rajuvula.
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The famous "Katra Bodhisattava stele" is the only fully intact image of a "Kapardin" Bodhisattva remaining from the Kshatrapa period, and is considered as the foundation type of the "Kapardin" Buddha imagery, and is the "classical statement of the type". In conclusion, the canonical type of the seated Bodhisattva with attendants commonly known as the "Kapardin" type, seems to have developed during the time the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps were still ruling in Mathura, before the arrival of the Kushans. This type continued during the Kushan period, down to the time of Huvishka, before being overtaken by fully-dressed types of Buddha statuary depicting the Buddha wearing the monastic coat "Samghati".
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The Mitra dynasty refers to a group of local rulers whose name incorporated the suffix "-mitra" and who are thought to have ruled in the area of Mathura from around 150 BCE to 50 BCE, at the time of Indo-Greek hegemony over the region, and possibly in a tributary relationship with them.Indian Numismatic Studies K. D. Bajpai, Abhinav Publications, 2004, p.105 They are not known to have been satraps nor kings, and their coins only bear their name without any title, therefore they are sometimes simply called "the Mitra rulers of Mathura". Alternatively, they have been dated from 100 BCE to 20 BCE.
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Bhadayasa has some of the nicest coins of the Northern Satraps, in direct inspiration from the coins of the last Indo-Greek kings. The coinage of Sodasa is cruder and of local content: it represents a Lakshmi standing between two symbols on the obverse with an inscription around Mahakhatapasa putasa Khatapasa Sodasasa "Satrap Sodassa, son of the Great Satrap". On the reverse is a standing Abhiseka Lakshmi (Lakshmi standing facing a Lotus flower with twin stalks and leaves) anointed by two elephants sprinkling water, as on the coins of Azilises.The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M. Rosenfield, University of California Press, 1 janv.
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Arachosia, Aria and Bactria were the ancient more eastern satraps of the Achaemenid Empire that made up most of what is now Afghanistan during 500 B.C. The inhabitants of Arachosia were known as Pactyans, possibly today's Pakhtuns or Pashtuns. The city of Bactria (which later became Balkh), is believed to have been the home of Zarathustra, who founded the Zoroastrian religion. The Avesta refers to eastern Bactria as being the home of the Zoroastrian faith. Regardless of the debate as to where Zoroaster was from, Zoroastrianism spread to become one of the world's most influential religions and became the main faith of the old Aryan people for centuries.
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The site of Devnimori included numerous terracotta Buddhist sculptures (but no stone sculptures), which are among the earliest sculptures that can be found in Gujarat. The style is clearly influenced by the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2 The Indo-Scythian Western Satraps (1st century CE-405 CE) may have played a role in the transmission of the art of Gandhara to the western Deccan region, as may also have the southern expansion of the Alchon Huns in the 6th-7th century.
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Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire, conquered the Greek satraps left by Alexander, which belonged to Seleucus I Nicator of the Seleucid Empire. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka would then establish the largest empire in the Indian Subcontinent through an aggressive expansion. Ashoka converted to Buddhism following the destructive Kalinga War, abandoning further conquests in favor of humanitarian reforms.The Contribution of the Emperor Asoka Maurya to the Development of the Humanitarian Ideal in Warfare 30-04-1995 Article, International Review of the Red Cross, No. 305, by Gerald Draper Ashoka erected the Edicts of Ashoka to spread Buddhism and the 'Law of Piety' throughout his dominion.
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In the Milindapanha, his name is given as Milinda. A translation of the different fragments has been made: The characters are very clear and without ambiguity. The "Great King Menander" segment (𐨨𐨁𐨣𐨡𐨿𐨪𐨯 𐨨𐨱𐨪𐨗𐨯, Minadrasa Maharajasa) also reads clearly. Paleographically, the shape of the letters of inscriptions C and D correspond to the period of the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps of Taxila and Mathura in the 1st century BCE, and are lightly incised, almost only scratched, while the letters in A and B are characteristic of an earlier type, closer to the type of the Ashoka inscriptions in the Kharoshthi script, and are bold and deeply incised.
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The famous "Katra Bodhisattava stele" is the only fully intact image of a "Kapardin" Bodhisattva remaining from the Kshatrapa period, and is considered as the foundation type of the "Kapardin" Buddha imagery, and is the "classical statement of the type". In conclusion, the canonical type of the seated Bodhisattva with attendants commonly known as the "Kapardin" type, seems to have developed during the time the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps were still ruling in Mathura, before the arrival of the Kushans. This type continued during the Kushan period, down to the time of Huvishka, before being overtaken by fully-dressed types of Buddha statuary depicting the Buddha wearing the monastic coat "Samghati".
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Detail of a 15th- century map showing Anatolia, with Paphlagonia at top Paphlagonians were mentioned by Herodotus among the peoples conquered by Croesus, and they sent an important contingent to the army of Xerxes in 480 BC. Xenophon speaks of them as being governed by a prince of their own, without any reference to the neighboring satraps, a freedom perhaps due to the nature of their country, with its lofty mountain ranges and difficult passes. All these rulers appear to have borne the name Pylaimenes as a sign that they claimed descent from the chieftain of that name who figures in the Iliad as leader of the Paphlagonians.
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The state rulers governed their own territories and minted their own coinage distinct from the royal coinage produced at the imperial mints.; This was not unlike the earlier Achaemenid Empire, which also had some city-states, and even distant satrapies who were semi-independent but "recognised the supremacy of the king, paid tribute and provided military support", according to Brosius. However, the satraps of Parthian times governed smaller territories, and perhaps had less prestige and influence than their Achaemenid predecessors. During the Seleucid period, the trend of local ruling dynasties with semi- autonomous rule, and sometimes outright rebellious rule, became commonplace, a fact reflected in the later Parthian style of governance.
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Altogether, the caves contains six inscriptions of the family of Nahapana, but the Ushavadata inscription is particularly important in that it is the earliest known instance of the usage of Sanskrit, although a rather hybrid form, in western India. Most of the other inscriptions made by the Western Satraps were in Prakrit, using the Brahmi script. In what has been described as "the great linguistical paradox of India", Sanskrit inscriptions first appeared much later than Prakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language. This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influential Edicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE).
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Her concern turn out to be well founded (though she is not aware of it yet) since the Krath have sent word to the spaceport about the humans' presence. However, Temu Jin, after returning from the aborted "rescue mission", arranges things at the port so that he will receive any communiques from the Krath satraps to the Imperial Governor first and switches out the message about Roger's presence with a bogus message. As the days go by for Roger and his company in Kirsti, Cord and Pedi finally manage to go shopping for weapons and other items Pedi requires. Cord discovers that those other are clothes and cosmetics which make Pedi look entirely too attractive.
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Between the second century BCE and ninth century CE, the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties: Satavahanas, Western Satraps, Abhira, Vakataka, Kalachuris, Konkan Mauryas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, before being ruled by the Shilaharas from 810 to 1260. Some of the oldest edifices in the city built during this period are the Jogeshwari Caves (between 520 and 525), Elephanta Caves (between the sixth to seventh century), Walkeshwar Temple (10th century), and Banganga Tank (12th century). The Haji Ali Dargah was built in 1431, when Mumbai was under the rule of the Gujarat Sultanate. King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital in Mahikawati (present day Mahim).
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The "Mahakṣatrapa" title given to Sridharavarman in the Eran pillar inscription. Although Sridharavarman took the title of "Mahakshatrapa", the traditional title of the Western Satraps, he probably did not belong to the line of Chastana, the founder of the dynasty, and belonged to a different Saka family. He probably suffered a defeat against Gupta Emperor Samudragupta around 365 CE, who then occupied the area around Eran and made his own victorious inscription there. Sridharavarman is probably the "Saka" ruler mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, as having "paid homage" to the Gupta Emperor, forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".
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The Seleucids (312 to 63 BC) adopted a pro-western stance that alienated both the powerful eastern satraps and many Greeks who had migrated to the east. During the 2nd century BC, Greek culture lost ground in the Levant, and the Seleucid Empire began to break apart. The Seleucid decline continued, and the Roman Republic overran the Seleucid heartland in 65 BC. Judea, which had become independent under the Hasmonean dynasty (140 BC - 37 BC), was annexed by Rome in 63 BC and became Iudaea Province (6 - 135 AD), the period became notable for when the Jewish population was expelled from Jerusalem after the destruction of the second Temple c. 70 AD and dispersed all over the old world.
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Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1977, p. 640. The Orontids established their supremacy over Armenia around the time of the Scythian and Median invasion in the 6th century BC. Members of the Orontid dynasty ruled Armenia intermittently during the period spanning the 6th century BC to at least the 2nd century BC, first as client kings or satraps of the Median and Achaemenid empires who established an independent kingdom after the collapse of the Achaemenid empire, and later as kings of Sophene and Commagene who eventually succumbed to the Roman Empire. The Orontids are the first of the three royal dynasties that successively ruled the ancient Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–428 AD).
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Out of them the archer type is the most common and characteristic type of the Gupta dynasty coins, which were struck by at least eight succeeding kings and was a standard type in the kingdom. The silver coinage of Guptas starts with the overthrow of the Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also introduced some other new types. The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the nine types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuda and the name of the King on it.
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Mithridates (in Greek Mιθριδάτης; lived 4th century BCE), son of Ariobarzanes prince of Cius, is mentioned by Xenophon as having betrayed his father, and the same circumstance is alluded to by Aristotle. He may or may not be the same Mithradates who accompanied the younger Cyrus, or the same Mithradates mentioned by Xenophon as satrap of Cappadocia and Lycaonia in the late 5th century BCE. During the Satraps' Revolt in the 360s BCE, Mithridates tricked Datames to believe in him, but in the end arranged Datames' murder in 362 BCE. Similarly, Mithridates gave his own father Ariobarzanes of Phrygia to the hands of the Persian overlord, so Ariobarzanes was crucified in 362 BCE.
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Thus was the "Aravidu" dynasty of emperors born. The position of emperor however was an empty one, as the Vijayanagara Empire had de facto ceased to exist. The major feudatories of Vijayanagara, such as Mysore and Madurai, Keladi Nayaka, soon began to exert their independence in the period of anarchy that followed the rout of 1565, while various Muslim adventurers carved out their own fiefs under the nominal suzerainty of the Muslim overlords, being at first the Bahmani Sultans and later the Mughals. While the later Aravidu dynasty rulers never actually wielded power over the erstwhile empire, they nevertheless enjoyed immense prestige in the land, and often received homage from the great satraps of the empire.
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Seleucus unsuccessfully tried to campaign in India by invading what is now Punjab in northern India and Pakistan in 305 BC.The Encyclopedia of Military History, R Dupuy and E Dupuy p76 Meanwhile, in India, Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire with the help of Chanakya his guru and political advisor, rose to power by overthrowing the Nanda Empire in Pataliputra. His next course of action was to lead his armies into the Indus to battle with the Seleucid Empire and annex the satraps. The Seleucid-Mauryan War waged on for over two years, resulting in significant territorial and political change in the region. To resolve the conflict both parties finally settled upon a marriage alliance.
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However, Julian lacked the equipment to lay siege to the strongly fortified Ctesiphon, and the main Sassanid army, commanded by Shapur and far larger than the one just defeated, was closing in quickly. Also critical was the failure of Procopius to arrive with the 18,000 detachment of the Roman army that could have aided Julian in crushing Shapur's approaching force as he had intended. For as previously captured satraps had testified after being fairly treated by Julian, the capture or death of Shapur would have compelled the Persian city to open its gates to the new Roman conqueror. While Julian was in favor of advancing further into Persian territory, he was overruled by his officers.
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Gondophares became the ruler of areas comprising Arachosia, Seistan, Sindh, Punjab, and the Kabul valley, but it does not seem as though he held territory beyond eastern Punjab.Rosenfield, p129 Gondophares called himself "King of Kings", a Parthian title that in his case correctly reflects that the Indo-Parthian empire was only a loose framework: a number of smaller dynasts certainly maintained their positions during the Indo-Parthian period, likely in exchange for their recognition of Gondophares and his successors. These smaller dynasts included the Apracarajas themselves, and Indo-Scythian satraps such as Zeionises and Rajuvula, as well as anonymous Scythians who struck imitations of Azes coins. The Ksaharatas also held sway in Gujarat, perhaps just outside Gondophares' dominions.
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After a severe regency, military failure in Egypt, and mutiny in the army, Perdiccas was assassinated by his senior officers in May or June 321 or 320 BC (problems with Diodorus's chronology have made the year uncertain), after which Antipater was named as the new regent at the Partition of Triparadisus. He brought with him Roxana and the two kings to Macedon and gave up the pretence of ruling Alexander's Empire, leaving former provinces in Egypt and Asia under the control of the satraps. When Antipater died in 319 BC he left Polyperchon, a Macedonian general who had served under Philip II and Alexander the Great, as his successor, passing over his own son, Cassander.
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Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka dynasty, and the "Bodhi" dynasty, by British Museum. Dept. of Coins and Medals; Rapson, E. J. (Edward James) p.170 His rule is partly coeval with that of other rulers, who were his sons as written on their coins, and may have been sub-kings: Yasodaman II (317–332) and Rudradaman II (332–348). ;Contributions to Buddhism Under Rudrasimha II, the Western Satraps are known to have maintained their presence in the Central Indian areas of Vidisha/Sanchi/Eran well into the 4th century: during his rule, in 319 CE, a Saka ruler inscribed the Kanakerha inscription,Marshall, The Monuments of Sanchi p.
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The Achaemenid Empire (; ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire based in Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great. Ranging at its greatest extent from the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper in the west to the Indus Valley in the east, it was larger than any previous empire in history, spanning . It is notable for its successful model of a centralised, bureaucratic administration (through satraps under the King of Kings), for its multicultural policy, for building infrastructure such as road systems and a postal system, the use of an official language across its territories, and the development of civil services and a large professional army. The empire's successes inspired similar systems in later empires.
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22, 2009. The Orontids established their supremacy over Armenia around the time of the Scythian and Median invasion in the 6th century BC. Members of the Orontid dynasty ruled Armenia intermittently during the period spanning the 6th century BC to at least the 2nd century BC, first as client kings or satraps of the Median and Achaemenid empires who established an independent kingdom after the collapse of the Achaemenid empire, and later as kings of Sophene and Commagene who eventually succumbed to the Roman Empire. The Orontids are the first of the three royal dynasties that successively ruled the ancient Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–428 AD). Little is known about the origins of the Orontid dynasty.
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According to Lucian, he was at least eighty-four years of age at the time of his death, which makes it likely that he is the same person as the Mithridates, son of Ariobarzanes, who in his youth circumvented and put to death Datames. King Mithridates I of Pontus was his kinsman, although it is not known whether he was his son. Therefore, it is likely that he was the same Mithradates, son of Ariobarzanes prince of Cius, who is mentioned by Xenophon as having betrayed his father, and the same circumstance is alluded to by Aristotle. During the Satraps' Revolt in the 360s BC, Mithridates tricked Datames into believing in him.
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The Achaemenid Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, incorporating most of their vast empire. Several Hellenistic satraps of Persis are known, following the conquests of Alexander the Great, from circa 330 BC, especially Phrasaortes, who ruled from 330 to 324 BC, Oxines who usurped his position and was then executed by Alexander, and the Macedonian general Peucestas, who learned the Persian language and followed local customs, implementing a persophile policy. Peucestas retained the satrapy of Persis until the Battle of Gabiene (316 BC), after which he was removed from his position by Antigonus. A short period of Antigonid rule followed, until Seleucus took possession of the region in 312 BC.
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At the height of the lovers' passion, Beleso—an elder statesman—arrives suddenly, warning of war. He chides the king for not taking his role seriously, for forgetting his people’s needs, and ignoring the ‘inner voice of duty’. A band of rebel Satraps are readying forces against the empire, and Beleso invokes the ancient kings of Assyria in disgust (‘witness the error of your successor, forgetting the sceptre for a base slave mistress’) before urging the king to fight: ‘set aside the distaff, grasp the sword!’ Sardanapalo hesitates, fearing that violence leads only to the suffering of innocents (‘every glory is a lie, if it must be bought with the weeping of afflicted humankind’).
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The reason behind his use of the title is uncertain. Olbrycht (2010) has proposed that he adopted the title due to his victory over the nomads, while Grenet (2006) has proposed that Soter could be seen as a Mithraic title from an Iranian point of view, in connection to Mithra's role as a saviour in Zoroastrianism. Drachm of the Sasanian king Ardashir I () wearing the same type of tiara used by Mithridates II The early Arsacid monarchs are depicted on the obverse of their coins with a soft cap, known as the bashlyk, which had also been worn by Achaemenid satraps. From Mithridates I, the Hellenistic diadem was used by the Arsacid kings.
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When Alexander the Great died, the Greek successor state of the Seleucid Empire, created in the Babylonian War, retained control of much of the Persian Empire. The Babylonian Chronicles now show the vitality of Greek culture in ancient cities like Babylon. Whilst Greek rule beyond the Euphrates was subject to constant and eventually successful Iranian incursions, Assyria was forced to take the role of a frontier province, first defending the Seleucid Empire against the Parthians and later defending the Parthian Empire against the Romans. Greek rule in the East did not last long, although the cultural impact did - by the mid-third century BCE, the satraps began revolting against the Seleucid Empire in Iran and Bactria, establishing their own domains.
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A temporary revival of Seleucid power reestablished Imperial authority in these regions in the late 3rd and early 2nd century BCE, but afterward the Parthians came to incorporate the lands known as Assyria once again by the mid-second century BCE. Rule by the Parthian Empire aimed to emulate that of their Persian predecessors, the Achaemenids, with a similar system of administration involving satraps and smaller provinces. Indeed, the main rebel behind the rise of Parthia from Seleucia was a satrap himself.. On top of this, the Parthian Empire was more decentralized and power was shared amongst clan leaders, hinting at the possibility of the retention of the provinces. Mesopotamia became the heartland of the Seleucid Empire with a new capital, Seleucia, founded.
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One Sabbath they were surprised by the Parthian ruler of Babylonia, but they determined to fight regardless of the day of rest, and defeated their assailant so completely that the Parthian king Artabanus III (10-40 CE), who was just then engaged in putting down a rebellion, resolved to make use of such brave Jews to keep the satraps in check. He concluded an alliance with them, entrusting them with the control of that portion of Babylonia which they already occupied. They then built fortifications, and the little state lasted for fifteen years (c. 18-33). Its downfall was brought about by the marriage of Anilai with the widow of a Parthian general, whom he had attacked and killed in battle.
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Kamarupa, Guptas, Davaka, Licchavis, Pundravardhana, Samatata, Vakatakas, Western Satraps As a matter of fact the Imperial Guptas ceased to rule after the close of the fifth century and, as remarked by Vincent Smith, that line passed by an obscure transition into what is known as the dynasty of the "Later Guptas of Magadha". This dynasty did not exercise sovereignty even over the whole of Magadha, part of which came under the sway of the Varmans of Maukhari. Taking advantage of the decline of the Gupta power the Kamarupa kings appear to have extended their kingdom towards the west. Down to the end of the fifth century the tract of country between the Teesta and the Kosi formed the Pundravardhana Bhukti of the Gupta Empire.
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Coin of Phraates IV with Hellenistic titles such as Euergetes, Epiphanes and Philhellene (fond of Greek [culture]) Hellenistic-style helmet, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of Nisa, Turkmenistan, 2nd century BC Parthia was a north-eastern Iranian satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire which later passed on to Alexander's empire. Under the Seleucids, Parthia was governed by various Greek satraps such as Nicanor and Philip. In 247 BC, following the death of Antiochus II Theos, Andragoras, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting coins showing himself wearing a royal diadem and claiming kingship. He ruled until 238 BC when Arsaces, the leader of the Parni tribe conquered Parthia, killing Andragoras and inaugurating the Arsacid Dynasty.
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It is certain that when Leosthenes is first the subject of distinct mention, he was an officer of acknowledged ability and established reputation in war, but a proponent of Greek freedom and vehement opponent of Macedonian rule. Shortly before the death of Alexander, Leosthenes collected and brought over to Cape Taenarum a large body of the Greek mercenaries that had been disbanded by the different satraps in Asia, following Alexander's orders. As soon as the news of Alexander's death reached Athens, Leosthenes was despatched to Taenarus to engage the services of these 8,000 troops. Along with Athenian envoys who addressed the assemblies of many city-states, Leosthenes was instrumental in recruiting many Greek cities to the cause of Greek liberation.
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Achilleion () was a town of ancient Ionia. Xenophon records that, in 398 BCE, soldiers of Achilleion were part of the army that, under the command of the Spartan Dercylidas, faced troops of Achaemenid Empire led by the satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus II, who had crossed the river Maeander. At the meeting between both armies, the troops of Dercylidas, the Peloponnesians were ready to fight, but part of those of the cities of Priene and of Achilleion, and those of the islands and Ionian cities fled and those who remained would not resist. However, Tissaphernes sent some delegates to parley with Dercylidas and they reached an agreement by which they took guarantees and hostages and the armies withdrew, the Greeks to Leucophrys and the Persians to Tralles.
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The Partition of Triparadisus was a power-sharing agreement passed at Triparadisus in 321 BC between the generals (Diadochi) of Alexander the Great, in which they named a new regent and arranged the repartition of the satrapies of Alexander's empire among themselves. It followed and modified the Partition of Babylon made in 323 BC upon Alexander's death. Following the death of Alexander, the rule of his empire was given to his half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus and Alexander's son Alexander IV. However, since Philip was mentally ill and Alexander IV born only after the death of his father, a regent was named in Perdiccas. In the meantime, the former generals of Alexander were named satraps of the various regions of his empire.
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Such was the attachment to the traditional full democracy and the recognition of its general support, that despite the perceived foolishness of military and fiscal policies, incompetence in seeing them through, the vacuum of respectable leadership, the terrible fiscal burden placed upon them, and the fear of total annihilation, it was not the aristocrats of Athens who instigated the 411 BC coup. Instead, the idea was instigated from outside the city, by Alcibiades.Encyclopædia Britannica, The Peloponnesian War. Alcibiades, ostensibly working for the Spartans at the time, encouraged the ideas developing among the oligarchs by claiming he could secure much needed funds for Athens from Persian satraps in western Anatolia, such as Tissaphernes (who was giving him protection) under the promise that the democracy would end).
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It is not known is Rupiamma, as a "Great Satrap", should be undertood as a representative of the Kushan Empire, or as one of the Western Satraps, whose own political relationship with the Kushan is not clearly known. If Rupiamma belonged to the Kushan hierarchy, this would suggest that Kushan control extended this far south, beyond the generally accepted southern boundary formed by the Narmada river. According to the recently discovered Rabatak inscription, Kushan dominions expanded into the heartland of northern India in the early 2nd century CE. Lines 4 to 7 of the inscriptionFor a translation of the full text of the Rabatak inscription see: Mukherjee, B.N., "The Great Kushana Testament", Indian Museum Bulletin, Calcutta, 1995. This translation is quoted in: Goyal (2005), p.88.
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The earliest types of "Kapardin" statuary (named after the "kapardin", the characteristic tuft of coiled hair of the Buddha) showing the Buddha with attendants are thought to be pre-Kushan, dating to the time of the "Kshatrapas" or Northern Satraps. Various broken bases of Buddha statues with inscriptions have been attributed to the Kshatrapas. A fragment of such a stele was found with the mention of the name of the donor as a "Kshatrapa lady" named Naṃda who dedicated the Bodhisattva image "for the welfare and happiness of all sentient beings for the acceptance of the Sarvastivadas", and it is considered as contemporary with the famous "Katra stele". One of these early examples shows the Buddha being worshipped by the Gods Brahma and Indra.
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Minor scattered sites have been found as far away as Turkmenistan. Another name for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa in the Pakistani province of Punjab. The IVC were known to the Sumerians as the Meluhha, and other trade contacts may have included Egypt, Africa, however, the modern world discovered it only in the 1920s as a result of archaeological excavations and rail-road building. The births of Mahavira and Buddha in the 6th century BC mark the beginning of well-recorded history in the region. Around the 5th century BC, the ancient region of Afghanistan and Pakistan was invaded by the Achaemenid Empire under Darius in 522 BC forming the easternmost satraps of the Persian Empire.
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Coin of Arsaces, Nisa mint. In essence, Arsaces' coins "provided the prototype for all subsequent Arsacid coinage, although itself undergoing a few changes". Khodadad Rezakhani adds that his coins took many stylistic elements from Seleucids and earlier Achaemenid satrapal issues, but he nonetheless made several innovations that differentiated them from those of his predecessors. According to Alireza Shapour Shahbazi, on his coins, Arsaces "deliberately diverges from Seleucid coins to emphasize his nationalistic and royal aspirations"; the typical Seleucid figure of Apollo seated on the omphalos and holding a bow is replaced by an archer imitating Arsaces, who is seated on a stool (done in the same fashion as some Achaemenid satraps, such as Datames) whilst wearing Sakaian clothing and a soft cap, known as the bashlyk.
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Location of the Sasanian coinage of Sindh, circa 400 CE, in relation with the other polities of the time. After a period of control of the areas as far as Gandhara by the Kushano-Sasanians, the Sasanian Empire further expanded into the northwest of the subcontinent, particularly in the regions of Gandhara and Punjab, from the time of Shapur II circa 350 CE. Further south, as far as the mouth of the Indus river, the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as suggested by the Sasanian coinage of Sindh. It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in India, which put an end to the remnants of Kushan rule, was also made in part at the expense of the Western Satraps.
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Despite Eumenes' undeniable skills as a general, he never commanded the full allegiance of the Macedonian officers in his army and died as a result. He was an able commander who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia, but his efforts were frustrated by generals and satraps both nominally under his command and under that of his enemies. Eumenes was hated and despised by many fellow commanders—certainly for his successes and supposedly for his non-Macedonian (in the tribal sense) background and prior office as Royal Secretary. Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers.
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One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, who later occupied the Persian throne as Darius III. Artaxerxes III then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt. The order was however ignored by Artabazos II of Phrygia, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Athens sent assistance to Sardis. Orontes of Mysia also supported Artabazos and the combined forces managed to defeat the forces sent by Artaxerxes III in 354 BC. However, in 353 BC, they were defeated by Artaxerxes III's army and were disbanded.
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Salihli is a city with a long history. The fossil footprints discovered near the villages of Sindel and Çarıklar, Manisa, estimated to be between 10,000 and 26,000 years old, are the first traces of prehistory in the region. However, the region came to foremost importance with the establishment of the city of Sardes, which is located west of Salihli center and where the most remarkable historical artifacts and remains of the region are found. Sardes was the capital city of Lydia until 547 B.C., at which date it was captured by the Persian Empire and governed by satraps until 334 B.C.. After the Persians, the region was governed successively by the Macedonian Empire, the Kingdom of the Attalids, Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire.
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The earliest types of "Kapardin" statuary (named after the "kapardin", the characteristic tuft of coiled hair of the Buddha) showing the Buddha with attendants are thought to be pre-Kushan, dating to the time of the "Kshatrapas" or Northern Satraps. Various broken bases of Buddha statues with inscriptions have been attributed to the Kshatrapas. A fragment of such a stele was found with the mention of the name of the donor as a "Kshatrapa lady" named Naṃda who dedicated the Bodhisattva image "for the welfare and happiness of all sentient beings for the acceptance of the Sarvastivadas", and it is considered as contemporary with the famous "Katra stele". One of these early examples shows the Buddha being worshipped by the Gods Brahma and Indra.
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One passage in particular (see below) is very similarly worded in all accounts, although ironically this same passage contains most of the ambiguities that are to be found. It is possible there is a copying error in Justin's work; the name of a satrap often occurs adjacent to the satrapy that Diodorus allots them (but not directly associated with it). Pelasgia does not appear to have been the name of a real Persian or Greek satrapy and the insertion of this word may have shifted the satraps by one place in the list, dislocating them. In addition, Armenia (not mentioned as a satrapy in any other account) may be a mistake for Carmania (which occurs in the same place in Diodorus's list).
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The empire was divided into provinces ruled by satraps, who collected taxes and were typically local power brokers. The empire controlled about a third of the world's farm land and a quarter of its population. In 522, after King Cambyses II's death, Darius the Great took over power. As the population of Ancient Greece grew, they began a colonization of the Mediterranean region. This encouraged trade, which in turn caused political changes in the city-states with old elites being overthrown in Corinth in 657 and in Athens in 632, for example. There were many wars between the cities as well, including the Messenian Wars (743-742; 685-668), the Lelantine War (710-650), and the First Sacred War (595-585).
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PhilipII in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352BC at the Battle of Crocus Field, which led to PhilipII's election as leader (archon) of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding Nicesipolis, niece of the tyrant Jason of Pherae.; ; ; . Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting satraps and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Artabazos II, who was in rebellion against Artaxerxes III, was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general Memnon of Rhodes.
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In 323 BC, following the death of Alexander, Cappadocia was granted to Eumenes,. but he was unable to dislodge Ariarathes and consolidate his hold, as Cappadocia had not been properly subjugated by Alexander. This situation was exacerbated by Eumenes' failure to obtain support from the other Macedonian satraps.. He then turned to Perdiccas, regent of the incumbent Macedonian ruler Philip III Arrhidaeus (323–317 BC), who, needing to bring more loyal governors to his side, agreed to assist Eumenes in capturing Ariarathes's domain.. In the summer of 322 BC, Perdiccas, the royal court, and the battle-hardened royal Macedonian army entered Cappadocia.. Ariarathes, who was reputed to be quite wealthy, apparently managed to muster a force composed of locals and mercenaries to face Perdiccas,. but was defeated and captured.
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Coin of Spalirises as King of Kings Spalirisos (also spelled Spalirises) was an Iranian king who ruled Arachosia in the 1st century BCE. Before his rise to kingship, he served as a commander of Vonones of Sakastan, who had minted coins with his name and that of another commander, Spalahores, who are both referred to as "brother of the king". Scholars such as R.C. Senior and Khodadad Rezakhani consider Spalirisos and Spalahores to indeed be Vonones' brothers, while others such as K.W. Dobbins argue that it was an honorific title given to them, whom he considered to be Saka satraps. A major argument against the proposal of a blood relationship between Vonones and the two commanders was due to both of them having Saka names, contrary to Vonones' Parthian name.
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In 323 BC, the Seleucid Empire was founded by Seleucus I Nicator, a general of Alexander the Great. Stretching from Syria to the Indus River and comprising most of Alexander's realm, the Seleucid state was the most powerful of the Diadochi kingdoms that sprang up after Alexander's death. Quickly however, the Seleucids ran into trouble trying to maintain such an extended realm, facing constant warfare against the other Hellenistic states in the west and with unrest amongst their Iranian peoples in the east. Taking advantage of the Seleucids' preoccupation with the wars against a Celtic invasion of Asia Minor in the west, and the chaos of the Third Syrian War around 245 BC, Diodotus and Andragoras, the Seleucid satraps of Bactria and Parthia respectively, declared their remote provinces independent states.
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At the Battle of Issus, Darius III even caught Alexander by surprise and failed to defeat Alexander's forces.Prevas 47. Darius fled so far so fast that Alexander was able to capture Darius’ headquarters and take Darius’ family as prisoners in the process. Darius petitioned to Alexander through letters several times to get his family back, but Alexander refused to do so unless Darius would acknowledge him as the new emperor of Persia. Circumstances were more in Darius’ favor at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. He had a good number of troops who had been organized on the battlefield properly, he had the support of the armies of several of his satraps, and the ground on the battlefield was almost perfectly even, so as not to impede movement of his scythed chariots.
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These comments demonstrate that it was well understood in Rome that this new luxury of gardening originated in Persia. Lucullus had firsthand experience of the Persian gardening style, in the satraps' gardens of Anatolia ("Asia" to the Romans) and in Mesopotamia and Persia itself. As Plutarch pointed out, "Lucullus [was] the first Roman who carried an army over Taurus, passed the Tigris, took and burnt the royal palaces of Asia in the sight of the kings, Tigranocerta, Cabira, Sinope, and Nisibis, seizing and overwhelming the northern parts as far as the Phasis, the east as far as Media, and making the South and Red Sea his own through the kings of the Arabians." Lucullus' rural villas in the hills at Tusculum, near modern Frascati, and at Naples were also set in lavish garden settings.
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This passage seems to be directly derived from Diodorus, listing the satrapies in more-or-less the same order, cf. > He gave Arachosia and Cedrosia to Sibyrtius, Aria and Dranginê to Stasanor > of Soli, Bactrianê and Sogdianê to Philip, Parthia and Hyrcania to > Phrataphernes, Persia to Peucestes, Carmania to Tlepolemus, Media to > Atropates, Babylonia to Archon, and Mesopotamia to Arcesilaüs. Pelasgia does not appear in any other accounts, and does not seem to have been a real satrapy; it is possible that the insertion of this word has caused some of the satraps to shift by one place in the interpretation of Justin's passage.Note 1 In addition, Armenia, also not mentioned in any other accounts as a satrapy may be a mistake for Carmania (which appears in the same position in Diodorus's list).
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Waiting for the Barbarians (1980) by J. M. Coetzee depicts the unfair and inhuman situation of people dominated by settlers. To perpetuate and facilitate control of the colonial enterprise, some colonized people, especially from among the subaltern peoples of the British Empire, were sent to attend university in the Imperial Motherland; they were to become the native-born, but Europeanised, ruling class of colonial satraps. Yet, after decolonization, their bicultural educations originated postcolonial criticism of empire and colonialism, and of the representations of the colonist and the colonized. In the late 20th century, after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, the constituent Soviet Socialist Republics became the literary subjects of postcolonial criticism, wherein the writers dealt with the legacies (cultural, social, economic) of the Russification of their peoples, countries, and cultures in service to Greater Russia.
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Athens was the dominant power in the Aegean in the 5th century BC, following the repulse of the Achaemenids in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC). Athens, powered by the alliance formed under the Delian League, has even been called the Athenian Empire at that time, and formed the largest threat to the Achaemenid possessions in Asia Minor. Pharnabazus II is first recorded as satrap of this province in 413 BC, when he received orders from Darius II of Persia to send in the outstanding tribute of the Greek cities on the Ionian coast, tribute he had a hard time to obtain due to Athenian interference. Thucydides described this situation, faced by both satraps Pharnabazes and Tissaphernes: The assassination of the exiled Athenian general Alcibiades may have been organized by Pharnabazes, at the request of Sparta.
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What side he took in the Syrian Wars is unknown as most of the records of that era have been lost, though it is considered likely that he would have supported the Ptolemaic Kingdom against his large and powerful neighbour, the Seleucid Empire. Most sources give Orontes III as his father. After Orontes III died in 260 BC, there is no record for when Sames began his rule, only that his year of death is also 260 BC. This could be chronological error or it may be that Sames was meant to succeed Orontes III, but died in the same year. However it seems that Arsames I took control of Commagene, Sophene and Armenia after 260 BC. Commagene was outside the boundary of historic Armenia, yet the Armenian satraps remained in occupation of many regions of Anatolia, such as Cappadocia and Pontus.
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The twenty-six satraps established by Cyrus were never kings, but viceroys ruling in the king's name, although in political reality many took advantage of any opportunity to carve themselves an independent power base. Darius the Great gave the satrapies a definitive organization, increased their number to thirty-six, and fixed their annual tribute (Behistun inscription). Coin of Themistocles, a former Athenian general, as Achaemenid Empire Satrap of Magnesia, circa 465-459 BC The satrap was in charge of the land that he owned as an administrator, and found himself surrounded by an all-but-royal court; he collected the taxes, controlled the local officials and the subject tribes and cities, and was the supreme judge of the province before whose "chair" (Nehemiah3:7) every civil and criminal case could be brought. He was responsible for the safety of the roads (cf.
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In two inscriptions of king Antiochus I of Commagene on his monument at Nemrut, an Orontes, called Aroandes (son of Artasouras and husband of Artaxerxes's daughter Rhodogoune), is reckoned, among others, as an ancestor of the Orontids ruling over Commagene, who traced back their family to Darius I. Diodorus Siculus mentions another Orontes, possibly the same, that in 362 BC was satrap of Mysia and was the leader of the Satrap Revolt in Asia Minor, for which position he was well- suited because of his noble birth and his hatred of the king. Misled by his love of power and fraud, he betrayed his fellow satraps to the king. But he revolted a second time, probably owing to his dissatisfaction with the king's rewards, and launched several attacks, which were continued in the reign of the new king Artaxerxes III Ochus.
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Silver coin of Chandragupta II of Gupta Empire, in the style of the Western Satrap, with pseudo-Greek script on the obverse, 400 CE. Gold coins of Chandragupta II of Gupta Empire, 400 CE. The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. The splendid gold coinage of Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest examples of the purely Indian art that we possess. Their era starts from around 320 with Chandragupta I's accession to the throne. Son of Chandragupta I-Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta Empire had coinage made of gold only. There were seven different varieties of coins that appeared during his reign.
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In 315, when Antigonus began his operations against the forces allied against him, he sent a general named Ptolemy, a nephew of his, with an army to relieve Amisus, and to expel from Cappadocia the army loyal to Asander which had invaded that country. However, as Asander was supported by Ptolemy and Cassander, he was able to maintain his control of his territories. In 313 Antigonus decided to march against Asander and forced him to conclude a treaty with him under which he was required to surrender his whole army, to restore the areas he had expanded into back to the satraps who had previously controlled those areas, to regard his satrapy of Caria as subject to the gift of Antigonus, and to surrender his brother Agathon as a hostage. After a few days Asander breached this humiliating treaty.
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At its greatest extent, the Achaemenid Empire would encompass swaths of territory across three continents, namely Europe, Africa and Asia, stretching from the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. The largest empire of ancient history, with their base in Persis (although the main capital was located in Babylon) the Achaemenids would rule much of the known ancient world for centuries. This First Persian Empire was equally notable for its successful model of a centralised, bureaucratic administration (through satraps under a king) and a government working to the profit of its subjects, for building infrastructure such as a postal system and road systems and the use of an official language across its territories and a large professional army and civil services (inspiring similar systems in later empires),Schmitt Achaemenid dynasty (i.
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The Buddhist text Śrīdharmapiṭakanidānasūtra—known via a Chinese translation made in 472 CE—refers to the conquest of Pataliputra by Kanishka. A 2nd century stone inscription by a Great Satrap named Rupiamma was discovered in Pauni, south of the Narmada river, suggesting that Kushan control extended this far south, although this could alternatively have been controlled by the Western Satraps. Eastern reach as far as Bengal: Samatata coinage of king Vira Jadamarah, in imitation of the Kushan coinage of Kanishka I. The text of the legend is a meaningless imitation. Bengal, circa 2nd-3rd century CE. In the East, as late as the 3rd century CE, decorated coins of Huvishka were dedicated at Bodh Gaya together with other gold offerings under the "Enlightenment Throne" of the Buddha, suggesting direct Kushan influence in the area during that period.
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The ancient history of the island is unknown in either Hindu or Buddhist records. Archeological studies have uncovered many remains that suggest the small island had a rich cultural past, with evidence of human settlement by possibly the 2nd century BC. The Elephanta site was first occupied by Hinayana Buddhists, before the arrival of the Brahmans to the island, to raise a large stupa to the Buddha with seven smaller stupas around it, probably around the 2nd century BCE."Long before the Brahmans selected Elephanta for their temple to the Great God, the Hinayana Buddhists came to the island for more or less the same purpose, to raise a monument to the Buddha. To the early Buddhists a stupa was an object of supreme veneration..." in Coins of the Kshatrapas (Western Satraps) dating to the 4th century CE were found on the island.
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Portrait of Artaxerxes II Antalcidas, meanwhile, had entered into negotiations with Tiribazus, and reached an agreement under which the Persians would enter into the war on the Spartan side if the allies refused to make peace. It appears that the Persians, unnerved by certain of Athens' actions, including supporting king Evagoras of Cyprus and Akoris of Egypt, both of whom were at war with Persia, had decided that their policy of weakening Sparta by supporting its enemies was no longer useful.Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 554–5 After escaping from the blockade at Abydos, Antalcidas attacked and defeated a small Athenian force, then united his fleet with a supporting fleet sent from Syracuse. With this force, which was soon further augmented with ships supplied by the satraps of the region, he sailed to the Hellespont, where he could cut off the trade routes that brought grain to Athens.
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Mithridates II's son, also called Mithridates, would proclaim himself later Mithridates I Ktistes of Pontus. As the Encyclopaedia Iranica states, the most famous member of the family, Mithradates VI Eupator, although undoubtedly presenting himself to the Greek world as a civilized philhellene and new Alexander, also paraded his Iranian background: he maintained a harem and eunuchs in true Oriental fashion; he gave all his sons Persian names; he sacrificed spectacularly in the manner of the Persian kings at Pasargadae (Appian, Mith. 66, 70); and he appointed “satraps” (a Persian title) as his provincial governors. Iranica further states, and although there is only one inscription attesting it, he seems to have adopted the title “king of kings.” The very small number of Hellenistic Greek inscriptions that have been found anywhere in Pontus suggest that Greek culture did not substantially penetrate beyond the coastal cities and the court.
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Byron's visit to San Lazzaro as depicted by Ivan Aivazovsky (1899) In 1816, Byron visited San Lazzaro degli Armeni in Venice, where he acquainted himself with Armenian culture with the help of the monks belonging to the Mechitarist Order. With the help of Father Pascal Aucher (Harutiun Avkerian), he learned the Armenian language and attended many seminars about language and history. He co-authored Grammar English and Armenian in 1817, an English textbook written by Aucher and corrected by Byron, and A Grammar Armenian and English in 1819, a project he initiated of a grammar of Classical Armenian for English speakers, where he included quotations from classical and modern Armenian. Byron later participated in the compilation of the English Armenian dictionary (Barraran angleren yev hayeren, 1821) and wrote the preface, in which he explained Armenian oppression by the Turkish pashas and the Persian satraps and the Armenian struggle of liberation.
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Against this fraught background, Philip started the siege of Perinthos in July 340 BC. Perinthos occupied a strong position on a hill rising to 56 meters, with its own port. Philip did not have a large enough fleet to blockade the port, meaning that Perinthos could be supplied from outside; Philip would therefore have to assault the city.. Philip's engineers constructed siege towers (some allegedly 80 cubits high), battering rams and mines for the assault, and in a short time, a section of the wall was breached. However, fighting uphill through the city proved difficult, with the rings of houses providing impromptu defence lines for the Perinthians. Aid, both material and military, now began arriving at Perinthos; the Persian king ordered his satraps on the coast of Asia Minor to send money, food and weapons to the city, while the Byzantians sent a body of soldiers and their best generals.
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Verandah inscription mentioning the completion by Bhutapala This Great Chaitya cave, the largest in South Asia, was constructed between 50-70 CE, and 120 CE, during the reign of the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana, who recorded the dedication of the cave in an inscription.World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 ʻAlī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, 2008 p.42Southern India: A Guide to Monuments Sites & Museums, by George Michell, Roli Books Private Limited, 1 mai 2013 p.72"This hall is assigned to the brief period of Kshatrapas rule in the western Deccan during the 1st century." in Guide to Monuments of India 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu - by George Michell, Philip H. Davies, Viking - 1989 Page 374 Numerous donors, mainly local merchants, several of them Yavanas, and Buddhist monks and nuns provided donations for the construction of the chaitya cave, as recorded by their dedicatory inscriptions.
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Mithridates II's last years of rule took place in a period coined in scholarship as the "Parthian Dark Age," which refers to a period of three decades in the history of Parthian Empire starting from the death (or last years) of Mithridates II. It is referred to as a "Dark Age" due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns.; ; It is only with the beginning of the reign of Orodes II in , that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced. Coins, reliefs and Babylonian astronomical diaries label Gotarzes as the son and heir of Mithridates II. According to a heavily damaged relief at Behistun, Gotarzes had served as "satrap of satraps" under his father. After the death of Mithridates II in 91 BC, Gotarzes was proclaimed king at Babylon.
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Gupta art was preceded by Kushan art, the art of the Kushan Empire in northern India, which flourished between the 1st and the 4th century CE and blended the tradition of the Greco- Buddhist art of Gandhara, influenced by Hellenistic artistic canons, and the more Indian art of Mathura. In Western India, as visible in Devnimori, the Western Satraps (1st-4th century CE) developed a refined art, representing a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior to the rise of Gupta art, and which may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of the Ajanta Caves, Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward.The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2 In central India, the art of the Satavahanas had already created a rich Indian artistic idiom, as visible in Sanchi, which also influenced Gupta art.
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Compared paleography of the Dhanabhuti inscriptions in Bharhut and Mathura. The Brahmi letters in Bharhut (left) are close to those of Ashoka, while the Brahmi letters in Mathura (right) are similar to those of Sodasa circa 15 CE. The paleography of the Dhanabhuti inscriptions, when inscriptions from Bharhut and Mathura are compared, raises a few issues. The Brahmi script used in Bharhut is of a rounded type rather similar to the shapes of the script used at the time of Ashoka. The Brahmi script used in the Mathura inscription is more angular and typical of the Northern Satraps period in the 1st century CE. In particular, the script of the Mathura inscription is considered as virtually identical with the script used by the Northern Satrap Sodasa in Mathura circa 15 CE. According to Cunningham, because of these paleographical differences, the Dhanabhuti of Bharhut and the Dhanabhuti of Mathura were at least separated by 50 years, and the latter may have been the grandson of the former.
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The Hecatomnids, the dynasty founded by Hecatomnus, were officially satraps of the Persian Empire but Greek in language and culture, as their inscriptions and coins witness. Mylasa was their capital and the mausoleum of Hecatomnus can still be seen today which served as an architectural precedent from which the later mausolea of the dynasty developed. During the long and striking reign of Mausolus, they became virtual rulers of Caria and of a sizable surrounding region between 377-352 BC. During Mausolus's reign the capital was moved to Halicarnassus, but Mylasa retained its importance. Mausolus was the builder of the famous Ancient Wonder of the World, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. In the 1st century BC the two major, and antagonistic, politicians of the city were Euthydemos (in Greek Εὐθύδημος) and Hybreas (Ὑβρέας) and, when the first died, the second spoke at his funeral coining the proverbial phrase ”You are a necessary evil: we can live neither with you nor without you”.
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The great satrapies (provinces) were often divided into smaller districts, the governors of which were also called satraps and (by Greco-Roman authors) also called hyparchs (actually Hyparkhos in Greek, 'vice-regents'). The distribution of the great satrapies was changed repeatedly, and often two of them were given to the same man. Achaemenid Satrap Autophradates receiving visitors, on the Tomb of Payava, circa 380 BC. As the provinces were the result of consecutive conquests (the homeland had a special status, exempt from provincial tribute), both primary and sub- satrapies were often defined by former states and/or ethno-religious identity. One of the keys to the Achaemenid success (as with most enduring great empires) was their open attitude to the culture and religion of the conquered people, so the Persian culture was the one most affected as the Great King endeavoured to meld elements from all his subjects into a new imperial style, especially at his capital, Persepolis.
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According to Hermann Bengtson, Hippostratos occupied an intermediate position between a full strategos of the Upper Satrapies, and a provincial satrap; Hippostratos thus likely commanded the troops of the royal army (the βασιλική δύναμις) stationed in the eastern provinces, while the satraps commanded only their local levies. Hippostratos' appointment was a temporary expediency, and in 315, Antigonos named his general Nikanor as strategos over Media and the Upper Satrapies. The fact that the institution of the post coincided with Antigonos' departure from Babylonia for the Mediterranean to fight against his rivals, and the absence of similar arrangements in the western provinces of his realm, where he was present in person, show that the post was meant to provide for the security of the eastern provinces while Antigonos himself was absent and preoccupied in the west. Nikanor remained in control of the Antigonos' eastern provinces until the invasion of Babylonia by Seleukos I in 312, when he marched to confront him but fell in battle.
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Sketch of the rock relief portraying Mithridates II and four grandees at Mount Behistun At Mount Behistun in western Iran, there is a rock relief which depicts four figures paying respect to a fifth figure. The relief, along with its Greek inscription, heavily damaged, was partly reconstructed by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld (d. 1948), and reads the following: Rahim M. Shayegan (2011), has suggested, contrary to other scholars, that the rock relief was not constructed during the reign of Mithridates II, but during that of his son and successor Gotarzes, perhaps as an attempt to stress the legitimacy of his sovereignty by portraying the prestigious status of himself and his officers during Mithridates II's kingship. He identifies the first figure with the Parthian satrap Kofzad; the second figure with the Parthian commander Mitratu, who first rose to an distinguished position under Gotarzes; the third figure with Gotarzes' son and heir Orodes; and the fourth with Gotarzes himself, who served as "satrap of satraps" under his father.
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Of all the major satraps appointed on the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC), Ptolemy (323–283 BC) settled into his new province of Egypt and Libya with the least difficulty, controlling much of the Levant and at times south-eastern Anatolia. This was confirmed following the third partition following the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. However, a series of Syrian Wars (274–168 BC) between the Ptolomies and the Seleucids varied the degree of control they had in Anatolia. The First Syrian War (274–271 BC) fought by Ptolemy I's son and successor Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283–246 BC) resulted in extending these possessions to include Caria, Lycia, Cilicia, and Pamphylia, as well as the Aegean islands, only to lose some of them in the second war (260–253 BC). The territorial extent of the Ptolemies reached its zenith under Ptolemy III Euergetes (246–222 BC) and the third (Laodicean) war (246–241 BC).
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Sketch of the rock relief portraying Mithridates II and four grandees at Mount Behistun At Mount Behistun in western Iran, there is a rock relief which depicts four figures paying respect to a fifth figure. The relief, along with its Greek inscription, heavily damaged, was partly reconstructed by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld (d. 1948), and reads the following: Rahim M. Shayegan (2011), has suggested, contrary to other scholars, that the rock relief was not constructed during the reign of Mithridates II, but during that of his son and successor Gotarzes, perhaps as an attempt to stress the legitimacy of his sovereignty by portraying the prestigious status of himself and his officers during Mithridates II's kingship. He identifies the first figure with the Parthian satrap Kofzad; the second figure with the Parthian commander Mitratu, who first rose to a distinguished position under Gotarzes; the third figure with Gotarzes' son and heir Orodes; and the fourth with Gotarzes himself, who served as "satrap of satraps" under his father.
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Spalahores (also spelled Spalohres or Spalahora) was an Iranian king who ruled Sakastan in the 1st-century BC. Before his rise to kingship, he served as a commander of his predecessor, Vonones, who had minted coins with his name and that of another commander, Spalirisos, who are both referred to as "brother of the king". Scholars such as R.C. Senior and Khodadad Rezakhani consider Spalahores and Spalirisos to indeed be Vonones' brothers, while others such as K.W. Dobbins argue that it was an honorific title given to them, whom he considered to be Saka satraps. A major argument against the proposal of a blood relationship between Vonones and the two commanders was due to both of them having Saka names, contrary to Vonones' Parthian name. Saghi Gazerani has suggested that after the Arsacid re-conquest of Sakastan (sometime between 124–115 BC), which was given as a fiefdom to the Surenid general that led the expedition, the Surenids (who became independent after 88 BC) and Sakas became closely connected, presumably through alliances and intermarriages.
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Orontes II (Armenian: Երուանդ , Yervand ) was a Persian noble living in the 4th century BC. He is probably to be identified as the satrap of Armenia under Darius III, and may in fact have succeeded Darius in this position when Darius ascended the throne of Persia in 336 BC. Arrian lists Orontes and a certain Mithraustes as two commanders of Armenian forces in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC.Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander, iii. 8 The interpretation of this passage is controversial, with different historians interpreting it as indicating that Mithraustes commanded the infantry, or that there were two different contingents of Armenian cavalry in this battle, or even that Armenia was divided into two parts ruled by two satraps. Orontes fought at the Battle of Gaugamela on the Persian right flank with 40,000 units of infantry and 7,000 of cavalry under his command, where he died. His son, Mithrenes, Satrap of Lydia, had joined Alexander the Great after being defeated at Sardis in 334 BC, and fought at Gaugamela on the side of Alexander.
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Andrew Burn, Edward Anson and Waldemar Heckel consider this satrap to be the same Orontes who fought for Darius III in the Battle of Gaugamela; Anson and Heckel state that Mithrenes may have perished in an unsuccessful attempt to wrest Armenia from Orontes. Heckel stated that in all likehood Armenia, which was bypassed by the Macedonian army, was never part of Alexander's empire. Anson, on the other hand, considered it likely that at some point after the Battle of Gaugamela Orontes made his submission to Alexander, who later put him in charge of the Greater Armenia. N. G. L. Hammond interpreted the sources as indicating that Armenia was already in submission when Mithrenes was sent there from Babylon late in 331 BC, that Mithrenes took it over as satrap ruling on behalf of the new Macedonian regime, and that he was left as satrap in 323 BC when Perdiccas let some satrapies remain under the existing satraps; in 317 BC Mithrenes was no longer satrap but had been replaced by Orontes.
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In the subsequent divisions involving the eastern satraps, Sibyrtius was one of those who supported Peucestas against Peithon and Seleucus, and afterwards accompanied Peucestas when he joined Eumenes in Susiana in 317. His attachment was to Peucestas and not to Eumenes, and in Peucestas' subsequent intrigues against his commander-in-chief, Sibyrtius supported him so strongly that he incurred Eumenes' strong resentment, who threatened to bring him to trial; a fate from which he only escaped by a hasty flight. Sibyrtius' open rupture with Eumenes had the advantage of securing him the favour of Antigonus, who, after the defeat of his rival, confirmed Sibyrtius in his satrapy, and placed under his command a large part of the select body of troops termed Argyraspids. Antigonus adopted this measure with the ostensible object of guarding the Eastern provinces against the neighbouring Indians, but in reality Antigonus has in mind the gradual destruction of the troops in question, whose turbulent and disaffected spirit was well known.. According to Arrian, Megasthenes lived in Arachosia at the court of Sibyrtius, and travelled as an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra.
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During the reign of Rudradaman, circa 150 CE, it is also known that the Greek writer Yavanesvara translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit, for "the use of those who could not speak Greek", a translation which became an authority for all later astrology works in India. The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can also probably be attributed to the influence of the Western Satraps, who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "a Nagarjunakonda memorial pillar inscription of the time of King Rudrapurusadatta attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and the Iksvaku rulers of Nagarjunakonda". The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century to early 4th-century CE. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and to the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism, and parts of them reflect both standard Sanskrit and hybridized Sanskrit. An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd-century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism.
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Although successful against the Greeks, Artaxerxes II had more trouble with the Egyptians, who had successfully revolted against him at the beginning of his reign. An attempt to reconquer Egypt in 373 BC was completely unsuccessful, but in his waning years the Persians did manage to defeat a joint Egyptian–Spartan effort to conquer Phoenicia. He quashed the Revolt of the Satraps in 372–362 BC. He is reported to have had a number of wives. His main wife was Stateira, until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes II's mother Parysatis in about 400 BC. Another chief wife was a Greek woman of Phocaea named Aspasia (not the same as the concubine of Pericles). Artaxerxes II is said to have had more than 115 sons from 350 wives. In 358 BC Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes III. In 355 BC, Artaxerxes III forced Athens to conclude a peace which required the city's forces to leave Asia Minor and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies. Artaxerxes started a campaign against the rebellious Cadusians, but he managed to appease both of the Cadusian kings.
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Panorama of Persepolis An incomplete schematic blueprint of Persepolis; note – C: Apadana Hall, G: "Talar-i-Takht" or hall of 100 column, N: "Tachar" or palace of Darius, H: "Hadish" or Palace of Xerxes the Great, B:"Darvazeh-i-Mellal" or gate of all nations, F: Trypilon; Not shown (behind the reference text): "khazaneh" (treasury) A well- preserved Persian column showing the details of the capital of the columns in Persepolis Persepolis is the Latinized version of the Old Persian name, "Parsa" literally meaning the "city of Persians." Another spectacular achievement of the Achaemenids, Persepolis became one of the four capitals of the empire. Initiated by Darius the Great around 518 B.C.E., it would grow to become a center for ceremonial and cultural festivities, a center for dignitaries and visitors to pay homage to the king, a private residence for the Persian kings, a place for satraps to bring gifts for the king in the Spring during the festival of Nowruz, as well as a place of governance and ordinance. Persepolis's prestige and grand riches were well known in the ancient world, and it was best described by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus as "the richest city under the sun".
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