To an electrical power plant, a city is just a giant resistor; to the "grid," a house is also just a big resistor.
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The problem is that the Raspberry Pi 4's charging port shares a single resistor between two of its pins, which the official USB-C spec says should have one resistor each.
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In 2008, he cofounded the NYC Resistor hackerspace in Brooklyn.
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A RESISTOR helps control the flow of electricity during operations.
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The instruction also suggests adding a resistor to weaken the laser brightness.
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The Luton-based company said it decided to recall the cars to replace the current soldered fuse resistor with a wax fuse resistor, further to an announcement in December, when the carmaker identified an overheating issue that could possibly cause fire.
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Commute - be sure to get a N95 certified resistor mask to handle PM2.5 particulates.
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While soldering parts one day, he accidentally attached the wrong resistor to a circuit board.
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And there's a missing CC resistor that let sophisticated chargers negotiate current with the device.
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The authors write that the droplet acted as the resistor while the surface coating acted as the capacitor.
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A memristor is basically a normal resistor (an electrical component that limits current) with a memory of sorts.
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There are groups like NYC Resistor, the Startup Guild (cheap plug), and all the freaky events run by FirstMark.
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As one might surmise, a memristor is a resistor that comes equipped with its memory, or is its own memory.
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If you know the current going through a known resistor (inside the voltmeter), you can calculate the change in electric potential.
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The NTU scientists took bamboo chopsticks, stuck a force-sensing resistor on one end, and placed them in a fracture machine.
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It's clear on "Resistor" that Ms. Lynn has soaked up some Chrissie Hynde and perhaps Lana Del Rey, along with Patsy Cline.
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A few years ago at the NYC Resistor Interactive Show, we had Flapple Bird, a real retro game for the Apple 2.
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A year later, he launched a Brooklyn-based startup with friends Adam Mayer and Zach Smith (also a NYC Resistor cofounder) called MakerBot.
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The IUDs were designed in a CAD program, 3-D printed in China, and wrapped in copper wire during gatherings at Brooklyn's NYC Resistor.
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Again from the CDD:Type-C devices MUST detect 1.5A and 3.0A chargers per the Type-C resistor standard and it must detect changes in the advertisement.
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And for those who live in areas that will be too hot to rep a beanie during late April, she's also created resistor knit headbands and armbands.
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He then 3D printed an iPhone-sized enclosure he found on Thingiverse, and combined the board, a battery, a boost converter, and resistor to make a lightweight case.
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He got the solder gun out and went to work, soldering two wires to the tiny resistor and a guitar knob he pulled out his collection to control the speed.
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After linking up with an engineer at the hackerspace NYC Resistor, the birthplace of MakerBot, they built a prototype, started knocking on investors' doors, and found a manufacturer in Mexico.
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But batteries can only handle taking back a percentage of what they put out, and also can't recover energy when the battery is fully charged, so the resistor acts as an overflow.
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The AirU program has students building their own particulate-matter sensors, starting with toy blocks, a cheap Arduino computer board, and a photo resistor that scatters light to detect particles of pollution.
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This makes Fani a resistor too, but not in the way we tend to think of resistance these days, when authoritarian and nationalism-driven evil are rising in many parts of the world.
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The mechanics have also been updated and Jamboxx now uses a zero-friction optical sensor instead of a linear potentiometer (a three terminal resistor with a sliding contact) that is less expensive and more durable.
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A big part of this, co-founder and CTO Kilian Green explains to me, is that the Mellow team built a resistor into the housing that helps take some of the brunt of the regenerative braking.
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Thanks to a collaboration with hacker collective NYC Resistor, the Snowflakes wore tutus encrusted with LED lightbulbs connected to a motion sensor, which, like a snowstorm, would sparkle while they pranced and gradually fade as they paused.
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With LED bulbs, many have built-in mechanisms called drivers to gradually transform the current to the voltage needed to light up the bulb, as well as a resistor to keep it at a constant level thereafter.
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The upper atmosphere of Jupiter acts like a resistor in any electrical circuit, or the filament in a light bulb—the neutral molecules act to stop ions flowing, so as the ions move through the atmosphere, the current generates a lot of heat.
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I mean, you could copyright a specific layout, so you have the resistor laying perpendicular to the capacitor, but if you went in and made yours, and had them parallel to each other, you could argue that it isn't the same product.
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If even Kid Rock can eventually realize the error of his ways and Axl Rose can go from redneck to resistor, then Eminem's pivot to radical anti-government freedom fighter isn't too nonsensical by comparison, even if people went a little too crazy over that BET Hip-Hop Awards cypher.
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On her 2016 album "Resistor," she joined contemporary indie with moody 7183s country, and now she is touring in support of a new album of acoustic duets called "Plays Well With Others" (out on Friday) with artists such as John Paul White (the Civil Wars), Shovels & Rope and Rodney Crowell.
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In 2007, Pettis and fellow makers Zach Smith and Adam Mayer holed up in New York City makerspace NYC Resistor and set out to build their own machine based on RepRap's open-source schematics, fueled by, the way Pettis tells it, ramen, caffeine and a $25,000 laser cutter members of the space had chipped in to buy.
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Hudson, who worked in the past for Sandia National Labs and now runs his own security consultancy, found a spot on the Supermicro board where he could replace a tiny resistor with his own chip to alter the data coming in and out of the BMC in real time, exactly the sort of attack that Bloomberg described.
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Hudson argues, however, that a real attacker with the resources to fabricate custom chips—a process that would likely cost tens of thousands of dollars—could have carried out a much more stealthy version of the attack, fabricating a chip that carried out the same BMC-tampering functions and fit into a much smaller footprint than the resistor.
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The reason, in part, is that Senate Minority Leader Chuck SchumerCharles (Chuck) Ellis SchumerJohnson eyes Irish border in Brexit negotiations Lewandowski on potential NH Senate run: If I run, 'I'm going to win' Appropriators warn White House against clawing back foreign aid MORE, "Master Resistor" that he is, has demanded a maximum floor debate time of 30 hours for an unprecedented number of Trump appointees, invoking a procedure known as cloture.
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Noise (electronics)#Thermal noise Thermal noise in a resistor. Resistor in liquid nitrogen. Resistor in boiling water.
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Iron–hydrogen resistor for Iron–hydrogen resistor (barretter) An iron–hydrogen resistor consists of a hydrogen-filled glass bulb (similar to a light bulb), in which an iron wire is located. This resistor has a positive temperature coefficient of resistance. This characteristic made it useful for stabilizing circuits against fluctuations in power-supply voltages.Power Supply Stages.
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The burning operation can be conducted while the circuit is being tested by automatic test equipment, leading to optimum final values for the resistor(s) in the circuit. The resistance value of a film resistor is defined by its geometric dimensions (length, width, height) and the resistor material. A lateral cut in the resistor material by the laser narrows or lengthens the current flow path and increases the resistance value. The same effect is obtained whether the laser changes a thick-film or a thin-film resistor on a ceramic substrate or an SMD-resistor on a SMD circuit.
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In addition to the biasing resistor R1, Ruan Lourens strongly recommends a series resistor Rs between the output of the inverter and the crystal. The series resistor Rs reduces the chance of overtone oscillation and can improve start-up time. This second resistor Rs isolates the inverter from the crystal network. This would also add additional phase shift to C1.
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A resistor ladder is an electrical circuit made from repeating units of resistors. Two configurations are discussed below, a string resistor ladder and an R–2R ladder. An R–2R ladder is a simple and inexpensive way to perform digital-to-analog conversion, using repetitive arrangements of precise resistor networks in a ladder-like configuration. A string resistor ladder implements the non-repetitive reference network.
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Grid Resistors: High Power/High Current. Milwaukeeresistor.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-14. The term grid resistor is sometimes used to describe a resistor of any type connected to the control grid of a vacuum tube. This is not a resistor technology; it is an electronic circuit topology.
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The column effluent flows over one of the resistors while the reference flow is over a second resistor in the four-resistor circuit. TCD schematic A schematic of a classic thermal conductivity detector design utilizing a Wheatstone bridge circuit is shown. The reference flow across resistor 4 of the circuit compensates for drift due to flow or temperature fluctuations. Changes in the thermal conductivity of the column effluent flow across resistor 3 will result in a temperature change of the resistor and therefore a resistance change which can be measured as a signal.
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The value of a resistor can be measured with an ohmmeter, which may be one function of a multimeter. Usually, probes on the ends of test leads connect to the resistor. A simple ohmmeter may apply a voltage from a battery across the unknown resistor (with an internal resistor of a known value in series) producing a current which drives a meter movement. The current, in accordance with Ohm's law, is inversely proportional to the sum of the internal resistance and the resistor being tested, resulting in an analog meter scale which is very non-linear, calibrated from infinity to 0 ohms.
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The thermal noise of a practical resistor may also be larger than the theoretical prediction and that increase is typically frequency-dependent. Excess noise of a practical resistor is observed only when current flows through it. This is specified in unit of μV/V/decade – μV of noise per volt applied across the resistor per decade of frequency. The μV/V/decade value is frequently given in dB so that a resistor with a noise index of 0 dB exhibits 1 μV (rms) of excess noise for each volt across the resistor in each frequency decade.
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This involves applying the operating voltage for some 10 minutes over a current limiting resistor to the terminals of the capacitor. Applying a voltage through a safety resistor repairs the oxide layers.
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While the power supply is on, a small current flows through the bleeder resistor, wasting a small amount of power. The value of the resistor is chosen to be low enough that the charge on the capacitor bleeds off quickly, but high enough that the resistor will not consume too much power while the supply is on.
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If the PIN diode is equipped with 3 kΩ working resistor to operate in flat band mode, the range is reduced to about 30% due to thermal noise from the 3 kΩ resistor.
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In electronics, a bleeder resistor is a resistor connected in parallel with the output of a high-voltage power supply circuit for the purpose of discharging the electric charge stored in the power supply's filter capacitors when the equipment is turned off, for safety reasons. It eliminates the possibility of a leftover charge causing electric shock if people handle or service the equipment in the off state, believing it is safe. A bleeder resistor is usually a standard resistor rather than a specialized component.
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RMA resistor color code guide, ca. 1945–1950 Before industry standards were established, each manufacturer used their own unique system for color coding or marking their components. In the 1920s, the RMA resistor color code was developed by the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA) as a fixed resistor coloring code marking. In 1930, the first radios with RMA color coded resistors were built.
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Open collector drivers operate over a wide range of signal voltages and often can sink significant output current, making them useful for directly driving current loops, opto-isolators and fiber optic transmitters. Because it cannot source current, an open-collector driver must be connected to a positive DC voltage through a pull-up resistor. Some encoders provide an internal resistor for this purpose; others do not and thus require an external pull-up resistor. In the latter case, the resistor typically is located near the encoder interface to improve noise immunity.
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Ohm's Law is the observation that the voltage drop across a resistor is proportional to the current going through it. This relationship can be used to sense currents. Sensors based on this simple relationship are well known for their lower costs, and reliability due to this simple principle. Shunt resistor The common and simple approach to current sensing is the use of a shunt resistor.
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The brain acts only as some kind of resistor, not as a memory.
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In normal operation this resistor drew 2.4 amperes (28.8 watts), getting fairly hot.
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Conceptual symmetries of resistor, capacitor, inductor, and memristor. Chua in his 1971 paper identified a theoretical symmetry between the non-linear resistor (voltage vs. current), non-linear capacitor (voltage vs. charge), and non-linear inductor (magnetic flux linkage vs. current).
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The classic current probe is a low valued resistor (a "sampling resistor" or "current shunt") inserted in the current's path. The current is determined by measuring the voltage drop across the resistor and using Ohm's law. The sampling resistance needs to be small enough not to affect circuit operation significantly, but large enough to provide a good reading. The method is valid for both AC and DC measurements.
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Alternating currents are relatively easy to measure as transformers can be used. A current transformer is commonly used to measure alternating currents. The current to be measured is forced through the primary winding (often a single turn) and the current through the secondary winding is found by measuring the voltage across a current-sense resistor (or "burden resistor"). The secondary winding has a burden resistor to set the current scale.
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A meter can be configured to read other voltages by putting it in a voltage divider circuit. This is generally done by placing a resistor in series with the meter coil. A meter can be used to read resistance by placing it in series with a known voltage (a battery) and an adjustable resistor. In a preparatory step, the circuit is completed and the resistor adjusted to produce full-scale deflection.
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Thus, it works like a resistor and the voltage drop is transferred into heat.
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A humistor is a type of variable resistor whose resistance varies based on humidity.
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Two opposite vertices are connected to a source of electric current, such as a battery, and a galvanometer is connected across the other two vertices. The variable resistor is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. It is then known that the ratio between the variable resistor and its neighbour R1 is equal to the ratio between the unknown resistor and its neighbour R3, which enables the value of the unknown resistor to be calculated. The Wheatstone bridge has also been generalised to measure impedance in AC circuits, and to measure resistance, inductance, capacitance, and dissipation factor separately.
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Field weakening is used in some electronic controls to increase the top speed of an electric vehicle. The simplest form uses a contactor and field-weakening resistor; the electronic control monitors the motor current and switches the field weakening resistor into circuit when the motor current reduces below a preset value (this will be when the motor is at its full design speed). Once the resistor is in circuit, the motor will increase speed above its normal speed at its rated voltage. When motor current increases, the control will disconnect the resistor and low speed torque is made available.
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Current in a Möbius resistor A Möbius resistor is an electrical component made up of two conductive surfaces separated by a dielectric material, twisted 180° and connected to form a Möbius strip. As with the Möbius strip, once the Möbius resistor is connected up in this way it effectively has only one side and one continuous surface. Its connectors are attached at the same point on the circumference but on opposite surfaces. It provides a resistor that has no residual self-inductance, meaning that it can resist the flow of electricity without causing magnetic interference at the same time.
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Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run through it.
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For a decade divider, there will be ten equal value resistors. Let the value of each resistor be Rn Ohms. The input impedance of the entire string will be 10 Rn. Alternatively, the last stage can be a two resistor bridge tap.
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In cases where ripple voltage is insignificant, like battery chargers, the input filter may be a single series resistor to adjust the output voltage to that required by the circuit. A resistor reduces both output voltage and ripple voltage proportionately. A disadvantage of a resistor input filter is that it consumes power in the form of waste heat that is not available to the load, so it is employed only in low current circuits.
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A digital potentiometer is built either from a resistor ladder integrated circuit or a digital-to-analog converter although a resistor ladder construction is the more common. Every step on the resistor ladder has its own switch which can connect this step to the output terminal of the potentiometer. The selected step on the ladder determines the resistance ratio of the digital potentiometer. The number of steps is normally indicated with a bit value e.g.
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One sort of photodetector, the photoresistor, has a resistance which varies with illumination. The strain gauge, invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, is a type of resistor that changes value with applied strain. A single resistor may be used, or a pair (half bridge), or four resistors connected in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The strain resistor is bonded with adhesive to an object that is subjected to mechanical strain.
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It is used as substitute for a conventional ohmic load resistor. Electronic loads with 800W and 4200W from Höcherl & Hackl As counterpart to a current source, the electronic load is a current sink. When loading a current source with a fixed resistor one can set one determined load current by the connected load resistor. The characteristic of the electronic load is that the load current can be set and varied in a defined range.
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The signal is usually coupled from stage to stage via a coupling capacitor or a transformer, although direct coupling is done in unusual cases. The cathode resistor may or may not be bypassed with a capacitor. Feedback may also be applied to the cathode resistor.
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A loss free resistor (LFR) is a resistor that does not lose energy. The first implementation is due to Singer Singer, S, "Realization of Loss Free Resistive Elements", IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, Vol. CAS-37, No. 1, pp. 54-60, January 1990.
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Pierce oscillators above 4 MHz should use a small capacitor rather than a resistor for Rs.
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Red Resistor is the third studio album by Von LMO, released in 1996 by Variant Records.
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In other words, the current divider is a low pass filter for current in the resistor.
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These are the simplest of all filters to implement individually, requiring only a capacitor and resistor.
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Controller area network, commonly known as CAN Bus, uses terminators consisting of a 120 ohm resistor.
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Bruce Trump, Christine Schneider. "Excel Formula Calculates Standard 1%-Resistor Values". Electronic Design, 2002-01-21.
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To allow the engine to start, the ignition system was designed to operate on this lower voltage. But once the vehicle was started and the starter disengaged, the normal operating voltage was too high for the ignition system. To avoid this problem, a ballast resistor was inserted in series with the ignition system, resulting in two different operating voltages for the starting and ignition systems. Occasionally, this ballast resistor would fail and the classic symptom of this failure was that the engine ran while being cranked (while the resistor was bypassed) but stalled immediately when cranking ceased (and the resistor was reconnected in the circuit via the ignition switch).
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The last thing needed is a resistor to limit the current, as shown below: Ideal diode with a series voltage source and resistor. The I-V characteristic of the final circuit looks like this: I-V characteristic of an ideal diode with a series voltage source and resistor. The real diode now can be replaced with the combined ideal diode, voltage source and resistor and the circuit then is modelled using just linear elements. If the sloped-line segment is tangent to the real diode curve at the Q-point, this approximate circuit has the same small-signal circuit at the Q-point as the real diode.
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1764 REU with Utility Disk and 2.5 ampere power supply The 1700s circuit board was identical to that of the 1750, and a trace marked J1 indicated the size of the chips used. On the 1750 and 1764, this trace was cut. The 1700 and 1750 had a resistor at position R4 that, according to Commodore engineer Fred Bowen, compensated for subtle timing differences in the expansion port on the C64 and C128. The 1764 lacked that resistor. Bowen and other CBM engineers recommended against using a 1764 with a C128 unless the resistor was added, or a 1700/1750 with a C64 unless the resistor was removed.
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The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law: :V=I \cdot R. Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through that resistor. Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits. The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
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Metal foil resistor In 1960 Felix Zandman and Sidney J. SteinA New Precision Film Resistor Exhibiting Bulk Properties presented a development of resistor film of very high stability. The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a chromium nickel alloy foil several micrometers thick. Chromium nickel alloys are characterized by having a large electrical resistance (about 58 times that of copper), a small temperature coefficient and high resistance to oxidation. Examples are Chromel A and Nichrome V, whose typical composition is 80 Ni and 20 Cr, with a melting point of 1420° C. When iron is added, the chromium nickel alloy becomes more ductile.
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476 The power dissipated by the cathode bias resistor is the product of the square of the cathode current and the resistance in ohms. Any signal frequency effect of the cathode resistor may be minimized by providing a suitable bypass capacitor in parallel with the resistor. In general, the capacitor value is selected such that the time constant of the capacitor and bias resistor is an order of magnitude greater than the period of the lowest frequency to be amplified. The capacitor makes the gain of the stage, at the signal frequencies, essentially the same as if the cathode was connected directly to the circuit return.
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The resonant frequency that maximizes this gain is :\omega_r = \omega_0, and the gain is one at this frequency, so the voltage across the resistor resonates at the circuit's natural frequency and at this frequency the amplitude of the voltage across the resistor equals the input voltage's amplitude.
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Larger values require proportional increases in relative resistor length; lower values require increases in resistor width. Thus, large- or low-value resistors invariably take up more space, with a proportional increase in parasitic capacitance. The practical resistor values available in 1963 were limited to the range of 300 to 1000 ohms; resistors outside of this range exacted a hefty cost penalty - Lojek, pp. 264-265. designers often had to resort to the use of external nichrome thin film resistors.
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Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's circuit laws are used to calculate the appropriate resistor value, by subtracting the LED voltage drop from the supply voltage and dividing by the desired operating current. With a sufficiently high supply voltage, multiple LEDs in series can be powered with one resistor. If the supply voltage is close or equal to the LED forward voltage, then no reasonable value for the resistor can be calculated, so some other method of current limiting is used.
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There is only one path from input to output which is shown in a different color and has a (voltage) gain of -RLy21. There are also three loops: -Riny11, -RLy22, Riny21RLy12. Sometimes a loop indicates intentional feedback but it can also indicate a constraint on the relationship of two variables. For example, the equation that describes a resistor says that the ratio of the voltage across the resistor to the current through the resistor is a constant which is called the resistance.
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This is the basis for bus-systems in computers, among many other uses. The high-impedance state of a given node in a circuit cannot be verified by a voltage measurement alone. A pull-up resistor (or pull-down resistor) can be used as a medium- impedance source to try to pull the wire to a high (or low) voltage level. If the node is not in a high-impedance state, extra current from the resistor will not significantly affect its voltage level.
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When the switch is open the voltage of the gate input is pulled up to the level of Vin. When the switch is closed, the input voltage at the gate goes to ground. In electronic logic circuits, a pull-up resistor or pull-down resistor is a resistor used to ensure a known state for a signal. It is typically used in combination with components such as switches and transistors, which physically interrupt the connection of subsequent components to ground or to VCC.
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Simplified Pierce oscillator. Positive voltage is applied to collector of NPN transistor, usually via a resistor or choke.
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A snubber circuit consists of either a very small capacitor or series capacitor and resistor across a diode.
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Figure 6: Two-transistor feedback amplifier; any source impedance RS is lumped in with the base resistor RB.
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The external resistor pack worked by looping back the I/O lines on the external floppy connector to the SA-800 drive's terminator pins. This unusual setup was chosen so the user would not have to remove the cover and install or remove a terminating resistor pack on the floppy drive every time he wanted to remove or attach external disk drives. It proved to be problematic since customers who lost their resistor packs could not use their machine (Radio Shack sold replacement packs for $50) and Model IIs sold from 1981 onward used a different floppy controller that did not require it. Hard disks offered for the Model II also used a terminating resistor pack.
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A pull-up resistor effectively establishes an additional loop over the critical components, ensuring that the voltage is well-defined even when the switch is open. For a pull-up resistor to serve only this one purpose and not interfere with the circuit otherwise, a resistor with an appropriate amount of resistance must be used. For this, it is assumed that the critical components have infinite or sufficiently high impedance, which is guaranteed for example for logic gates made from FETs. In this case, when the switch is open, the voltage across a pull-up resistor (with sufficiently low impedance) practically vanishes, and the circuit looks like a wire connected to VCC.
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One use is to allow traces on the same side of a PCB to cross: one trace has a zero-ohm resistor while the second trace runs in between the leads of the resistor, avoiding contact with the first trace. The resistance is only approximately zero; only a maximum (typically 10–50 mΩ) is specified. A percentage tolerance would not make sense, as it would be specified as a percentage of the ideal value of zero ohms (which would always be zero), so it is not specified. An axial-lead through-hole zero-ohm resistor is generally marked with a single black band, the symbol for "0" in the resistor color code.
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Dawn Turner Trice. "Black Inventors Have a Patent on Obscurity." Chicago Tribune, February 20, 2004, One of his early inventions was an imped wire resistor, which had reduced inductance and reactance, due to the physical arrangement of the wire. Other notable inventions include a variable resistor used in guided missiles.
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This effect of the resistor is called damping. The presence of the resistance also reduces the peak resonant frequency somewhat. Some resistance is unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor is not specifically included as a component. An ideal, pure LC circuit is an abstraction for the purpose of theory.
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MT15E Traction Motors were replaced with MT46-based Hitachi Resistor Controlled motors. Last remaining trains were withdrawn in 1997.
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As an assertor, as a resistor of Arminian denials, we may embrace him and go all lengths with him.
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RC circuit The simplest RC circuit consists of a resistor and a charged capacitor connected to one another in a single loop, without an external voltage source. Once the circuit is closed, the capacitor begins to discharge its stored energy through the resistor. The voltage across the capacitor, which is time-dependent, can be found by using Kirchhoff's current law. The current through the resistor must be equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign) to the time derivative of the accumulated charge on the capacitor.
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A resistor–inductor circuit or RL filter is an electric circuit composed of resistors and inductors driven by a voltage or current source. A first order RL circuit is composed of one resistor and one inductor and is the simplest type of RL circuit. A first order RL circuit is one of the simplest analogue infinite impulse response electronic filters. It consists of a resistor and an inductor, either in series driven by a voltage source or in parallel driven by a current source.
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The Starling resistor The Starling resistor was invented by English physiologist Ernest Starling and used in an isolated-heart preparation during work which would later lead to the "Frank–Starling law of the heart". The device consisted of an elastic fluid-filled collapsible-tube mounted inside a chamber filled with air. The static pressure inside the chamber was used to control the degree of collapse of the tube, so providing a variable resistor. This resistance was used to simulate TPR, or total peripheral (vascular) resistance.
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Each resistor has an associated thermal noise that depends on the temperature. Take N resistors (N should be very large) and plot the voltage across those resistors for a long period. For each resistor you will have a waveform. Calculate the average value of that waveform; this gives you the time average.
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A 75 Ω resistor, as identified by its electronic color code (violet–green–black–gold–red). An ohmmeter could be used to verify this value. Substances in which electricity can flow are called conductors. A piece of conducting material of a particular resistance meant for use in a circuit is called a resistor.
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At high overdrive the base-emitter junction gets reversed. The other transistor (driven by the higher input voltage) drives all the current. If the resistor at the collector is relatively large, the transistor will saturate. With relatively small collector resistor and moderate overdrive, the emitter can still follow the input signal without saturation.
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The simplest circuit to drive an LED is through a series resistor. It is commonly used for indicators and digital displays in many consumer appliances. However, this circuit is not energy-efficient, because energy is dissipated in the resistor as heat. An LED has a voltage drop specified at the intended operating current.
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The Atanasoff–Berry Computer used resistor-coupled vacuum tube logic circuits similar to RTL. Several early transistorized computers (e.g., IBM 1620, 1959) used RTL, where it was implemented using discrete components. A family of simple resistor–transistor logic integrated circuits was developed at Fairchild Semiconductor for the Apollo Guidance Computer in 1962.
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A grid leak resistor and capacitor unit from 1926. The 2 megohm cartridge resistor is replaceable so the user can try different values. The parallel capacitor is built into the holder. A grid leak detector is an electronic circuit that demodulates an amplitude modulated alternating current and amplifies the recovered modulating voltage.
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Such coupling may be achieved by a wire, resistor, or common terminal, such as a binding post or metallic bonding.
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An active load or dynamic load is a component or a circuit that functions as a current-stable nonlinear resistor.
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NLRB v Erie Resistor Corp 373 US 221 (1963) is a US labor law case, concerning the right to organize.
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When a photoconductive material is connected as part of a circuit, it functions as a resistor whose resistance depends on the light intensity. In this context, the material is called a photoresistor (also called light-dependent resistor or photoconductor). The most common application of photoresistors is as photodetectors, i.e. devices that measure light intensity.
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The "body-end-dot" or "body-tip-spot" system was used for cylindrical composition resistors sometimes still found in very old equipment (built before the Second World War); the first band was given by the body color, the second band by the color of one end of the resistor, and the multiplier by a dot or band around the middle of the resistor. The other end of the resistor was in the body color, silver, or gold for 20%, 10%, 5% tolerance (tighter tolerances were not routinely used).
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These resistances have a pair of current terminals and a pair of potential or voltage terminals. In use, a current is passed between the current terminals, but the volt drop across the resistor is measured at the potential terminals. The volt drop measured will be entirely due to the resistor itself as the parasitic resistance of the leads carrying the current to and from the resistor are not included in the potential circuit. To measure such resistances requires a bridge circuit designed to work with four terminal resistances.
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There are some commercial bridges reaching accuracies of better than 2% for resistance ranges from 1 microohm to 25 ohms. One such type is illustrated above. Laboratory bridges are usually constructed with high accuracy variable resistors in the two potential arms of the bridge and achieve accuracies suitable for calibrating standard resistors. In such an application, the 'standard' resistor (Rs) will in reality be a sub-standard type (that is a resistor having an accuracy some 10 times better than the required accuracy of the standard resistor being calibrated).
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A resistor–inductor circuit (RL circuit), or RL filter or RL network, is an electric circuit composed of resistors and inductors driven by a voltage or current source. A first-order RL circuit is composed of one resistor and one inductor and is the simplest type of RL circuit. A first order RL circuit is one of the simplest analogue infinite impulse response electronic filters. It consists of a resistor and an inductor, either in series driven by a voltage source or in parallel driven by a current source.
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Barbot, NYC Resistor's drink making slot machine robot NYC Resistor members in various stages of beard growth In February 2008 NYC Resistor was located at 397 Bridge Street in Brooklyn NY's MetroTech area. The 800+ sqft warehouse conversion houses a small kitchen, several shop tables, an epilog laser cutter, and a small machine shop. Numerous electronics projects and personal tools litter shelves of members at the space. In March 2009 NYC Resistor acquired the neighboring warehouse space on the fifth floor of 397 Bridge Street and converted it to a machine shop.
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Aceon Bright Ignition Coil Bosch ignition coil in a Saab 96. Dual ignition coils (blue cylinders, top of picture) on a Saab 92. An ignition coil (also called a spark coil) is an induction coil in an automobile's ignition system that transforms the battery's voltage to the thousands of volts needed to create an electric spark in the spark plugs to ignite the fuel. Some coils have an internal resistor, while others rely on a resistor wire or an external resistor to limit the current flowing into the coil from the car's 12-volt supply.
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Figure 7: Schematics for using asymptotic gain model; parameter α = β / ( β+1 ); resistor RC = RC1. Figure 6 shows a two-transistor amplifier with a feedback resistor Rf. This amplifier is often referred to as a shunt- series feedback amplifier, and analyzed on the basis that resistor R2 is in series with the output and samples output current, while Rf is in shunt (parallel) with the input and subtracts from the input current. See the article on negative feedback amplifier and references by Meyer or Sedra. That is, the amplifier uses current feedback.
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Modulation was produced using an optocoupler, a light- dependent resistor whose pulsating signal (producing a lopsided wave) affects the preamp circuit.
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Resistor network calculation is manifestly semi-linear because it satisfies \lambda A=\lambda A, but in general A+B eA+B.
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Schematic of a frequency dependent negative resistor. Wait gives the circuit shown to the right as suitable for a grounded FDNR.
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Active terminators consist of a voltage regulator that keeps the voltage used for the terminating resistor(s) at a constant level.
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Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package. Capacitors are also used in parallel with interrupting units of a high-voltage circuit breaker to equally distribute the voltage between these units. These are called "grading capacitors".
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A: preset resistor, B: preset resistor (alternate), C: preset potentiometer, D preset potentiometer (alternate), E: preset inductor, F: preset capacitor n circuit diagrams, the symbol for a variable component is the symbol for a fixed component with a diagonal line through it terminating in an arrow head. For a preset component, the diagonal line terminates in a bar.
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The SMD-resistor is produced with the same technology and may be laser trimmed as well. Trimmable chip capacitors are built up as multilayer plate capacitors. Vaporizing the top layer with a laser decreases the capacitance by reducing the area of the top electrode. Passive trim is the adjustment of a resistor to a given value.
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Series resistors are a simple way to stabilize the LED current, but energy is wasted in the resistor. Miniature indicator LEDs are normally driven from low voltage DC via a current-limiting resistor. Currents of 2 mA, 10 mA and 20 mA are common. Sub-mA indicators may be made by driving ultrabright LEDs at very low current.
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LED-based sets use a current-limiting resistor to reduce the current supplied to each LED. Neon-lamp-based sets have lamps connected in parallel, each with its own current-limiting resistor. Battery-powered sets are also wired in parallel. Some incandescent or LED-based strings use a power supply transformer with lamps connected in parallel.
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A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual 47 ohm resistors. This package is also known as a SIP-9. One end of each resistor is connected to a separate pin and the other ends are all connected together to the remaining (common) pin – pin 1, at the end identified by the white dot.
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AC source with meters and meter-shunts plus load with load-shunt As an introduction to the next chapter, this figure shows that the term "shunt resistor" should be understood in the context of what it shunts. In this example the resistor RL would be understood as "the shunt resistor" (to the load L), because this resistor would pass current around the load L. RL is connected in parallel with the load L. However, the series resistors RM1 and RM2 are low Ohmic resistors (like in the photo) meant to pass current around the instruments M1 and M2, and function as shunt resistors to those instruments. RM1 and RM2 are connected in parallel with M1 and M2. If seen without the instruments these two resistors would be considered series resistors in this circuit.
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A resistor was often used for this purpose, as it was cheap and worked with both alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC).
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E.B. Curtis, D. Ingerman, J.A. Morrow, Circular planar graphs and resistor networks, Linear Algebra and its Applications, vol. 238, pp. 115–150, 1998.
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Although the cathode resistor can be many kilohms (depending on biasing requirements), the small-signal output impedance is very low (see operational amplifier).
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Passive terminators often consist of a single resistor, however significantly reactive loads may require other passive components such as inductors, capacitors, or transformers.
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To limit short circuit earth fault an additional neutral earthing resistor (NER) is added between the neutral of transformer's star point and earth.
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The capacitor forms a time constant with the resistor load, which determines the range of frequencies over which the clamper will be effective.
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In March 2010, NYC Resistor moved to a new, larger space on 3rd Avenue in Boerum Hill upstairs from the former Makerbot headquarters.
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The voltage follower adjusts its output current flowing through the load so that to make the voltage drop across the current sensing resistor R equal to the constant input voltage . Thus the voltage stabilizer keeps up a constant voltage drop across a constant resistor; so, a constant current flows through the resistor and respectively through the load. If the input voltage varies, this arrangement will act as a voltage-to-current converter (voltage- controlled current source, VCCS); it can be thought as a reversed (by means of negative feedback) current-to-voltage converter. The resistance R determines the transfer ratio (transconductance).
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Most consumer inkjet printers, such as those made by Canon, HP, and Lexmark (but not Epson) use a thermal inkjet; inside each partition of the ink reservoir is a heating element with a tiny metal plate or resistor. In response to a signal given by the printer, a tiny current flows through the metal or resistor making it warm, and the ink in contact with the heated resistor is vaporized into a tiny steam bubble inside the nozzle. As a consequence, an ink droplet is forced out of the cartridge nozzle onto the paper. This process takes a fraction of a millisecond.
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Therefore, the ballast resistor reduces variations in current, despite variations in applied voltage or changes in the rest of an electric circuit. These devices are sometimes called "barretters" and were used in the series heating circuits of 1930s to 1960s AC/DC radio and TV home receivers. This property can lead to more precise current control than merely choosing an appropriate fixed resistor. The power lost in the resistive ballast is also reduced because a smaller portion of the overall power is dropped in the ballast compared to what might be required with a fixed resistor.
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To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands: A diagram of a resistor, with four color bands A, B, C, D from left to right A diagram of a 2.7 MΩ color-coded resistor. In the above example, a resistor with bands of red, violet, green, and gold has first digit 2 (red; see table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 5 (green) zeroes: . Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%. Precision resistors may be marked with a five band system, to include three significant digits, a power of 10 multiplier, and a tolerance band.
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A series RLC circuit: a resistor, inductor, and a capacitor An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The RLC part of the name is due to those letters being the usual electrical symbols for resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current and resonates similarly to an LC circuit. The main difference stemming from the presence of the resistor is that any oscillation induced in the circuit decays over time if it is not kept going by a source.
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Typical use of TL431 in SMPS. Shunt resistor R3 maintains minimum TL431 current, series resistor R4 is part of frequency compensation network (C1R4) In the 21st century the TL431, loaded with an optocoupler's light emitting diode (LED), is the de facto industry standard solution for regulated switched-mode power supplies (SMPS). A resistive voltage divider driving the control input of the TL431, and the LED's cathode are normally connected to the regulator's output; the optocoupler's phototransistor is connected to the control input of the PWM controller. Resistor R3 (around 1 kOhm), shunting the LED, helps keeping ICA above the 1 mA threshold.
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A series RLC network (in order): a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor An RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C), connected in series or in parallel. The name of the circuit is derived from the letters that are used to denote the constituent components of this circuit, where the sequence of the components may vary from RLC. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current, and resonates in a similar way as an LC circuit. Introducing the resistor increases the decay of these oscillations, which is also known as damping.
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480 The cathode current through this resistor causes the desired voltage drop across the resistor and places the cathode at a positive dc voltage equal in magnitude to the negative grid bias voltage required. The grid circuit puts the grid at zero volts dc relative to negative side of the plate voltage supply, causing the grid voltage to be negative with respect to the cathode by the required amount. Directly heated cathode circuits connect the cathode bias resistor to the center tap of the filament transformer secondary or to the center tap of a low resistance connected across the filament.Ghirardi, Alfred A. (1932).
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Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package. Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high- voltage circuit breaker in order to equally distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors.
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Another technique is to insert a small resistor in the circuit and measure the voltage across it. This approach is more accurate and adjustable, but incurs several costs—space, efficiency and money. Finally, the current can be measured at the input. Voltage can be measured losslessly, across the upper switch, or using a power resistor, to approximate the current being drawn.
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AGC is applied by the resistor from the output to the "earthy" end of the input coil. Basic gain is set by the load resistor. The current consumption is so low that a 1.2 V red LED (not the 2.2 V high efficiency types) can be used as a shunt regulator from 3 V batteries or a 5 V supply.
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An example of such systems is those that follow Newton's law of cooling during transient cooling (or the reverse during heating). The equivalent thermal circuit consists of a simple capacitor in series with a resistor. In such cases, the remainder of the system with a high thermal resistance (comparatively low conductivity) plays the role of the resistor in the circuit.
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The value of the grid resistor determines the gain of the amplifier stage. The higher the resistor the greater the gain, the lower the damping effect and the greater the risk of instability. With this type of stage good layout is less vital. Passive grid design is ideal for audio equipment, because audio equipment must be more broadband than RF equipment.
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A small resistor may also be contained in the base of older two-volt LED colors (red, orange, yellow) when in a mixed-color set, so that they match the three volts needed by the newer colors (blue, deep green, purple, white), however other manufacturers only change the value of the resistor that is a part of the cord set itself.
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The simplest non- ideal current source consists of a voltage source in series with a resistor. The amount of current available from such a source is given by the ratio of the voltage across the voltage source to the resistance of the resistor (Ohm's law; ). This value of current will only be delivered to a load with zero voltage drop across its terminals (a short circuit, an uncharged capacitor, a charged inductor, a virtual ground circuit, etc.) The current delivered to a load with nonzero voltage (drop) across its terminals (a linear or nonlinear resistor with a finite resistance, a charged capacitor, an uncharged inductor, a voltage source, etc.) will always be different. It is given by the ratio of the voltage drop across the resistor (the difference between the exciting voltage and the voltage across the load) to its resistance.
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A typical integrated power device is the 2N6282, which includes a switch-off resistor and has a current gain of 2400 at IC=10 A.
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The voltage from one traction coil segment follows to traction engines' clamps through starting resistor, and rectifier. The engines are working in high excitement mode.
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Diode memory uses diodes and resistors to implement random-access memory for information storage. The devices have been dubbed “one diode-one resistor” (1D-1R).
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The "Rss" resistor also limits the current from Vdd to ground which protects the transistors and saves energy when the transistors are transitioning between states.
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This effect of the resistor is called damping. The presence of the resistance also reduces the peak resonant frequency of damped oscillation, although the resonant frequency for driven oscillations remains the same as an LC circuit. Some resistance is unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor is not specifically included as a separate component. A pure LC circuit is an ideal that exists only in theory.
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The voltage across the capacitor varies above and below the bias voltage. The voltage difference between the bias and the capacitor is seen across the series resistor. The voltage across the resistor is amplified for performance or recording. In most cases, the electronics in the microphone itself contribute no voltage gain as the voltage differential is quite significant, up to several volts for high sound levels.
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There were several efforts to improve oscillators in the 1930s. Linearity was recognized as important. The "resistance-stabilized oscillator" had an adjustable feedback resistor; that resistor would be set so the oscillator just started (thus setting the loop gain to just over unity). The oscillations would build until the vacuum tube's grid would start conducting current, which would increase losses and limit the output amplitude.
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A memristor (; a portmanteau of memory resistor) is a non-linear two-terminal electrical component relating electric charge and magnetic flux linkage. It was described and named in 1971 by Leon Chua, completing a theoretical quartet of fundamental electrical components which comprises also the resistor, capacitor and inductor. No physical memristor component has yet been demonstrated. Chua and Kang later generalized the concept to memristive systems.
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The base resistor RB is obligatory to prevent the impact of the input voltage through Q1 base-emitter junction on the emitter voltage. Direct-coupled circuit. To simplify the circuit, the R1-R2 voltage divider can be omitted connecting Q1 collector directly to Q2 base. The base resistor RB can be omitted as well so that the input voltage source drives directly Q1's base.
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A "locally active resistor" is a device that has negative resistance and is active (it can amplify), providing the power to generate the oscillating current. The locally active resistor and nonlinearity are combined in the device NR, which is called "Chua's diode". This device is not sold commercially but is implemented in various ways by active circuits. The circuit diagram shows one common implementation.
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To find the correct resistor value, first the tube operating point is determined. The plate current, the grid voltage relative to the cathode and the screen current (if applicable) are noted for the operating point. The cathode bias resistor value is found by dividing the absolute value of the operating point grid voltage by the operating point cathode current (plate current plus screen current).Ghirardi (1932) p.
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Until recently, this socket contained an enclosed spark gap, SP1, that could safely flash over internally to provide high voltage surge protection. This component is no longer used due to negative effects on VDSL speeds. The socket includes a 1.8 µF capacitor (bell circuit) to feed the AC ringing and a 470 kΩ resistor (R1, out-of-service resistor) to permit remote testing when no telephones are plugged into any sockets. Additional internal extension (secondary) sockets are wired off the master socket (connected in parallel using the IDC system) but not containing the surge protector, bell circuit capacitor, and the out-of-service resistor.
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If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high operating temperatures may occur, resistors may be specified with higher rated dissipation than is experienced in service.
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2.1 Cable sectioning In a 10BASE2 network, each stretch of cable is connected to the transceiver (which is usually built into the network adaptor) using a BNC T-connector, with one stretch connected to each female connector of the T. The T-connector must be plugged directly into the network adaptor with no cable in between. As is the case with most other high-speed buses, Ethernet segments have to be terminated with a resistor at each end. Each end of the cable has a 50 ohm (Ω) resistor attached. Typically this resistor is built into a male BNC and attached to the last device on the bus.
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Diagram of antenna and resistor in cavity The aperture of an isotropic antenna can be derived by a thermodynamic argument. Suppose an ideal (lossless) isotropic antenna A located within a thermal cavity CA, is connected via a lossless transmission line through a band-pass filter Fν to a matched resistor R in another thermal cavity CR (the characteristic impedance of the antenna, line and filter are all matched). Both cavities are at the same temperature T. The filter Fν only allows through a narrow band of frequencies from u to u +\Delta u. Both cavities are filled with blackbody radiation in equilibrium with the antenna and resistor.
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A major advantage over the earlier resistor–transistor logic is increased fan-in. Additionally, to increase fan- out, an additional transistor and diode may be used.
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The resistor permits dc charge to "leak" from the capacitorJ. Scott-Taggart, p. 119 and is utilized in setting up the grid bias.J. Scott-Taggart, p.
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Where a diesel-electric locomotive is equipped for dynamic braking, the braking resistor may be used as a load bank for testing the engine-generator set.
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These can only be reduced by increasing transistor sizes. Cores of monolithic Blackmer ICs are so large that effective feedback resistor values are less than 1 Ohm.
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This approach is technically more challenging, since switching noise cannot be easily filtered out. However, it is less expensive than having a sense resistor for each phase.
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In addition, a high pass filter is used, which consists of a capacitor switched in series with a coil to which a resistor is switched in parallel.
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Chen & Smith, pp. 38, 50 As of 2008, there has been no further significant advance in synthesising rational functions. In 1939, American electrical engineer Sidney Darlington showed that any PRF can be realised as a two-port network consisting only of L and C elements and terminated at its output with a resistor. That is, only one resistor is required in any network, the remaining components being lossless.
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IFSP (, ), radial parallel interface, was a parallel interface similar to Centronics but incompatible, as it had different signal polarities and handshake protocol. Used in printers and computers manufactured in Comecon. All printer input signal lines were pulled up to +5V by 220 Ohm resistor, and pulled down to ground by 330 Ohm resistor. This allowed usage of longer cables comparing to Centronics, but overloaded most usual Centronics adapters.
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In 1981 Malewski, designed a circuit to eliminate the skin effect and later in 1999 the flat-strap sandwich shunt (FSSS) was introduced from a flat-strap sandwich resistor. The properties of the FSSS in terms of response time, power loss and frequency characteristics, are the same as the shunt resistor but the cost is lower and the construction technique is less sophisticated, compared to Malewski and the coaxial shunt.
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If a calculation indicates a resistor of 165 ohms is required then log(150) = 2.176, log(165) = 2.217 and log(180) = 2.255. The logarithm of 165 is closer to the logarithm of 180 therefore a 180 ohm resistor would be the first choice if there are no other considerations. Whether a value rounds to or depends upon whether the squared value is greater than or less than the product .
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A common type of axial-leaded resistor today is the metal- film resistor. Metal Electrode Leadless Face (MELF) resistors often use the same technology. Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film resistors, the material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering (though this is one of the techniques).
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The screen found in tetrodes and pentodes, greatly increases the valve's gain by reducing the effect of anode voltage on anode current. The input signal is applied to the valve's first grid via a capacitor. The value of the grid resistor determines the gain of the amplifier stage. The higher the resistor the greater the gain, the lower the damping effect and the greater the risk of instability.
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When a bias voltage is applied, this means that there will be a current, and, neglecting additional effects, the tunnelling current will be proportional to the bias voltage. In electrical terms, the tunnel junction behaves as a resistor with a constant resistance, also known as an ohmic resistor. The resistance depends exponentially on the barrier thickness. Typically, the barrier thickness is on the order of one to several nanometers.
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Henri Fréville (4 December 1905, in Norrent-Fontes, Pas-de-Calais – 15 June 1987, in Rennes, Ille-et-Vilaine) was a French history professor, resistor, writer and politician.
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On the other hand, when the switch is closed, the pull-up resistor must have sufficiently high impedance in comparison to the closed switch to not affect the connection to ground. Together, these two conditions can be used to derive an appropriate value for the impedance of the pull-up resistor but usually, only a lower bound is derived assuming that the critical components do indeed have infinite impedance. A resistor with low resistance (relative to the circuit it's in) is often called a "strong" pull-up or pull-down; when the circuit is open, it will pull the output high or low very quickly (just as the voltage changes in an RC circuit), but will draw more current. A resistor with relatively high resistance is called a "weak" pull-up or pull-down; when the circuit is open, it will pull the output high or low more slowly, but will draw less current.
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Modern electronic ignition systems (those used since the 1980s or late '70s) do not require a ballast resistor as they are flexible enough to operate on the lower cranking voltage or the normal operating voltage. Another common use of a ballast resistor in the automotive industry is adjusting the ventilation fan speed. The ballast is a fixed resistor with usually two center taps, and the fan speed selector switch is used to bypass portions of the ballast: all of them for full speed, and none for the low speed setting. A very common failure occurs when the fan is being constantly run at the next-to-full speed setting (usually 3 out of 4).
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An electrical schematic of the MIDI 1.0 electrical/optical interconnection. The MIDI 1.0 specification for the electrical interface is based on a fully isolated current loop. The MIDI out port nominally sources a +5 volt source through a 220 ohm resistor out through pin 4 on the MIDI out DIN connector, in on pin 4 of the receiving device's MIDI in DIN connector, through a 220 ohm protection resistor and the LED of an opto-isolator. The current then returns via pin 5 on the MIDI in port to the originating device's MIDI out port pin 5, again with a 220 ohm resistor in the path, giving a nominal current of about 5 milliamperes.
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A typical example are Howland current source and its derivative Deboo integrator.Consider the "Deboo" Single-Supply Integrator In the last example (Fig. 1), the Howland current source consists of an input voltage source, , a positive resistor, R, a load (the capacitor, C, acting as impedance ) and a negative impedance converter INIC ( and the op-amp). The input voltage source and the resistor R constitute an imperfect current source passing current, through the load (Fig.
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They are implemented as a voltage follower with series negative feedback driven by a constant input voltage source (i.e., a negative feedback voltage stabilizer). The voltage follower is loaded by a constant (current sensing) resistor acting as a simple current-to-voltage converter connected in the feedback loop. The external load of this current source is connected somewhere in the path of the current supplying the current sensing resistor but out of the feedback loop.
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Some ballast resistors have the property of increasing in resistance as current through them increases, and decreasing in resistance as current decreases. Physically, some such devices are often built quite like incandescent lamps. Like the tungsten filament of an ordinary incandescent lamp, if current increases, the ballast resistor gets hotter, its resistance goes up, and its voltage drop increases. If current decreases, the ballast resistor gets colder, its resistance drops, and the voltage drop decreases.
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The reverse transformation, Δ-Y, which adds a node, is often handy to pave the way for further simplification as well. Transformation of a bridge resistor network, using the Δ-Y transform, also yields an equivalent network that may readily be simplified further. Every two-terminal network represented by a planar graph can be reduced to a single equivalent resistor by a sequence of series, parallel, Y-Δ, and Δ-Y transformations.Klaus Truemper.
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A piece of Teledeltos with conductive electrodes at each end makes a simple resistor. Its resistance is slightly sensitive to applied mechanical strain by bending or compression, but the paper substrate is not robust enough to make a reliable sensor for long-term use. A more common resistive sensor is in the form of a potentiometer. A long, thin resistor with an applied voltage may have a conductive probe slid along its surface.
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Since the 1990s, most logic gates are made in CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) technology that uses both NMOS and PMOS transistors. Often millions of logic gates are packaged in a single integrated circuit. There are several logic families with different characteristics (power consumption, speed, cost, size) such as: RDL (resistor–diode logic), RTL (resistor-transistor logic), DTL (diode–transistor logic), TTL (transistor–transistor logic) and CMOS. There are also sub- variants, e.g.
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For this to be feasible, the 5V source impedance and 3.3V input impedance must be negligible, or they must be constant and the divider resistor values must account for their impedances. If the input impedance is capacitive, a purely resistive divider will limit the data rate. This can be roughly overcome by adding a capacitor in series with the top resistor, to make both legs of the divider capacitive as well as resistive.
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A common variation omits the collector resistor of the output transistor, making an open-collector output. This allows the designer to fabricate logic by connecting the open-collector outputs of several logic gates together and providing a single external pull-up resistor. If any of the logic gates becomes logic low (transistor conducting), the combined output will be low. Examples of this type of gate are the 7401SN7401 datasheet – Texas Instruments and 7403 series.
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A resistor in series with the line can be used to limit the current charging input capacitors. However, this approach is not very efficient, especially in high-power devices, since the resistor will have a voltage drop and dissipate some power. Inrush current can also be reduced by inrush current limiters. Negative-temperature-coefficient (NTC) thermistors are commonly used in switching power supplies, motor drives and audio equipment to prevent damage caused by inrush current.
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A resistor–capacitor circuit (RC circuit), or RC filter or RC network, is an electric circuit composed of resistors and capacitors. It may be driven by a voltage or current source and these will produce different responses. A first order RC circuit is composed of one resistor and one capacitor and is the simplest type of RC circuit. RC circuits can be used to filter a signal by blocking certain frequencies and passing others.
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Figure 1: n-bit R–2R resistor ladder A basic R–2R resistor ladder network is shown in Figure 1. Bit an−1 (most significant bit, MSB) through bit a0 (least significant bit, LSB) are driven from digital logic gates. Ideally, the bit inputs are switched between V = 0 (logic 0) and V = Vref (logic 1). The R–2R network causes these digital bits to be weighted in their contribution to the output voltage Vout.
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Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high- frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor.
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This induced DC voltage can degrade the precision of instrumentation amplifiers in particular. Such voltages appear in the junctions of the resistor leads with the circuit board and with the resistor body. Common metal film resistors show such an effect at a magnitude of about 20 µV/°C. Some carbon composition resistors can exhibit thermoelectric offsets as high as 400 µV/°C, whereas specially constructed resistors can reduce this number to 0.05 µV/°C.
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In order to construct a circuit diagram we need two coils, three inductors and two resistors. Axis of both coils are marked as shown. Scale of the meter is calibrated such that at standard frequency the pointer will take position at 45°. Coil 1 contains a series resistor marked R1 and reactance coil marked as L1, while the coil 2 has a series reactance coil marked as L2 and parallel resistor marked as R2.
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Cruft Electronics Staff, Electronic Circuits and Tubes, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1947, p. 335 In some designs, the degenerative (negative) feedback caused by the cathode resistor may be desirable. In this case, all or a portion of the cathode resistance is not bypassed by a capacitor. In class A push-pull circuits a pair of tubes driven by identical signals 180 degrees out of phase may share a common unbypassed cathode resistor.
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Interlink was founded on April 30, 1996 and released the first force-sensing resistor for commercial use in 1977. In 2001, Interlink helped Microsoft design the controller for the Xbox.
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Unused RX or TX lines may require an external 47k pull-down resistor [may be device dependent]. Software selectable internal pull-downs for signals may be provided on some devices.
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Current sources implemented as circuits with series negative feedback have the disadvantage that the voltage drop across the current sensing resistor decreases the maximal voltage across the load (the compliance voltage).
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On-die termination (ODT) is the technology where the termination resistor for impedance matching in transmission lines is located inside a semiconductor chip instead of on a printed circuit board (PCB).
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The exact point at which the lumped-element model can no longer be used depends to a certain extent on how accurately the signal needs to be known in a given application. Real-world components exhibit non-ideal characteristics which are, in reality, distributed elements but are often represented to a first-order approximation by lumped elements. To account for leakage in capacitors for example, we can model the non-ideal capacitor as having a large lumped resistor connected in parallel even though the leakage is, in reality distributed throughout the dielectric. Similarly a wire-wound resistor has significant inductance as well as resistance distributed along its length but we can model this as a lumped inductor in series with the ideal resistor.
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Ripple voltage is usually specified peak-to-peak. Producing steady DC from a rectified AC supply requires a smoothing circuit or filter. In its simplest form this can be just a capacitor (also called a filter, reservoir, or smoothing capacitor), choke, resistor, Zener diode and resistor, or voltage regulator placed at the output of the rectifier. In practice, most smoothing filters utilize multiple components to efficiently reduce ripple voltage to a level tolerable by the circuit.
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R1 acts as a feedback resistor, biasing the inverter in its linear region of operation and effectively causing it to function as a high-gain inverting amplifier. To better understand this, assume the inverter is ideal, with infinite input impedance and zero output impedance. The resistor forces the input and output voltages to be equal. Hence the inverter will neither be fully on, nor fully off, but will operate in the transition region, where it has gain.
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Professional digital audio equipment may have a word clock input or output to synchronize timing between multiple devices. Although the electrical characteristics of the word clock signal have not been completely standardized, some characteristics should always apply. Items that should remain consistent are TTL level, a 75ohm output impedance, 75ohm cables and a 75ohm terminating resistor at the end of a chain or cable. Proper termination of the word clock signal with a 75ohm resistor is important.
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As a countermeasure against an NLJD, professional covert listening devices (bugs) of the Central Intelligence Agency were equipped from 1968 onwards with a so-called isolator. An isolator is a 3-port circulator of which the return ports is terminated with a resistor. Any energy injected into the bug by an NLJD will be absorbed by the resistor, resulting in no (or very little) reflected energy. An example of such a bug is the CIA's SRT-107.
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This is exactly the same as the resonance frequency of an LC circuit, that is, one with no resistor present. The resonant frequency for an RLC circuit is the same as a circuit in which there is no damping, hence undamped resonance frequency. The peak resonance frequency, on the other hand, depends on the value of the resistor and is described as the damped resonant frequency. A highly damped circuit will fail to resonate at all when not driven.
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High voltage resistor divider probe. A voltage divider can be used to scale down a very high voltage so that it can be measured by a volt meter. The high voltage is applied across the divider, and the divider output--which outputs a lower voltage that is within the meter's input range--is measured by the meter. High voltage resistor divider probes designed specifically for this purpose can be used to measure voltages up to 100 kV.
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A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks compressed between two metal contact plates. Adjusting the clamping pressure changes the resistance between the plates. These resistors are used when an adjustable load is required, for example in testing automotive batteries or radio transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can also be used as a speed control for small motors in household appliances (sewing machines, hand-held mixers) with ratings up to a few hundred watts.
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Preset sounds are stored on "tone modules" - small cartridges which each contain 26 fixed value resistor-dividers. These produce voltages which drive the voice cards, each resistor controlling one parameter of the sound. The tone modules are installed in compartments on the top panel of the synth. An optional "tone board" programmer could be inserted in place of a tone module, providing a full set of knobs, switches and sliders to control the parameters of a tone manually.
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A pull-up resistor may be used when interfacing logic gates to inputs. For example, an input signal may be pulled by a resistor, then a switch or jumper strap can be used to connect that input to ground. This can be used for configuration information, to select options or for troubleshooting of a device. Pull-up resistors may be used at logic outputs where the logic device cannot source current such as open-collector TTL logic devices.
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Low resistance grounding systems will have a time rating (say, 10 seconds) that indicates how long the resistor can carry the fault current before overheating. A ground fault protection relay must trip the breaker to protect the circuit before overheating of the resistor occurs. High-resistance grounding (HRG) systems use an NGR to limit the fault current to 25 A or less. They have a continuous rating, and are designed to operate with a single-ground fault.
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Her 2016 album Resistor was reviewed in Rolling Stone. In 2016, Lynn performed at the Edmonton Folk Music Festival." 2016 Edmonton Folk Fest an understated, wonderful weekend". Edmonton Sun, By Fish Griwkowsky.
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This device is often called a "barretter" because of its similarity to the barretter used for detection of radio signals. The modern successor to the iron–hydrogen resistor is the current source.
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2kW Dynamic braking resistor for small wind turbine. Braking of a small wind turbine can be done by dumping energy from the generator into a resistor bank, converting the kinetic energy of the turbine rotation into heat. This method is useful if the kinetic load on the generator is suddenly reduced or is too small to keep the turbine speed within its allowed limit. Cyclically braking causes the blades to slow down, which increases the stalling effect, reducing the efficiency of the blades.
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A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment.
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Once the input is lost (negative power on the input line), the capacitor discharges into the inverter, causing the inverter to produce an output that is passed to the next neuron. The rate that the capacitor discharges is tied to the resistor that is pulling the input to the inverter to the negative. The larger the resistor, the longer it will take for the capacitor to fully discharge, and the longer it will take for that neuron to completely fire.
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Electric discharge showing the ribbon-like plasma filaments from multiple discharges from a Tesla coil. For testing the susceptibility of electronic devices to ESD from human contact, an ESD Simulator with a special output circuit, called the human body model (HBM) is often used. This consists of a capacitor in series with a resistor. The capacitor is charged to a specified high voltage from an external source, and then suddenly discharged through the resistor into an electrical terminal of the device under test.
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The indirect resistor-based control system of electric current was slightly modified to deal with the increased power of the main motor. While western designers developed new semiconductor-based control devices, Soviet engineers decided to leave the old resistor-based system for service simplicity. The first prototype vehicles were tested in Moscow in 1971 and were approved for mass production after some minor design adjustments. The '9' in the vehicle name was the initial project index of the design team.
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The simplest form of envelope detector is the diode detector which is shown above. A diode detector is simply a diode between the input and output of a circuit, connected to a resistor and capacitor in parallel from the output of the circuit to the ground. If the resistor and capacitor are correctly chosen, the output of this circuit should approximate a voltage- shifted version of the original (baseband) signal. A simple filter can then be applied to filter out the DC component.
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For example: if an alarm system's software uses 2K ohms as its non-alarm value, an inactive detector will give a reading of 2K ohms as the circuit is passing through just one resistor. When the detector goes into an active state (i.e. a door contact being opened), the circuit path has been altered and it must now pass through a second resistor wired in series with the first. This gives a reading of 4K ohms and will trigger an intruder alarm.
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Old Style "Dog Bone" resistors valve (vacuum tube) radio Carbon composition resistors (CCR) consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached. The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic. Early 20th-century carbon composition resistors had uninsulated bodies; the lead wires were wrapped around the ends of the resistance element rod and soldered. The completed resistor was painted for color-coding of its value.
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Figure 4: Typical BJT constant current source with negative feedback In this bipolar junction transistor (BJT) implementation (Figure 4) of the general idea above, a Zener voltage stabilizer (R1 and DZ1) drives an emitter follower (Q1) loaded by a constant emitter resistor (R2) sensing the load current. The external (floating) load of this current source is connected to the collector so that almost the same current flows through it and the emitter resistor (they can be thought of as connected in series). The transistor, Q1, adjusts the output (collector) current so as to keep the voltage drop across the constant emitter resistor, R2, almost equal to the relatively constant voltage drop across the Zener diode, DZ1. As a result, the output current is almost constant even if the load resistance and/or voltage vary.
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Triode common cathode gain stage The basic gain stage for a valve amplifier is the auto-biased common cathode stage, in which an anode resistor, the valve, and a cathode resistor form a potential divider across the supply rails. The resistance of the valve varies as a function of the voltage on the grid, relative to the voltage on the cathode. In the auto-bias configuration, the "operating point" is obtained by setting DC potential of the input grid at zero volts relative to ground via a high-value "grid leak" resistor. The anode current is set by the value of the grid voltage relative to the cathode and this voltage is now dependent upon the value of the resistance selected for the cathode branch of the circuit.
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This is why chip keys are popular in modern cars and help decrease car theft. Many people who have transponder keys, such as those that are part of Ford Motor Company's SecuriLock system, are not aware of the fact because the circuit is hidden inside the plastic head of the key. On the other hand, General Motors produced what are known as VATS keys (Vehicle Anti-Theft System) during the 1990s, which are often erroneously believed to be transponders but actually use a simple resistor, which is visible in the blade of the key. If the electrical resistance of the resistor is wrong, or the key is a normal key without a resistor, the circuit of the car's electrical system will not allow the engine to get started.
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In practice, zero-ohm resistors can be useful as configuration jumpers, but caution is exercised for PCB designs which may use zero-ohm resistors to select between options which require larger trace currents in the design. For these situations, it is better design practice to specify a low-ohm resistance, such as a 0.001-ohm to 0.003-ohm resistor, rather than the generic "zero-ohm" resistor in which the actual resistance may be higher, and tolerance is not given. The low-ohm resistors are easily obtained with 5% or 1% tolerances on a maximum specified resistance and can be safely utilized to pass much higher currents. For example, a surface-mounted 0805 size resistor of 0.003 ohms, rated at 1/2 watt can, in theory, safely pass up to 12.9 amperes of current.
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The constant resistance potentiometer is a variation of the basic idea in which a variable current is fed through a fixed resistor. These are used primarily for measurements in the millivolt and microvolt range.
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For electronic components with two or more leads, for example diodes, transistors, ICs or resistor packs, a range of standard-sized semiconductor packages are used, either directly onto the PCB or via a socket.
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Employees who crossed a picket line to work were given 20 years of extra seniority by Erie Resistor Corp. The National Labor Relations Board found this constituted an unfair labor practice. The corporation appealed.
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1 (‑10X) attenuation factor; this helps to isolate the capacitive load presented by the probe cable from the signal being measured. Some probes have a switch allowing the operator to bypass the resistor when appropriate.
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The simple resistor passive current source is ideal only when the voltage across it is zero; so voltage compensation by applying parallel negative feedback might be considered to improve the source. Operational amplifiers with feedback effectively work to minimise the voltage across their inputs. This results in making the inverting input a virtual ground, with the current running through the feedback, or load, and the passive current source. The input voltage source, the resistor, and the op-amp constitutes an "ideal" current source with value, .
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It keeps up this constant voltage across the constant sense resistor. As a result, the current flowing through the load is constant as well; it is exactly the Zener voltage divided by the sense resistor. The load can be connected either in the emitter (Figure 7) or in the collector (Figure 4) but in both the cases it is floating as in all the circuits above. The transistor is not needed if the required current doesn't exceed the sourcing ability of the op-amp.
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Basic fixed-threshold comparator and its derivatives - simple time delay relay and cascaded window monitor. To ensure fast turn-off transients, load resistor RL should provide on-state current of at least 5 mA The simplest TL431-based comparator circuit requires a single external resistor to limit ICA at around 5 mA. Operation at lesser currents is undesirable due to longer turn-off transients. Turn-on delay depends mostly on the difference between input and threshold voltage (overdrive voltage); higher overdrive speeds up turn-on process.
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In a typical LArTPC, each wire in each anode plane is part of an RC circuit, with the wire itself located between the resistor and capacitor. The other end of the resistor is wired to a bias voltage, and the other end of the capacitor is wired to the front-end electronics. The front-end electronics amplify and digitize the current in the circuit. This amplified and digitized current as a function of time is the "signal" that is passed to the event reconstruction.
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The resistor also reduces the peak resonant frequency. In ordinary conditions, some resistance is unavoidable even if a resistor is not specifically included as a component; an ideal, pure LC circuit exists only in the domain of superconductivity, a physical effect demonstrated to this point only at temperatures far below ambient temperatures found anywhere on the Earth's surface. RLC circuits have many applications as oscillator circuits. Radio receivers and television sets use them for tuning to select a narrow frequency range from ambient radio waves.
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After firing the resistors can be trimmed using a precision abrasive cutting method first developed by S.S. White. The method involves a fine abrasive media, usually 0.027 mm aluminum oxide. The abrasive cutting is fed through a carbide nozzle tip that can be of different sizes. The nozzle is advanced through the fired resistor while the resistor element is monitored with probe contacts and when final value is reached the abrasive blast is shut off and the nozzle retracts to the zero start position.
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We say that the rate of water flow through an aperture restrictor is proportional to the difference in water pressure across the restrictor. Similarly, the rate of flow of electrical charge, that is, the electric current, through an electrical resistor is proportional to the difference in voltage measured across the resistor. Flow and pressure variables can be calculated in fluid flow network with the use of the hydraulic ohm analogy.A. Esposito, "A Simplified Method for Analyzing Circuits by Analogy", Machine Design, October 1969, pp. 173–177.
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A 1-Wire network is a single open drain wire with a single pull-up resistor. The pull-up resistor pulls the wire up to 3 or 5 volts. The master device and all the slaves each have a single open-drain connection to drive the wire, and a way to sense the state of the wire. Despite the "1-Wire" name, all devices must also have a second wire, a ground connection to permit a return current to flow through the data wire.
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A passive oscilloscope probe with a switch in the probe handle that selects 1× or 10× attenuation To minimize loading, attenuator probes (e.g., 10× probes) are used. A typical probe uses a 9 megohm series resistor shunted by a low-value capacitor to make an RC compensated divider with the cable capacitance and scope input. The RC time constants are adjusted to match. For example, the 9 megohm series resistor is shunted by a 12.2 pF capacitor for a time constant of 110 microseconds.
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The anode resistor acts as the load for the circuit and is typically order of 3-4 times the anode resistance of the valve type in use. The output from the circuit is the voltage at the junction between the anode and anode resistor. This output varies relative to changes in the input voltage and is a function of the voltage amplification of the valve "mu" and the values chosen for the various circuit elements. Almost all audio preamplifier circuits are built using cascaded common cathode stages.
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As is the case with most other high-speed buses, segments must be terminated at each end. For coaxial-cable-based Ethernet, each end of the cable has a 50 ohm resistor attached. Typically this resistor is built into a male N connector and attached to the end of the cable just past the last device. With termination missing, or if there is a break in the cable, the signal on the bus will be reflected, rather than dissipated when it reaches the end.
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Dynamic braking regulates the speed by dumping excess energy, so that the turbine continues to produce electricity even in high winds. The dynamic braking resistor may be installed inside the building to provide heat (during high winds when more heat is lost by the building, while more heat is also produced by the braking resistor). The location makes low voltage (around 12 volt) distribution practical. Small units often have direct drive generators, direct current output, lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind.
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Standards IEC 60062 / EN 60062 do not define a color code for inductors, but manufacturers of small inductors use the resistor color code, typically encoding inductance in microhenries. A white tolerance ring may indicate custom specifications.
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Applying a voltage via a safety resistor repairs the oxide layer by self-healing. Capacitors that fail leakage current requirements after preconditioning, may have experienced mechanical damage. Electrolytic capacitors with solid electrolytes don't have precondition requirements.
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A Zener diode can be applied to a circuit with a resistor to act as a voltage shifter. This circuit lowers the output voltage by a quantity that is equal to the Zener diode's breakdown voltage.
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This base may be difficult to use both in terms of complexity in the calculation of the result and of finding an appropriate resistor network, so a base of 2 or 4 would be more common.
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The resistor serves to minimize the loading that the cable capacitance would impose on the DUT. In series with the normal 1 megohm input impedance of the oscilloscope, the 9 megohm resistor creates a 10× voltage divider so such probes are normally known as either low cap(acitance) probes or 10× probes, often printed with the letter X or x instead of the multiplication sign, and usually spoken of as "a times-ten probe". Because the oscilloscope input has some parasitic capacitance in parallel with the 1 megohm resistance, the 9 megohm resistor must also be bypassed by a capacitor to prevent it from forming a severe RC low-pass filter with the 'scope's parasitic capacitance. The amount of bypass capacitance must be carefully matched with the input capacitance of the oscilloscope so that the capacitors also form a 10× voltage divider.
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Current sense amplifiers (also called current shunt amplifiers) are special- purpose amplifiers that output a voltage proportional to the current flowing in a power rail. They utilize a "current-sense resistor" to convert the load current in the power rail to a small voltage, which is then amplified by the current-sense amplifiers. The currents in the power rail can be in the range of 1 A to 20 A, requiring the current-sense resistor to be a resistor typically in the range of 1 to 100 mΩ. These amplifiers are designed to amplify a very small "sense voltage" of 10 to 100 mV, in the presence of very large common-mode voltages of 5 to 30 V. DC precision (low input offset voltage) and high common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) are distinguishing characteristics of these amplifiers.
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Certain logic families are susceptible to power supply transients introduced into logic inputs through pull-up resistors, which may force the use of a separate filtered power source for the pull-ups. Pull-down resistors can be safely used with CMOS logic gates because the inputs are voltage-controlled. TTL logic inputs that are left un-connected inherently float high, and require a much lower valued pull-down resistor to force the input low. A standard TTL input at logic "1" is normally operated assuming a source current of 40 μA, and a voltage level above 2.4 V, allowing a pull-up resistor of no more than 50 kohms; whereas the TTL input at logic "0" will be expected to sink 1.6 mA at a voltage below 0.8 V, requiring a pull-down resistor less than 500 ohms.
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After the 1900 patent, a major improvement was made with the addition of resistor teeth. Fitted into the gaps where there is no flighting, these teeth increase the agitation within the press, further diminishing co-rotation tendencies.
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A crankcase heater generally has the same electrical symbol as a resistor because it converts electricity directly into heat via electrical resistance. The resistance in the heater coil determines the heat it produces when voltage is applied.
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The antenna has a unidirectional reception pattern, because RF signals arriving from the other direction, from the receiver end of the wire, induce currents propagating toward the terminated end, where they are absorbed by the terminating resistor.
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The wired OR connection electrically performs the Boolean logic operation of an OR gate, using a pull down resistor and one diode per input. Wired OR connection using diodes and a resistor Voltage from any input is directed through its corresponding diode directly to the output C. If no voltage/logic exists on any input there will be no output. The positive voltage source that is present in the AND connection is replaced by a ground in the OR connection. Also, notice the positioning of the diodes as compared to the AND gate.
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The general negative feedback arrangement can be implemented by an IC voltage regulator (LM317 voltage regulator on Figure 8). As with the bare emitter follower and the precise op-amp follower above, it keeps up a constant voltage drop (1.25 V) across a constant resistor (1.25 Ω); so, a constant current (1 A) flows through the resistor and the load. The LED is on when the voltage across the load exceeds 1.8 V (the indicator circuit introduces some error). The grounded load is an important advantage of this solution.
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For simple, low-powered loads such as a neon lamp or a LED lamp, a fixed resistor is commonly used. Because the resistance of the ballast resistor is large it determines the current in the circuit, even in the face of negative resistance introduced by the neon lamp. Ballast was also a component used in early model automobile engines that lowered the supply voltage to the ignition system after the engine had been started. Starting the engine requires a significant amount of electrical current from the battery, resulting in an equally significant voltage drop.
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Flicker noise is found in carbon-composition resistors and in thick-film resistors, where it is referred to as excess noise, since it increases the overall noise level above the thermal noise level, which is present in all resistors. In contrast, wire- wound resistors have the least amount of flicker noise. Since flicker noise is related to the level of DC, if the current is kept low, thermal noise will be the predominant effect in the resistor, and the type of resistor used may not affect noise levels, depending on the frequency window.
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The encoder's high-level logic signal voltage is determined by the voltage applied to the pull-up resistor, whereas the low-level output current is determined by both the signal voltage and load resistance (including pull-up resistor). When the driver switches from the low to the high logic level, the load resistance and circuit capacitance act together to form a low-pass filter, which stretches (increases) the signal's rise time and thus limits its maximum frequency. For this reason, open collector drivers typically are not used when the encoder will output high frequencies.
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First, they can be used as thermometers: By measuring the resistance, the temperature of the environment can be inferred. Second, they can be used in conjunction with Joule heating (also called self-heating): If a large current is running through the resistor, the resistor's temperature rises and therefore its resistance changes. Therefore, these components can be used in a circuit-protection role similar to fuses, or for feedback in circuits, or for many other purposes. In general, self-heating can turn a resistor into a nonlinear and hysteretic circuit element.
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An electrical specification might call for a resistor with a nominal value of 100 Ω (ohms), but will also state a tolerance such as "±1%". This means that any resistor with a value in the range 99–101Ω is acceptable. For critical components, one might specify that the actual resistance must remain within tolerance within a specified temperature range, over a specified lifetime, and so on. Many commercially available resistors and capacitors of standard types, and some small inductors, are often marked with coloured bands to indicate their value and the tolerance.
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Current-voltage characteristic of Chua's diode In electronics and chaos theory, Chua's diode is a type of two-terminal, nonlinear active resistor which can be described with piecewise-linear equations. It is an essential part of Chua's circuit, a simple electronic oscillator circuit which exhibits chaotic oscillations and is widely used as an example for a chaotic system. It is implemented as a voltage-controlled, nonlinear negative resistor. The diode is not sold commercially, and is usually built from standard circuit components such as diodes, capacitors, resistors and op-amps.
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The current–voltage characteristics of four devices: a resistor with large resistance, a resistor with small resistance, a P–N junction diode, and a battery with nonzero internal resistance. The horizontal axis represents the voltage drop, the vertical axis the current. All four plots use the passive sign convention. A current–voltage characteristic or I–V curve (current–voltage curve) is a relationship, typically represented as a chart or graph, between the electric current through a circuit, device, or material, and the corresponding voltage, or potential difference across it.
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Owing to the greater weight of the rotary converters, the 14000 and 14100 had a Co′Co′ layout with extra axles to carry their weight without increasing the axle load. The BB 13000 system was designed by Jeumont-Schneider. The 25 kV line current was regulated by an autotransformer then transformed by the main transformer to 750 V AC. This secondary current drives the four single-phase traction motors (one per axle) connected in parallel. Motor speed was controlled by resistor and capacitor shunts at low speeds, resistor and inductor shunts at high speeds.
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This is because the switching diodes or transistors act either like a small resistor (switch closed) or large resistor (switch open), and in both cases only a minimal noise is added. From the circuit perspective, many multiplying mixers can be used as switching mixers, just by increasing the LO amplitude. So RF engineers simply talk about mixers, while they mean switching mixers. The mixer circuit can be used not only to shift the frequency of an input signal as in a receiver, but also as a product detector, modulator, phase detector or frequency multiplier.
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Liquid rheostats used as motor start switches, circa 1900 A liquid rheostat or water rheostat or salt water rheostat is a type of variable resistor. This may be used as a dummy load or as a starting resistor for large slip ring motors. In the simplest form it consists of a tank containing brine or other electrolyte solution, in which electrodes are submerged to create an electrical load. The electrodes may be raised or lowered into the liquid to respectively decrease or increase the electrical resistance of the load.
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Each thyristor module consists of a connection of 11 thyristors, to which there are parallel connections from a capacitator and a resistor. The energy for the steering circuits of the thyristors is taken from the capacitor and resistor. As the thyristors and their steering electronics are on high voltage potential, the transmission of the ignition impulses from the control electronic on ground potential takes place via fibre optic cables. A second optical waveguide cable allows the transmission of data from the thyristor module to the main control electronics on ground potential.
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Unused ports on both types of hubs had to be terminated with a special connector. This special connector, called a terminator, is nothing more than a BNC connector with a 93 ohm resistor in it. Thin Ethernet also requires nearly identical terminators at the 2 terminal ends, the only difference being Ethernet uses a 50 ohm resistor. To reduce costs, while still allowing coverage over a wide area, a common practice was to use one or more interconnected active hubs, each of which provided coverage for nodes no more than away.
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A humistor has a ceramic composition comprising at least one component having a spinel type cubic symmetry selected from the group consisting of MgCr2O4, FeCr2O4, NiCr2O4, CoCr2O4, MnCr2O4, CuCr2O4, Mg2TiO4, Zn2TiO4, Mg2SnO4 and Zn2SnO4, and, if desired, at least one component selected from the group consisting of TiO2, ZrO2, HfO2 and SnO2. Humidity sensitive ceramic resistor. A humidity sensor has a sensing portion which usually comprises a humidity-sensitive resistor composed of an organic polymer, such as a polyamide resin, polyvinyl chloride or polyethylene, or a metal oxide.
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In practice the ideal current source is replaced by a current mirror, which is less ideal in two ways. First, its AC resistance is large, but not infinite. Second, the mirror requires a small voltage drop to maintain operation (to keep the output transistors of the mirror in active mode). As a result, the current mirror does limit the allowable output voltage swing, but this limitation is much less than for a resistor, and also does not depend upon the choice of bias current, leaving more flexibility than a resistor in designing the circuit.
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Multimeter set to measure voltage Instruments for measuring voltages include the voltmeter, the potentiometer, and the oscilloscope. Analog voltmeters, such as moving-coil instruments, work by measuring the current through a fixed resistor, which, according to Ohm's Law, is proportional to the voltage across the resistor. The potentiometer works by balancing the unknown voltage against a known voltage in a bridge circuit. The cathode-ray oscilloscope works by amplifying the voltage and using it to deflect an electron beam from a straight path, so that the deflection of the beam is proportional to the voltage.
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The tungsten halogen curing light, also known as simply "halogen curing light" is the most frequent polymerization source used in dental offices. In order for the light to be produced, an electric current flows through a thin tungsten filament, which functions as a resistor. This resistor is then “heated to temperatures of about 3,000 Kelvin, it becomes incandescent and emits infrared and electromagnetic radiation in the form of visible light”. It provides a blue light between 400 and 500 nm, with an intensity of 400–600 mW cm−2.
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SPI devices sometimes use another signal line to send an interrupt signal to a host CPU. Examples include pen-down interrupts from touchscreen sensors, thermal limit alerts from temperature sensors, alarms issued by real time clock chips, SDIO,Not to be confused with the SDIO(Serial Data I/O) line of the half-duplex implementation of the SPI bus, sometimes also called "3-wire SPI-bus". Here e.g. MOSI (via a resistor) and MISO (no resistor) of a master is connected to the SDIO line of a slave.
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Radio waves in the other direction, toward the terminated end, create traveling waves which are absorbed by the terminating resistor R, so the antenna has a unidirectional pattern. counterpoise, an artificial ground for the transmitter. The antenna's main lobe, its direction of greatest sensitivity, is to the right, off the end of the wire that is terminated in the resistor. The Beverage antenna consists of a horizontal wire one-half to several wavelengths long, suspended close to the ground, usually 10 to 20 feet high, pointed in the direction of the signal source.
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The aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor overheats at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wirewound resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more. Because wirewound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other types of resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can minimize inductance.
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One pair of terminals applies a known, calibrated current to the resistor, while the other pair senses the voltage drop across the resistor. Some laboratory quality ohmmeters, especially milliohmmeters, and even some of the better digital multimeters sense using four input terminals for this purpose, which may be used with special test leads. Each of the two so-called Kelvin clips has a pair of jaws insulated from each other. One side of each clip applies the measuring current, while the other connections are only to sense the voltage drop.
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In amplifying faint signals, it is often necessary to minimize electronic noise, particularly in the first stage of amplification. As a dissipative element, even an ideal resistor naturally produces a randomly fluctuating voltage, or noise, across its terminals. This Johnson–Nyquist noise is a fundamental noise source which depends only upon the temperature and resistance of the resistor, and is predicted by the fluctuation–dissipation theorem. Using a larger value of resistance produces a larger voltage noise, whereas a smaller value of resistance generates more current noise, at a given temperature.
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The emitter-coupled version has the advantage that the input transistor is reverse biased when the input voltage is quite below the high threshold so the transistor is surely cut-off. It was important when germanium transistors were used for implementing the circuit and this advantage has determined its popularity. The input base resistor can be omitted since the emitter resistor limits the current when the input base-emitter junction is forward-biased. An emitter-coupled Schmitt trigger logical zero output level may not be low enough and might need an additional output shifting circuit.
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A basic electric circuit. The voltage source V on the left drives a current I around the circuit, delivering electrical energy into the resistor R. From the resistor, the current returns to the source, completing the circuit. An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task. The components in an electric circuit can take many forms, which can include elements such as resistors, capacitors, switches, transformers and electronics.
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This is accomplished through a hybrid coil (A3). The incoming audio signal passes through a resistor (A8) and the primary winding of the coil (A3) which passes it to the speaker (A1). Since the current path A8 – A3 has a far lower impedance than the microphone (A2), virtually all of the incoming signal passes through it and bypasses the microphone. At the same time the DC voltage across the line causes a DC current which is split between the resistor-coil (A8-A3) branch and the microphone-coil (A2-A3) branch.
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In the class-A triode amplifier, an anode resistor would be connected between the anode and the positive voltage source. For example, with Ra = 10000 ohms, the voltage drop on it would be VRa = Ia × Ra = 22.5V if an anode current of Ia = 2.25mA is chosen. If the input voltage amplitude (at the grid) changes from −1.5V to −0.5V (difference of 1V), the anode current will change from 1.2 to 3.3mA (see image). This will change the resistor voltage drop from 12 to 33V (a difference of 21V).
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Holding unused TTL inputs low consumes more current. For that reason, pull-up resistors are preferred in TTL circuits. In bipolar logic families operating at 5 VDC, a typical pull-up resistor value will be 1000–5000 Ω, based on the requirement to provide the required logic level current over the full operating range of temperature and supply voltage. For CMOS and MOS logic, much higher values of resistor can be used, several thousand to a million ohms, since the required leakage current at a logic input is small.
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To minimize loading, attenuator probes (e.g., 10X probes) are used. A typical probe uses a 9 megohm series resistor shunted by a low-value capacitor to make an RC compensated divider with the cable capacitance and scope input.
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Applying a voltage via a safety resistor repairs the oxide layer by self- healing, but slowly, minimizing internal heating. If capacitors still don't meet the leakage current requirements after preconditioning, it may be an indication of permanent damage.
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The nonlinear resistor is implemented by two linear resistors and two diodes. At the far right is a negative impedance converter made from three linear resistors and an operational amplifier, which implements the locally active resistance (negative resistance).
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A pellistor is a solid-state devicePellistor RSC used to detect gases which are either combustible or which have a significant difference in thermal conductivity to that of air. The word "pellistor" is a combination of pellet and resistor.
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Fire Alarm systems often supervise inputs and outputs with an end-of-line device such as a resistor or capacitor. The system looks for changes in resistance or capacitance values to determine if the circuit has an abnormal condition.
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These were briefly popular between 1936 and 1945 as the bias cell was less costly than a resistor/capacitor bias network. In Britain and in some other countries, the "C" battery was known as the "GB" (grid bias) battery.
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Since the grid voltage changes from −1.5V to −0.5V, and the anode resistor voltage drops from 12 to 33 V, an amplification of the signal resulted. The amplification factor is 21: output voltage amplitude divided by input voltage amplitude.
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The most common cathode bias implementation passes the cathode current through a resistor connected between the cathode and the negative side of the plate voltage supply.Ghirardi, Alfred A. (1932). Radio Physics Course (2nd ed.). New York: Rinehart Books. p.
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A low-uncertainty measurement of the Boltzmann constant, Metrologia, 50 (4): S213–S216, BIPM & IOP Publishing Ltd Measurement of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation from an ideal three-dimensional black body can provide an accurate temperature measurement because the frequency of maximum spectral radiance of black-body radiation is directly proportional to the temperature of the black body; this is known as Wien's displacement law and has a theoretical explanation in Planck's law and the Bose–Einstein law. Measurement of the spectrum of noise-power produced by an electrical resistor can also provide an accurate temperature measurement. The resistor has two terminals and is in effect a one-dimensional body. The Bose-Einstein law for this case indicates that the noise-power is directly proportional to the temperature of the resistor and to the value of its resistance and to the noise band-width.
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The relays and the power supply are attached to opposite ends of the section to prevent broken rails from electrically isolating part of the track from the circuit. A series resistor limits the current when the track circuit is short-circuited.
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Go/no go gauges are encountered in all types of manufacturing. They may measure a physical dimension, e.g. (50 ±0.01mm), or a value such as the value of a resistor (100Ω (ohms) ±1%). A typical example is a plug gauge.
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Many of the Court's decisions addressed the conditions under which an employer exhibited anti-union animus. In NLRB v. Erie Resistor Corp.,. the Court held that a grant of superseniority to strikebreakers constituted anti-union animus and was a ULP.
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Many of Dicke's experiments capitalize on lock-in in some way or another. However, in an interview with Martin Harwit he claims that even though he is often credited with the invention of the device; he believes he read about it in a review of scientific equipment written by Walter C. Michels, a professor at Bryn Mawr. Dicke is also credited with the invention of a kind of radio receiver, called a "Dicke Radiometric Receiver" or simply "Dicke Radiometer", developed by Dicke during WWII. His radiometer was characterized by a noise temperature calibration technique using a switchable resistor, known as "Dicke Resistor".
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Circuit of a Brokaw bandgap reference Characteristic and balance point of T1 and T2 The voltage difference between two p–n junctions (e.g. diodes), operated at different current densities, is used to generate a current that is proportional to absolute temperature (PTAT) in a resistor. This current is used to generate a voltage in a second resistor. This voltage in turn is added to the voltage of one of the junctions (or a third one, in some implementations). The voltage across a diode operated at constant current is complementary to absolute temperature (CTAT), with a temperature coefficient of approximately −2mV/K.
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Resistive networks between two terminals can theoretically be simplified to a single equivalent resistor (more generally, the same is true of impedance). Series and parallel transforms are basic tools for doing so, but for complex networks such as the bridge illustrated here, they do not suffice. The Y-Δ transform can be used to eliminate one node at a time and produce a network that can be further simplified, as shown. Transformation of a bridge resistor network, using the Y-Δ transform to eliminate node D, yields an equivalent network that may readily be simplified further.
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The idea was the diode would rectify the Johnson noise thermal current fluctuations produced by the resistor, generating a direct current which could be used to perform work. In the detailed analysis it was shown that the thermal fluctuations within the diode generate an electromotive force that cancels the voltage from rectified current fluctuations. Therefore, just as with the ratchet, the circuit will produce no useful energy if all the components are at thermal equilibrium (at the same temperature); a DC current will be produced only when the diode is at a lower temperature than the resistor.
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Simple LED circuit with resistor for current limiting The current in an LED or other diodes rises exponentially with the applied voltage (see Shockley diode equation), so a small change in voltage can cause a large change in current. Current through the LED must be regulated by an external circuit such as a constant current source to prevent damage. Since most common power supplies are (nearly) constant-voltage sources, LED fixtures must include a power converter, or at least a current-limiting resistor. In some applications, the internal resistance of small batteries is sufficient to keep current within the LED rating.
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This is the case with photodiodes where it is not uncommon for the current response to have better than 1% nonlinearity over a wide range of light input. The transimpedance amplifier presents a low impedance to the photodiode and isolates it from the output voltage of the operational amplifier. In its simplest form a transimpedance amplifier has just a large valued feedback resistor, Rf. The gain of the amplifier is set by this resistor and because the amplifier is in an inverting configuration, has a value of -Rf. There are several different configurations of transimpedance amplifiers, each suited to a particular application.
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This can cause it to stop, or change its period. The normal system hedges are to have an auxiliary oscillator using some cheap, robust scheme such as a ring of inverters or a resistor-capacitor one-shot timer. After a reset (perhaps caused by a watchdog timer), the system may default to these, only switching in the sensitive crystal oscillator once timing measurements have proven it to be stable. It is also common in high-reliability systems to measure the clock frequency by comparing it to an external standard, usually a communications clock, the power line, or a resistor-capacitor timer.
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Upon starting off and in the low notches, the major part of the voltage was dropped over the banks of resistors and all four traction motors were in series. The blowers which accelerated the dissipation of heat in the resistor banks gave the Class 6E1 its very distinctive sound, a deep and loud whine when power was applied. As the driver notched up, some of the resistor banks were cut out via the pneumatically-operated switches and the voltage increased across the traction motors. As the driver notched higher, more resistors were cut out and more power was developed by the traction motors.
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It is typically fed at one of the two acute (sharper angle) vertices through a balanced transmission line, or alternatively a coaxial cable with a balun transformer. The end of the wires meeting at the opposite vertex is either left open (unconnected), or is terminated with a non-inductive resistor. When resistor-terminated, the radiation pattern is unidirectional, with the main lobe off the terminated end, so this end of the antenna is oriented toward the intended receiving station or region. When unterminated, the rhombic is bidirectional with two opposite lobes off the two acute ends, but is not perfectly bi-directional.
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The impedance of cellular tissue can be modeled as a resistor (representing the extracellular path) in parallel with a resistor and capacitor in series (representing the intracellular path). This results in a change in impedance versus the frequency used in the measurement. The impedance measurement is generally measured from the wrist to the contralateral ankle and uses either two or four electrodes. A small current on the order of 1-10 μA is passed between two electrodes, and the voltage is measured between the same (for a two electrode configuration) or between the other two electrodes.
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It is fast and has fixed output impedance R. The R–2R ladder operates as a string of current dividers, whose output accuracy is solely dependent on how well each resistor is matched to the others. Small inaccuracies in the MSB resistors can entirely overwhelm the contribution of the LSB resistors. This may result in non-monotonic behavior at major crossings, such as from 011112 to 100002. Depending on the type of logic gates used and design of the logic circuits, there may be transitional voltage spikes at such major crossings even with perfect resistor values.
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This diagram shows a typical SCSI high-byte termination scheme: Image:high byte termination.JPG There is a simplification to this which is sometimes used in the case where there is only one 16-bit (wide) device connected to one or more 8-bit (narrow) devices. Then it is possible to wire all the eight spare data bits and the ninth parity bit together and to terminate them with a single resistor circuit to TERMPOWER. So in the case of a differential SCSI bus, it is possible to terminate all 18 spare signal wires with just one resistor.
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This stored charge can remain in the capacitors for a long time after the unit has been turned off. It can be a potentially lethal shock hazard for the user or maintenance and servicing personnel, who may believe that because the device is turned off or unplugged it is safe. Therefore, to discharge the capacitor after the supply has been turned off, a large-value resistor is connected across its terminals. After it is switched off, the charge on the capacitor will drain off through this "bleeder resistor", causing the voltage to decay quickly to safe levels.
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A large value reservoir capacitor (C4) and bleeding resistor(s) (R1, R2) are connected across the diodes. The signal is rectified by the diodes and the rectified DC voltage charges the reservoir capacitor, while a small steady current bleeds through the resistor(s), continuously discharging it. This results in a constant steady load and a small damping effect on the tuned circuit. As the amplitude of the signal increases, the higher rectified voltage results in an inrush current towards the reservoir capacitor; the increased load damps the tuned circuit, thereby compensating for the amplitude increase of the signal.
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In heavy-duty industrial high- current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-cooled lattice of stamped metal alloy strips connected in rows between two electrodes. Such industrial grade resistors can be as large as a refrigerator; some designs can handle over 500 amperes of current, with a range of resistances extending lower than 0.04 ohms. They are used in applications such as dynamic braking and load banking for locomotives and trams, neutral grounding for industrial AC distribution, control loads for cranes and heavy equipment, load testing of generators and harmonic filtering for electric substations.Milwaukee Resistor Corporation.
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L. Martinez-Salamero, N. Parody, Abdelali El Aroudi, "Analysis and design of a loss-free resistor based on a boost converter in PWM operation", ISCAS 2010: 2742-2745. A. Cid-Pastor, L. Martinez-Salamero, A. El Aroudi, R. Giral, J. Calvente, R. Leyva, "Synthesis of loss-free resistors based on sliding-mode control and its applications in power processing", Control Engineering Practice, Volume 21, Issue 5, May 2013, pp. 689–699. A. Marcos-Pastor, E. Vidal-Idiarte, A. Cid-Pastor, L. Martinez-Salamero, "Digital Loss-Free Resistor for power factor correction applications", Industrial Electronics Society, IECON 2013 - 39th Annual Conference of the IEEE.
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A liquid resistor is an electrical resistor in which the resistive element is a liquid. Fixed-value liquid resistors are typically used where very high power dissipation is required. They are used in the rotor circuits of large slip ring induction motors to control starting current, torque and to limit large electrical fault currents (while other protection systems operate to clear or isolate the fault). They typically have electrodes made of welded steel plate (galvanised to reduce corrosion), suspended by insulated connections in a conductive chemical solution held in a tank - which may be open or enclosed.
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Impedance is often measured by "bridge" methods, similar to the direct-current Wheatstone bridge; a calibrated reference impedance is adjusted to balance off the effect of the impedance of the device under test. Impedance measurement in power electronic devices may require simultaneous measurement and provision of power to the operating device. The impedance of a device can be calculated by complex division of the voltage and current. The impedance of the device can be calculated by applying a sinusoidal voltage to the device in series with a resistor, and measuring the voltage across the resistor and across the device.
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For a nearly ideal current source, the value of the resistor should be very large but this implies that, for a specified current, the voltage source must be very large (in the limit as the resistance and the voltage go to infinity, the current source will become ideal and the current will not depend at all on the voltage across the load). Thus, efficiency is low (due to power loss in the resistor) and it is usually impractical to construct a 'good' current source this way. Nonetheless, it is often the case that such a circuit will provide adequate performance when the specified current and load resistance are small. For example, a 5 V voltage source in series with a 4.7 kΩ resistor will provide an approximately constant current of to a load resistance in the range of 50 to 450 Ω. A Van de Graaff generator is an example of such a high voltage current source.
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Resistors are circuit elements that impede the passage of electric charge in agreement with Ohm's law, and are designed to have a specific resistance value R. In schematic diagrams, a resistor is shown as a long rectangle or zig-zag symbol. An element (resistor or conductor) that behaves according to Ohm's law over some operating range is referred to as an ohmic device (or an ohmic resistor) because Ohm's law and a single value for the resistance suffice to describe the behavior of the device over that range. Ohm's law holds for circuits containing only resistive elements (no capacitances or inductances) for all forms of driving voltage or current, regardless of whether the driving voltage or current is constant (DC) or time- varying such as AC. At any instant of time Ohm's law is valid for such circuits. Resistors which are in series or in parallel may be grouped together into a single "equivalent resistance" in order to apply Ohm's law in analyzing the circuit.
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Thermal noise can be a fundamental standard. A resistor at a certain temperature has a thermal noise associated with it. A noise generator might have two resistors at different temperatures and switch between the two resistors. The resulting output power is low.
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They may be as simple as a resistor, inductor, or capacitor (or a combination of these) wired in series with the lamp; or as complex as the electronic ballasts used in compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) and high-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps).
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An early reference that describes the typical outlet tester circuit was published in Popular Mechanics in the March issue of 1967, and consists of two 27 kΩ resistors, one 100 kΩ resistor, and three NE-51 neon lamp bulbs with 100 kΩ resistors.
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ARRL, p331-332 While it was possible to derive a lower voltage from a higher with a linear regulator or even a resistor, these methods dissipated the excess as heat; energy-efficient conversion only became possible with solid-state switch-mode circuits.
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All input and output signals were compatible. The circuits were capable of reliably switching pulses as narrow as one microsecond. The designers of the 1962 D-17B used diode-resistor logic as much as possible, to minimize the number of transistors used.
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The role of the collector resistor is to convert the collector current into voltage; its resistance is chosen high enough to saturate the transistor and low enough to obtain low output resistance (high fan-out). Schematic of a one-transistor RTL NOR gate.
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Instead of a resistor, a potentiometer placed in parallel with the timing capacitor permits the frequency to be adjusted freely, but at low resistances the transistor can be overdriven, and possibly damaged. The output signal will jump in amplitude and be greatly distorted.
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A gyrator is a passive, linear, lossless, two-port electrical network element invented by Tellegen as a hypothetical fifth linear element after the resistor, capacitor, inductor and ideal transformer.Dorf, Richard C. (1997). The Electrical Engineering Handbook (2nd Edition), p. 892Lee, Thomas H. (2004).
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In Europe 1 REN used to be equivalent to an 1800 Ω resistor in series with a 1 µF capacitor. The latest ETSI specification (2003–09) calls for 1 REN to be greater than 16 kΩ at 25 Hz and 50 Hz.
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A voltage ladder is a simple electronic circuit consisting of several resistors connected in series with a voltage placed across the entire resistor network. Voltage ladders are useful for providing a set of successive voltage references, for instance for a flash analog-to-digital converter.
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One of the bus connectors may be terminated where the bus coupler is physically at the end of the bus cable, i.e. it is not normally considered essential to have a length of bus cable between the last bus coupler and the termination resistor.
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Cooling fans may be used to prevent resistor overheating. Dynamic braking wastes braking energy by transforming it to heat. By contrast, regenerative drives recover braking energy by injecting this energy into the AC line. The capital cost of regenerative drives is, however, relatively high.
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Axial-lead resistors on tape. The component is cut from the tape during assembly and the part is inserted into the board. Size comparison of axial- lead resistors. A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.
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In the above example, the second stage might use 3 kΩ resistors instead of 2 kΩ; connecting a (trimmable) resistor of 60 kΩ in parallel with the second stage brings the total input resistance of the second stage down to the 20 kΩ required.
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Since the output is high impedance for logic level high, open drain comparators can also be used to connect multiple comparators to a single bus. Push-pull output does not need a pull up resistor and can also source current, unlike an open drain output.
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In a great many circuit designs, the dc bias is fed to a non-linear component via a resistor (or possibly a network of resistors). Since resistors are linear components, it is particularly easy to determine the quiescent operating point of the non-linear device from a graph of its transfer function. The method is as follows: from linear network analysis the output transfer function (that is output voltage against output current) is calculated for the network of resistor(s) and the generator driving them. This will be a straight line (called the load line) and can readily be superimposed on the transfer function plot of the non-linear device.
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Schematic drawing of track circuit for unoccupied block (series resistor next to battery not shown) Schematic drawing of occupied track circuit (series resistor next to battery not shown) A track circuit typically has power applied to each rail and a relay coil wired across them. When no train is present, the relay is energised by the current flowing from the power source through the rails. When a train is present, its axles short (shunt) the rails together; the current to the track relay coil drops, and it is de- energised. Circuits through the relay contacts therefore report whether or not the track is occupied.
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Circuit diagram of Kelvin bridge A commercial Kelvin Bridge The operation of the Kelvin bridge is very similar to the Wheatstone bridge, but uses two additional resistors. Resistors R1 and R2 are connected to the outside potential terminals of the four terminal known or standard resistor Rs and the unknown resistor Rx (identified as P1 and P′1 in the diagram). The resistors Rs, Rx, R1 and R2 are essentially a Wheatstone bridge. In this arrangement, the parasitic resistance of the upper part of Rs and the lower part of Rx is outside of the potential measuring part of the bridge and therefore are not included in the measurement.
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Upon starting off and in the low notches, the major part of the voltage was dropped over the banks of resistors and all four traction motors were in series. The blowers which accelerated the dissipation of heat in the resistor banks gave the Classes 6E and 6E1 their very distinctive sound, a deep and loud whine when power was applied. As the driver notched up, some of the resistor banks were cut out via the pneumatically-operated switches and the voltage increased across the traction motors. As the driver notched higher, more resistors were cut out and more power was developed by the traction motors.
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MOS technology greatly increased the number of on-board transistors and communication channels, from 1,200 transistors and 175 channels on the first three IMP spacecraft up to 2,000 transistors and 256 channels on the IMP D. MOS technology also greatly reduced the number of electrical parts required on a spaceship, from 3,000 non-resistor parts on the IMP-A (Explorer 18) down to 1,000 non-resistor parts on the IMP D, despite the IMP D having twice the electrical complexity of the IMP A. The MOSFET blocks were manufactured by General Microelectronics, which had NASA as its first MOS contract shortly after it had commercialized MOS technology in 1964.
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In 1963 Fairchild's analog IC lineup, designed to military specifications, consisted of three amplifier circuits. Before Widlar, Fairchild's engineers had designed analog ICs in a style not unlike conventional circuits built with discrete devices. Despite realizing early on that this approach was impractical, owing to the severe limitations of the early planar process, they had not devised working alternatives (active loads and active current sources had yet to be invented). When the original schematic required resistor values that were too low or too high for the planar process,A square-shaped resistor formed in silicon by diffusion has a resistance of 100 to 200 ohms.
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The most common form of SOA protection used with bipolar junction transistors senses the collector-emitter current with a low-value series resistor. The voltage across this resistor is applied to a small auxiliary transistor that progressively 'steals' base current from the power device as it passes excess collector current. Another style of protection is to measure the temperature of the outside of the transistor, as an estimate of junction temperature, and reduce drive to the device or switch it off if the temperature is too high. If multiple transistors are used in parallel, only a few need to be monitored for case temperature to protect all parallel devices.
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The length is not critical, typically from one to two wavelengths (λ), but there is an optimum angle for any given length and frequency. A horizontal rhombic antenna radiates horizontally polarized radio waves at a low elevation angle off the pointy ends of the antenna. If the sections are joined by a resistor at either of the acute (pointy) ends, then the antenna will receive from and transmit to only the direction the end with the resistor points at. Its principal advantages over other types of antenna are its simplicity, high forward gain, wide bandwidth, and the ability to operate over a wide range of frequencies.
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The intrinsic resistance of a conducting element, usually a copper trace in Printed circuit Board (PCB) can be used as sensing element instead of a shunt resistor. Since no additional resistor is required this approach promises a low-cost and space saving configuration with no additional power losses either. Naturally, the voltage drop of a copper trace is very low due to its very low resistance, making the presence of a high gain amplifier mandatory in order to get a useful signal. There are several physical effects which may alter the current measurement process: thermal drift of the copper trace, initial conditions of the trace resistance etc.
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The pulse is repeated in a frame of between 10 and 30 milliseconds in length. Off-the-shelf servos respond directly to servo control pulse trains of this type using integrated decoder circuits, and in response they actuate a rotating arm or lever on the top of the servo. An electric motor and reduction gearbox is used to drive the output arm and a variable component such as a resistor "potentiometer" or tuning capacitor. The variable capacitor or resistor produces an error signal voltage proportional to the output position which is then compared with the position commanded by the input pulse and the motor is driven until a match is obtained.
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A bipolar transistor switch is the simplest RTL gate (inverter or NOT gate) implementing logical negation.Resistor-Transistor Logic explains the basic RTL gates and gives some useful calculations It consists of a common-emitter stage with a base resistor connected between the base and the input voltage source. The role of the base resistor is to expand the very small transistor input voltage range (about 0.7 V) to the logical "1" level (about 3.5 V) by converting the input voltage into current. Its resistance is settled by a compromise: it is chosen low enough to saturate the transistor and high enough to obtain high input resistance.
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The high voltage power supplies of CRT type television sets and computer monitors generate voltages of 30 - 40 kV, which are a much greater electrocution hazard. This higher voltage requires higher value bleeder resistors to avoid unnecessarily loading the supply circuits. The bleeder resistor commonly found inside a flyback transformer is valued in the hundreds of megohms range, and can therefore not be measured with the common technician's multimeter. Instead of a resistor inside the transformer, the focus and screen control array may be used for the same purpose, depending on the application and tolerances of the type of tube it is producing output for.
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The failure of a bleeder resistor prevents the discharge of the capacitors, resulting in dangerous voltages being retained for many days. This is one of several reasons for the typical warning on most equipment: "Warning - No user- serviceable parts inside". An un-suspecting user may get an electrical shock from opened equipment due to failure of a bleeder resistor, or the common practice of not fitting them, long after the device has been turned off or unplugged. Safe design suggests mounting a bleeder close to a dangerous capacitor, ideally directly to the capacitor terminals, and not through any connectors, so that it is difficult to disconnect the bleeder accidentally.
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The failure rate of resistors in a properly designed circuit is low compared to other electronic components such as semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors. Damage to resistors most often occurs due to overheating when the average power delivered to it greatly exceeds its ability to dissipate heat (specified by the resistor's power rating). This may be due to a fault external to the circuit, but is frequently caused by the failure of another component (such as a transistor that shorts out) in the circuit connected to the resistor. Operating a resistor too close to its power rating can limit the resistor's lifespan or cause a significant change in its resistance.
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In this application where a neutral leg current flows due to a current imbalance between the generator or transformer windings due to a fault, it is limited in magnitude by the resistor. A permanently installed current transformer (CT) fixed around the neutral leg feeder to the LNER senses the current. The CT sends a signal current to an external sensing circuit (the protection system) which then sends a signal to the relevant circuit breaker to open and disconnect the supply or isolate the generator (or transformer) from the fault. The ohmic value of the resistor is calculated as a function of the permissible fault current and the system voltage to earth.
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Other devices such as the CD4053 bi-directional CMOS analog multiplexer integrated circuit and digital potentiometers (combined resistor string and MUXes) can serve well as the switching function. To minimize the quantity of switches and resistors, combinations of resistance values can be utilized by activating multiple switches.
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These new IC were completed in July 1976. A new low-cost clock generator chip, the MC6875, was released in 1977. It replaced the $35 MC6870 hybrid IC. The MC6875 came in a 16-pin dip package and could use quartz crystal or a resistor capacitor network.
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Figure 1: Basic NPN common base circuit with resistor load (neglecting biasing details). Signal is applied at Vin, output taken from node Vout may be a voltage or a current. Figure 2: Basic NPN common base circuit (neglecting biasing details). Current source IC represents an active load.
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Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 megohm. The carbon film resistor has an operating temperature range of −55 °C to 155 °C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse stability.
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Memistor A memistor is a nanoelectric circuitry element used in parallel computing memory technology. Essentially, a resistor with memory able to perform logic operations and store information, it is a three-terminal implementation of the memristor. It is a possible future technology replacing flash and DRAM.
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A damping resistor is connected across one of the two capacitor sections and the inductor, the tuned frequency of this section being equal to the grid frequency. In this way, damping is provided for harmonic frequencies but the circuit incurs no power loss at grid frequency.
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Example of electronic circuit with the sensistor Rs Sensistor is a resistor whose resistance changes with temperature. The resistance increases exponentially with temperature,U.A.Bakshi, A.P.Godse, Semiconductor Devices & Circuits, Technical Publications Pune, India, 2008, , page 295 that is the temperature coefficient is positive (e.g. 0.7% per degree Celsius).
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The power dissipated in a resistor is converted to heat. That heat raises the temperature of the device. The heat is conducted or radiated away. A simple linear characterization looks at the average power dissipated in the device (unit watts) and the device's thermal resistance (°C / Watt).
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It is included as part of the "control resistor". The charging battery load is not treated as a "base resistance" though, as the charging circuit can be turned off at any time. When off, the operations can be continued without interruption using the power stored in the batteries.
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With laser trimming two modes are used; either passive trimming, where each resistor is trimmed to a specific value and tolerance, or active trimming, where the feedback is used to adjust to a specific voltage, frequency or response by laser trimming the resistors on the circuit while powered up.
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A simple electric circuit made up of a voltage source and a resistor. Here, v=iR, according to Ohm's law. An electrical network is an interconnection of electrical components (e.g., batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors) or a model of such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements (e.g.
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In electronics, the NORBIT family of modules is a very early form (since 1960) of digital logic developed by Philips (and also provided through and Mullard) that uses modules containing discrete components to build logic function blocks in resistor–transistor logic (RTL) or diode–transistor logic (DTL) technology.
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So 50% duty cycle results in zero current. 0% results in full V/R current in one direction. 100% results in full current in the opposite direction. This current level is monitored by the controller by measuring the voltage across a small sense resistor in series with the winding.
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The voltage and current of these two types of devices are therefore out of phase, they do not rise and fall together as simple resistor networks do. The mathematical model that matches this situation is that of complex numbers, using an imaginary component to describe the stored energy.
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Morris, C. G. (ed) (1992) Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Gulf Professional Publishing. p. 360. . A carbon pile resistor can be incorporated in automatic voltage regulators for generators, where the carbon pile controls the field current to maintain relatively constant voltage.Principles of automotive vehicles United States. Dept.
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The thermal stability of this type of resistor also has to do with the opposing effects of the metal's electrical resistance increasing with temperature, and being reduced by thermal expansion leading to an increase in thickness of the foil, whose other dimensions are constrained by a ceramic substrate.
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Ideally, a resistor has a constant resistance. In practice, the resistance will vary with time and external conditions. Resistance will vary with temperature. Carbon film resistors have temperature coefficients of several 100 parts per million per degree C.DigiKey catalog has some carbon film resistors with 350 ppm/degC.
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A 2-bit flash ADC example implementation with bubble error correction and digital encoding Flash ADCs have been implemented in many technologies, varying from silicon-based bipolar (BJT) and complementary metal–oxide FETs (CMOS) technologies to rarely used III-V technologies. Often this type of ADC is used as a first medium-sized analog circuit verification. The earliest implementations consisted of a reference ladder of well matched resistors connected to a reference voltage. Each tap at the resistor ladder is used for one comparator, possibly preceded by an amplification stage, and thus generates a logical 0 or 1 depending on whether the measured voltage is above or below the reference voltage of the resistor tap.
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These act as a small localized energy reservoir that supply the circuit with current during transient, high current demand periods, preventing the voltage on the power supply rail from being pulled down by the momentary current load. Another common example of the use of decoupling capacitors is across the emitter bias resistor of transistor common emitter amplifiers to prevent the resistor absorbing a portion of the AC output power of the amplifier. Lossy ferrite beads may also be used to isolate or 'island' sections of circuitry. These add a high series impedance (in contrast to the low parallel impedance added by decoupling capacitors) to the power supply rails, preventing high-frequency currents being drawn from elsewhere in the system.
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This degaussing field is strong enough to remove shadow mask magnetization in most cases. In unusual cases of strong magnetization where the internal degaussing field is not sufficient, the shadow mask may be degaussed externally with a stronger portable degausser or demagnetizer. However, an excessively strong magnetic field, whether alternating or constant, may mechanically deform (bend) the shadow mask, causing a permanent colour distortion on the display which looks very similar to a magnetization effect. The degaussing circuit is often built of a thermo-electric (not electronic) device containing a small ceramic heating element and a positive thermal coefficient (PTC) resistor, connected directly to the switched AC power line with the resistor in series with the degaussing coil.
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Underwriters Laboratories required the adoption of the floating chassis, as isolation from the mains (the exact circuit and component values were not specified although the leakage current allowed was specified) to limit the shock to a "safe" current level. The chassis was maintained at RF ground (for shielding) by a bypass capacitor (typically 0.05 μF to 0.2 μF) usually with a resistor connected across it (typically 220 kΩ to 470 kΩ, although values as small as 22 kΩ were sometimes used or the resistor was simply omitted).Typical schematic of a 1948 model AC/DC radio with a 220K isolation resistor.In older schematics, "M" was used to indicate "thousand" and not "megohm".
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The driving induces transitions between levels of a closed system, leading to diffusion in energy space and, hence, an associated heating. The diffusion coefficient can be calculated using a resistor network analogy. Semi-linear response theory (SLRT) is an extension of linear response theory (LRT) for mesoscopic circumstances: LRT applies if the driven transitions are much weaker/slower than the environmental relaxation/dephasing effect, while SLRT assumes the opposite conditions. SLRT uses a resistor network analogy (see illustration) in order to calculate the rate of energy absorption: The driving induces transitions between energy levels, and connected sequences of transitions are essential in order to have a non-vanishing result, as in the theory of percolation.
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Figure 1: A simple voltage divider In electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a passive linear circuit that produces an output voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input voltage (Vin). Voltage division is the result of distributing the input voltage among the components of the divider. A simple example of a voltage divider is two resistors connected in series, with the input voltage applied across the resistor pair and the output voltage emerging from the connection between them. Resistor voltage dividers are commonly used to create reference voltages, or to reduce the magnitude of a voltage so it can be measured, and may also be used as signal attenuators at low frequencies.
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The shallow radiation angle makes it useful for skywave ("skip") propagation, the longest distance mode for shortwave, in which radio waves directed into the sky at the horizon reflect from layers in the ionosphere and return to Earth far beyond the horizon. It is possible to improve the low efficiency and gain of unidirectional rhombics by replacing the termination resistor by a low-loss balanced resonant stub transmission line. This reflects the power that would have been wasted in the termination resistor back into the antenna with the correct phase to reinforce the excitation from the transmitter. This circuit can increase the radiation efficiency of transmitting antennas to the 70-80% range, at the cost of increased complexity.
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RLC circuit as a low-pass filter An RLC circuit (the letters R, L and C can be in a different sequence) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The RLC part of the name is due to those letters being the usual electrical symbols for resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current and will resonate in a similar way as an LC circuit will. The main difference that the presence of the resistor makes is that any oscillation induced in the circuit will die away over time if it is not kept going by a source.
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Variations in the quiescent current with temperature, or between parts with the same type number, are common, so crossover distortion and quiescent current may be subject to significant variation. The output range of the amplifier is about one volt less than the supply voltage, owing in part to VBE of the output transistors Q14 and Q20. The 25 Ω resistor at the Q14 emitter, along with Q17, acts to limit Q14 current to about 25 mA; otherwise, Q17 conducts no current. Current limiting for Q20 is performed in the voltage gain stage: Q22 senses the voltage across Q19's emitter resistor (50Ω); as it turns on, it diminishes the drive current to Q15 base.
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Since an attenuator circuit consists solely of passive resistor elements, it is both linear and reciprocal. If the circuit is also made symmetrical (this is usually the case since it is usually required that the input and output impedance Z1 and Z2 are equal), then the input and output ports are not distinguished, but by convention the left and right sides of the circuits are referred to as input and output, respectively. Various tables and calculators are available that provide a means of determining the appropriate resistor values for achieving particular loss values. One of the earliest was published by the NAB in 1960 for losses ranging from 1/2 to 40 dB, for use in 600 ohm circuits.
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Capacitors, inductors, and resistors are usually designed to minimise other parameters. In many cases this can be done to a sufficient extent that parasitic capacitance and inductance of a resistor, for example, are so small as not to affect circuit operation. However, under some circumstances parasitics become important and even dominant.
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An oscillistor is a semiconductor device, consisting of a semiconductor specimen placed in magnetic field, and a resistor after a power supply. The device produces high-frequency oscillations, which are very close to sinusoidal. The basic principle of operation is the effect of spiral unsteadiness of electron-hole (p-n) plasmas.
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An external, variable resistor controls the motor speed. The man on the cover is adjusting scanning wheel speed with a 125-hertz tuning fork. He looks through the vibrating tuning fork at the line pattern on the hub. A stationary pattern indicates that the wheel has arrived at 450 RPM.
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The field-effect tetrode can be used as a highly linear electronically variable resistor – resistance is not modulated by signal voltage. Signal voltage can exceed bias voltage, pinch-off voltage, and junction breakdown voltage. The limit is dependent on dissipation. Signal current flows in inverse proportion to the channel resistances.
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100% power 1/10 minutes, long braking times require more accurate dimensioning of the braking chopper. # Increased risk of fire due to hot resistor and possible dust and chemical components in the ambient air space. # The increased DC bus voltage level during braking causes additional voltage stress on motor insulation.
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This will result in signal loss and possibly even damage. An active mixer, using for example op-amps, should be used instead. A large resistor in series with each output can be used to safely mix them together, but must be appropriately designed for the load impedance and cable length.
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Louis E. Frenzel, Crash Course in Electronics Technology, p. 140, Newnes, 1997 . In terms of abstract theory, diodes can be considered non-linear resistors, but non-linearity in a resistor would not normally be directional, which is the property that leads to diodes being classified as active.Ian Hickman, Analog Electronics, p.
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"read" bit primitive timing diagram The transducer's controller is attached to the signalling line via a bidirectional IO pin with a weak pull-up resistor. The controller's IO pin is in high impedance state. After receiving the "read" bit primitive, it becomes an output to drive the bus low as required.
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The impedance of the capacitor is small at the carrier frequency and high at the modulating frequencies.W. L. Everitt, Communication Engineering, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1937, p. 418 A resistor (the grid leak) is connected either in parallel with the capacitor or from the grid to the cathode.
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During the start-up a typical rotor has 3 poles connected to the slip ring. Each pole is wired in series with a variable power resistor. When the motor reaches full speed the rotor poles are switched to short circuit. During start-up the resistors reduce the field strength at the stator.
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A simplified diagram of the singing candle A singing candle is an electro- acoustic installation. The movements of a candle flame are transformed into sound by means of a light dependent resistor (LDR). The sound waves, in return, have an influence on the flame, through an amplifier and loudspeaker, forming a feedback loop.
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The original RJ45S was intended for high-speed modems, and is obsolete. The RJ45S jack mates with a keyed 8P2C modular plug, and has pins 4 and 5 (the middle positions) wired for the ring and tip conductors of a single telephone line and pins 7 and 8 shorting a programming resistor.
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The coil formed part of the plate load resistor. Two poles were used per vacuum tube and RC coupling was used to the grid of the following tube. Butterworth also showed that the basic low-pass filter could be modified to give low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop functionality.
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On 30 October 2014, Cemetech user Val managed to overclock their TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition by replacing resistor R07D with a 5-kiloohm potentiometer. Soon after, Botboy3000 showed off his version with a color- coded speed control knob. These experiments proved the calculator was perfectly stable up to a blazing 22Mhz.
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The amount of current (I) flowing through a tether depends on various factors. One of these is the circuit's total resistance (R). The circuit's resistance consist of three components: # the effective resistance of the plasma, # the resistance of the tether, and # a control variable resistor. In addition, a parasitic load is needed.
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A thermistor is a thermally-sensitive resistor with a resistance that changes significantly and predictably as a result of temperature changes. The resistance of an NTC thermistor decreases as its temperature increases.NTC thermistors at Temperatures.com. As the inrush current limiter self-heats, the current begins to flow through it and warm it.
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Additive mixers add two or more signals, giving out a composite signal that contains the frequency components of each of the source signals. The simplest additive mixers are resistor networks, and thus purely passive, while more complex matrix mixers employ active components such as buffer amplifiers for impedance matching and better isolation.
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The T 282 B features an electric dynamic retard with continuously rated, fan-forced air over stainless steel resistor grid, with a dry disc secondary braking system. Additional features include extended speed range, cruise control, two speed over speed, slip slide traction control, front/rear service brakes, hydraulic accumulators, park brakes, and filtration.
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Engineers and technicians use "RCTL" (resistor-capacitor-transistor logic) to designate gates equipped with "speed-up capacitors". The Lincoln Laboratory TX-0 computer's circuits included some RCTL. However, methods involving capacitors were unsuitable for integrated circuits. Using a high collector supply voltage and diode clamping decreased collector-base and wiring capacitance charging time.
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The capacitor in the circuit above stores charge on the rising edge and releases it slowly through the resistor when the input signal amplitude falls. The diode in series rectifies the incoming signal, allowing current flow only when the positive input terminal is at a higher potential than the negative input terminal.
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Adel Sedra, Kenneth Smith. Microelectronic Circuits, 5th ed. The example at right shows how a load line is used to determine the current and voltage in a simple diode circuit. The diode, a nonlinear device, is in series with a linear circuit consisting of a resistor, R and a voltage source, VDD.
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Crystal Fire p. 278R Kessler, 1997, Absent at the Creation, Washington Post Magazine. The "transistor" (a portmanteau of "transconductance" and "resistor") was 1/50 the size of the vacuum tubes it replaced in televisions and radios, used far less power, was far more reliable, and it allowed electrical devices to become more compact.
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For such use, the error introduced by the mis-match of the ratio in the two potential arms would mean that the presence of the parasitic resistance Rpar could have a significant impact on the very high accuracy required. To minimise this problem, the current connections to the standard resistor (Rx); the sub- standard resistor (Rs) and the connection between them (Rpar) are designed to have as low a resistance as possible, and the connections both in the resistors and the bridge more resemble bus bars rather than wire. Some ohmmeters include Kelvin bridges in order to obtain large measurement ranges. Instruments for measuring sub-ohm values are often referred to as low- resistance ohmmeters, milli-ohmmeters, micro-ohmmeters, etc.
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A simple envelope detector A simple crystal radio with no tuned circuit can be used to listen to strong AM broadcast signals One major technique is known as envelope detection. The simplest form of envelope detector is the diode detector that consists of a diode connected between the input and output of the circuit, with a resistor and capacitor in parallel from the output of the circuit to the ground to form a low pass filter. If the resistor and capacitor are correctly chosen, the output of this circuit will be a nearly identical voltage-shifted version of the original signal. An early form of envelope detector was the crystal detector, which was used in the crystal set radio receiver.
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A theorem due to Sidney Darlington states that any PR function Z(s) can be realised as a lossless two-port terminated in a positive resistor R. That is, regardless of how many resistors feature in the matrix [Z] representing the impedance network, a transform can be found that will realise the network entirely as an LC-kind network with just one resistor across the output port (which would normally represent the load). No resistors within the network are necessary in order to realise the specified response. Consequently, it is always possible to reduce 3-element-kind 2-port networks to 2-element-kind (LC) 2-port networks provided the output port is terminated in a resistance of the required value.E. Cauer et al.
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The heating element inside every electric heater is an electrical resistor, and works on the principle of Joule heating: an electric current passing through a resistor will convert that electrical energy into heat energy. Most modern electric heating devices use nichrome wire as the active element; the heating element, depicted on the right, uses nichrome wire supported by ceramic insulators. Alternatively, a heat pump uses an electric motor to drive a refrigeration cycle, that draws heat energy from a source such as the ground or outside air and directs that heat into the space to be warmed. Some systems can be reversed so that the interior space is cooled and the warm air is discharged outside or into the ground.
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In circuit design, an active load is a circuit component made up of active devices, such as transistors, intended to present a high small-signal impedance yet not requiring a large DC voltage drop, as would occur if a large resistor were used instead. Such large AC load impedances may be desirable, for example, to increase the AC gain of some types of amplifier. Most commonly the active load is the output part of a current mirror and is represented in an idealized manner as a current source. Usually, it is only a constant-current resistor that is a part of the whole current source including a constant voltage source as well (the power supply VCC on the figures below).
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There is always a trade-off between the speed with which the bleeder operates and the amount of power wasted in the bleeder; a lower resistance value results in a faster bleed-down rate but wastes more power during normal, power-on operation. The presence of a bleeder also guarantees a minimum load on the power source, which can help reduce the range of voltage change (regulation) when the normal load is changing and there is no active regulator. Use of a bleeder this way is a common design strategy for power supplies of vacuum tube power amplifiers, for instance. Large capacitors can actually recover a substantial part of their charge after being discharged by the bleeder resistor, if the resistor is not left in place.
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When used to control reactive (inductive or capacitive) loads, care must be taken to ensure that the TRIAC turns off correctly at the end of each half-cycle of the AC in the main circuit. TRIACs can be sensitive to fast voltage changes (dv/dt) between MT1 and MT2, so a phase shift between current and voltage caused by reactive loads can lead to a voltage step that can turn the thyristor on erroneously. An electric motor is typically an inductive load and off-line power supplies—as used in most TVs and computers—are capacitive. Unwanted turn-ons can be avoided by using a snubber circuit (usually of the resistor/capacitor or resistor/capacitor/inductor type) between MT1 and MT2.
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When an unknown resistor is placed in series in the circuit the current will be less than full scale and an appropriately calibrated scale can display the value of the previously unknown resistor. These capabilities to translate different kinds of electric quantities into pointer movements make the galvanometer ideal for turning the output of other sensors that output electricity (in some form or another), into something that can be read by a human. Because the pointer of the meter is usually a small distance above the scale of the meter, parallax error can occur when the operator attempts to read the scale line that "lines up" with the pointer. To counter this, some meters include a mirror along with the markings of the principal scale.
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The similar Varley loop uses fixed resistors for RB1 and RB2, and inserts a variable resistor in the faulted leg. Test sets for cable testing can be connected for either bridge technique. If the fault resistance is high, the sensitivity of the Murray bridge is reduced and the Varley loop may be more suitable.
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The simplest inrush-current limiting system, used in many consumer electronics devices, is a NTC resistor. When cold, its high resistance allows a small current to pre-charge the reservoir capacitor. After it warms up, its low resistance more efficiently passes the working current. Many active power factor correction systems also include soft start.
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This current does not flow through the measuring bridge itself. This bridge can also be used to measure resistors of the more conventional two terminal design. The bridge potential connections are merely connected as close to the resistor terminals as possible. Any measurement will then exclude all circuit resistance not within the two potential connections.
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It is triggered by zero or negative input signal applied to Q2 base (with the same success it can be triggered by applying a positive input signal through a resistor to Q1 base). As a result, the circuit goes in State 1 described above. After elapsing the time, it returns to its stable initial state.
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The similar Varley loop uses fixed resistors for RB1 and RB2, and inserts a variable resistor in the faulted leg. Test sets for cable testing can be connected for either bridge technique. If the fault resistance is high, the sensitivity of the Murray bridge is reduced and the Varley loop may be more suitable.
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A voltage follower reads the voltage on the input (caused by a small current through a big resistor). It then instructs a parallel circuit that has a large current source behind it (the electrical mains) and adjusts the resistance of that parallel circuit to give the same output voltage, but across a lower resistance.
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Similarly, a decrease in the signal amplitude results in decreased current flow towards the charged reservoir capacitor, resulting in decreased- or no damping on the tuned circuit. The values of the reservoir capacitor and the bleeding resistor(s) are chosen so that the combined time constant of these components is below the audio spectrum.
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Surface mount resistors have been known to fail due to the ingress of sulfur into the internal makeup of the resistor. This sulfur chemically reacts with the silver layer to produce non- conductive silver sulfide. The resistor's impedance goes to infinity. Sulfur resistant and anti-corrosive resistors are sold into automotive, industrial, and military applications.
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These ran for hundreds of thousands of hours. The first semiconductor logic family was resistor–transistor logic. This was a thousand times more reliable than tubes, ran cooler, and used less power, but had a very low fan-in of 3. Diode–transistor logic improved the fanout up to about 7, and reduced the power.
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542-557 It contained two biaxial sensor units, refereed as AMR (Anisotropic Magnetic Resistor), with two redundant PCBs equipped with radiation-hardened proximity electronics and two photoelectric cells. Although conventional, this solution provided moderate detection sensitivity (around 3 mV/V/G), good resolution (3 µG) and an acceptable operational range for measuring the geomagnetic field (0.1 mT - 1 nT).
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The RC time constants are adjusted to match. For example, the 9 megohm series resistor is shunted by a 12.2 pF capacitor for a time constant of 110 microseconds. The cable capacitance of 90 pF in parallel with the scope input of 20 pF and 1 megohm (total capacitance 110 pF) also gives a time constant of 110 microseconds.
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In 2002 Schiess and tax resistor Margaret Rusk received the inaugural In the Spirit of Gage awards presented by the Matilda Joslyn Gage Foundation. She is the author of the 2003 book Why Me, Lord?: One Woman's Ordination to the Priesthood With Commentary and Complaint. Schiess lived in Cicero, New York until her death on October 20, 2017.
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Zero ohm resistors, marked with a single black band, are lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-like body which can be mounted on a printed-circuit board (PCB) by automatic component-insertion equipment. They are typically used on PCBs as insulating "bridges" where two traces would otherwise cross, or as soldered-in jumper wires for setting configurations.
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Biasing and termination values are not specified in the RS-485 standard. Ideally, the two ends of the cable will have a termination resistor connected across the two wires. Without termination resistors, signal reflections off the unterminated end of the cable can cause data corruption. Termination resistors also reduce electrical noise sensitivity due to the lower impedance.
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This shift is economically efficient from a manufacturer's point of view but is also materially wasteful, as a circuit board with hundreds of functional components may be discarded and replaced due to the failure of one minor and inexpensive part, such as a resistor or capacitor. This practice is a significant contributor to the problem of e-waste.
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By surrounding a transistor, resistor, capacitor or other component on an IC with semiconductor material which is doped using an opposite species of the substrate dopant, and connecting this surrounding material to a voltage which reverse-biases the p–n junction that forms, it is possible to create a region which forms an electrically isolated "well" around the component.
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On-die termination (ODT) or Digitally Controlled Impedance (DCI) is the technology where the termination resistor for impedance matching in transmission lines is located within a semiconductor chip, instead of a separate, discrete device mounted on a circuit board. The closeness of the termination from the receiver shorten the stub between the two, thus improving the overall signal integrity.
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Termination can be passive or active. Passive termination means that each signal line is terminated by two resistors, 220 Ω to TERMPOWER and 330 Ω to ground. Active termination means that there is a small voltage regulator which provides a +2.85 V supply. Each signal line is then terminated by a 110 Ω resistor to the +2.85 V supply.
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Because of the non-linear characteristics of these devices, the output of a regulator is free of ripple. A simple voltage regulator may be made with a series resistor to drop voltage followed by a shunt zener diode whose Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) sets the maximum output voltage; if voltage rises, the diode shunts away current to maintain regulation.
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Acceptable levels depend upon requirements, e.g. proximity to RF circuitry needs more suppression than simply meeting regulations. ;Coil-integrated DC/DC Converters :These may include a power control IC, coil, capacitor, and resistor; decreases mounting space with a small number of components in a single integrated solution. ;Input noise :The input voltage may have non-negligible noise.
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A TCR Thyristor Valve (one phase) TCR Thyristor valve voltage and current waveforms In addition to the thyristors themselves, each inverse-parallel pair of thyristors has a Resistor - Capacitor circuit connected across it, to force the voltage across the valve to divide uniformly amongst the thyristors and to damp the "commutation overshoot" which occurs when the valve turns off.
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Diagram of a spark transmitter As an example, when a person walks over a nylon carpet, the rubbing of shoes on carpet performs the role of a battery and resistor, while the person acts as a capacitor (C1 and C2), and the air between a hand and a door knob is a spark gap. Stray inductance acts as L.
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Rousso emphasises that résistancialisme should not be confused with "résistantialisme" (with a "t", literally "Resistor-ism") who is a pejorative term used by Jean-Marie Desgrange to criticize individuals who retrospectively exaggerated or faked their own involvement in the wartime resistance in an attempt to enhance their own status after the war, for instance François Mitterrand.
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In this sense, the dynamics of a memristive circuit has the advantage compared to a Resistor-Capacitor network to have a more interesting non-linear behavior. From this point of view, engineering an analog memristive networks accounts to a peculiar type of neuromorphic engineering in which the device behavior depends on the circuit wiring, or topology.
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A terminating resistor for a television coaxial cable is often in the form of a cap, threaded to screw onto an F connector. Antenna cables are sometimes used for internet connections; however RG-6 should not be used for 10BASE2 (which should use RG-58) as the impedance mismatch can cause phasing problems with the baseband signal.
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At first, electromagnets controlled by analogue resistor/capacitor timers were used to govern the release of the second shutter curtain (though still operated by spring power).Goldberg, Camera Technology pp 76-77. In 1979, the Yashica Contax 139 Quartz (Japan) introduced more precise digital piezoelectric quartzAnonymous. "Modern Tests: Contax 139 Quartz: Compact And Impressive SLR" pp 108-113.
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Above right a voltage regulator can be seen, formed by the current limiting resistor, R3, and the zener shunt regulator, IC1. If the voltage stability is not too important a Zener diode can be used as a regulator; the two-terminal device would eliminate R4 and R5 used as a resistive voltage divider in the schematic above.
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Likewise, in a typical application the collector of Q2 (also connected to the emitter of Q1) functions as an emitter and is thus labeled "E." As with a Darlington pair, a resistor (e.g., 100Ω-1kΩ) can be connected between Q2's emitter and base to improve its turn-off time (i.e., its performance for high frequency signals).
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181, or 3rd ed., p. 97 or intermediate editions) recommends gaining speed by using higher-frequency transistors, or capacitors, or a diode from base to collector (parallel negative feedback) to prevent saturation. Placing a capacitor in parallel with each input resistor decreases the time needed for a driving stage to forward-bias a driven stage's base-emitter junction.
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A transresistance amplifier outputs a voltage proportional to its input current. The transresistance amplifier is often referred to as a transimpedance amplifier, especially by semiconductor manufacturers. The term for a transresistance amplifier in network analysis is current controlled voltage source (CCVS). A basic inverting transresistance amplifier can be built from an operational amplifier and a single resistor.
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Diana Eng (born in Jacksonville, Florida) is a Chinese-American fashion designer, author and fashion technologist based in New York. She is best known as contestant on the second season of the reality television program Project Runway. Eng is a co-founder of an art/electronic group called NYC Resistor, and authored a book called "Fashion Geek".
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Grid current occurs only on the positive peaks of the carrier frequency cycle. The coupling capacitor will acquire a dc charge due to the rectifying action of the cathode to grid pathW. L. Everitt, p. 421. The capacitor discharges through the resistor (thus grid leak) during the time that the carrier voltage is decreasingSignal Corps U.S. Army, p.
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At the Curie point temperature, the dielectric constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential barriers at the grain boundaries, and the resistance increases sharply with temperature. At even higher temperatures, the material reverts to NTC behaviour. Another type of thermistor is a silistor (a thermally sensitive silicon resistor). Silistors employ silicon as the semiconductive component material.
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Periodates are highly selective etchants for certain ruthenium-based oxides.Dieter Weber, Róza Vöfély, Yuehua Chen, Yulia Mourzina, Ulrich Poppe: Variable resistor made by repeated steps of epitaxial deposition and lithographic structuring of oxide layers by using wet chemical etchants. Thin Solid Films (2013) DOI: 10.1016/j.tsf.2012.11.118 Several staining agents use in microscopy are based around periodate (e.g.
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AN886, Maxim Integrated Products, Selecting the Right Comparator. On the basis of outputs, comparators can also be classified as open drain or push–pull. Comparators with an open drain output stage use an external pull up resistor to a positive supply that defines the logic high level. Open drain comparators are more suitable for mixed-voltage system design.
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Lewis Coe, The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History, pp. 124, 173, McFarland, 2006 . Today, the transformer version of the hybrid has been replaced by resistor networks and compact IC versions, which use integrated circuit electronics to do the job of the hybrid coil. Radio-frequency hybrids are used to split radio signals, including television.
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A power processing unit (PPU) is a circuit device that convert an electricity input from a utility line into the appropriate voltage and current to be used for the device in question. They serve the same purpose as linear amplifiers, but they are much more efficient, since the use of linear amplifiers results in much power loss due to the use of a resistor to change the voltage and current. Instead of using a resistor, PPUs use switches to turn a signal on and off quite rapidly in order to change the average current and voltage. In this way, they could be conflated with DC-AC converters, but the frequency at which they switch the signal on and off is a few orders of magnitude higher than that of AC signals.
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When the power is switched on, the heating element heats the PTC resistor, increasing its resistance to a point where degaussing current is minimal, but not actually zero. In older CRT displays, this low-level current (which produces no significant degaussing field) is sustained along with the action of the heating element as long as the display remains switched on. To repeat a degaussing cycle, the CRT display must be switched off and left off for at least several seconds to reset the degaussing circuit by allowing the PTC resistor to cool to the ambient temperature; switching the display-off and immediately back on will result in a weak degaussing cycle or effectively no degaussing cycle. This simple design is effective and cheap to build, but it wastes some power continuously.
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In VLSI devices, the power-on reset (PoR) is an electronic device incorporated into the integrated circuit that detects the power applied to the chip and generates a reset impulse that goes to the entire circuit placing it into a known state. A simple PoR uses the charging of a capacitor, in series with a resistor, to measure a time period during which the rest of the circuit is held in a reset state. A Schmitt trigger may be used to deassert the reset signal cleanly, once the rising voltage of the RC network passes the threshold voltage of the Schmitt trigger. The resistor and capacitor values should be determined so that the charging of the RC network takes long enough that the supply voltage will have stabilised by the time the threshold is reached.
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BJT bistable collector-base coupled circuit can be converted to a Schmitt trigger by connecting an additional base resistor to one of the bases Like every latch, the fundamental collector-base coupled bistable circuit possesses a hysteresis. So, it can be converted to a Schmitt trigger by connecting an additional base resistor R to one of the inputs (Q1 base in the figure). The two resistors R and R4 form a parallel voltage summer (the circle in the block diagram above) that sums output (Q2 collector) voltage and the input voltage, and drives the single-ended transistor "comparator" Q1. When the base voltage crosses the threshold (VBE0 ∞ 0.65 V) in some direction, a part of Q2's collector voltage is added in the same direction to the input voltage.
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The load resistor over the cell allows the electronics to measure a voltage rather than a current. This voltage depends on the construction and age of the sensor, and typically varies between 7 and 28 mV for a PO2 of 0.21 bar Diffusion is linearly dependent on the partial pressure gradient, but is also temperature dependent, and the current rises about two to three percent per kelvin rise in temperature. A negative temperature coefficient resistor is used to compensate, and for this to be effective it must be at the same temperature as the cell. Oxygen cells which may be exposed to relatively large or rapid temperature changes, like rebreathers, generally use thermally conductive paste between the temperature compensating circuit and the cell to speed up the balancing of temperature.
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Norton and his associates at AT&T; in the early 1920s are recognized as some of the first to perform pioneering work applying Thevenin's equivalent circuit and who referred to this concept simply as Thévenin's theorem. In 1926, he proposed the equivalent circuit using a current source and parallel resistor to assist in the design of recording instrumentation that was primarily current driven.
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High reliability was required of the D-17B. It controlled a key weapon that would have just one chance to execute its mission. Reliability of the D-17B was achieved through the use of solid-state electronics and a relatively simple design. Simpler DRL (diode–resistor) logic was used extensively, but less-reliable DTL (diode–transistor) logic was used only where needed.
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The main brake system is also pneumatic. The LM-57 is equipped with four 45 kW electric motors and is able to reach a top speed of 65 km/h. It utilizes a direct, mechanical control of electric current to the motors. The main control device is the hand-operated multipositional controller for resistor groups commutation in motors power cirquit.
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The three main categories of RTD sensors are thin-film, wire-wound, and coiled elements. While these types are the ones most widely used in industry, other more exotic shapes are used; for example, carbon resistors are used at ultra-low temperatures (−273 °C to −173 °C). ;Carbon resistor elements: are cheap and widely used. They have very reproducible results at low temperatures.
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GE claimed that they could make reliable selenium diodes. A design was achieved for a DDTL circuit with two levels of diode logic feeding one alloy transistor and no series input resistor or speed-up capacitor. The family was called SMAL or SMALL, for "selenium matrix alloy logic". The alloy transistor proved to be too fast for the selenium diode recovery.
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The principal controls of this section are the source and coupling selector switches, and an external trigger input (EXT Input) and level adjustment. In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe. The probe connects to any input on the instrument and typically has a resistor of ten times the oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .
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Such devices can be used on valve (vacuum tube) amplifiers, but if used with transistors some precaution to prevent overcurrent at low frequency is often necessary, such as a series resistor or capacitor. Alternatively the amp can be chosen to drive the speaker resistance, though this will result in worse impedance mismatch and thus output power far below the amplifier design spec.
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Varistors are used as control or compensation elements in circuits either to provide optimal operating conditions or to protect against excessive transient voltages. When used as protection devices, they shunt the current created by the excessive voltage away from sensitive components when triggered. The name varistor is a portmanteau of varying resistor. The term is only used for non-ohmic varying resistors.
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For the actual hardware I/O, the microprogram read and wrote shift registers for most I/O, sometimes with resistor networks and transistors to shift output voltage levels (e.g. for video). To handle outside events, the microcontroller had microinterrupts to switch threads at the end of a thread's cycle, e.g. at the end of an instruction, or after a shift-register was accessed.
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Running current through a material with resistance creates heat, in a phenomenon called Joule heating. In this picture, a cartridge heater, warmed by Joule heating, is glowing red hot. Resistors (and other elements with resistance) oppose the flow of electric current; therefore, electrical energy is required to push current through the resistance. This electrical energy is dissipated, heating the resistor in the process.
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The long hood normally contains the diesel engine (prime mover), the main generator or alternator, the locomotive's cooling radiators, the dynamic brake resistor grids if fitted, and most of the locomotive's auxiliary equipment. Head-end power equipment, if fitted, is normally in the long hood; steam generators for heating older passenger cars may be either in the long or short hoods.
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Fig. 3. Incremental model showing sensor capacitance The frequency response of a transimpedance amplifier is inversely proportional to the gain set by the feedback resistor. The sensors which transimpedance amplifiers are used with usually have more capacitance than an op-amp can handle. The sensor can be modeled as a current source and a capacitor Ci.Photodiode Amplifiers. Jerald Graeme. p. 39.
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DC calculating boards used resistors and DC sources to represent an AC network. A resistor was used to model the inductive reactance of a circuit, while the actual series resistance of the circuit was neglected. The principle disadvantage was the inability to model complex impedances. However, for short-circuit fault studies, the effect of the resistance component was usually small.
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There are multiple ways to simulate Chua's diode using such components. One standard design is realized by connecting two negative impedance converters in parallel. A negative impedance converter (NIC) is a simple op amp circuit that has negative resistance. Another implementation uses one negative impedance converter to create the negative resistance characteristic, and a diode- resistor network to create the nonlinear characteristic.
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A 555 timer can be used to create a Schmitt trigger inverter gate which converts a noisy input into a clean digital output. The input signal should be connected through a series capacitor which then connects to the trigger and threshold pins. A resistor divider, from VCC to GND, is connected to the previous tied pins. The reset pin is tied to VCC.
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A feedback loop measures voltage on this resistor and keeps it at a preset level by varying supply voltage of the 74AC04 gates. Therefore, the nominally digital 74AC04 is operating as a structured power CMOS switch completely in analog mode. This way the LED junction is flooded and cleared of carriers as quickly as possible, basically by short circuit discharge.
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39 Zemanian, p.vii Infinite networks are largely of only theoretical interest and are the plaything of mathematicians. Infinite networks that are not constrained by real-world restrictions can have some very unphysical properties. For instance Kirchhoff's laws can fail in some cases and infinite resistor ladders can be defined which have a driving-point impedance which depends on the termination at infinity.
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The direction of a wound field DC motor can be changed by reversing either the field or armature connections but not both. This is commonly done with a special set of contactors (direction contactors). The effective voltage can be varied by inserting a series resistor or by an electronically controlled switching device made of thyristors, transistors, or, formerly, mercury arc rectifiers.
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A digitally controlled amplifier (DCA) is a variable-gain amplifier that is digitally controlled. The digitally controlled amplifier uses a stepped approach giving the circuit graduated increments of gain selection. This can be done in several fashions, but certain elements remain in any design. At its most basic form, a toggle switch strapped across the feedback resistor can provide two discrete gain settings.
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Some Intel processors are sold with some features "locked", that can later be unlocked after payment. Note that this is not unique to Intel. Some models of IBM's System/370 mainframe computer had additional hardware included, that if the customer paid the additional charge, IBM would send out a service engineer to enable it, typically by cutting a resistor in the machine.
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Special high-voltage resistors are used in such probes as they must be able to tolerate high input voltages and, to produce accurate results, must have matched temperature coefficients and very low voltage coefficients. Capacitive divider probes are typically used for voltages above 100 kV, as the heat caused by power losses in resistor divider probes at such high voltages could be excessive.
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The current mirror is used to provide bias currents and active loads to circuits. It can also be used to model a more realistic current source (since ideal current sources don't exist). The circuit topology covered here is one that appears in many monolithic ICs. It is a Widlar mirror without an emitter degeneration resistor in the follower (output) transistor.
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The Vidiot is a hybrid integrated circuit that works as digital-to-analog converter (DAC) for the OCS/ECS generation's 12-bit video to analog RGB output. It also generates a monochrome composite video signal and combined sync. The A3000 uses one Vidiot each for 15 kHz video and for 31 kHz (Amber) output. The A1000 uses discrete resistor arrays and amplification.
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The arithmetic logic functions were fully electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. The family of logic gates ranged from inverters to two and three input gates. The input and output levels and operating voltages were compatible between the different gates. Each gate consisted of one inverting vacuum tube amplifier, preceded by a resistor divider input network that defined the logical function.
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The American Resistor Company in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, had word and lettering Globar registered as a trademark (in a special decorative script font) with the United States Patent and Trademark Office on June 30, 1925 (registration number 0200201) and on October 18, 1927 (registration number 0234147). This registration had been renewed for the third time in 1987 (by various companies throughout 60 years).
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A magneto-resistor (MR) is a two terminal device which changes its resistance parabolically with applied magnetic field. This variation of the resistance of MR due to the magnetic field is known as the Magnetoresistive Effect. It is possible to build structures in which the electrical resistance varies as a function of applied magnetic field. These structures can be used as magnetic sensors.
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Circuits which exhibit chaotic behavior can be considered quasi-periodic or nonperiodic oscillators, and like all oscillators require a negative resistance in the circuit to provide power. Chua's circuit, a simple nonlinear circuit widely used as the standard example of a chaotic system, requires a nonlinear active resistor component, sometimes called Chua's diode. This is usually synthesized using a negative impedance converter circuit.
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An envelope detector can be used to demodulate a previously modulated signal by removing all high frequency components of the signal. The capacitor and resistor form a low-pass filter to filter out the carrier frequency. Such a device is often used to demodulate AM radio signals because the envelope of the modulated signal is equivalent to the baseband signal.
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At the end toward the signal source it is terminated by a resistor to ground approximately equal in value to the characteristic impedance of the antenna considered as a transmission line, usually 400 to 800 ohms. At the other end it is connected to the receiver with a transmission line, through a balun to match the line to the antenna's characteristic impedance.
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Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits. The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude.
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ASTM B809 is an industry standard that tests a part's susceptibility to sulfur. An alternative failure mode can be encountered where large value resistors are used (hundreds of kilohms and higher). Resistors are not only specified with a maximum power dissipation, but also for a maximum voltage drop. Exceeding this voltage causes the resistor to degrade slowly reducing in resistance.
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It is possible to synthesize a Loss-Free Resistor (LFR) by the combination of a switched mode converter and a suitable control circuit. The LFR is a two-port element that has a resistive i-v curve at the input terminals. The power absorbed at the input is transferred to the source that powers the total system, so in principle no losses occur.
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Typically it consists of a resistor attached to some type of heat sink to dissipate the power from the transmitter. The ideal dummy load provides a standing wave ratio (SWR) of 1:1 at the given impedance. Veterinarian-grade mineral oil, an inexpensive source for mineral oil, is frequently used by amateur radio operators as coolant in RF dummy loads.
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Parasitic elements of a typical electronic component package. In electrical networks, a parasitic element is a circuit element (resistance, inductance or capacitance) that is possessed by an electrical component but which it is not desirable for it to have for its intended purpose. For instance, a resistor is designed to possess resistance, but will also possess unwanted parasitic capacitance. Parasitic elements are unavoidable.
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A resistojet is a method of spacecraft propulsion (electric propulsion) that provides thrust by heating a, typically non-reactive, fluid. Heating is usually achieved by sending electricity through a resistor consisting of a hot incandescent filament, with the expanded gas expelled through a conventional nozzle.Electric Propulsion article in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, 3rd Edition, Academic Press, San Diego, v.5, pp.
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The PIN diode obeys the standard diode equation for low frequency signals. At higher frequencies, the diode looks like an almost perfect (very linear, even for large signals) resistor. The P-I-N diode has a relatively large stored charge adrift in a thick intrinsic region. At a low enough frequency, the stored charge can be fully swept and the diode turns off.
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An RF Microwave PIN diode Attenuator. By changing the bias current through a PIN diode, it is possible to quickly change the RF resistance. At high frequencies, the PIN diode appears as a resistor whose resistance is an inverse function of its forward current. Consequently, PIN diode can be used in some variable attenuator designs as amplitude modulators or output leveling circuits.
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In order to provide a digital communications channel back to the power transmitter, a resonance modulator consisting of a pair of 22 nanofarad capacitors and a 10 kΩ resistor in a T configuration can be switched across the 1.6 nanofarad capacitor. Switching the T network across the 1.6 nanofarad capacitor causes a significant change in the resonant frequency of the coupled system that is detected by the power transmitter as a change in the delivered power. Power output to the portable device is via a full-wave bridge wired across the 1.6 nanofarad capacitor; the power is typically filtered with a 20 microfarad capacitor before delivery to the charge controller. Other Qi power receivers use alternate resonance modulators, including switching a resistor or pair of resistors across the receiver resonator capacitor, both before and after the bridge rectifier.
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V multiplier (inside grey box) used in push-pull amplifier biasing In electronics, a rubber diode or V multiplier is a bipolar junction transistor circuit that serves as a voltage reference. It consists of one transistor and two resistors, and the reference voltage across the circuit is determined by the selected resistor values and the base-to-emitter voltage (V) of the transistor. The circuit behaves as a voltage divider, but with the voltage across the base-emitter resistor determined by the forward base-emitter junction voltage. It is commonly used in the biasing of push-pull output stages of amplifiers, where one benefit is thermal compensation: The temperature-dependent variations in the multiplier's V, approximately -2.2 mV/ºC, can be made to match variations occurring in the V of the power transistors by mounting to the same heat sink.
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Where higher voltages are present, extra resistance (0.75 megohm per 250 V) is added in the path to ground to protect the wearer from excessive currents; this typically takes the form of a 4 megohm resistor in the coiled cable (or, more commonly, a 2 megohm resistor at each end). Wrist straps designed for industrial use usually connect to earth bonding points, ground connections built into the workplace, via either a standard 4 mm plug or 10 mm press stud, whereas straps designed for consumer use often have a crocodile clip for the ground connection. In addition to wrist straps, ankle and heel straps are used in industry to bleed away accumulated charge from a body. These devices are usually not tethered to earth ground, but instead incorporate high resistance in their construction, and work by dissipating electrical charge to special floor tiles.
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The Systems Improved Numerical Differential Analyzer (acronym SINDA) is a commercially available software system developed by C&R; Technologies that solves resistor-capacitor (R-C) network representations of physical problems governed by diffusion equations. The software was originally designed as a general thermal analyzer for the spacecraft and launch vehicle thermal community and is currently an integral part of the Thermal Desktop plugin for AutoCAD.
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An important consideration in non- linear analysis is the question of uniqueness. For a network composed of linear components there will always be one, and only one, unique solution for a given set of boundary conditions. This is not always the case in non-linear circuits. For instance, a linear resistor with a fixed current applied to it has only one solution for the voltage across it.
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Every field bus segment needs exactly two terminators to operate properly. The terminators are designed to be the equivalent of a 1 µF capacitor and a 100 Ω resistor in series. The terminators serve several purposes including shunting the Fieldbus current (device communication) and protecting against electrical reflections. The primary function of terminators is to act as a current shunt for the control network.
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Likewise, manually setting the probe attenuation is prone to user error. Setting the probe scaling incorrectly is a common error, and throws the reading off by a factor of 10. Special high voltage probes form compensated attenuators with the oscilloscope input. These have a large probe body, and some require partly filling a canister surrounding the series resistor with volatile liquid fluorocarbon to displace air.
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Instead of a keyboard, its manual is made of a resistor wire over a metal plate, which is pressed to create a sound. Expressive playing was possible with this wire by gliding on it, creating vibrato with small movements. Volume was controlled by the pressure of the finger on the wire and board. The first Trautoniums were marketed by Telefunken from 1933 until 1935 (200 were made).
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Although an inductive pulse makes it more likely that the lamp will start when the starter switch opens, it is not actually necessary. The ballast in such systems can equally be a resistor. A number of fluorescent lamp fittings used a filament lamp as the ballast in the late 1950s through to the 1960s. Special lamps were manufactured that were rated at 170 volts and 120 watts.
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In 1966 and 1967, Liston developed a Digital- Alpha circuit to calculate the logarithmic decay of a capacitor-resistor. The circuit was patented by Liston Scientific in 1967. It was used in bichromatic analyzers which Liston designed for Abbott Laboratories, beginning with the ABA-100. The ABA-100 was a single-reagent double-channel kinetic analyzer for ultra-micro chemical analysis and simultaneous bichromatic spectrophotometry.
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When the noise diminishes, a pull-up resistor returns the IRQ line to high, thus generating a false interrupt. In level triggered mode, the noise may cause a high signal level on the systems INTR line. If the system sends an acknowledgment request, the 8259 has nothing to resolve and thus sends an IRQ7 in response. This first case will generate spurious IRQ7's.
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Usually, inserting a series resistance between the cathode and load capacitance, effectively increasing the latter's ESR, is sufficient for suppressing unwanted oscillations. Series resistance introduces a low-frequency zero at a relatively low frequency, cancelling most of the unwanted phase lag that was caused by load capacitance alone. Minimal values of series resistor lie between 1 Ohm (high CL) and 1 kOhm (low CL, high VCA).
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In more modern designs, the rectifier is replaced by a voltage multiplier. Color television sets also have to use a regulator to control the high voltage. The earliest sets used a shunt vacuum tube regulator, but the introduction of solid state sets employed a simpler voltage dependent resistor. The rectified voltage is then used to supply the final anode of the cathode ray tube.
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In "This Body For Itself" (1994), in Bread Out of Stone, Brand discusses the way the black female body is represented. She asserts that in male authored texts, the black female body is often portrayed as motherly or virginal. In female authored texts, the black female body is often portrayed as protector and/or resistor to rape. Brand states that it is understandable why this happens.
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As another example, incandescent lamps rely on Joule heating: the filament is heated to such a high temperature that it glows "white hot" with thermal radiation (also called incandescence). The formula for Joule heating is: :P=I^2R where P is the power (energy per unit time) converted from electrical energy to thermal energy, R is the resistance, and I is the current through the resistor.
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The encapsulation may also be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle. Infrared devices may have a black tint to block visible light while passing infrared radiation. Ultra- high-output LEDs are designed for viewing in direct sunlight 5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that have a series resistor for direct connection to a 5V or 12V supply.
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In the case of a periodic signal, the time difference can be described in terms of a change in the phase of the signal. One example of an analog delay line is a bucket-brigade device. Other types of delay line include acoustic (usually ultrasonic), magnetostrictive, and surface acoustic wave devices. A series of resistor–capacitor circuits (RC circuits) can be cascaded to form a delay.
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For 31 participants, the cycle is 5 ms. To address 62 participants, two cycles are necessary. The topology of the AS-Interface is arbitrary, but without a repeater or extender, the cable length must not exceed 100 m. Due to a special terminating resistor (a combination of resistive and capacitive load), however, it is possible to increase the maximum cable length up to 300 m.
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When all the inputs are held at high voltage, the base–emitter junctions of the multiple- emitter transistor are reverse-biased. Unlike DTL, a small “collector” current (approximately 10µA) is drawn by each of the inputs. This is because the transistor is in reverse-active mode. An approximately constant current flows from the positive rail, through the resistor and into the base of the multiple emitter transistor.
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Inside the box was a power supply, three analog audio filters and some (presumably) Diode-Resistor-Logic circuitry. The design allowed for the recognition of each digit name “Zero”, “One”, Two” … “Nine” and its front, middle, and ending sound. (Sometimes no middle). And that each sound was high pitched, middle pitched or low pitched. Example: “Five” is High-Middle-High. “Zero” is High-Middle-Low.
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The wideband zirconia sensor is used in stratified fuel injection systems and can now also be used in diesel engines to satisfy the upcoming EURO and ULEV emission limits. Wideband sensors have three elements: # ion oxygen pump, # narrowband zirconia sensor, # heating element. The wiring diagram for the wideband sensor typically has six wires: # resistive heating element, # resistive heating element, # sensor, # pump, # calibration resistor, # common.
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The 1949 version of the Williamson circuit. Power supply components omitted. AC voltages at 15 W output power, specified by Williamson in peak volts, shown recalculated to effective sine volts. Value of feedback resistor X depends depends on load impedance (two options shown) The Williamson amplifier is a four-stage, push-pull, class A triode valve amplifier built around a high quality, wideband output transformer.
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Modern differential amplifiers are usually implemented with a basic two- transistor circuit called a “long-tailed” pair or differential pair. This circuit was originally implemented using a pair of vacuum tubes. The circuit works the same way for all three-terminal devices with current gain. The “long tail” resistor circuit bias points are largely determined by Ohm's Law and less so by active component characteristics.
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A resistive circuit is a circuit containing only resistors and ideal current and voltage sources. Analysis of resistive circuits is less complicated than analysis of circuits containing capacitors and inductors. If the sources are constant (DC) sources, the result is a DC circuit. The effective resistance and current distribution properties of arbitrary resistor networks can be modeled in terms of their graph measures and geometrical properties.
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There are many means to load program code into an AVR chip. The methods to program AVR chips varies from AVR family to family. Most of the methods described below use the RESET line to enter programming mode. In order to avoid the chip accidentally entering such mode, it is advised to connect a pull-up resistor between the RESET pin and the positive power supply.
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Strings of multiple LEDs are normally connected in series. In one configuration, the source voltage must be greater than or equal to the sum of the individual LED voltages; typically the LED voltages add up to around two-thirds of the supply voltage. A single current-limiting resistor may be used for each string. Parallel operation is also possible but can be more problematic.
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By selecting the proper resistor values, stable current levels can be achieved that vary only little over temperature and with transistor properties such as β. The operating point of a device, also known as bias point, quiescent point, or Q-point, is the point on the output characteristics that shows the DC collector–emitter voltage (Vce) and the collector current (Ic) with no input signal applied.
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A resistance earth system is used for mining in India as per Central Electricity Authority Regulations. Instead of a solid connection of neutral to earth, a neutral grounding resistor (NGR) is used to limit the current to ground to less than 750 mA. Due to the fault current restriction it is safer for gassy mines. ; Central Electricity Authority-(Measures relating to Safety and Electric Supply).
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For example, it can be combined with "m" for "milliwatt" to produce the "dBm". A power level of 0 dBm corresponds to one milliwatt, and 1 dBm is one decibel greater (about 1.259 mW). In professional audio specifications, a popular unit is the dBu. This is relative to the root mean square voltage which delivers 1 mW (0 dBm) into a 600-ohm resistor, or ≈ 0.775 VRMS.
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Integral temperature compensation is provided over a range of 0–50°C using laser- trimmed resistors. An additional laser-trimmed resistor is included to normalize pressure sensitivity variations by programming the gain of an external differential amplifier. This provides good sensitivity and long-term stability. The two ports of the sensor, apply pressure to the same single transducer, please see pressure flow diagram below.
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An "instance" could be anything from a MOSFET transistor or a bipolar junction transistor, to a resistor, a capacitor, or an integrated circuit chip. Instances have "terminals". In the case of a vacuum cleaner, these terminals would be the three metal prongs in the plug. Each terminal has a name, and in continuing the vacuum cleaner example, they might be "Neutral", "Live" and "Ground".
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The band also toured the UK supporting Motörhead and Queens Of The Stone Age. The band's single, "Black Shine" which was released in 1998, and included a remix of the track by Nine Inch Nails member Charlie Clouser. Radiator's first single, "Resistor", released on 16 March 1998 was mixed by Chris Sheldon. The band's debut album Radiator was engineered, mixed and produced by the band themselves.
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If the inverting input is held at ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor Rg, and the input voltage Vin applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be maximum positive; if Vin is negative, the output will be maximum negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an open-loop circuit acting as a comparator.
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The input voltage source and the resistor R constitute an imperfect current source passing current IR through the load (see Fig. 3 in the source). The INIC acts as a second current source passing "helping" current I−R through the load. As a result, the total current flowing through the load is constant and the circuit impedance seen by the input source is increased.
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Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or a flat thin former (to reduce cross-section area of the coil). For the most demanding circuits, resistors with Ayrton–Perry winding are used. Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with the exception of the high frequency. The high frequency response of wirewound resistors is substantially worse than that of a composition resistor.
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One way to prove this result is using the connection to electrical networks. Take a map of the city and place a one ohm resistor on every block. Now measure the "resistance between a point and infinity." In other words, choose some number R and take all the points in the electrical network with distance bigger than R from our point and wire them together.
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1 regcontrol_top/GRC/U9743:E regcontrol_top/GRC/U9407:Z 10.7916 The resistance network for a net can be very complex. SPEF can contain resistor loops or seemingly ridiculously huge resistors even if the layout is a simple point to point route. This is due how the extraction tool cuts nets into tiny pieces for extraction and then mathematically stitches them back together when writing SPEF.
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Illustration of load line for a common emitter bipolar junction transistor amplifier. The load line diagram at right is for a resistive load in a common emitter circuit. The load line shows how the collector load resistor (RL) constrains the circuit voltage and current. The diagram also plots the transistor's collector current IC versus collector voltage VCE for different values of base current Ibase.
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The high- frequency resistance is inversely proportional to the DC bias current through the diode. A PIN diode, suitably biased, therefore acts as a variable resistor. This high-frequency resistance may vary over a wide range (from to in some cases; (undated) the useful range is smaller, though). The wide intrinsic region also means the diode will have a low capacitance when reverse-biased.
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Burgess Macneal continued working with ITI and hired George Massenburg. Together they began creating a new prototype recording console for ITI. During the building of the console, around 1966, Macneal and Massenburg conceptualized an idea for a sweep-tunable EQ that would avoid inductors and switches. In approximately 1967, an engineer attending Princeton University named Bob Meushaw, a friend of Massenburg, built a three-band, frequency adjustable, fixed-Q, IC op-amp-based EQ based on passive 2 resistor/2 capacitor or 3 resistor/3 capacitor “T” filters (a design that was primarily from a 1940s Bell Labs filter handbook). Meushaw’s design provided further inspiration for the EQ concept that Macneal and Massenburg were designing. While working on the design of the circuit, Massenburg had a marked breakthrough and together with an input amplifier built by ITI’s chief engineer, the concept was functional around 1969.
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As its right-hand negative plate is connected to Q2 base, a maximum negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q2 base that keeps Q2 firmly off. C1 begins discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R2, so that the voltage of its right-hand plate (and at the base of Q2) is rising from below ground (-V) toward +V. As Q2 base- emitter junction is reverse-biased, it does not conduct, so all the current from R2 goes into C1. Simultaneously, C2 that is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 2) quickly charges via the low-value collector resistor R4 and Q1 forward-biased base-emitter junction (because R4 is less than R2, C2 charges faster than C1). Thus C2 restores its charge and prepares for the next State C2 when it will act as a time-setting capacitor.
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As its left-hand negative plate is connected to Q1 base, a maximum negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q1 base that keeps Q1 firmly off. C2 begins discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R3, so that the voltage of its left-hand plate (and at the base of Q1) is rising from below ground (-V) toward +V. Simultaneously, C1 that is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 1) quickly charges via the low-value collector resistor R1 and Q2 forward-biased base-emitter junction (because R1 is less than R3, C1 charges faster than C2). Thus C1 restores its charge and prepares for the next State 1 when it will act again as a time-setting capacitor...and so on... (the next explanations are a mirror copy of the second part of State 1).
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The Beverage antenna or "wave antenna" is a long-wire receiving antenna mainly used in the low frequency and medium frequency radio bands, invented by Harold H. Beverage in 1921. It is used by amateur radio, shortwave listening, and longwave radio DXers and military applications. A Beverage antenna consists of a horizontal wire from one-half to several wavelengths long (hundreds of feet at HF to several kilometres for longwave) suspended above the ground, with the feedline to the receiver attached to one end, and the other end of the Beverage terminated through a resistor to ground., also archived here The antenna has a unidirectional radiation pattern with the main lobe of the pattern at a shallow angle into the sky off the resistor-terminated end, making it ideal for reception of long distance skywave (skip) transmissions from stations over the horizon which reflect off the ionosphere.
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The diode equation above is an example of an element constitutive equation of the general form, :f(v,i) = 0 \, This can be thought of as a non-linear resistor. The corresponding constitutive equations for non-linear inductors and capacitors are respectively; :f(v, \varphi) = 0 \, :f(v, q) = 0 \, where f is any arbitrary function, φ is the stored magnetic flux and q is the stored charge.
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This current, for most purposes, is so small it can be ignored. With increasing voltage, the current increases exponentially. The diode is modelled as an open circuit up to the knee of the exponential curve, then past this point as a resistor equal to the bulk resistance of the semiconducting material. The commonly accepted values for the transition point voltage are 0.7V for silicon devices and 0.3V for germanium devices.
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Tellegen named the element gyrator as a portmanteau of gyroscope and the common device suffix -tor (as in resistor, capacitor, transistor etc.) The -tor ending is even more suggestive in Tellegen's native Dutch where the related element transformer is called transformator. The gyrator is related to the gyroscope by an analogy in its behaviour.Arthur Garratt, "Milestones in electronics: an interview with professor Bernard Tellegen", Wireless World, vol. 85, no.
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Traction control was provided by three different motor combinations (series, series- parallel, parallel) through banks of resistor-based rheostats. The transmission was rather noisy, but at the time, the crew's comfort was not a high priority. The carbody was in a single steel piece, mounted on an articulated chassis. The large bonnets at the ends limited the visibility of the rails, and they were reduced in size from the third series.
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The Laplace transform is often used in circuit analysis, and simple conversions to the -domain of circuit elements can be made. Circuit elements can be transformed into impedances, very similar to phasor impedances. Here is a summary of equivalents: : -domain equivalent circuits Note that the resistor is exactly the same in the time domain and the -domain. The sources are put in if there are initial conditions on the circuit elements.
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To prevent this, a ballast provides a positive resistance or reactance that limits the current. The ballast provides for the proper operation of the negative-resistance device by limiting current. Ballasts can also be used simply to limit the current in an ordinary, positive-resistance circuit. Prior to the advent of solid-state ignition, automobile ignition systems commonly included a ballast resistor to regulate the voltage applied to the ignition system.
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On most commercial units this part is protected with a parallel resistor and other components and a variant is used in some Rb atomic clocks. The mixer diode is useful for lower frequency applications even if the Gunn diode is weakened from use, and some amateur radio enthusiasts have used them in conjunction with an external oscillator or n/2 wavelength Gunn diode for satellite finding and other applications.
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Basic linear regulator configurations. The fourth circuit requires an additional positive power supply voltage, ΔU, for low-dropout operation. Series resistor RA decouples the TL431 from gate capacitance The simplest TL431 regulator circuit is made by shorting control input to cathode. The resulting two-terminal network has a zener-like current–voltage characteristic, with a stable threshold voltage VREF≈2,5 V, and low-frequency impedance of around 0.2 Ohm.
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Metal-oxide varistor manufactured by Siemens & Halske AG. Modern varistor schematic symbol. A varistor is an electronic component with an electrical resistance that varies with the applied voltage. Also known as a voltage- dependent resistor (VDR), it has a nonlinear, non-ohmic current–voltage characteristic that is similar to that of a diode. In contrast to a diode however, it has the same characteristic for both directions of traversing current.
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The accuracy of measurements made using this bridge are dependent on a number of factors. The accuracy of the standard resistor (Rs) is of prime importance. Also of importance is how close the ratio of R1 to R2 is to the ratio of R′1 to R′2. As shown above, if the ratio is exactly the same, the error caused by the parasitic resistance (Rpar) is completely eliminated.
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Typically, the two grids are connected to opposite ends of the center-tapped secondary of the final IF transformer. The center tap of the secondary is then connected to ground through a parallel-connected resistor and capacitor circuit. This causes the tube to act as a full-wave grid leak detector. In some circuits, the center tap also provides AVC bias voltage to the converter and/or IF amplifier.
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This 525 joule capacitor is one of a pair adapted for use in a ruby laser, and carries a warning of its deadly storage capacity. A resistor is connected between the terminals to prevent the capacitor retaining a dangerous charge when not in operation. Flashtubes operate at high voltages, with currents high enough to be deadly. Under certain conditions, shocks as low as 1 joule have been reported to be lethal.
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This method is used to approximate the diode characteristic curve as a series of linear segments. The real diode is modelled as 3 components in series: an ideal diode, a voltage source and a resistor. The figure shows a real diode I-V curve being approximated by a two-segment piecewise linear model. Typically the sloped line segment would be chosen tangent to the diode curve at the Q-point.
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The ribbon is a linear potentiometer that generates different control voltages depending on where it is touched. Thus, the modern ribbon on the Persephone replaces the nickel-chrome resistance wire used as a variable resistor to control the pitch of the trautonium1. These changes in voltage are applied to the voltage-controlled oscillator and the filter. The voltage fluctuations are also translated into binary data and used to control digital modulation.
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He then entered the private sector, taking over operations for Durand, l'Entreprise Industrielle. During the war, he was a resistor and kept in touch with Marcel Paul and the Fédération illégale de l'Éclairage – Illegal Lighting Federation. During liberation, Simon participated in some of the meetings for the commission that nationalized electricity, the CNR. After a vote, he accepted the proposal from Marcel Paul to become the first PDG of EDF.
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The standard for BEAM- based neurons is a capacitor that has one lead as an input, and the other going into the input line of an inverter. That inverter's output is the output of the neuron. The capacitor lead that is inputting into the inverter is pulled to ground with a resistor. The neuron functions because when an input is received (positive power on the input line), it charges the capacitor.
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Note the implementation the "half twist", routing inputs and outputs to the same pins on each plug. The Pin 1C/black, may carry 5 volts, while 2C/white may carry return. If the power supply is present it must have a self-healing fuse, and may have ground fault protection. If it is absent, the pins should include a 1 MΩ resistor to ground to leak away static voltages.
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He is also known for DIY video podcasts for MAKE, and for the History Hacker pilot on the History Channel. He is one of the founders of the Brooklyn-based hacker space NYC Resistor. Pettis is a co-founder and former CEO of MakerBot Industries, a company that produces 3D printers now owned by Stratasys. Besides being a TV host and Video Podcast producer, he's created new media for Etsy.
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A problem arises because the electrode is between the amplifier and the cell; i.e., the electrode is in series with the resistor that is the cell's membrane. Thus, when passing current through the electrode and the cell, Ohm's Law tells us that this will cause a voltage to form across both the cell's and the electrode's resistance. As these resistors are in series, the voltage drops will add.
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As the output voltage approaches a value less than Vdd, it gradually switches itself off. This slows the 0 to 1 transition, resulting in a slower circuit. Depletion-load processes replace this transistor with a depletion- mode NMOS at a constant gate bias, with the gate tied directly to the source. This alternative type of transistor acts as a current source until the output approaches 1, then acts as a resistor.
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R-C coupled coupling is the most widely used method of coupling in multistage amplifiers. In this case the Resistance R is the resistor connected at the collector terminal and the capacitor C is connected in between the amplifiers. It is also called a blocking capacitor, since it will block DC voltage. The main disadvantage of this coupling method is that it causes some loss for the low frequency signals.
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Laser trimming is the manufacturing process of using a laser to adjust the operating parameters of an electronic circuit. Laser-trimmed precision thin- film resistor network from Fluke, used in the Keithley DMM7510 multimeter. Ceramic backed with glass hermetic seal cover. Laser trim marks are visible in the grey resistive material One of the most common applications uses a laser to burn away small portions of resistors, raising their resistance value.
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W.L. Everitt, p. 434 The allowable peak 100% modulated input signal voltage is limited to the magnitude of the bias voltage, corresponding to an unmodulated carrier peak voltage of half the bias voltage magnitude. Either fixed bias or cathode bias may be used for the plate detector. When cathode bias is implemented, a capacitor of low impedance at the carrier frequency and high impedance at audio frequencies bypasses the cathode resistor.
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The value of current drawn is to be set by the input voltage vIN. Here the sink is to be analyzed by idealizing the op amp as a nullor. Using properties of the input nullator portion of the nullor, the input voltage across the op amp input terminals is zero. Consequently, the voltage across reference resistor RR is the applied voltage vIN, making the current in RR simply vIN/RR.
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A horizontal three-wire rhombic antenna. This example is terminated with a resonant stub transmission line power reflector instead of a resistor to increase efficiency. The rhombic antenna can radiate at elevation angles close to the horizon or at higher angles, depending on its height above ground relative to the operating frequency and its physical construction. Likewise, its beamwidth can be narrow or broad, depending primarily on its length.
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The mercury in the tube is a liquid at normal temperatures. It needs to be vaporized and ionized before the lamp can produce its full light output. To facilitate starting of the lamp, a third electrode is mounted near one of the main electrodes and connected through a resistor to the other main electrode. In addition to the mercury, the tube is filled with argon gas at low pressure.
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Anode (plate) modulation. A tetrode's plate and screen grid voltage is modulated via an audio transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias; both the input and output are tuned circuits with inductive coupling. Modulation circuit designs may be classified as low- or high-level (depending on whether they modulate in a low-power domain—followed by amplification for transmission—or in the high-power domain of the transmitted signal).
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Note that in this sensor, the current flowing through the aluminum coil is DC. The mechanical structure is actually driven by the heating resistor at its resonance. Lorentz force applying at the U-shape beam will change the resonant frequency of the beam and thereby change the frequency response of the output voltage. The reported sensitivity is 60 kHz/T with a resolution of 1 μT. Bahreyni et al.
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The HFCT method needs to be used because of the small magnitude and short duration of these PD events. The HFCT method is done while the component being tested stays energized and loaded. It is completely non-intrusive. Another method of measuring these currents is to put a small current-measuring resistor in series with the sample and then view the generated voltage on an oscilloscope via a matched coaxial cable.
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Communication occurs when a master or slave briefly pulls the bus low, i.e., connects the pull-up resistor to ground through its output MOSFET. The data wire is high when idle, and so it can also power a limited number of slave devices. Data rates of 16.3 kbit/s can be achieved. There is also an overdrive mode that speeds up the communication by a factor of 10.
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It reduces base drive as the transistor nears saturation, but it uses a resistor divider network. Clamp circuits were also used to speed up cutoff transitions. When the transistor is cutoff, the output is similar to an RC circuit that exponentially decays to its final value. As the circuit gets closer to its final value, there is less current available to charge the capacitor, so the rate of approach lessens.
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The resistor can be replaced with a FET in its ohmic mode to implement a voltage-controlled phase shifter; the voltage on the gate adjusts the phase shift. In electronic music, a phaser typically consists of two, four or six of these phase-shifting sections connected in tandem and summed with the original. A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) ramps the control voltage to produce the characteristic swooshing sound.
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A bolometer can be used to measure power at microwave frequencies. In this application, a resistive element is exposed to microwave power. A dc bias current is applied to the resistor to raise its temperature via Joule heating, such that the resistance is matched to the waveguide characteristic impedance. After applying microwave power, the bias current is reduced to return the bolometer to its resistance in the absence of microwave power.
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Voltage-clamp experiment on planar bilayers. (A) In the absence of an ion channel, the bilayer is a resistor that has no current flow even when a potential is applied. (B) In the presence of a single, ideal ion channel molecule, a uniform step-up (whose height corresponds to the dimensions of the pore) appears. (C) Different classes of transport mechanism in theory gives rise to different profile.
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Regulations, 2010; earthing system, rule 99 and protective devices, rule 100. Since the earth leakage is restricted, leakage protection devices can be set to less than 750 mA . By comparison, in a solidly earthed system, earth fault current can be as much as the available short-circuit current. The neutral earthing resistor is monitored to detect an interrupted ground connection and to shut off power if a fault is detected.
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Ordinary Weston-type meter movements can measure only milliamperes at most, because the springs and practical coils can carry only limited currents. To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with the meter. The resistances of shunts is in the integer to fractional milliohm range. Nearly all of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter.
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For instance, an electrical inductor-capacitor- resistor circuit has differential equations of the same form as a mechanical mass-spring-damper system. In such cases the electrical domain is converted to the mechanical domain. The second, and more important, reason is to allow a system containing both mechanical and electrical parts to be analysed as a unified whole. This is of great benefit in the fields of mechatronics and robotics.
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Just like a resistor, an active load converts the power supply's electrical energy to heat. The heat-dissipating devices (usually transistors) in an active load therefore have to be designed to withstand the resulting temperature rise, and are usually cooled by means of heatsinks. For added convenience, active loads often include circuitry to measure the current and voltage delivered to the inputs, and may display these measurements on numeric readouts.
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There are multiple useful ways to define voltage, including the standard definition mentioned at the start of this page. There are also other useful definitions of work per charge (see this section). Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages, while positively charged objects are pulled towards lower voltages. Therefore, the conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage.
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A moving coil galvanometer of the d'Arsonval type. A moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting a resistor in series with the instrument. The galvanometer has a coil of fine wire suspended in a strong magnetic field. When an electric current is applied, the interaction of the magnetic field of the coil and of the stationary magnet creates a torque, tending to make the coil rotate.
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A carbon resistor printed directly onto the SMD pads on a PCB. Inside a 1989 vintage Psion II Organiser Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto printed circuit board (PCB) substrates as part of the PCB manufacturing process. Although this technique is more common on hybrid PCB modules, it can also be used on standard fibreglass PCBs. Tolerances are typically quite large, and can be in the order of 30%.
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An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals and a value in milliohms or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by themselves, can usually accept only limited currents. To measure high currents, the current passes through the shunt across which the voltage drop is measured and interpreted as current. A typical shunt consists of two solid metal blocks, sometimes brass, mounted on an insulating base.
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For five- and six- striped resistors the third is the third digit, the fourth the multiplier and the fifth is the tolerance; a sixth stripe represents the temperature coefficient. The power rating of the resistor is usually not marked and is deduced from the size. Surface-mount resistors are marked numerically. Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their entire body for color-coding.
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This image shows four surface-mount resistors (the component at the upper left is a capacitor) including two zero-ohm resistors. Zero-ohm links are often used instead of wire links, so that they can be inserted by a resistor-inserting machine. Their resistance is negligible. Surface mounted resistors of larger sizes (metric 1608 and above) are printed with numerical values in a code related to that used on axial resistors.
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Delay boxes began appearing in drag race cars in the 1980s. The early units were timers in a sheet metal box with an analog potentiometer and lock nut to establish a setpoint with no readout or feedback to the driver. These early units used a resistor / capacitor charging scheme to trigger a unijunction transistor to release an electromechanical relay. Such drag racing delay timers are very crude by today's standards.
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Electronics Engineer's Handbook, McGraw Hill 1975 pp. 13-23 through 13-24 Where bipolar junction transistors are used, the bias network must compensate for the negative temperature coefficient of the transistors' base to emitter voltage. This can be done by including a small value resistor between emitter and output. Also, the driving circuit can have silicon diodes mounted in thermal contact with the output transistors to provide compensation.
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When the switch is closed, it creates a direct connection to ground or VCC, but when the switch is open, the rest of the circuit would be left floating (i.e., it would have an indeterminate voltage). For a switch that connects to ground, a pull-up resistor ensures a well-defined voltage (i.e. VCC, or logical high) across the remainder of the circuit when the switch is open.
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This can be illustrated using simple resistor elements. Shows thermal resistance of the two extreme cases of crystallographic alignment. When ice crystals are aligned with their basal planes parallel to the temperature gradient (z-crystals), they can be represented as two resistors in parallel. The thermal resistance of the ceramic is significantly smaller than that of the ice however, so the apparent resistance can be expressed as the lower Rceramic.
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A shunt field (and any series resistor used for adjustment) may be directly connected across the armature terminals in parallel with the load. Where the machine has a series compounding winding, the field may be connected at the armature side (short shunt) or load side (long shunt). The different connections give different voltage regulation characteristics on load. So as it is connected in shunt it has constant characteristics.
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An operating prototyped circuit on a solderless breadboard incorporating four DIP ICs, a DIP LED bargraph display (upper left), and a DIP 7-segment LED display (lower left). DIPs are commonly used for integrated circuits (ICs). Other devices in DIP packages include resistor networks, DIP switches, LED segmented and bargraph displays, and electromechanical relays. DIP connector plugs for ribbon cables are common in computers and other electronic equipment.
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What follows below is a derivation of impedance for each of the three basic circuit elements: the resistor, the capacitor, and the inductor. Although the idea can be extended to define the relationship between the voltage and current of any arbitrary signal, these derivations assume sinusoidal signals. In fact, this applies to any arbitrary periodic signals, because these can be approximated as a sum of sinusoids through Fourier analysis.
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An example of this is given by Gerald Sussman during the 1986 video recording of the Abelson-Sussman Lectures (lecture 1-b): > If we're going to understand processes and how we control them, then we have > to have a mapping from the mechanisms of this procedure into the way in > which these processes behave. What we're going to have is a formal, or semi- > formal, mechanical model whereby you understand how a machine could, in > fact, in principle, do this. Whether or not the actual machine really does > what I'm about to tell you is completely irrelevant at this moment. In fact, > this is an engineering model, in the same way that, [for an] electrical > resistor, we write down a model V = IR — it's approximately true, but it's > not really true; if I put enough current through the resistor, it goes boom, > so the voltage is not always proportional to the current, but for some > purposes the model is appropriate.
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To configure the card in slot n, the PCI bus bridge performs a configuration-space access cycle with the PCI device's register to be addressed on lines AD[7:2] (AD[1:0] are always zero since registers are double words (32-bits)), and the PCI function number specified on bits AD[10:8], with all higher-order bits zeros except for AD[n+11] being used as the IDSEL signal on a given slot. To reduce electrically loading down the timing critical (and thus electrically loading sensitive) AD[] bus, the IDSEL signal on the PCI slot connector is usually connected to its assigned AD[n+11] pin through a resistor. This causes the PCI's IDSEL signal to reach its active condition more slowly than other PCI bus signals (due to the RC time constant of both the resistor and the IDSEL pin's input capacitance). Thus Configuration Space accesses are performed more slowly to allow time for the IDSEL signal to reach a valid level.
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A constant current source circuit constructed with LM317 The device can be configured to regulate the current to a load, rather than the voltage, by replacing the low-side resistor of the divider with the load itself. The output current is that resulting from dropping the reference voltage across the resistor. Ideally, this is: :Iout = Vref/RH Accounting for quiescent current, this becomes: :Iout = (Vref/RH) + IQ LM317 can also be used to design various other circuits like 0 V to 30 V regulator circuit, adjustable regulator circuit with improved ripple rejection, precision current limiter circuit, tracking pre-regulator circuit, 1.25 V to 20 V regulator circuit with minimum program current, adjustable multiple on-card regulators with single control, battery charger circuit, 50 mA constant current battery charger circuit, slow turn-on 15 V regulator circuit, ac voltage regulator circuit, current-limited 6 V charger circuit, adjustable 4 V regulator circuit, high-current adjustable regulator circuit and many more.
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The operation of the circuit is considered in details below. A Zener diode, when reverse biased (as shown in the circuit) has a constant voltage drop across it irrespective of the current flowing through it. Thus, as long as the Zener current () is above a certain level (called holding current), the voltage across the Zener diode () will be constant. Resistor, R1, supplies the Zener current and the base current () of NPN transistor (Q1).
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Now imagine that the power dissipation in the transistor causes it to heat up. This causes the drop (which was 0.6 V at room temperature) to drop to, say, 0.2 V. Now the voltage across the emitter resistor is 0.8 V, twice what it was before the warmup. This means that the collector (load) current is now twice the design value! This is an extreme example of course, but serves to illustrate the issue.
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A gyrator is a passive, linear, lossless, two-port electrical network element proposed in 1948 by Bernard D. H. Tellegen as a hypothetical fifth linear element after the resistor, capacitor, inductor and ideal transformer. Unlike the four conventional elements, the gyrator is non-reciprocal. Gyrators permit network realizations of two-(or-more)-port devices which cannot be realized with just the conventional four elements. In particular, gyrators make possible network realizations of isolators and circulators.
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To further reduce ripple, the initial filter element may be followed by additional alternating series and shunt filter components, or by a voltage regulator. Series filter components may be resistors or chokes; shunt elements may be resistors or capacitors. The filter may raise DC voltage as well as reduce ripple. Filters are often constructed from pairs of series/shunt components called RC (series resistor, shunt capacitor) or LC (series choke, shunt capacitor) sections.
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The two inverters form a delay that holds the previous state of the bus and drives it back through a resistor. A bus-holder (or Bus-keeper) is a weak latch circuit which holds last value on a tri-state bus. The circuit is basically a delay element with the output connected back to the input through a relatively high impedance. This is usually achieved with two inverters connected back to back.
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In the monostable multivibrator, the one resistive-capacitive network (C2-R3 in figure 1 of multivibrator) is replaced by a resistive network (just a resistor). The circuit can be thought as a 1/2 astable multivibrator. Q2 collector voltage is the output of the circuit (in contrast to the astable circuit, it has a perfect square waveform since the output is not loaded by the capacitor). Green line shows input waveform to monostable multivibrator.
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Teledeltos provides a sheet of a uniform resistor, with isotropic resistivity in each direction. As it is cheap and easily cut to shape, it may be used to make one-off resistors of any shape needed. The paper backing also forms a convenient insulator from the bench. These are usually made to represent or model some real-world example of a two-dimensional scalar field, where is it is necessary to study the field's distribution.
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So in oscillators that must produce a very low-distortion sine wave, a system that keeps the gain roughly constant during the entire cycle is used. A common design uses an incandescent lamp or a thermistor in the feedback circuit., "Alternatively, an amplitude-controlled resistor or other passive nonlinear element may be included as part of the amplifier or in the frequency-determining network.", Amplitude of Oscillation—Part II, Automatic Gain Control.
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According to various editions of the RCA Receiving Tube Manual, the of an AC/DC radio should be arranged in a particular order to minimize hum. Assuming that all functions are performed by separate tubes, the heaters in the string should be arranged as follows: #Input stage #Ballast tube or resistor #Rectifier #Audio power output amplifier #RF and IF amplifiers #Converter #First AF amplifier #Detector #Ground/B-minus line Not all manufacturers followed this recommendation.
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The survivability of electron emission sources is significantly improved by high doping of high‐speed activator. Barium oxide reacts with traces of silicon in the underlying metal, forming barium silicate (Ba2SiO4) layer. This layer has high electrical resistance, especially under discontinuous current load, and acts as a resistor in series with the cathode. This is particularly undesirable for tubes used in computer applications, where they can stay without conducting current for extended periods of time.
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This results in a device where output voltage is a logarithmic function of the slider position. Most (cheaper) "log" potentiometers are not accurately logarithmic, but use two regions of different resistance (but constant resistivity) to approximate a logarithmic law. The two resistive tracks overlap at approximately 50% of the potentiometer rotation; this gives a stepwise logarithmic taper. A logarithmic potentiometer can also be simulated (not very accurately) with a linear one and an external resistor.
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MIL-STD-1553B specifies the transformer characteristics and turns ratio of 1.4:1 with the higher turns on the isolation resistor side of the stub. The MIL-STD-1553B also specifies the isolation resistors that are placed in series with each connection to the bus. Normally bus couplers are available with 1.4:1 transformer ratios and 59 ohm (2 watt 1%) resistors. For special applications, couplers can be supplied with different transformer ratios (e.g.
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Don Lancaster's TV Typewriter Cookbook By 1975 Don Lancaster had written over 100 articles in magazines such as Popular Electronics and Radio-Electronics. He had also written a digital design book titled the RTL Cookbook in 1968. Resistor–transistor logic (RTL) was an early IC technology that was replaced by TTL, so in 1974 he published the TTL Cookbook. This book was in print for 20 years and sold a million copies.
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The fundamental passive linear circuit elements are the resistor (R), capacitor (C) and inductor (L). These circuit elements can be combined to form an electrical circuit in four distinct ways: the RC circuit, the RL circuit, the LC circuit and the RLC circuit with the abbreviations indicating which components are used. These circuits exhibit important types of behaviour that are fundamental to analogue electronics. In particular, they are able to act as passive filters.
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A USB4 connection requires a USB Power Delivery (USB PD) contract before being established. This is not a problem, as USB4 requires USB PD (and is exclusively USB-C) to negotiate USB4 mode in the first place. A USB4 source must at least provide 7.5W (5V, 1.5A) per port. A USB4 sink must require less than 250mA (default), 1.5A or 3A @5V of power (depending on USB-C resistor configuration) before USB PD negotiation.
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The use of uranium dioxide as a material for rechargeable batteries is being investigated. The batteries could have high power density and potential of 4.7 V per cell. Another investigated application is in photoelectrochemical cells for solar-assisted hydrogen production where UO2 is used as a photoanode. In earlier times, uranium dioxide was also used as heat conductor for current limitation (URDOX-resistor), which was the first use of its semiconductor properties.
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Iron–hydrogen resistors were used in the early vacuum tube systems in series with the tube heaters, to stabilize the heater circuit current against fluctuating supply voltage. In 1930s Europe it was popular to combine them in the same glass envelope with an NTC-type thermistor made of UO2 until 1936, known as Urdox resistor and acting as an inrush current limiter for the series heater strings of domestic AC/DC tube radios.
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Hall road/ hallroad Lahore is on of the largest market of electronics, Computers, Magnets, Electronic Components, CCTV, Security Camera, Wire & Cables, Mobiles & accessories, DVDs, etc. It is full of retailers, and wholesalers, and is an extremely busy area due to cheap and readily available electronic imports and unlicensed DVDs. Hall Road is the largest electronics market of Pakistan as well. It has shops for every electronics item from a resistor & silicon chip to complete product.
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New Katni (NKJ) shed has added Overhead Equipment(OHE) monitors. Some WAG-7 units have A.C. cabs, SIV, MPFDCS, MPCS, Single arm pantograph, FDCS, Additional COC, Rear-view mirrors, STS, Daulat Ram's Roof-mounted DBRs, SI, Modified ceilings, Bucket seats, Waist-level headlamps, High-reach pantographs, Vigilance Control Device(VCD), Wireless Multiple Control, Vertical Dynamic Brake Resistor(DBR) and microprocessor control. Some units have their MU cables removed. One unit has SCHUNK pantograph.
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NILM systems can also identify appliances with a series of individual changes in power draw. These appliances are modeled as finite state machines. A dishwasher, for example, has heaters and motors that turn on and off during a typical dish washing cycle. These will be identified as clusters, and power draw for the entire cluster will be recorded. Hence “dishwasher” power draw can be identified as opposed to “resistor heating unit” and “electric motor”.
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In integrated circuits and transistor arrays where both transistors are on the same die, this is easy to achieve. But if the two transistors are widely separated, the precision of the current mirror is compromised. Additional matched transistors can be connected to the same base and will supply the same collector current. In other words, the right half of the circuit can be duplicated several times with various resistor values replacing R2 on each.
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A resistor electrical brake (not a regenerative brake) was installed. During braking the motors were disconnected from the catenary and operated as DC generators. The power generated was dissipated by the brake resistors mounted on the roof, cooled by the air flow. The equipment for this was tested but later dismantled, because the locomotive – as with the two other Be-class prototype locomotives – was never used in regular service on the Gotthardbahn (Gotthard railway).
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The electric kettle has changed little since the invention of an immersed heating resistor and the safety valve both by Birmingham firms.In 1931 Dunlop tyres help Malcolm Campbell achieve a new land speed record in a Blue Bird at Daytona Beach Road Course, USA. In 1935 Dunlop helps Malcolm Campbell achieve yet another new land speed record in the USA. Foam rubber is also invented at the Dunlop Latex Development Laboratories, Fort Dunlop in 1929.
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In later years, she abandoned Communism, influenced like other resistor-survivors (David Rousset and Jorge Semprún among them) by the exposure of concentration camps in the Soviet Union. Her political views remained strongly left: during the Algerian War she published "Les belles lettres", a collection of petitions protesting colonial French policy. She never remarried. During the 1960s, she worked for the United Nations and philosopher Henri Lefebvre, who had worked with Politzer before the war.
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A Brinkley stick is a safety device used to discharge high voltage capacitors and ensure HT (high voltage) electrical circuits are discharged. The tool consists of a hook attached to the end of an insulated rod. The hook is connected by a length of insulated wire to a suitable ground or earth, often via a suitably valued resistor. Named after Charles Brinkley, an amputee ferry boatman who carried radar staff across the river Deben.
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The measurement of current ranges from picoamps to tens of thousands of amperes. The selection of a current sensing method depends on requirements such as magnitude, accuracy, bandwidth, robustness, cost, isolation or size. The current value may be directly displayed by an instrument, or converted to digital form for use by a monitoring or control system. Current sensing techniques include shunt resistor, current transformers and Rogowski coils, magnetic-field based transducers and others.
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The output voltage has a shape that approximates a square waveform. It is considered below for the transistor Q1. During State 1, Q2 base-emitter junction is reverse-biased and capacitor C1 is "unhooked" from ground. The output voltage of the switched-on transistor Q1 changes rapidly from high to low since this low-resistive output is loaded by a high impedance load (the series connected capacitor C1 and the high-resistive base resistor R2).
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In 1970, ESI began developing laser trimming systems for resistor circuits, and soon became a leader in this field. ESI's headquarters campus building 4 All facilities were located at S.E. 43rd & Stark in Portland until 1956, when the first stage of a new headquarters and manufacturing plant on Macadam Avenue, in South Portland, was opened. The new plant was destroyed by fire in 1957"$200,000 Fire Sears Plant" (July 19, 1957). The Oregonian, p. 1.
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In such a situation, the object acts as the "capacitative" circuit element, and the resistance of the thermal contact at the boundary acts as the (single) thermal resistor. In electrical circuits, such a combination would charge or discharge toward the input voltage, according to a simple exponential law in time. In the thermal circuit, this configuration results in the same behavior in temperature: an exponential approach of the object temperature to the bath temperature.
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Consequently, these probes will work to a few megahertz, but after that transmission line effects cause trouble. At high frequencies, the probe impedance will be low.Tektronix probe manuals showing 6 dB/octave roll off of probe impedance. Corner frequency related to scope input time constant. 1M 20 pF is 20 us is 50 kR/s is 8 kHz. The most common design inserts a 9 megohm resistor in series with the probe tip.
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This arrangement required diode clamping the collector to the design logic level. This method was also applied to discrete DTL (diode–transistor logic). Another method that was familiar in discrete- device logic circuits used a diode and a resistor, a germanium and a silicon diode, or three diodes in a negative feedback arrangement. These diode networks known as various Baker clamps reduced the voltage applied to the base as the collector approached saturation.
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Simply connect the resistor between the output and the inverting input of the operational amplifier and connect the non-inverting input to ground. The output voltage will then be proportional to the input current at the inverting input, decreasing with increasing input current and vice versa. Specialist chip transresistance (transimpedance) amplifiers are widely used for amplifying the signal current from photo diodes at the receiving end of ultra high speed fibre optic links.
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Polysilicon has many applications in VLSI manufacturing. One of its primary uses is as gate electrode material for MOS devices. A polysilicon gate's electrical conductivity may be increased by depositing a metal (such as tungsten) or a metal silicide (such as tungsten silicide) over the gate. Polysilicon may also be employed as a resistor, a conductor, or as an ohmic contact for shallow junctions, with the desired electrical conductivity attained by doping the polysilicon material.
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This is the approach taken in emergency lighting applications, where the design remains essentially the same as in older NiCd units, except for an increase in the trickle-charging resistor value. Panasonic's handbook recommends that NiMH batteries on standby be charged by a lower duty cycle approach, where a pulse of a higher current is used whenever the battery's voltage drops below 1.3 V. This can extend battery life and use less energy.
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From this symmetry he inferred the characteristics of a fourth fundamental non-linear circuit element, linking magnetic flux and charge, which he called the memristor. In contrast to a linear (or non-linear) resistor the memristor has a dynamic relationship between current and voltage including a memory of past voltages or currents. Other scientists had proposed dynamic memory resistors such as the memistor of Bernard Widrow, but Chua introduced a mathematical generality.
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It ceases to integrate q=∫I dt, but rather keeps q at an upper bound and M fixed, thus acting as a constant resistor until current is reversed. Memory applications of thin-film oxides had been an area of active investigation for some time. IBM published an article in 2000 regarding structures similar to that described by Williams. Samsung has a U.S. patent for oxide-vacancy based switches similar to that described by Williams.
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Resistors may be embedded components or added to the top layer post-firing. Using screen printing, a resistor paste is printed onto the LTCC surface, from which resistances needed in the circuit are generated. When fired, these resistors deviate from their design value (±25%) and therefore require adjustment to meet the final tolerance. With Laser trimming one can achieve these resistances with different cut forms to the exact resistance value (±1%) desired.
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Resistor based on the sheet resistance of carbon film Sheet resistance, often called sheet resistivity, is a measure of resistance of thin films that are nominally uniform in thickness. It is commonly used to characterize materials made by semiconductor doping, metal deposition, resistive paste printing, and glass coating. Examples of these processes are: doped semiconductor regions (e.g., silicon or polysilicon), and the resistors that are screen printed onto the substrates of thick-film hybrid microcircuits.
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Laser Trimmed Precision Thin Film Resistor Network from Fluke, used in the Keithley DMM7510 multimeter. Ceramic backed with glass hermetic seal cover. Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most SMD (surface mount device) resistors today are of this type. The resistive element of thick films is 1000 times thicker than thin films, but the principal difference is how the film is applied to the cylinder (axial resistors) or the surface (SMD resistors).
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The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount of filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some applications, high ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For example, in some battery charging applications it is possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply with nothing more than a transformer and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the output to limit charging current.
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277-284 The information SOE headquarters received from France about the fate of Prosper was misleading, because the Germans were using a captured wireless to feed false information to SOE in London. Déricourt remained at large, and continued to organize aircraft landings into France.Foot, pp. 289, 299 In October 1943 veteran resistor Henri Frager took a Déricourt-organized flight to London with the objective of telling SOE that Déricourt was a German agent.
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The Nazis occupied Hungary in March 1944, soon after Horthy, under significant pressure from the church and diplomatic community, had halted the deportations of Hungarian Jews. In October, they installed a pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Dictatorship. In 1943, the Hungarian resistor, Margit Slachta, of the Hungarian Social Service Sisterhood, went to Rome to encourage papal action against the Jewish persecutions. In Hungary, she had sheltered the persecuted and protested forced labour and antisemitism.
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Flashlights made for an incandescent lamp can often be upgraded to a more efficient LED lamp. LEDs generally must have some kind of control to limit current through the diode. Flashlights using one or two disposable 1.5 volt cells require a boost converter to provide the higher voltage required by a white LED, which needs around 3.4 volts to function. Flashlights using three or more dry cells may only use a resistor to limit current.
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Typical electrical circuit of a 1:24 or 1:32 slot car track. The diagram at right shows the wiring of a typical 1:24 or 1:32 slot car setup. Power for the car's motor is carried by metal strips next to the slot, and is picked up by contacts alongside the guide flag (a swiveling blade) under the front of the slot car. The voltage is varied by a resistor in the hand controller.
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Figure 1: An ideal current source, I, driving a resistor, R, and creating a voltage V A current source is an electronic circuit that delivers or absorbs an electric current which is independent of the voltage across it. A current source is the dual of a voltage source. The term current sink is sometimes used for sources fed from a negative voltage supply. Figure 1 shows the schematic symbol for an ideal current source driving a resistive load.
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If the power dissipation in the active device of the CCS is not small and/or insufficient emitter degeneration is used, this can become a non- trivial issue. Imagine in Figure 5, at power up, that the LED has 1 V across it driving the base of the transistor. At room temperature there is about 0.6 V drop across the junction and hence 0.4 V across the emitter resistor, giving an approximate collector (load) current of amps.
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Since capacitors' energy content increases with the square of the voltage, researchers were looking for a way to increase the electrolyte's breakdown voltage. In 1994 using the anode of a 200V high voltage tantalum electrolytic capacitor, David A. Evans developed an "Electrolytic-Hybrid Electrochemical Capacitor".David A. Evans (Evans Company): High Energy Density Electrolytic- Electrochemical Hybrid Capacitor In: Proceedings of the 14th Capacitor & Resistor Technology Symposium. 22 March 1994 These capacitors combine features of electrolytic and electrochemical capacitors.
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If the ratio between the first and second resistor is chosen properly, the first order effects of the temperature dependency of the diode and the PTAT current will cancel out. The resulting voltage is about 1.2–1.3V, depending on the particular technology and circuit design, and is close to the theoretical 1.22eV bandgap of silicon at 0K. The remaining voltage change over the operating temperature of typical integrated circuits is on the order of a few millivolts.
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An electrical circuit composed of discrete components can act as a resonator when both an inductor and capacitor are included. Oscillations are limited by the inclusion of resistance, either via a specific resistor component, or due to resistance of the inductor windings. Such resonant circuits are also called RLC circuits after the circuit symbols for the components. A distributed-parameter resonator has capacitance, inductance, and resistance that cannot be isolated into separate lumped capacitors, inductors, or resistors.
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The automobile stylists created the GP30's trademark "hump" and cab roof profile. The hump- like bulge started at the front of the cab and enveloped the air intakes for the central air system and the dynamic brake blister. Units ordered without dynamic brakes were the same shape, but lacked the intakes to cool the dynamic brake resistor grids. A high short hood could be ordered, but only holdouts Norfolk and Western Railway and Southern Railway received such units.
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This behavior is retriggerable: the output will stay high as long as the input is active, and then remain high for the relaxation period starting when the input is released. It can also be triggered by applying a positive input signal through a resistor to Q1 base, though this method is non-retriggerable: the output will always stay high for the same period of time and then return to low, regardless of whether the input has been released.
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Above , the power is not "chopped" and is instead applied directly to the traction motors. Primary dynamic braking is accomplished by running the traction motors as generators and dissipating the electricity generated through two brake resistor grids; a friction brake consisting of a single inboard disc brake per axle is blended with the dynamic braking as needed. The friction brake alone is sufficient to hold a fully loaded SLRV (with 219 passengers) on a 9° slope.
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LEDs are made in different packages for different applications. A single or a few LED junctions may be packed in one miniature device for use as an indicator or pilot lamp. An LED array may include controlling circuits within the same package, which may range from a simple resistor, blinking or color changing control, or an addressable controller for RGB devices. Higher-powered white-emitting devices will be mounted on heat sinks and will be used for illumination.
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With mains voltages of around 220 V, the power dissipated by the additional resistance and the voltage drop across it could be quite high, and it was common to use a resistive power cable (mains cord) of defined resistance, running warm, rather than putting a hot resistor inside the case. If a resistive power cable was used, an inexperienced repairer might replace it with a standard cable, or use the wrong length, damaging the equipment and risking a fire.
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The high-frequency oscillations cause heavy currents in the output stages and, with poor power supply decoupling, these upset the input stage biasing and disrupt the high frequency oscillations. Squegging then arises. Squegging in audio amplifiers is commonly called motorboating because it sounds in the loudspeaker like an outboard boat motor at low speed. A series resistor or a ferrite bead close to the gate or base connector of the active element reduces high frequency oscillations.
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Darlington synthesis starts from a different perspective to the techniques discussed so far, which all start from a prescribed rational function and realise it as a one-port impedance. Darlington synthesis starts with a prescribed rational function that is the desired transfer function of a two-port network. Darlington showed that any PRF can be realised as a two-port network using only L and C elements with a single resistor terminating the output port.E. Cauer et al.
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Units have been stopped due to waves breaking over the sea wall at Dawlish in storm conditions, inundating the resistor banks and causing the control software to shut down the whole train. This problem was fixed by a software upgrade to the control software. On 8 December 2005, 221125 suffered an exhaust fire at Starcross. Other members of the Voyager class suffered similar fires in the 2005-2006 period due to an incorrectly performed engine overhaul.
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The system had two 60 Hz signals. The break-sensing “track” signal was fed down one rail towards the oncoming train and crossed through its wheels, returning in the other rail. The pickup just ahead of the wheels would sum the approaching current from one side with the returning current on the other. The externally returned ”loop” signal was fed into and out of the mid tap of a resistor across each end of the track circuit.
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One of the most widely used models is defined in the JEDEC 22-A114-B standard, which specifies a 100 picofarad capacitor and a 1,500 ohm resistor. Other similar standards are MIL-STD-883 Method 3015, and the ESD Association's ESD STM5.1. For comportment to European Union standards for Information Technology Equipment, the IEC/EN 61000-4-2 test specification is used. Another specification (Schaffner) C = 150 pF R = 330 Ω that gives high fidelity results.
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The microelectrodes are filled with conductive solution and inserted into the cell to artificially control membrane potential. The membrane acts as a dielectric as well as a resistor, while the fluids on either side of the membrane function as capacitors. The microelectrodes compare the membrane potential against a command voltage, giving an accurate reproduction of the currents flowing across the membrane. Current readings can be used to analyze the electrical response of the cell to different applications.
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While originally designed to handle logic-level digital signals, a TTL inverter can be biased as an analog amplifier. Connecting a resistor between the output and the input biases the TTL element as a negative feedback amplifier. Such amplifiers may be useful to convert analog signals to the digital domain but would not ordinarily be used where analog amplification is the primary purpose. TTL inverters can also be used in crystal oscillators where their analog amplification ability is significant.
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The problems that fall outside of this class are mainly in the field of elasticity and hydrodynamics, due to the higher order tensorial character of the effective medium constants. EMAs can be discrete models, such as applied to resistor networks, or continuum theories as applied to elasticity or viscosity. However, most of the current theories have difficulty in describing percolating systems. Indeed, among the numerous effective medium approximations, only Bruggeman's symmetrical theory is able to predict a threshold.
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In electronics, two anti-parallel or inverse-parallel devices are connected in parallel but with their polarities reversed. One example is the TRIAC, which is comparable to two thyristors connected back-to-back (in other words, reverse parallel), but on a single piece of silicon. Two LEDs can be paired this way, so that each protects the other from reverse voltage. A series string of such pairs can be connected to AC or DC power, with an appropriate resistor.
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A 175-watt mercury-vapor light approximately 15 seconds after starting W mercury vapor lamp. The small diagonal cylinder at the bottom of the arc tube is a resistor which supplies current to the starter electrode. A mercury- vapor lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses an electric arc through vaporized mercury to produce light. The arc discharge is generally confined to a small fused quartz arc tube mounted within a larger borosilicate glass bulb.
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There are three basic, linear passive lumped analog circuit components: the resistor (R), the capacitor (C), and the inductor (L). These may be combined in the RC circuit, the RL circuit, the LC circuit, and the RLC circuit, with the acronyms indicating which components are used. These circuits, among them, exhibit a large number of important types of behaviour that are fundamental to much of analog electronics. In particular, they are able to act as passive filters.
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As AC-filters, four resonance circuits are installed on both sides of the plant. Each of the filters consist of a series-connection of a two-microfarad capacitator with a coil to which a 615 ohm resistor is parallelized. One filter on each side uses a 41 mH air- core coil, while the other has a 29 mH air-core coil. On each power exit, there is also a bank of capacitors for reactive power compensation.
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Neon-lamp type tester, which has no amplifier; this type requires a direct metallic contact to the circuit to be tested. Neon screwdriver test light in use. Current flows through a high ohm resistor and the lamp and the distributed capacitance and resistance of the user's body. A low-cost type of test lamp only contacts one side of the circuit under test, and relies on stray capacitance and current passing through the user's body to complete the circuit.
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A capacitive power supply usually has a rectifier and filter to generate a direct current from the reduced alternating voltage. Such a supply comprises a capacitor, C1 whose reactance limits the current flowing through the rectifier bridge D1. A resistor, R1, connected in series with it protects against voltage spikes during switching operations. An electrolytic capacitor, C2, is used to smooth the DC voltage and the peak current (in the range of amps) in switching operations.
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In an OR gate, VF decreases the high voltage level (the logical 1) while in an AND gate, it increases the low voltage level (the logical 0). The feasible number of logic stages thus depends on the voltage drop and difference between the high and low voltages. ;Source resistance :Another problem of diode logic is the internal resistance of the input voltage sources. Together with the gate resistor, it constitutes a voltage divider that causes deviations in voltage levels.
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The process of creating steam with an electric boiler is fairly simple. Electricity is run through a heating element that acts as a resistor to create heat through resistance. Water from the system or holding tank is then run over or near this hot element in a pipe or tank, heating the water to a suitable temperature, then making the water hot enough to boil and become saturated steam,Stultz, S. C. (1992). Steam: its generation and use.
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In an integrated circuit version of the DTL gate, R3 is replaced by two level-shifting diodes connected in series. Also the bottom of R4 is connected to ground to provide bias current for the diodes and a discharge path for the transistor base. The resulting integrated circuit runs off a single power supply voltage., page 188 states resistor is replaced with one or more diodes; figure 10-43 shows 2 diodes; cites to Schulz 1962.
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High voltage resistor divider probe for voltages up to 50 kV. The probe tip consists of a corona ball, which avoids corona discharge and arcing by distributing the electric field gradient. A high voltage probe allows an ordinary voltmeter to measure voltages that would otherwise be too high to measure or even destructive. It does this by reducing the input voltage to a safe, measurable level with a precision voltage divider circuit within the probe body.
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Some of the 50 ohms are spent on an additional resistor which pulls the bias on −100 V. The IRF can switch 500 volts. It can deliver 18 A pulsed. Its leads function as an inductance, a storage capacitor is employed, the 50 ohm coax cable is connected, the MOSFET has an internal resistance, and in the end this is a critically damped RLC circuit, which is fired by a pulse to the gate of the MOSFET.
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Provide appropriate quiescent current for each stage of the op amp. The resistor (39 kΩ) connecting the (diode-connected) Q11 and Q12, and the given supply voltage (VS+ − VS−), determine the current in the current mirrors, (matched pairs) Q10/Q11 and Q12/Q13. The collector current of Q11, i11 × 39 kΩ = VS+ − VS− − 2 VBE. For the typical VS = ±20 V, the standing current in Q11/Q12 (as well as in Q13) would be ~1 mA.
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A supply current for a typical 741 of about 2 mA agrees with the notion that these two bias currents dominate the quiescent supply current. Transistors Q11 and Q10 form a Widlar current mirror, with quiescent current in Q10 i10 such that ln(i11 / i10) = i10 × 5 kΩ / 28 mV, where 5 kΩ represents the emitter resistor of Q10, and 28 mV is VT, the thermal voltage at room temperature. In this case i10 ≈ 20 μA.
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"transmission-gate XOR (tiny XOR)" (via ) "Figure 3, Exclusive OR and XNOR gate". "Pass-Transistor Logic: Transmission Gate XOR" (p. 11) Transmission Gate Logic wiring of an XOR gate Note: The "Rss" resistor prevents shunting current directly from "A" and "B" to the output. Without it, if the circuit that provides inputs A and B does not have the proper driving capability, the output might not swing rail to rail or be severely slew-rate limited.
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Operation - South African Classes 6E, 6E1, 16E, 17E and 18E As a result, the rebuilt Class 18E locomotives were equipped with rheostatic braking instead of regenerative braking. With rheostatic braking, the energy generated by the traction motors is dissipated by the resistor grids on the locomotive itself. The rheostatic braking of the Class 18E was superior and very reliable for higher speed trains, compared with the regenerative braking of the older Classes 6E1 and 17E locomotives.
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Resistance decade box, made in former East Germany. A resistance decade box or resistor substitution box is a unit containing resistors of many values, with one or more mechanical switches which allow any one of various discrete resistances offered by the box to be dialed in. Usually the resistance is accurate to high precision, ranging from laboratory/calibration grade accuracy of 20 parts per million, to field grade at 1%. Inexpensive boxes with lesser accuracy are also available.
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The measurement of heat flux can be performed in a few different manners. A commonly known, but often impractical, method is performed by measuring a temperature difference over a piece of material with known thermal conductivity. This method is analogous to a standard way to measure an electric current, where one measures the voltage drop over a known resistor. Usually this method is difficult to perform since the thermal resistance of the material being tested is often not known.
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The TTL output stage is a rather complicated push–pull circuit known as a 'totem pole output' (the transistors, diode, and resistor in the right-most slice of this TTL logic gate circuit). It sinks currents better than it sources current. A digital use of a push–pull configuration is the output of TTL and related families. The upper transistor is functioning as an active pull-up, in linear mode, while the lower transistor works digitally.
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In some sound reinforcement and studio monitors the high frequency drivers are protected by current sensing self-resetting circuit breakers. When too much power is dissipated by the driver, the circuit breaker interrupts the flow of electric current. The circuit breaker resets itself after a brief interval. An older circuit protection technique used by Electro- Voice, Community, UREI, Cerwin Vega and others is a light bulb placed in series with the driver to act as a variable resistor.
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Figure FHN: To mimick the action potential, the FitzHugh–Nagumo model and its relatives use a function g(V) with negative differential resistance (a negative slope on the I vs. V plot). For comparison, a normal resistor would have a positive slope, by Ohm's law I = GV, where the conductance G is the inverse of resistance G=1/R. Because of the complexity of the Hodgkin–Huxley equations, various simplifications have been developed that exhibit qualitatively similar behavior.
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Feddersen studied chemistry and physics at the University of Göttingen, where he became member of Burschenschaft (fraternity) Hannovera,:de:Burschenschaft Hannovera Göttingen and lived from 1858 as a private scholar in Leipzig. In 1859 he succeeded in experiments with the Leyden jar to prove that every single electric spark discharge composed of (damped) oscillations. He realized that the arise from a coil, capacitor and resistor existing electrical circuit oscillations. Thus he became the co- founder of wireless technology.
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A new class of pulse generator offers both multiple input trigger connections and multiple output connections. Multiple input triggers allows experimenters to synchronize both trigger events and data acquisition events using the same timing controller. In general, generators for pulses with widths over a few microseconds employ digital counters for timing these pulses, while widths between approximately 1 nanosecond and several microseconds are typically generated by analog techniques such as RC (resistor-capacitor) networks or switched delay lines.
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A later version of the keyboard wasmade by Cherry Corporation, but still used the capacitive technology rather than the more well-known Cherry mechanical keyswitches. The disk format on the Model II closely followed the IBM 3740 standard, which specified 77 tracks, 24 sectors per track, soft sector formatting, and a sector size of 128 bytes for a formatted capacity of about 250k, however the Model II had a double density controller, so the disk format used 256 byte sectors and formatted capacity was about 492k. If the user installed a double sided drive, he could get 1MB of space, however this required a modified DOS and Radio Shack did not officially support the use of double sided drives on the Model II. There were several hardware revisions to the Model II over its lifespan. The first revision models (1979-80) could not boot from a hard disk and the floppy controller required a terminating resistor pack for the last drive on the chain in place of the standard method of putting a terminating resistor pack on the internal disk drives.
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The speakers use a thin flat diaphragm usually consisting of a plastic sheet coated with a conductive material such as graphite sandwiched between two electrically conductive grids, with a small air gap between the diaphragm and grids. For low distortion operation, the diaphragm must operate with a constant charge on its surface, rather than with a constant voltage. This is accomplished by either or both of two techniques: the diaphragm's conductive coating is chosen and applied in a manner to give it a very high surface resistivity, and/or a large value resistor is placed in series between the EHT (Extra High Tension or Voltage) power supply and the diaphragm (resistor not shown in the diagram here). However, the latter technique will still allow distortion as the charge will migrate across the diaphragm to the point closest to the "grid" or electrode thereby increasing the force moving the diaphragm, this will occur at audio frequency so the diaphragm requires a high resistance (megohms) to slow the movement of charge for a practical speaker.
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As a result, the common emitter resistor RE acts nearly as a current source. The output voltages at the collector load resistors RC1 and RC3 are shifted and buffered to the inverting and non-inverting outputs by the emitter followers T4 and T5 (shaded blue). The output emitter resistors RE4 and RE5 do not exist in all versions of ECL. In some cases 50 Ω line termination resistors connected between the bases of the input transistors and −2 V act as emitter resistors.
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The current limiting is normally implemented as an anode resistor of a few tens of thousands of ohms. Nixies exhibit negative resistance and will maintain their glow at typically 20 V to 30 V below the strike voltage. Some color variation can be observed between types, caused by differences in the gas mixtures used. Longer-life tubes that were manufactured later in the Nixie timeline have mercury added to reduce sputtering resulting in a blue or purple tinge to the emitted light.
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A dimmable ballast is very similar to a rapid start ballast, but usually has a capacitor incorporated to give a power factor nearer to unity than a standard rapid start ballast. A quadrac type light dimmer can be used with a dimming ballast, which maintains the heating current while allowing lamp current to be controlled. A resistor of about 10 kΩ is required to be connected in parallel with the fluorescent tube to allow reliable firing of the quadrac at low light levels.
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This led to the law of conservation of energy, which in turn led to the development of the first law of thermodynamics. The SI derived unit of energy, the joule, is named after him. He worked with Lord Kelvin to develop an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale, which came to be called the Kelvin scale. Joule also made observations of magnetostriction, and he found the relationship between the current through a resistor and the heat dissipated, which is also called Joule's first law.
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The accompanying diagram shows this graphically. The speed of propagation of the avalanches is typically 2–4 cm per microsecond, so that for common sizes of tubes the complete ionisation of the gas around the anode takes just a few microseconds. This short, intense pulse of current can be measured as a count event in the form of a voltage pulse developed across an external electrical resistor. This can be in the order of volts, thus making further electronic processing simple.
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Likewise, it is either a current sink (low logic level) or a high-z floating condition (high logic level). Like direct-coupled transistor logic, there is no resistor between the output (collector) of one NPN transistor and the input (base) of the following transistor. To understand how the inverter operates, it is necessary to understand the current flow. If the bias current is shunted to ground (low logic level), the transistor turns off and the collector floats (high logic level).
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This reduces the cost of the board by reducing the length of wires. It also permits faster signals by reducing the capacitance of the net, and uses less power by reducing each wire's resistance. When high currents are needed, wire sizes can be halved (or standard digital wires sizes can be used for higher currents) by routing the nets as circles, rather than sequences. Some high- speed signals need the driver on one end and a resistor on the other to absorb reflections.
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It was rescued in the late 1970s, and stored at Sandtoft, but was transferred to the Rotherham Trolleybus Group in 2001. The group are reconstructing it as it was prior to 1950, and have managed to find many of the missing components, although the trolley gantry, the trolleygear, the roof mounted resistor-case and the contactor panels have had to be built from scratch. They hope to return it to operational condition. One of the Spanish trolleybuses has also been preserved.
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Many older appliance units have a 'local control' feature whereby the relay is intentionally bypassed with a high value resistor; the module can then sense the appliance's own switch and turn on the relay when the local switch is operated. This sense current may be incompatible with LED or CFL lamps. Not all devices can be used on a dimmer. Fluorescent lamps are not dimmable with incandescent lamp dimmers; certain models of compact fluorescent lamps are dimmable but cost more.
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To properly align adjacent frequency bands through a crossover, the two phase responses should be adjusted until they are seen in Smaart to be parallel through the crossover frequency. The transfer function measurement can be used to measure frequency-related electrical impedance, one of the electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers. Grateful Dead sound system engineer "Dr. Don" Pearson worked out the method in 2000, using Smaart to compare the voltage drop through a simple resistor between a loudspeaker and a random noise generator.
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LED. A ferrite toroid is wound to form a coil with primary (white) and feedback (green) windings. A 2N2222A transistor and 1000 ohm resistor are used. A joule thief with two axial inductors replacing the ferrite toroid, shown on a solderless breadboard A joule thief is a minimalist self- oscillating voltage booster that is small, low-cost, and easy to build, typically used for driving small loads. This circuit is also known by other names such as blocking oscillator, joule ringer, vampire torch.
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Microcontroller series with LCD Drive Entering mass production at the beginning of 2013, the RL78/L12 includes integrated LCD drive capability for 35 segments x 8 or 39 segments x 4. Three alternative LCD drive methods mat be enabled: split capacitor, capacitive charge pump or external split resistor. With the split capacitor method a low power LCD drive of 0.6uA at 3V can be achieved. Selectable functions (Seg or I/O) for every segment pin, and drive for both glass and panel.
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Special terminals are provided, which are inserted, using a special tool, into the holes in the prototyping board where components are to be fitted. Some boards are also available pre-populated with terminals. Each terminal is a metal tube with a component socket at one end and an insulation-displacement fork at the other. The component socket accepts a wire lead, such as the lead of a resistor or capacitor, or the leg of a 0.1-inch-pitch DIL package.
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Units have sometimes been stopped by salt water, when storm-driven waves broke over the train at Dawlish in south Devon and inundated the resistor banks, causing the control software to shut down. This problem was fixed by an upgrade to the control software. There were a number of exhaust fires on the Voyager class during 2005-2006 due to incorrect fitting of equipment during overhauls. Fires occurred at Starcross (Class 221), Newcastle and on 19 January 2006 at Congleton.
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While this is not a computer controlled function, it describes the core function. With eight switches and eight resistors in the feedback loop, each switch can enable a particular resistor to control the feedback of the amplifier. If each switch was converted to a relay, a microcontroller could be used to activate the relays to attain the desired amount of gain. Relays can be replaced with Field Effect Transistors of an appropriate type to reduce the mechanical nature of the design.
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The pamphlet posited the idea of active defeatism, that was a compromise between principled pacifism and practical political resistance. It stated the future for Germany lay in establishing a socialist state that would form alliances with the USSR and progressive forces in Europe. It also offered advice to the individual resistor, do the opposite of what is asked of you. The group produced many hundreds of pamphlets that were spread over Berlin, in phone boxes, and sent to selected addresses.
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An iron-hydrogen resistor, or 'barretter', containing an iron hydride filament under a hydrogen atmosphere, wherein the temperature-dependent hydrogen solubility controls resistance. Iron–hydrogen alloy, also known as iron hydride, is an alloy of iron and hydrogen and other elements. Because of its lability when removed from a hydrogen atmosphere, it has no uses as a structural material. Iron is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic (BCC) and face centered cubic (FCC), depending on its temperature.
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Each thyristor module consists of 9 thyristors switched in series and the necessary auxiliary equipment as the saturation coils, which are in series with the thyristors. Parallel to each thyristor a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor is switched, which limits the speed of current grow. From this combination the power for the supply of the electronic used for thyristor steering is gained. The electronic used for thyristor steering has at operation a high voltage potential against ground.
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This current passes through the base–emitter junction of the output transistor, allowing it to conduct and pulling the output voltage low (logical zero). An input logical zero. Note that the base–collector junction of the multiple-emitter transistor and the base–emitter junction of the output transistor are in series between the bottom of the resistor and ground. If one input voltage becomes zero, the corresponding base–emitter junction of the multiple-emitter transistor is in parallel with these two junctions.
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If all outputs attached to the line are in the high-impedance state, the pull-up resistor will hold the wire in a high voltage (logic 1) state. If one or more device outputs are in the logic 0 (ground) state, they will sink current and pull the line voltage toward ground. This wired logic connection has several uses. Open-collector devices are commonly used to connect multiple devices to one interrupt request signal or a shared bus such as I²C.
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Multiple sources: The disturbance to the field inside the line caused by the insertion of the probe is minimised as far as possible. There are two parts to this disturbance. The first part is due to the power the probe has extracted from the line and manifests as a lumped equivalent circuit of a resistor. This is minimised by limiting the distance the probe is inserted into the line so that only enough power is extracted for the detector to operate effectively.
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A first order low-pass (high-cut) filter implemented using only a resistor and capacitor. The responses of linear filters are mathematically described in terms of their transfer function or, in layman's terms, frequency response. A transfer function can be decomposed as a combination of first order responses and second order responses (implemented as so-called biquad sections). These can be described according to their so-called pole and zero frequencies, which are complex numbers in the case of second-order responses.
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The voltage drop across the shunt is proportional to its current flow. Both alternating currents (AC) and direct currents (DC) can be measured with the shunt resistor. The high performance coaxial shunt have been widely used for many applications fast rise-time transient currents and high amplitudes but, highly integrated electronic devices prefer low-cost surface mounted devices (SMDs), because of their small sizes and relatively low prices. The parasitic inductance present in the shunt affects high precision current measurement.
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This approximation can be extremely inaccurate in some cases where a zero in the numerator is near in frequency. The method also uses a simplified method for finding the term linear in frequency based upon summing the RC-products for each capacitor in the circuit, where the resistor R for a selected capacitor is the resistance found by inserting a test source at its site and setting all other capacitors to zero. Hence the name zero- value time constant technique.
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A similar relaxation oscillator can be built with a 555 timer IC (acting in astable mode) that takes the place of the neon bulb above. That is, when a chosen capacitor is charged to a design value, (e.g., 2/3 of the power supply voltage) comparators within the 555 timer flip a transistor switch that gradually discharges that capacitor through a chosen resistor (RC Time Constant) to ground. At the instant the capacitor falls to a sufficiently low value (e.g.
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Cadillac Allanté In 1989, the base price rose to $57,183. Allanté's engine, the new 273ci (4.5L) V8, produced , and with of torque. Unlocking the trunk also unlocked the side doors if the key was rotated twice – similar to Mercedes-Benz and BMW. As a theft-deterrent, Allanté added GM's Pass Key (Personal Automotive Security System), utilizing a resistor pellet within the ignition key that has the ability to render the fuel system and starter inoperative if an incorrect ignition key is used.
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However, the 78xx device's quiescent current is substantially higher and less stable. Because of this, the error term in the formula cannot be ignored and the value of the low-side resistor becomes more critical. More stable adjustments can be made by providing a reference voltage that is less sensitive than a resistive divider to current fluctuations, such as a diode drop or a voltage buffer. The LM317 is designed to compensate for these fluctuations internally, making such measures unnecessary.
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A load test can be used to evaluate the health of a car's battery. The tester consists of a large resistor that has a resistance similar to a car's starter motor and a meter to read the battery's output voltage both in the unloaded and loaded state. When the tester is used, the battery's open circuit voltage is checked first. If the open circuit voltage is below spec (12.6 volts for a fully charged battery), the battery is charged first.
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The trap requires that at least one more hair is brushed within this 20 second period in order to reach the charge threshold required to close the trap. Electrical signaling from cell to cell in plants is controlled by proteins in the cell membrane. Protein memristors are biological resistor proteins that can depend on the electrical history of the cell, and are a class of protein that are shared between plants and animals in electrical memory function.Baluška, F., Gagliano, Monica, & Witzany, Günther. (2018).
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Nguyen Trung Nguyet grew up on her parents farm in Binh Dai. Although few girls received an education at this time, Nguyen Trung Nguyet went to an all-boys night school run by her uncle. At nine years old her family moved from Binh Dai to Rach Gia (now Kien Giang), and at age twelve, they again uprooted to Phuoc Long (now part of Bac Lieu Province). Her father, Nguyen van Nham, was a French resistor, and told her stories of anticolonial resistance.
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Unlike ceramic PTC thermistors, silistors have an almost linear resistance-temperature characteristic."PTC Thermistors and Silistors" The Resistor Guide Silicon PTC thermistors have a much smaller drift than an NTC thermistor. They are stable devices which are hermetically sealed in an axial leaded glass encapsulated package. Barium titanate thermistors can be used as self-controlled heaters; for a given voltage, the ceramic will heat to a certain temperature, but the power used will depend on the heat loss from the ceramic.
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Schematic of a low-dropout regulator The main components are a power FET and a differential amplifier (error amplifier). One input of the differential amplifier monitors the fraction of the output determined by the resistor ratio of R1 and R2. The second input to the differential amplifier is from a stable voltage reference (bandgap reference). If the output voltage rises too high relative to the reference voltage, the drive to the power FET changes to maintain a constant output voltage.
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Compressed air supply is charged through a Knorr screw compressor with a capacity of at pressure, stored in two air reservoirs. The dynamic and regenerative braking system operates under all three NJT electrical systems. In addition, the locomotive, while in diesel mode, is capable of routing power generated by the electric brake to HEP and locomotive auxiliary power requirements in addition to the dynamic brake resistor. The locomotives are within Amtrak's A-05-1355 structure gauge and meet CFR and AAR crashworthiness standards.
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Many digital voltmeters and all moving coil meters are in this category. The RMS calibration is only correct for a sine wave input since the ratio between peak, average and RMS values is dependent on waveform. If the wave shape being measured is greatly different from a sine wave, the relationship between RMS and average value changes. True RMS-responding meters were used in radio frequency measurements, where instruments measured the heating effect in a resistor to measure a current.
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Meaningful (i.e., high-accuracy) measurements require a good understanding of the instrument specifications, good control of the measurement conditions, and traceability of the calibration of the instrument. However, even if its resolution exceeds the accuracy, a meter can be useful for comparing measurements. For example, a meter reading stable digits may indicate that one nominally 100 kΩ resistor is about 7 Ω greater than another, although the error of each measurement is 0.2% of reading plus 0.05% of full-scale value.
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Where replacement of the parts is necessary, such as in test fixtures or where programmable devices must be removed for changes, a DIP socket is used. Some sockets include a zero insertion force mechanism. Variations of the DIP package include those with only a single row of pins, e.g. a resistor array, possibly including a heat sink tab in place of the second row of pins, and types with four rows of pins, two rows, staggered, on each side of the package.
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This feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid and electric cars or to return electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train line when they slow down. This process is called regenerative braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel electric locomotives they also use their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the energy in resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this energy.
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In concept, the alternating current through the lamp L can be controlled by the saturation of the iron core with the direct current, regulated by variable resistor R. B- battery, G – AC source. A saturable reactor in electrical engineering is a special form of inductor where the magnetic core can be deliberately saturated by a direct electric current in a control winding. Once saturated, the inductance of the saturable reactor drops dramatically. This decreases inductive reactance and allows increased flow of the alternating current (AC).
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An electrical voltage difference is sometimes called an emf. The points below illustrate the more formal usage, in terms of the distinction between emf and the voltage it generates: # For a circuit as a whole, such as one containing a resistor in series with a voltaic cell, electrical voltage does not contribute to the overall emf, because the voltage difference on going around a circuit is zero. (The ohmic IR voltage drop plus the applied electrical voltage sum to zero. See Kirchhoff's voltage law).
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The mode could be selected by a poke to the keyboard register. The computer couldn't write to the video memory without glitching the display. There was an add-on graphics card for the Superboard that would display 256 by 256 pixels. It came with software to draw 3D graphics.The keyboard polling register (a simple 8-bit TTL Latch) was also used as a very crude digital-to-analog converter by means of a resistor ladder connected to an 'audio out' socket to the right of the keyboard.
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For testing a range up to 440V, equipment requires 550V DC is sufficient. The current coil or deflecting coil is series- connected and allows the electric current to flow through the circuit being tested. Control and deflecting coil has a current limiting resistor connected in series so as to protect the external circuit in case of damages caused due to very low resistance. Testing voltage is produced by electromagnetic induction in case of hand-operated megger and by a battery in case of electronic type megger.
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In a WRIM, the rotor winding is made of many turns of insulated wire and is connected to slip rings on the motor shaft. An external resistor or other control devices can be connected in the rotor circuit. Resistors allow control of the motor speed, although significant power is dissipated in the external resistance. A converter can be fed from the rotor circuit and return the slip-frequency power that would otherwise be wasted back into the power system through an inverter or separate motor-generator.
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Common-emitter amplifiers are also used in radio frequency circuits, for example to amplify faint signals received by an antenna. In this case it is common to replace the load resistor with a tuned circuit. This may be done to limit the bandwidth to a narrow band centered around the intended operating frequency. More importantly it also allows the circuit to operate at higher frequencies as the tuned circuit can be used to resonate any inter-electrode and stray capacitances, which normally limit the frequency response.
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The 555 IC has the following operating modes: # Astable (free-running) mode – the 555 can operate as an electronic oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length (e.g., selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor and the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature).
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The simplest quenching circuit is commonly called passive quenching circuit and comprises a single resistor in series with the SPAD. This experimental setup has been employed since the early studies on the avalanche breakdown in junctions. The avalanche current self-quenches simply because it develops a voltage drop across a high-value ballast load RL (about 100 kΩ or more). After the quenching of the avalanche current, the SPAD bias VD slowly recovers to Va, and therefore the detector is ready to be ignited again.
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Lore Krüger (1914-2009) was a German-Jewish photographer and Nazi resistor, known most notably for her photographs taken in pre-World War II Europe. Born in Magdeburg, Germany as the first child to Jewish parents on March 11, 1914, Krüger grew up taking photographs. As her family fled from rising Nazi sentiment in Germany, Lore Krüger and her camera captured emigration and resistance in a turbulent pre-World War II Europe. She was influenced by Marxism and German Expressionism, such as New Objectivity.
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In some cases, this feature is nearly free, e.g. if the controlling equipment (such as an electric power meter, or the thermostat in an air-conditioning system) already has a microcontroller. Most electronic electric power meters internally measure frequency, and require only demand control relays to turn off equipment. In other equipment, often the only needed extra equipment is a resistor divider to sense the mains cycle and a schmitt trigger (a small integrated circuit) so the microcontrollers' digital input can sense a reliable fast digital edge.
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Sets that use the costly WD-11 and UX-199 tubes can be modified to use the 1A5/GT octal power pentode (Which cost around $2.50) by wiring a 5.1 ohm resistor between the pins of the filament and fabricating an octal-to-four pin adaptor. The pin for the 1A5's suppressor is left unconnected and the screen connected to the plate. The type 12 (also known as RCA-12) is electrically identical to the type 11, but with a more common UX4 base.
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Non-ideal components can be accommodated in this model by using more than one element to represent the component. For instance, a coil intended for use as an inductor has resistance as well as inductance. This can be represented on the circuit diagram as a resistor in series with an inductor.Chan, pp. 2-3 Thus, the first step in forming an analogy of a mechanical system is to describe it as a mechanical network in a similar way, that is, as a topological graph of ideal elements.
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This is a critical advantage of TTL over DTL that speeds up the transition over a diode input structure. The main disadvantage of TTL with a simple output stage is the relatively high output resistance at output logical "1" that is completely determined by the output collector resistor. It limits the number of inputs that can be connected (the fanout). Some advantage of the simple output stage is the high voltage level (up to VCC) of the output logical "1" when the output is not loaded.
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Transistor V3 turns "off" and it does not impact on the output. In the middle of the transition, the resistor R3 limits the current flowing directly through the series connected transistor V3, diode V5 and transistor V4 that are all conducting. It also limits the output current in the case of output logical "1" and short connection to the ground. The strength of the gate may be increased without proportionally affecting the power consumption by removing the pull-up and pull-down resistors from the output stage.
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Intensity modulation of SLEDs can be easily achieved through direct modulation of the bias current. SLED modules do not include terminating resistors inside because, operating at relatively high currents, excessive cooling would be required to compensate for the heat dissipation of the resistor. In order to achieve the best performance some external network that reduces the impedance mismatch between the driver amplifier, that usually requires 50 Ohm loads, and the low impedance of the chip (a few Ohm) would be preferable. As shown in Fig.
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CMOS logic dissipates less power than NMOS logic circuits because CMOS dissipates power only when switching ("dynamic power"). On a typical ASIC in a modern 90 nanometer process, switching the output might take 120 picoseconds, and happens once every ten nanoseconds. NMOS logic dissipates power whenever the transistor is on, because there is a current path from Vdd to Vss through the load resistor and the n-type network. Static CMOS gates are very power efficient because they dissipate nearly zero power when idle.
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A simple electric circuit made up of a voltage source and a resistor. Here, V=iR, according to Ohm's Law. In the theory of electrical networks, a dependent source is a voltage source or a current source whose value depends on a voltage or current elsewhere in the network.I. D. Mayergoyz, Wes Lawson Basic electric circuit theory: a one-semester text Gulf Professional Publishing, 1996 , Chapter 8 "Dependent sources and operational amplifiers" Dependent sources are useful, for example, in modelling the behavior of amplifiers.
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This is what happens in a reflected-wave switching bus. In incident-wave switching buses, reflections from the end of the bus are undesirable and must be prevented by adding termination. Terminating an incident-wave trace varies in complexity from a DC-balanced, AC-coupled termination to a single resistor series terminator, but all incident wave terminations consume both power and space (Johnson and Graham, 1993). However, incident-wave switching buses can be significantly longer than reflected-wave switching buses operating at the same frequency.
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An example of reciprocity can be demonstrated using an asymmetrical resistive attenuator. An asymmetrical network is chosen as the example because a symmetrical network is fairly self- evidently reciprocal. An asymmetrical attenuator in Pi formation with resistor values 20, 12 and 8 left to right Injecting six amps into port 1 of this network produces 24 volts at port 2. The previous attenuator showing port 1 current splitting to 3 amps in each branch Injecting six amps into port 2 produces 24 volts at port 1.
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General Electric's experimental 1936 steam turbine locomotives featured true regeneration. These two locomotives ran the steam water over the resistor packs, as opposed to air cooling used in most dynamic brakes. This energy displaced the oil normally burned to keep the water hot, and thereby recovered energy that could be used to accelerate again. The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the need to closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics and increased maintenance cost of the lines.
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Pearson-Anson oscillator circuit The Pearson–Anson effect, discovered in 1922 by Stephen Oswald PearsonStephen Oswald Pearson,Dictionary of Wireless Technical Terms (London: Iliffe & Sons, 1926). and Horatio Saint George Anson, is the phenomenon of an oscillating electric voltage produced by a neon bulb connected across a capacitor, when a direct current is applied through a resistor. This circuit, now called the Pearson-Anson oscillator, neon lamp oscillator, or sawtooth oscillator, is one of the simplest types of relaxation oscillator. It generates a sawtooth output waveform.
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If the shaft is exposed, a shock hazard to the user exists, and the internal construction of the tester provides no protection against short-circuit faults. Failure of the resistor and lamp series network can put the user in direct metallic contact with the circuit under test. For example, water trapped inside the screwdriver may allow enough leakage current to shock the user. Even if an internal short circuit does not electrocute the user, the resulting electric shock may result in a fall or other injury.
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A simple voltage/current regulator can be made from a resistor in series with a diode (or series of diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across the diode changes only slightly due to changes in current drawn or changes in the input. When precise voltage control and efficiency are not important, this design may be fine. Since the forward voltage of a diode is small, this kind of voltage regulator is only suitable for low voltage regulated output.
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This region is particularly important for power diodes. The diode can be modeled as an ideal diode in series with a fixed resistor. In a small silicon diode operating at its rated currents, the voltage drop is about 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types—Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, germanium diodes 0.25 to 0.3 V, and red or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively.
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Buffer gas cooling, resistive cooling, and laser cooling are techniques to remove energy from ions in a Penning trap. Buffer gas cooling relies on collisions between the ions and neutral gas molecules that bring the ion energy closer to the energy of the gas molecules. In resistive cooling, moving image charges in the electrodes are made to do work through an external resistor, effectively removing energy from the ions. Laser cooling can be used to remove energy from some kinds of ions in Penning traps.
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In the simplest case, the duration of the total cycle (Tclosed \+ Topen), and hence its repetition rate (the reciprocal of the cycle duration), is almost wholly dependent on the transformer's magnetizing inductance Lp, the supply voltage, and the load voltage Vz. When a capacitor and resistor are used to absorb the energy, the repetition rate is dependent on the R-C time-constant, or the L-C time constant when R is small or non- existent (L can be Lp, Ls or Lp,s).
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The current fleet of Red Line cars underwent an in-house rehabilitation under the direction of former director of rail Michael Couse. The cars were overhauled over the course of five years using federal grant money. Cars received pantographs and controllers, along with rebuilt trucks, traction motors, resistor banks, new flame-retardant flooring, LED lighting, new seat frames, revised interior paneling, and additional open space for improved ADA compliance. The first of the rebuilt cars was unveiled to the public on December 10, 2013.
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In early control system design it was discovered that having same value of components makes design easier and faster. One way to implement passive components with same value or in practice with smallest possible distribution is to place them on the same substrate near to each other. Earliest form of integrated passive devices were resistor networks in the 1960s when four to eight resistors were packaged in form of Single-in-line package (SIP) by Vishay Intertechnology. Many other type of packages like DILs, DIPs etc.
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A single-wire Beverage antenna is typically a single straight copper wire, between one-half and two wavelengths long, run parallel to the Earth's surface in the direction of the desired signal. The wire is suspended by insulated supports above the ground. A non-inductive resistor approximately equal to the characteristic impedance of the wire, about 400 to 600 ohms, is connected from the far end of the wire to a ground rod. The other end of the wire is connected to the feedline to the receiver.
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RMA Resistor Color Code guide. Circa 1945-1955. Axial resistors' cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green (though other colors are occasionally found as well, such as dark red or dark gray), and display 3–6 colored stripes that indicate resistance (and by extension tolerance), and may be extended to indicate the temperature coefficient and reliability class. The first two stripes represent the first two digits of the resistance in ohms, the third represents a multiplier, and the fourth the tolerance (which if absent, denotes ±20%).
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In 1927, a Bell team headed by Herbert E. Ives successfully transmitted long-distance 128-line television images of Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover from Washington to New York. In 1928 the thermal noise in a resistor was first measured by John B. Johnson, and Harry Nyquist provided the theoretical analysis; this is now termed Johnson noise. During the 1920s, the one-time pad cipher was invented by Gilbert Vernam and Joseph Mauborgne at the laboratories. Bell Labs' Claude Shannon later proved that it is unbreakable.
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The Yamaha YM2149F 'SSG' chip has the same pinout as the AY-3-8910, with the minor difference that pin 26 could halve the master clock if pulled low. If left unconnected, as it would be if replacing an AY-3-8910 chip, an internal resistor pulls the pin high, so the master clock is not halved. The Yamaha YM3439 is a CMOS version of the YM2149F. It is available in two packages: 40-pin DIP (YM3439-D) and 44-pin QFP (YM3439-F).
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The above examples show a single parasitic value for each capacitor or resistor. It is up to the parasitic extraction and delay calculation flow to decide which corner this value represents. SPEF also allows for min:typ:max values to be reported: 1 regcontrol_top/GRC/U9743:E 0.936057:1.02342:1.31343 The IEEE standard requires either 1 or 3 values to be reported; however, some tools will report min:max pairs and it is expected that tools may report many corners (corner1:corner2:corner3:corner4) in the future.
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The motion of the moving plate induces a varying current through the capacitor formed by the reed and the fixed plate. The capacitance of the pickup is changed by the motion of the moving plate. As a result of the changing capacitance, a varying current flows into or out of the plates as needed to maintain the proper charge for the new amount of capacitance. This current produces a varying voltage across an external resistor which is amplified to produce a usable output signal.
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A -digit digital multimeter, the Fluke 87V A multimeter is the combination of a DC voltmeter, AC voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog multimeter combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches; VTVMs are amplified analog meters and contain active circuitry. For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. A switch (usually rotary) allows greater resistance to be inserted in series with the meter movement to read higher voltages.
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Since the current available depends on the state of charge of the battery which changes over time, a multimeter usually has an adjustment for the ohm scale to zero it. In the usual circuits found in analog multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance, so full-scale will be 0 Ω, and higher resistance will correspond to smaller deflections. The ohms scale is compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values. Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor networks.
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The ramp time is sensitive to temperature because the circuit generating the ramp is often a simple oscillator. There are two solutions: use a clocked counter driving a DAC and then use the comparator to preserve the counter's value, or calibrate the timed ramp. A special advantage of the ramp-compare system is that comparing a second signal just requires another comparator, and another register to store the voltage value. A very simple (nonlinear) ramp converter can be implemented with a microcontroller and one resistor and capacitor.
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Multiple devices may share an edge-triggered interrupt line if they are designed to. The interrupt line must have a pull-down or pull-up resistor so that when not actively driven it settles to its inactive state, which is the default state of it. Devices signal an interrupt by briefly driving the line to its non-default state, and let the line float (do not actively drive it) when not signaling an interrupt. This type of connection is also referred to as open collector.
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A large solidly grounded distribution system may have thousands of amperes of ground fault current. In a polyphase AC system, an artificial neutral grounding system may be used. Although no phase conductor is directly connected to ground, a specially constructed transformer (a "zig zag" transformer) blocks the power frequency current from flowing to earth, but allows any leakage or transient current to flow to ground. Low-resistance grounding systems use a neutral grounding resistor (NGR) to limit the fault current to 25 A or greater.
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SMS circuit cards Most of the logic circuitry of the 1401 was a type of diode–transistor logic (DTL), that IBM referred to as CTDL (Complemented Transistor Diode Logic). Other IBM circuit types used were referred to as: Alloy (some logic, but mostly various non-logic functions, named for the germanium-alloy transistors used), CTRL (Complemented Transistor Resistor Logic, a type of resistor–transistor logic (RTL)). Later upgrades (e.g., the TAU-9 tape interface) used a faster type of DTL using "drift" transistors (a type of transistor invented by Herbert Kroemer in 1953) for their speed, that IBM referred to as SDTDL (Saturated Drift Transistor Diode Logic). Typical logic levels of these circuits were (S & U Level) high: 0 V to -0.5V, low: -6 V to -12 V; (T Level) high: 6 V to 1 V, low: -5.5 V to -6 V. These circuits were constructed of discrete components (resistors, capacitors, transistors) mounted on single-sided paper-epoxy printed circuit boards either with a 16-pin gold-plated edge connector (single wide) or with two 16-pin gold-plated edge connectors (double wide), that IBM referred to as SMS cards (Standard Modular System).
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When transitioning from low to high, the transistors provide low resistance, and the capacitive charge at the output accumulates very quickly (similar to charging a capacitor through a very low resistance). But the resistance between the output and the negative supply rail is much greater, so the high-to-low transition takes longer (similar to discharge of a capacitor through a high resistance). Using a resistor of lower value will speed up the process but also increases static power dissipation. Additionally, the asymmetric input logic levels make PMOS circuits susceptible to noise.
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The locomotive's cruising speed was , at which point the throttle was on "seven". During a trial run with a reporter from Popular Mechanics aboard, a C&O; engineer expressed his dissatisfaction with a local speed limit of , noting that he would "Sure like to be able to pull it back to eleven!" In quality equipment multipole switches are sometimes used for volume controls, usually with 23 detents, wired with a resistor chain. These give 23 positions with the first being silent, so were numbered 0-11 (0-22 is impractical).
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Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy, although real-life capacitors do dissipate a small amount (see Non-ideal behavior). When an electric potential, a voltage, is applied across the terminals of a capacitor, for example when a capacitor is connected across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current actually flows through the dielectric. However, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit.
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The value of the supply voltage is chosen so that sufficient current flows through the compensating diodes D1 and D2 and the voltage drop across the common emitter resistor RE is adequate. ECL circuits available on the open market usually operated with logic levels incompatible with other families. This meant that interoperation between ECL and other logic families, such as the popular TTL family, required additional interface circuits. The fact that the high and low logic levels are relatively close meant that ECL suffers from small noise margins, which can be troublesome.
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One way to deal with these inherent resistances in circuit analysis is to use a lumped element model to express each physical component as a combination of an ideal component and a small resistor in series, the ESR. The ESR can be measured and included in a component's datasheet. To some extent it can be calculated from the device properties. Q factor, which is related to ESR and is sometimes a more convenient parameter than ESR to use in calculations of high-frequency non- ideal performance of real inductors, is quoted in inductor data sheets.
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It can be modeled as a resistor in series with the inductor, often leading to the DC resistance being referred to as the ESR. Though this is not precisely correct usage, the unimportant elements of ESR are often neglected in circuit discussion, since it is rare that all elements of ESR are significant to a particular application. An inductor using a core to increase inductance will have losses such as hysteresis and eddy current in the core. At high frequencies there are also losses in the windings due to proximity and skin effects.
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Most oscilloscopes provide for probe attenuation factors, displaying the effective sensitivity at the probe tip. Historically, some auto-sensing circuitry used indicator lamps behind translucent windows in the panel to illuminate different parts of the sensitivity scale. To do so, the probe connectors (modified BNCs) had an extra contact to define the probe's attenuation. (A certain value of resistor, connected to ground, "encodes" the attenuation.) Because probes wear out, and because the auto-sensing circuitry is not compatible between different oscilloscope makes, auto-sensing probe scaling is not foolproof.
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The earliest implementations of ALDL were unidirectional and transmitted serial data at 160 baud using PWM. Some 160 baud models constantly transmitted sensor data on startup, while others started transmitting data when placed in diagnostic mode with a resistor connected to the ALDL port. Later versions were bidirectional and operated at a much faster (but incredibly slow compared to today's standards) rate of 8192 baud. Implementations using the 8192 baud rate were primarily request-driven, meaning that the main diagnostic data was not transmitted until a request was made.
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Representatives from the town of Onslow, Western Australia requested that the submarine visit her namesake town before decommissioning, but were informed that the submarine's planned operational schedule could not accommodate such a visit. As part of this schedule, Onslow participated in the 1998 RIMPAC exercise.Curtis, Pride of the fleet The submarine had to pull out of the early part of the exercise: a resistor in the motor room switchboard had begun to smoke, forcing Onslow to return to Pearl Harbor for repairs.Stott & Jaumeson, Navy sinks Indonesian fishing vessel, p.
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A metre bridge is a simple type of potentiometer which may be used in school science laboratories to demonstrate the principle of resistance measurement by potentiometric means. A resistance wire is laid along the length of a metre rule and contact with the wire is made through a galvanometer by a slider. When the galvanometer reads zero, the ratio between the lengths of wire to the left and right of the slider is equal to the ratio between the values of a known and an unknown resistor in a parallel circuit.
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In semiconductor devices, parasitic structures, irrelevant for normal operation, become important in the context of failures; they can be both a source and protection against failure. Applications such as aerospace systems, life support systems, telecommunications, railway signals, and computers use great numbers of individual electronic components. Analysis of the statistical properties of failures can give guidance in designs to establish a given level of reliability. For example, power-handling ability of a resistor may be greatly derated when applied in high-altitude aircraft to obtain adequate service life.
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A , 1%-precision resistor with 5 color bands (E96 series), from top, 2-2-6-1-1; the last two brown bands indicate the multiplier (×10) and the tolerance (1%). An electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, usually for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, diodes and others. A separate code, the 25-pair color code, is used to identify wires in some telecommunications cables. Different codes are used for wire leads on devices such as transformers or in building wiring.
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The resistor drives the bus weakly; therefore other circuits can override the value of the bus when they are not in tri-state mode. Bus-holders are used to prevent CMOS gate inputs from getting floating values when they are connected to tri-stated nets. Otherwise both transistors in the gate could get turned on, thus shorting the power supply and ground, which would destroy the CMOS gate. This is prevented by the bus-holder pulling the input to the last valid logic level (0 or 1) on the net.
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Mid-1970s Stylophone being played The Stylophone is a miniature analog stylus- operated keyboard. Invented in 1967 by Brian Jarvis, it entered production in 1968, manufactured by Dubreq. It consists of a metal keyboard made of printed circuit board and played by touching it with a stylus—each note being connected to a voltage-controlled oscillator via a different-value resistor—thus closing a circuit. The only other controls were a power switch and a vibrato control on the front panel beside the keyboard, and a tuning potentiometer on the rear.
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He instead advocated proprietary, profit-seeking companies as the best means for protection of all forms of property. He supported private property protection and defense, the absolute rights of the owner of private property, and was opposed to political voting and other forms of political activism. Galambos's first lectures given in 1961 focused on limited government. His early societal models were modified versions of the United States republic, with the addition of the "Resistor," a body empowered to repeal laws passed by Congress if it judged them to be contrary to the Constitution.
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Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short circuit.
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In a discrete implementation of an I2L circuit, bipolar NPN transistors with multiple collectors can be replaced with multiple discrete 3-terminal NPN transistors connected in parallel having their bases connected together and their emitters connected likewise. Similarly, the merged PNP current injector transistor and the NPN inverter transistor can be implemented as separate discrete components. The current source transistor may be replaced with a resistor from the positive supply to the base of the inverter transistor, since discrete resistors are smaller and less expensive than discrete transistors.
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A hydraulic adder can add the pressures in two chambers by exploiting Newton's second law to balance forces on an assembly of pistons. The most common situation for a general-purpose analog computer is to add two voltages (referenced to ground); this can be accomplished roughly with a resistor network, but a better design exploits an operational amplifier.Truitt and Rogers pp. 1;44–49 and pp. 2;77–78 Addition is also fundamental to the operation of digital computers, where the efficiency of addition, in particular the carry mechanism, is an important limitation to overall performance.
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The plate current was routed through that portion of the rectifier heater, in order to make up for the current diverted to the dial lamp. If the dial lamp failed, that part of the rectifier heater would have a larger current which could burn out the tube in a few months. Early radios had a resistor network to minimize the problem but this was soon eliminated as the cost of replacing the tube was not the manufacturer's problem. As with Christmas tree lights, if one tube heater failed, none of the tube heaters would operate.
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Vacuum tube equipment used a number of tubes, each with a heater requiring a certain amount of electrical power. In AC/DC equipment, the heaters of all the tubes are connected in series. All the tubes are rated at the same current (typically 100, 150, 300, or 450 mA) but at different voltages, according to their heating power requirements. If necessary, resistance (which can be a ballast tube (barretter), a power resistor or a resistive mains lead are added so that, when the mains voltage is applied across the chain, the specified heating current flows.
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LTspice schematics are stored as an ASCII text file with a filename extension of "`asc`". The following example shows the contents from a small LTspice schematic file for a simple RC circuit with four schematic symbols: V1 is 10 volt DC voltage source, R1 is 1K ohm resistor, C1 is 1 uF capacitor, ground. The bottom three TEXT lines are: 1) a transient simulation directive with a stop time parameter of 10 ms (`.tran 10mS`), 2) a SPICE directive to set the initial condition of RC "out" net to zero volts (`.
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A membrane potentiometer uses a conductive membrane that is deformed by a sliding element to contact a resistor voltage divider. Linearity can range from 0.50% to 5% depending on the material, design and manufacturing process. The repeat accuracy is typically between 0.1 mm and 1.0 mm with a theoretically infinite resolution. The service life of these types of potentiometers is typically 1 million to 20 million cycles depending on the materials used during manufacturing and the actuation method; contact and contactless (magnetic) methods are available (to sense position).
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Tullamareena escaping from first Melbourne gaol; watercolor by W. Liardet (1840) Tullamareena (or Tullamarine, Dullamarin) was a senior man of the Wurundjeri, a Koori, (Aboriginal) people of the Melbourne area, at the time of the British settlement in Victoria, Australia, in 1835. He is believed to have been present at the signing of John Batman's land deal in 1835. He was known to have been a resistor to British occupation of Wurundjeri lands. He was described by the Reverend George Langhorne, an early Port Phillip missionary as "a steady, industrious man".
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A piezo switch is an electrical switch based on the piezoelectric effect. The charge generated by the piezoelectric element in the switch is typically used to turn on an integrated semiconductor device such as a field effect transistor (FET), causing the switch assembly's output to be active, or "on".DiscoverCircuits When the FET is on, current can flow through it as with a conventional metal contact-based switch. After the voltage pulse is dissipated in the gate resistor, the FET turns back "off", its normal high impedance state.
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An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to slip rings on the shaft. Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to a controller such as a variable resistor that allows changing the motor's slip rate. In certain high-power variable- speed wound rotor drives, the slip-frequency energy is captured, rectified, and returned to the power supply through an inverter.
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In the professional lighting industry, changes in intensity are called "fades" and can be "fade up" or "fade down". Dimmers with direct manual control had a limit on the speed they could be varied at but this problem has been largely eliminated with modern digital units (although very fast changes in brightness may still be avoided for other reasons like lamp life). Modern dimmers are built from semiconductors instead of variable resistors, because they have higher efficiency. A variable resistor would dissipate power as heat and acts as a voltage divider.
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The RF SQUID is inductively coupled to a resonant tank circuit. Depending on the external magnetic field, as the SQUID operates in the resistive mode, the effective inductance of the tank circuit changes, thus changing the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. These frequency measurements can be easily taken, and thus the losses which appear as the voltage across the load resistor in the circuit are a periodic function of the applied magnetic flux with a period of \Phi_0. For a precise mathematical description refer to the original paper by Erné et al.
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One incarnation of Bode's filter as a low-pass filter. Another variation on the m-type filter was described by Hendrik Bode. This filter uses as a prototype a mid-series m-derived filter and transforms this into a bridged-T topology with the addition of a bridging resistor. This section has the advantage of being able to place the pole of attenuation much closer to the cut-off frequency than the Zobel filter, which starts to fail to work properly with very small values of m because of inductor resistance.
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Standard Resistor created by J. L. William Scientific Instruments J. L. (Les) William (January 18, 1915 – June 4, 1994) was an Australian builder of scientific instruments.Bolton, B., "The William Brothers of Melbourne Makers of Electrical Scientific Instruments" Australian & New Zealand Physicist; 32, (1995) pp. 134-7 Born in Melbourne, Australia he was known for his beautiful and precision craftsmanship and was known as one of the best scientific instrument makers in Australia. His equipment can be found in Australian laboratories that existed from the 1930s through to the 1980s.
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The amplifier was reissued for the first time in 1988 (the 1959S), and again from 1991 to 1993 (the 1959X) and from 1993 to 1995 (the 1959SLP). The SLP continued after 1995 but in 2000 Marshall added modifications to lower the noise floor (hum balance pot), reverted the negative feedback resistor to the 1968-69 value of 47 kΩ, and added an effects loop. The 1959SLP was sold until 2017. In 2005 Marshall introduced the 1959HW (for "hand-wired"), based on the 1967–1969 models, with negative feedback added corresponding to the 1969 model.
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The RKM code, also referred to as "letter and numeral code for resistance and capacitance values and tolerances", "letter and digit code for resistance and capacitance values and tolerances", or "R notation", is a notation to specify resistor and capacitor values defined in the international standard IEC 60062 (formerly IEC 62) since 1952. It is also adopted by various other standards including DIN 40825 (1973), BS 1852 (1974), IS 8186 (1976) and EN 60062 (1993). The significantly updated IEC 60062:2016 comprises the most recent release of the standard.
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The Apple IIe had a keyboard ROM that translated keystrokes into characters. The ROM contained both QWERTY and Dvorak layouts, but the QWERTY layout was enabled by default. A modification could be made by pulling out the ROM, bending up four pins, soldering a resistor between two pins, soldering two others to a pair of wires connected to a DIP switch, which was installed in a pre-existing hole in the back of the machine, then plugging the modified ROM back in its socket. The "hack" was reversible and did no damage.
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Figure 1: Schematic of an electrical circuit illustrating current division. Notation RT. refers to the total resistance of the circuit to the right of resistor RX. In electronics, a current divider is a simple linear circuit that produces an output current (IX) that is a fraction of its input current (IT). Current division refers to the splitting of current between the branches of the divider. The currents in the various branches of such a circuit will always divide in such a way as to minimize the total energy expended.
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Two Russian scientists, B. R. Lazarenko and N. I. Lazarenko, were tasked in 1943 to investigate ways of preventing the erosion of tungsten electrical contacts due to sparking. They failed in this task but found that the erosion was more precisely controlled if the electrodes were immersed in a dielectric fluid. This led them to invent an EDM machine used for working difficult-to-machine materials such as tungsten. The Lazarenkos' machine is known as an R-C-type machine, after the resistor–capacitor circuit (RC circuit) used to charge the electrodes.
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Percolation may be modeled by a random electrical resistor network, with electricity flowing from one side of the network to the other. The overall resistance of the network is seen to be described by the average connectivity of the resistors in the network . The formation of tears and cracks may be modeled by a random network of electrical fuses. As the electric current flow through the network is increased, some fuses may pop, but on the whole, the current is shunted around the problem areas, and uniformly distributed.
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Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) is a logic family built from bipolar junction transistors. Its name signifies that transistors perform both the logic function (the first "transistor") and the amplifying function (the second "transistor"), as opposed to resistor–transistor logic (RTL) or diode–transistor logic (DTL). TTL integrated circuits (ICs) were widely used in applications such as computers, industrial controls, test equipment and instrumentation, consumer electronics, and synthesizers. Sometimes TTL- compatible logic levels are not associated directly with TTL integrated circuits, for example, they may be used at the inputs and outputs of electronic instruments.
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The main advantage of TTL with a "totem-pole" output stage is the low output resistance at output logical "1". It is determined by the upper output transistor V3 operating in active region as an emitter follower. The resistor R3 does not increase the output resistance since it is connected in the V3 collector and its influence is compensated by the negative feedback. A disadvantage of the "totem-pole" output stage is the decreased voltage level (no more than 3.5 V) of the output logical "1" (even if the output is unloaded).
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The size and shape of denshi blocks depend on the kit they are from. The blocks of a particular kit will have the same height, usually a few centimetres, and cover a square or rectangular area a few centimetres on either side. They are designed to fit into a grid of squares, so blocks always occupy some rectangular area of these squares, with the majority of blocks occupying just one square. Most blocks contain either a single electronic component, for example a resistor, just some wiring or both.
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Contact shoes are fitted on each side of the outer bogies. As all contact shoes are electrically connected, one train can pass through dead sections of up to length without running out of power. The A2.3 series trains introduced a number of improvements, including a newly designed compressed air system and split-flap destination indicators, which were also retrofitted into units of older series, replacing the non-automated destination signs. The Class A trains are powered by resistor-controlled direct-current motors, which are capable of rheostatic braking.
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Its resistance begins to drop, and a relatively small current flow charges the input capacitors. After the capacitors in the power supply become charged, the self-heated inrush current limiter offers little resistance in the circuit, with a low voltage drop with respect to the total voltage drop of the circuit. A disadvantage is that immediately after the device is switched off, the NTC resistor is still hot and has a low resistance. It cannot limit the inrush current unless it cools for more than 1 minute to get a higher resistance.
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One example is in miniature Christmas lights which are wired in series. When the filament burns out in one of the incandescent light bulbs, the full line voltage appears across the burnt out bulb. A shunt resistor, which has been connected in parallel across the filament before it burnt out, will then short out to bypass the burnt filament and allow the rest of the string to light. If too many lights burn out however, a shunt will also burn out, requiring the use of a multimeter to find the point of failure.
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The elevation of these particles can be calculated. Twilight photometry traditionally uses a telescope pointed toward the zenith that focuses very dim twilight onto a photodiode or photomultiplier tube connected to multi-stage amplifier. Mims’ design is unique in that it employs an ordinary LED as a twilight detector and no external optics beyond the epoxy lens in which the LED chip is encapsulated. Instead of a multi-stage amplifier, he uses a single operational amplifier with a feedback resistor of from 10 to 20 gigohms to provide a gain of 10 to 20 billion.
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The constant current needed can be produced by connecting an element (resistor) with very high resistance between the shared emitter node and the supply rail (negative for NPN and positive for PNP transistors) but this will require high supply voltage. That is why, in more sophisticated designs, an element with high differential (dynamic) resistance approximating a constant current source/sink is substituted for the “long tail” (Figure 3). It is usually implemented by a current mirror because of its high compliance voltage (small voltage drop across the output transistor).
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It is possible to connect a floating source between the two bases, but it is necessary to ensure paths for the biasing base currents. In the case of galvanic source, only one resistor has to be connected between one of the bases and the ground. The biasing current will enter directly this base and indirectly (through the input source) the other one. If the source is capacitive, two resistors have to be connected between the two bases and the ground to ensure different paths for the base currents.
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The Mark IIC finally remedied the two major problems of the IIA and the IIB: the previously noisy reverb circuit and a footswitching system that produced a popping noise when activated. The Mark IIC featured a quieter footswitching system based on optocouplers to reroute the signal, and a new mod to the reverb circuit. The reverb modification involved resistor swaps and a change in ground lead placement. That mod[ification] is still on the books of 'official' mods, which they send to their authorized techs; it runs about $50.
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GMT would have provided foundry services based on TelCom's Bipolar and SiCr Thin Film Resistor processes and would have been licensed alternate sources for TelCom's Bipolar based products., with production running at 10 thousand 5-inch wafers per month, producing CMOS, BiCMOS, NMOS, bipolar and SOI devices. The plant had been on the EPA's National Priorities List of hazardous waste sites since October 4, 1989. This was due to a 1974 leak of TCE from an underground 250-gallon concrete storage tank used by Commodore Business Machines in the semiconductor cleaning process.
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This gain is the same as that for the input transistor acting alone. Thus, even sacrificing gain, the cascode produces the same gain as the single-transistor transconductance amplifier, but with wider bandwidth. Because the amplifiers are wide bandwidth, the same approach can determine the bandwidth of the circuit when a load capacitor is attached (with or without a load resistor). The assumption needed is that the load capacitance is large enough that it controls the frequency dependence, and bandwidth is not controlled by the neglected parasitic capacitances of the transistors themselves.
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BJT monostable multivibrator In the monostable multivibrator, one resistive- capacitive network (C2-R3 in Figure 1) is replaced by a resistive network (just a resistor). The circuit can be thought as a 1/2 astable multivibrator. Q2 collector voltage is the output of the circuit (in contrast to the astable circuit, it has a perfect square waveform since the output is not loaded by the capacitor). When triggered by an input pulse, a monostable multivibrator will switch to its unstable position for a period of time, and then return to its stable state.
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For low voltage work (for example, in automobiles), the lamp used is usually a small, low-voltage incandescent light bulb. These lamps usually are designed to operate on approximately 12 V; application of an automotive test lamp on mains voltage will destroy the lamp and may cause a short-circuit fault in the tester. For line voltage (mains) work, the lamp is usually a small neon lamp connected in series with an appropriate ballast resistor. These lamps often can operate across a wide range of voltages from 90V up to several hundred volts.
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UK GS38-compliant test lamp, with separately-fused test prods and current- limiting resistor, suitable for use up to 1000V A hand-held test lamp necessarily puts the user in proximity to live circuits. Accidental contact with live wiring can result in a short circuit or electric shock. Inexpensive or home-made test lamps may not include sufficient protection against high- energy faults. It is customary to connect a test lamp to a known live circuit both before and after testing an unknown circuit, to check for failure of the test lamp itself.
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In the UK, guidelines established by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) provide recommendations for the construction and use of test lamps. Probes must be well-insulated, with minimal exposure of live terminals, with finger guards to prevent accidental contact, and must not expose live wires if the test lamp glass bulb is broken. To limit the energy delivered in case of a short circuit, test lights must have a current-limiting fuse or current-limiting resistor and fuse. The HSE guidelines also recommend procedures to validate operation of the test light.
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Because the capacitance between an object and a current source is typically small, only very small currents can flow from the energized source to the coupled object. High-impedance digital or analog voltmeters may measure elevated voltages from non-energized objects due to this coupling, in effect providing a misleading reading. For this reason, high-impedance voltage measurements of normally non-energized objects must be verified. Verification of a voltage reading is performed using a low-impedance voltmeter, which usually has a shunt resistor load bridging the voltmeter terminals.
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From that point on, the low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across the diode at that value. center In this circuit, a typical voltage reference or regulator, an input voltage, Uin, is regulated down to a stable output voltage Uout. The breakdown voltage of diode D is stable over a wide current range and holds Uout approximately constant even though the input voltage may fluctuate over a wide range. Because of the low impedance of the diode when operated like this, resistor R is used to limit current through the circuit.
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A second advantage of differential TTL is that the differential pair of wires can form a current loop. The driver sources a current from the power supply into one wire. This current passes along the wire to the receiver, through the termination resistor and back up the other wire, then back through the driver and down to ground. No net current is exchanged between the driver and receiver, which means that none of the signal current has to return through the ground connection (if there is one) between the two ends.
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The basic arrangement is shown in figure 3, although normally more electrodes would be used. To form a relationship between the voltage and current measured on the one hand, and the resistivity of the material on the other, it is necessary to apply the distributed-element model by considering the material to be an array of infinitesimal resistor elements. Unlike the transmission line example, the need to apply the distributed-element model arises from the geometry of the setup, and not from any wave propagation considerations.Sharma, pp. 210–212.
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For indicator-sized lamps, a resistor typically limits the current. In contrast, larger sized lamps often use a specially constructed high voltage transformer with high leakage inductance or other electrical ballast to limit the available current (see neon sign). When the current through the lamp is lower than the current for the highest-current discharge path, the glow discharge may become unstable and not cover the entire surface of the electrodes. This may be a sign of aging of the indicator bulb, and is exploited in the decorative "flicker flame" neon lamps.
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The measurement of pressure via the Wheatstone Bridge looks something like this.... Application Schematic The effective electrical model of the transducer, together with a basic signal conditioning circuit, is shown in the application schematic. The pressure sensor is a fully active Wheatstone bridge which has been temperature compensated and offset adjusted by means of thick film, laser trimmed resistors. The excitation to the bridge is applied via a constant current. The low-level bridge output is at +O and -O, and the amplified span is set by the gain programming resistor (r).
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Diode logic (DL), or diode-resistor logic (DRL), is the construction of Boolean logic gates from diodes. Diode logic was used extensively in the construction of early computers, where semiconductor diodes could replace bulky and costly active vacuum tube elements. The most common use for diode logic is in diode–transistor logic (DTL) integrated circuits that, in addition to diodes, include inverter logic to provide a NOT function and signal restoration. While diode logic has the advantage of simplicity, the lack of an amplifying stage in each gate limits its application.
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Figure 2: 4-bit linear R–2R DAC using unequal resistors It is not necessary that each "rung" of the R–2R ladder use the same resistor values. It is only necessary that the "2R" value matches the sum of the "R" value plus the Thévenin-equivalent resistance of the lower-significance rungs. Figure 2 shows a linear 4-bit DAC with unequal resistors. This allows a reasonably accurate DAC to be created from a heterogeneous collection of resistors by forming the DAC one bit at a time.
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Since the open-loop gain of an op-amp is extremely large, a small differential input signal would drive the output of the amplifier to one rail or the other in the absence of negative feedback. A simple example of the use of feedback is the op-amp voltage amplifier shown in the figure. The idealized model of an operational amplifier assumes that the gain is infinite, the input impedance is infinite, output resistance is zero, and input offset currents and voltages are zero. Such an ideal amplifier draws no current from the resistor divider.
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A current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value resistor connected in series with it to reduce the current that flows through it. The result of this arrangement is that on a DC circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional to both the current (I) and the voltage (V), thus conforming to the equation P=VI.
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Metalab has been source of multiple startups, open source and art projects including Mjam, currently Austria's largest internet food delivery company, Soup.io, a tumblelogging startup, YEurope, which was Europe's first YCombinator inspired startup accelerator,, datenschmutz: Start-Up Förderungen: Paul Böhm startet YEurope the annual DeepSec Security Conference, Graffiti Research Lab Vienna, the 3D modeling software OpenSCAD and the beginnings of what was later developed into Makerbot at NYC Resistor. It has been host of over 400 events, talks, and workshops. Metalab featured talks and workshops with various personalities from the tech and culture field.
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Thus, no braking resistor is needed, and the efficiency of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor. Two other harmonics mitigation techniques exploit use of passive or active filters connected to a common bus with at least one VFD branch load on the bus. Passive filters involve the design of one or more low- pass LC filter traps, each trap being tuned as required to a harmonic frequency (5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, . . . kq+/-1, where k=integer, q=pulse number of converter).
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Sir Humphry Davy is said by some to have performed the first experiments which can be explained by memristor effects as long ago as 1808. However the first device of a related nature to be constructed was the memistor (i.e. memory resistor), a term coined in 1960 by Bernard Widrow to describe a circuit element of an early artificial neural network called ADALINE. A few years later, in 1968, Argall published an article showing the resistance switching effects of TiO2 which was later claimed by researchers from Hewlett Packard to be evidence of a memristor.
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As the driver notches up, some of the resistor banks are cut out via the pneumatically operated switches and the voltage increases across the traction motors. The more resistors which are cut out as the driver notches higher, the more power is developed by the traction motors. At around the locomotive switches to a parallel combination, where the two traction motors per bogie are in a series electrical circuit, while the two bogies are in parallel electrical circuit. Eventually, when all resistors are cut out, the locomotive is operating in full-field.
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LDR Oil-fired burners are fitted with a safety mechanism for determining if the fuel has ignited and a flame present. The terms "primary control", "safety control", "cad cell control", "master control", and "fire-eye control" are variously used to describe a light dependent electrical resistor (LDR) which detects the flame whose value changes by the amount of light it is exposed to. The resistance decreases as the LDR is exposed to more light. The material is usually cadmium sulfide, hence the name "cad cell" for this component.
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Long-tail pair A long tail is a constant current (CC) load as the shared cathode feed to a differential pair. In theory the more constant current linearises the differential stage. The CC may be approximated by a resistor dropping a large voltage, or may be generated by an active circuit (either valve, transistor or FET based) The long-tail pair can also be used as a phase splitter. It is often used in guitar amplifiers (where it is referred to as the "phase inverter") to drive the power section.
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In many cases this is sufficient to lower the impedance of the gate towards MT1. By putting a resistor or a small capacitor (or both in parallel) between these two terminals, the capacitive current generated during the transient flows out of the device without activating it. A careful reading of the application notes provided by the manufacturer and testing of the particular device model to design the correct network is in order. Typical values for capacitors and resistors between the gate and MT1 may be up to 100 nF and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ.
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Snubber circuits are also used to prevent premature triggering, caused for example by voltage spikes in the mains supply. Because turn-ons are caused by internal capacitive currents flowing into the gate as a consequence of a high dv/dt, (i.e., rapid voltage change) a gate resistor or capacitor (or both in parallel) may be connected between the gate and MT1 to provide a low-impedance path to MT1 and further prevent false triggering. This, however, increases the required trigger current or adds latency due to capacitor charging.
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Carbon film resistor with exposed carbon spiral (Tesla TR-212 1 kΩ) A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of amorphous carbon (ranging from 500 to 800 μΩ m), can provide a wide range of resistance values. Compared to carbon composition they feature low noise, because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite without binding. Carbon film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C.
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A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used. Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.
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The actual values used are in the IEC 60063 lists of preferred numbers. A resistor of 100 ohms ±20% would be expected to have a value between 80 and 120 ohms; its E6 neighbors are 68 (54–82) and 150 (120–180) ohms. A sensible spacing, E6 is used for ±20% components; E12 for ±10%; E24 for ±5%; E48 for ±2%, E96 for ±1%; E192 for ±0.5% or better. Resistors are manufactured in values from a few milliohms to about a gigaohm in IEC60063 ranges appropriate for their tolerance.
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Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.
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Many power processing systems can be improved by the application of resistive elements. Resistors may be applied for waveshaping, damping of oscillatory waveforms, stabilization of nonstable systems, and power flow balancing. The losses involved by the application of conventional resistors may be eliminated by the synthesis of artificial, loss-free resistive elements which replace the conventional ones. The conventional resistor converts the electrical energy absorbed at its terminals into heat; however, it has been found that creation of a resistive characteristic is not necessarily followed by such energy conversion.
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A TRF receiver using a grid leak detector (V1) Early applications of triode tubes (Audions) as detectors usually did not include a resistor in the grid circuit.CDR S. S. Robison, Manual of Wireless Telegraphy for the use of Naval Electricians, Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute, 1911, pp.125, 132J. Scott-Taggart, Thermionic Tubes in Radio Telegraphy and Telephony, London, UK: The Wireless Press LTD, 1921, p. 118 First use of a resistance to discharge the grid condenser in a vacuum tube detector circuit may have been by Sewall Cabot in 1906.
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Simple tetrode-based amplifier using a passive grid input A passive grid circuit used at VHF/UHF frequencies might use the 4CX250B tetrode. An example of a twin tetrode would be the QQV06/40A. The tetrode has a screen grid which is between the anode and the first grid, which being grounded for RF, acts as a shield to reducing the effective capacitance between the first grid and the anode. The combination of the effects of the screen grid and the grid damping resistor often allow the use of this design without neutralization.
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Between 2002 and 2004 eighty T5C5 units were extensively refurbished : the old drive system (resistor and series-parallel control) was replaced by chopper control using IGBT transistors. These trams have been renamed as "T5C5K". These units have been further modernized from 2009, their current type name is T5C5K2. A new program started in 2014, which refurbishes all remaining classic T5C5 units to the technical standards of T5C5K2. The 80 units that were refurbished between 2002 and 2004 are further being upgraded to the same technical specifications as the examples refurbished since 2014.
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Circuit diagram for threshold detector with hysteresis The threshold detector with hysteresis consists of an operational amplifier and a series of resistors that provide hysteresis. Like other detectors, this device functions as a voltage switch, but with an important difference. The state of the detector output is not directly affected by input voltage, but instead by the voltage drop across its input terminals (here, referred to as Va). From Kirchhoff's Current Law, this value depends both on Vin and the output voltage of the threshold detector itself, both multiplied by a resistor ratio.
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Conversely, for a switch that connects to VCC, a pull-down resistor ensures a well-defined ground voltage (i.e. logical low) when the switch is open. An open switch is not equivalent to a component with infinite impedance, since in the former case, the stationary voltage in any loop in which it is involved can no longer be determined by Kirchhoff's laws. Consequently, the voltages across those critical components (such as the logic gate in the example on the right) which are only in loops involving the open switch are undefined, too.
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Microwave dummy load designed to attach to waveguide. In radio this device is also known as a dummy antenna or a radio frequency termination. It is a device, usually a resistor, used in place of an antenna to aid in testing a radio transmitter. It is substituted for the antenna while adjusting the transmitter, so that no radio waves are radiated ( although, as no dummy load is an ideal dummy load, some radiation will occur.), so that the transmitter does not interfere with other radio transmitters during the adjustments.
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All communications in I²C and I3C requires framing for synchronization. Within a frame, changes on the SDA line should always occur while SCL is in the low state, so that SDA can be considered stable on the low-to-high transition of SCL. Violations of this general rule are used for framing (at least in legacy and standard data rate modes). Between data frames, the bus master holds SCL high, in effect stopping the clock, and SDA drivers are in a high-impedance state, permitting a pull-up resistor to float it to high.
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Liquid earthing resistor, 33 kV, 21 ohms, rated for 750 amps for 10 seconds, providing an earth path for the tertiary winding of a 275/132/33kV autotransformer. A common use in the electrical power generating and distribution industry is as a fault current limiter in the common neutral leg of large three-phase transformers and generators. In the UK they are known as Liquid Neutral Earthing Resistors (LNERs). A rating of 0.5 megawatt for 30 seconds would not be unusual to protect the winding of a 660 MW generator.
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As W represents the watt, the SI unit of power, this can lead to confusion, making the use of the correct Unicode code point preferable. Where the character set is limited to ASCII, the IEEE 260.1 standard recommends substituting the symbol ohm for Ω. In the electronics industry it is common to use the character R instead of the Ω symbol, thus, a 10 Ω resistor may be represented as 10R. This is the British standard BS 1852 code. It is used in many instances where the value has a decimal place.
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It is here that the sacred practice of sumo wrestling was first conceived. There is a Christian church there too, a place that Junsei would often visit as a young man. Under the influence of the presence of local shrines, spiritual pacifist Leo Tolstoy and active nonviolent resistor Mahatma Gandhi, Terasawa, at 17 years came out of home to go to Tokyo and join a unique peacemaking Nipponzan Myōhōji activity, led by its founder teacher Nichidatsu Fujii. Under the guidance of Fujii, he organized and conducted many mass peacemaking actions.
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Instead, the current compliance limit (set by an outside resistor, for example) could define the current-carrying capacity of the filament. A significant hurdle to realizing the potential of ReRAM is the sneak path problem that occurs in larger passive arrays. In 2010, complementary resistive switching (CRS) was introduced as a possible solution to sneak-path current interference. In the CRS approach, the information storing states are pairs of high- and low- resistance states (HRS/LRS and LRS/HRS) so that the overall resistance is always high, allowing larger passive crossbar arrays.
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The servo- actuated three step mechanical speed control features a resistor with a metal mounting bracket for heat dissipation, and is wired for a single 7.2V battery pack. A transmitter, receiver, and a minimum of one servo for steering and one servo for throttle are required to complete the truck. An enticing feature is Tamiya includes two bodies: one is pre-painted as represented on the box art, while the second is left clear with an overspray film for custom painting schemes. Unfortunately, only one set of decals is included.
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When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz generates an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC circuit, composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.
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Distribution power systems may be solidly grounded, with one circuit conductor directly connected to an earth grounding electrode system. Alternatively, some amount of electrical impedance may be connected between the distribution system and ground, to limit the current that can flow to earth. The impedance may be a resistor, or an inductor (coil). In a high-impedance grounded system, the fault current is limited to a few amperes (exact values depend on the voltage class of the system); a low-impedance grounded system will permit several hundred amperes to flow on a fault.
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The phase angles in the equations for the impedance of capacitors and inductors indicate that the voltage across a capacitor lags the current through it by a phase of \pi/2, while the voltage across an inductor leads the current through it by \pi/2. The identical voltage and current amplitudes indicate that the magnitude of the impedance is equal to one. The impedance of an ideal resistor is purely real and is called resistive impedance: :\ Z_R = R In this case, the voltage and current waveforms are proportional and in phase.
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Early resistors were made in more or less arbitrary round numbers; a series might have 100, 125, 150, 200, 300, etc. Resistors as manufactured are subject to a certain percentage tolerance, and it makes sense to manufacture values that correlate with the tolerance, so that the actual value of a resistor overlaps slightly with its neighbors. Wider spacing leaves gaps; narrower spacing increases manufacturing and inventory costs to provide resistors that are more or less interchangeable. A logical scheme is to produce resistors in a range of values which increase in a geometric progression, so that each value is greater than its predecessor by a fixed multiplier or percentage, chosen to match the tolerance of the range. For example, for a tolerance of ±20% it makes sense to have each resistor about 1.5 times its predecessor, covering a decade in 6 values. In practice the factor used is 1.4678, giving values of 1.47, 2.15, 3.16, 4.64, 6.81, 10 for the 1–10-decade (a decade is a range increasing by a factor of 10; 0.1–1 and 10–100 are other examples); these are rounded in practice to 1.5, 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, 6.8, 10; followed by 15, 22, 33, … and preceded by … 0.47, 0.68, 1.
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A passive complex electrical system comprises both energy dissipater (resistor) and energy storage (capacitor) elements. If the system is purely resistive, then the opposition to AC or direct current (DC) is simply resistance. Materials or systems exhibiting multiple phases (such as composites or heterogeneous materials) commonly show a universal dielectric response, whereby dielectric spectroscopy reveals a power law relationship between the impedance (or the inverse term, admittance) and the frequency, ω, of the applied AC field. Almost any physico- chemical system, such as electrochemical cells, mass-beam oscillators, and even biological tissue possesses energy storage and dissipation properties.
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H2TPP molecules by applying excess voltage to the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM, a); this removal alters the current-voltage (I-V) curves of TPP molecules, measured using the same STM tip, from diode like (red curve in b) to resistor like (green curve). Image (c) shows a row of TPP, H2TPP and TPP molecules. While scanning image (d), excess voltage was applied to H2TPP at the black dot, which instantly removed hydrogen, as shown in the bottom part of (d) and in the rescan image (e). Such manipulations can be used in single-molecule electronics.
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Leakage is equivalent to a resistor in parallel with the capacitor. Constant exposure to heat can cause dielectric breakdown and excessive leakage, a problem often seen in older vacuum tube circuits, particularly where oiled paper and foil capacitors were used. In many vacuum tube circuits, interstage coupling capacitors are used to conduct a varying signal from the plate of one tube to the grid circuit of the next stage. A leaky capacitor can cause the grid circuit voltage to be raised from its normal bias setting, causing excessive current or signal distortion in the downstream tube.
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This 0.75 and 1 V is simply a result of the 15 mA x 50 Ω which equal to 0.75 V and 20 mA x 50 Ω which is equal to 1 V. The 50 Ω resistor is an equivalent of two parallel resistors from the FF terminator. Because of all devices use the same cable, only one device can transmit a message at any given time. Without the proper number of terminators, the signal level will be out of specification and can disrupt the network. Another function of the terminator is to reduce the impact of electrical reflections.
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Some printed wiring assemblies, particularly those using single-layer circuit boards, include short lengths of wire soldered between pairs of points. These wires are called jumpers, but unlike jumpers used for configuration settings, they are intended to permanently connect the points in question. They are used to solve layout issues of the printed wiring, providing connections that would otherwise require awkward (or in some cases, impossible) routing of the conductive traces. In some cases a resistor of 0 ohms is used instead of a wire, as these may be installed by the same robotic assembly machines that install real resistors and other components.
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NCR 315 Console The NCR 315 Data Processing System, released in January 1962 by NCR, is an obsolete second-generation computer. All printed circuit boards use resistor–transistor logic (RTL) to create the various logic elements. It uses 12-bit slab memory structure using magnetic core memory. The instructions can use a memory slab as either two 6-bit alphanumeric characters or as three 4-bit BCD digits. Basic memory is 5000 "slabs" (10,000 characters or 15,000 decimal digits) of handmade core memory, which is expandable to a maximum of 40,000 slabs (80,000 characters or 120,000 decimal digits) in four refrigerator-size cabinets.
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This will cause a very short piece of resistor coil to be operated with a relatively high current (up to 10 A), eventually burning it out. This will render the fan unable to run at the reduced speed settings. In some consumer electronic equipment, notably in television sets in the era of valves (vacuum tubes), but also in some low-cost record players, the vacuum tube heaters were connected in series. Since the voltage drop across all the heaters in series was usually less than the full mains voltage, it was necessary to provide a ballast to drop the excess voltage.
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When not encoding, a resistor balance network kept the recording head in an erase mode unless a rewind operation was commanded. This ensured a clearly defined magnetic space between bit patterns. Additional circuits prevented opening of the tape loading door once a tape was loaded. Because the supply and take-up spools of the recording tape were no longer individually powered as in the UNITYPER 1, a "differential moment" was created as the tape moved from one reel to the other during encoding, the supply reel constantly decreasing in effective diameter while the take-up reel correspondingly increased.
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The value of each termination resistor should be equal to the cable characteristic impedance (typically, 120 ohms for twisted pairs). The termination also includes pull up and pull down resistors to establish fail-safe bias for each data wire for the case when the lines are not being driven by any device. This way, the lines will be biased to known voltages and nodes will not interpret the noise from undriven lines as actual data; without biasing resistors, the data lines float in such a way that electrical noise sensitivity is greatest when all device stations are silent or unpowered.
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A given change in grid voltage causes a proportional change in plate current, so if a time-varying voltage is applied to the grid, the plate current waveform will be a copy of the applied grid voltage. A relatively small variation in voltage on the control grid causes a significantly large variation in anode current. The presence of a resistor in the anode circuit causes a large variation in voltage to appear at the anode. The variation in anode voltage can be much larger than the variation in grid voltage which caused it, and thus the tube can amplify, functioning as an amplifier.
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Mechanical detection in bio-MEMS is achieved through micro- and nano-scale cantilevers for stress sensing and mass sensing, or micro- and nano-scale plates or membranes. In stress sensing, the biochemical reaction is performed selectively on one side of the cantilever to cause a change in surface free energy. This results in bending of the cantilever that is measurable either optically (laser reflection into a quadposition detector) or electrically (piezo-resistor at the fixed edge of the cantilever) due to a change in surface stress. In mass sensing, the cantilever vibrates at its resonant frequency as measured electrically or optically.
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The integrated circuit CFAs were introduced in 1987 by both Comlinear and Elantec (designer Bill Gross). They are usually produced with the same pin arrangements as VFAs, allowing the two types to be interchanged without rewiring when the circuit design allows. In simple configurations, such as linear amplifiers, a CFA can be used in place of a VFA with no circuit modifications, but in other cases, such as integrators, a different circuit design is required. The classic four-resistor differential amplifier configuration also works with a CFA, but the common- mode rejection ratio is poorer than that from a VFA.
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The diode is taking on the current surge to protect the 22 Ω resistor, however the peak over current in the diode can only sustain for a short duration. The 6550A version usually idles with roughly 700 V DC on the plate and 350 V DC on the Screens (though during full clean sine wave 300 W power output, operating voltages will dip to roughly 650 V DC on the Plate and 325 V on the Screens). The output transformer plate load is 1.6 K at 4 Ω tap and 1.75 K at the 2 Ω tap.
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Figure 2: Left - small-signal circuit corresponding to Figure 1; center - inserting independent source and marking leads to be cut; right - cutting the dependent source free and short-circuiting broken leads Figure 1 (top right) shows a bipolar amplifier with feedback bias resistor Rf driven by a Norton signal source. Figure 2 (left panel) shows the corresponding small-signal circuit obtained by replacing the transistor with its hybrid-pi model. The objective is to find the return ratio of the dependent current source in this amplifier. To reach the objective, the steps outlined above are followed.
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The simplest I–V curve is that of a resistor, which according to Ohm's law exhibits a linear relationship between the applied voltage and the resulting electric current; the current is proportional to the voltage, so the I–V curve is a straight line through the origin with positive slope. The reciprocal of the slope is equal to the resistance. The I–V curve of an electrical component can be measured with an instrument called a curve tracer. The transconductance and Early voltage of a transistor are examples of parameters traditionally measured from the device's I–V curve.
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However, some of the molecules embedded in the membrane are capable either of actively transporting ions from one side of the membrane to the other or of providing channels through which they can move. In electrical terminology, the plasma membrane functions as a combined resistor and capacitor. Resistance arises from the fact that the membrane impedes the movement of charges across it. Capacitance arises from the fact that the lipid bilayer is so thin that an accumulation of charged particles on one side gives rise to an electrical force that pulls oppositely charged particles toward the other side.
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This is no passing metaphor; a weight on a spring is described by exactly the same second order differential equation as an RLC circuit and for all the properties of the one system there will be found an analogous property of the other. The mechanical property answering to the resistor in the circuit is friction in the spring–weight system. Friction will slowly bring any oscillation to a halt if there is no external force driving it. Likewise, the resistance in an RLC circuit will "damp" the oscillation, diminishing it with time if there is no driving AC power source in the circuit.
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Reliability normally is shown as a bathtub curve and is divided into three areas: early failures or infant mortality failures, constant random failures and wear out failures. Failures totalized in a failure rate are short circuit, open circuit, and degradation failures (exceeding electrical parameters). For polymer Ta-e-caps the failure rate is also influenced by the circuit series resistor, which is not required for polymer Al-e-caps. Billions of test unit- hours are needed to verify failure rates in the very low level range which are required today to ensure the production of large quantities of components without failures.
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A theoretical list of elementary active devices deduced from 4 possible combinations of the current and voltage at the input and output, respectively. The trancitor as the combined word of a "transfer-capacitor" is to be considered as another active-device category besides the transistor as a "transfer-resistor". As observed in the table shown, four kinds of active devices are theoretically deduced. Among them, trancitors are missing to be the third and fourth kinds, whereas transistors, such as bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and field-effect transistor (FET), were already invented as the first and second kinds, respectively.
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Synchronizing on 8-bit bytes permits a 9600 baud internet-0 connection to easily translate to a standard, low-speed 19,200 baud TCP/IP serial port. The baud rate measurement permits senders and receivers to use inexpensive low-precision oscillators such as ceramic resonators or resistor-capacitor oscillators. The most common interface uses the power supply wiring to the device. The circuit is a small surface mounted capacitor between an AC mains wire or a DC power wire and a single digital pin of a small microcontroller that switches a high-power transistor briefly on, then off.
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Voltage dividers can be used to allow a microcontroller to measure the resistance of a sensor. The sensor is wired in series with a known resistance to form a voltage divider and a known voltage is applied across the divider. The microcontroller's analog-to-digital converter is connected to the center tap of the divider so that it can measure the tap voltage and, by using the measured voltage and the known resistance and voltage, compute the sensor resistance. An example that is commonly used involves a potentiometer (variable resistor) as one of the resistive elements.
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This is because a resistive load is coupled to the tuned circuit. In audio amplifiers the resistive load (loudspeaker) is coupled via a transformer to the amplifier. In short the load formed by the loudspeaker driven via the transformer can be thought of as a resistor wired between the valves anode and B+. As the current flowing through the anode connection is controlled by the grid, then the current flowing through the load is also controlled by the grid. One of the disadvantages of a tuned grid compared to other RF designs is the neutralization is required.
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Richard Fox, who made the control-rod mechanism for the pile, remarked that the manual speed control that the operator had over the rods was simply a variable resistor, controlling an electric motor that would spool the clothesline wire over a pulley that also had two lead weights attached to ensure it would fail- safe and return to its zero position when released. CP-1 under construction: 10th layer About two layers were laid per shift. Woods' boron trifluoride neutron counter was inserted at the 15th layer. Thereafter, readings were taken at the end of each shift.
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The load on the current may take the form of a charging device which, in turn, charges reserve power sources such as batteries. The batteries in return will be used to control power and communication circuits, as well as drive the electron emitting devices at the negative end of the tether. As such the tether can be completely self-powered, besides the initial charge in the batteries to provide electrical power for the deployment and startup procedure. The charging battery load can be viewed as a resistor which absorbs power, but stores this for later use (instead of immediately dissipating heat).
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During normal operation the resultant flux was zero as both currents were the same and in opposite directions. The currents would differ during wheel slip, producing a resultant flux that acted as the Control winding, developing a voltage across a resistor in series with the AC winding which was sent to the wheel slip correction circuits. Magnetic amplifiers can be used for measuring high DC-voltages without direct connection to the high voltage and are therefore still used in the HVDC-technique. The current to be measured is passed through the two cores, possibly by a solid bus bar.
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In the case of transistor M1 of the mirror, ID = IREF. Reference current IREF is a known current, and can be provided by a resistor as shown, or by a "threshold-referenced" or "self- biased" current source to ensure that it is constant, independent of voltage supply variations. Using VDG = 0 for transistor M1, the drain current in M1 is ID = f(VGS, VDG=0), so we find: f(VGS, 0) = IREF, implicitly determining the value of VGS. Thus IREF sets the value of VGS. The circuit in the diagram forces the same VGS to apply to transistor M2.
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In early personal computers and terminals that offered color displays, some color palettes were chosen algorithmically to provide the most diverse set of colors for a given palette size, and others were chosen to assure the availability of certain colors. In many early home computers, especially when the palette choices were determined at the hardware level by resistor combinations, the palette was determined by the manufacturer. Many early models output composite video colors. When seen on TV devices, the perception of the colors may not correspond with the value levels for the color values employed (most noticeable with NTSC TV color system).
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A pentode can have its screen grid (grid 2) connected to the anode (plate), in which case it reverts to an ordinary triode with commensurate characteristics (lower anode resistance, lower mu, lower noise, more drive voltage required). The device is then said to be "triode-strapped" or "triode- connected". This is sometimes provided as an option in audiophile pentode amplifier circuits, to give the sought-after "sonic qualities" of a triode power amplifier. A resistor may be included in series with the screen grid to avoid exceeding the screen grid's power or voltage rating, and to prevent local oscillation.
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Hydrogen can be removed from individual H2TPP molecules by applying excess voltage to the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (a); this removal alters the I-V curves of TPP from diode like (red curve in b) to resistor like (green curve). Image (c) shows a row of TPP, H2TPP and TPP molecules. While scanning image (d), excess voltage was applied to H2TPP at the black dot, which instantly removed hydrogen, as shown in the bottom part of (d) and in the re- scan image (e). H2TPP is a photosensitizer for the production of singlet oxygen.
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Microelectronic devices using open drain signals (such as microcontrollers) may provide a weak (high-resistance) internal pull- up resistor to connect the terminal in question to the positive power supply of the device. Such weak pullups, often on the order of 100 kΩ, reduce power usage by keeping input signals from floating and may avoid the need for an external pull-up component. External pullups are stronger (lower resistance, perhaps 3 kΩ) to reduce signal rise times (like with I²C) or to minimize noise (like on system inputs). Internal pullups can usually be disabled if they are not wanted.
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Early tube amplifiers often had limited response bandwidth, in part due to the characteristics of the inexpensive passive components then available. In power amplifiers most limitations come from the output transformer; low frequencies are limited by primary inductance and high frequencies by leakage inductance and capacitance. Another limitation is in the combination of high output impedance, decoupling capacitor and grid resistor, which acts as a high-pass filter. If interconnections are made from long cables (for example guitar to amp input), a high source impedance with high cable capacitance will act as a low-pass filter.
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The episode "Hell Is Other Robots" centers around Bender's becoming addicted to high-voltage electricity, then discovering the religion of Robotology to help him break the habit. Sermons are conducted at the Temple of Robotology by the Reverend Preacherbot, a character whose mannerisms draw heavily on black church preacher stereotypes. Robotology is a play on the name Scientology, and series creator Matt Groening has said that he received a call from the Church of Scientology concerned about the use of a similar name. The symbol of Robotology is based on the electronic symbol for a resistor used in electrical circuit diagrams.
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Symmetry in the splitting network ensures that the same power is delivered to each subarray. Several precautions are required to avoid reflections that would lead to standing waves and the consequent nonuniform power distribution within the subarrays: (1) Each stripline is terminated by a matched load that consists of several wavelengths of resistive strip line. The use of resistive stripline rather than a discrete resistor guarantees a near-perfect match over a wide range of fabrication parameters. (2) The dimensions of capacitors in the low- and high-pass filters are chosen to avoid resonances near the drive frequency.
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In an electronic low-pass RC filter for voltage signals, high frequencies in the input signal are attenuated, but the filter has little attenuation below the cutoff frequency determined by its RC time constant. For current signals, a similar circuit, using a resistor and capacitor in parallel, works in a similar manner. (See current divider discussed in more detail below.) Electronic low-pass filters are used on inputs to subwoofers and other types of loudspeakers, to block high pitches that they can't efficiently reproduce. Radio transmitters use low-pass filters to block harmonic emissions that might interfere with other communications.
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The box extending sideways from the roof directly over the word "operation" allows air to freely flow through the resistors of the dynamic brakes on this diesel-electric locomotive. What are described as dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in British English) on electric traction systems, unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate electric energy as heat rather than using it, by passing the current through large banks of resistors. Vehicles that use dynamic brakes include forklift trucks, diesel-electric locomotives, and trams. This heat can be used to warm the vehicle interior, or dissipated externally by large radiator-like cowls to house the resistor banks.
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At RRL Richards worked on microwave filters, an important component of radar and countermeasures against it. This work formed the background for his commensurate line theory, although that theory was apparently not well developed enough at the time to be put to use in wartime work. The culmination of this theory was in his 1948 paper "Resistor-transmission-line circuits", after which Richards left the field of microwave engineering. The theory formed the basis of most transmission-line type microwave filters for at least the next thirty-five years and the design technique is still in use today.
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Their resistance is much higher (typically megohms) so they do not greatly "load" the tuned circuit, allowing increased selectivity of the receiver. The piezoelectric earphone's higher resistance, in parallel with its capacitance of around 9 pF, creates a filter that allows the passage of low frequencies, but blocks the higher frequencies. In that case a bypass capacitor is not needed (although in practice a small one of around 0.68 to 1 nF is often used to help improve quality), but instead a 10-100 kΩ resistor must be added in parallel with the earphone's input.Field (2003), p.
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The ballast adds positive impedance (AC resistance) to the circuit to counteract the negative resistance of the tube, limiting the current. In electronics, negative resistance (NR) is a property of some electrical circuits and devices in which an increase in voltage across the device's terminals results in a decrease in electric current through it. This is in contrast to an ordinary resistor in which an increase of applied voltage causes a proportional increase in current due to Ohm's law, resulting in a positive resistance. While a positive resistance consumes power from current passing through it, a negative resistance produces power.
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Extensive comparative surveys have been posted by SPCR and MadShrimps. Fan noise is often proportional to fan speed, so fan controllers can be used to slow down fans and to precisely choose fan speed. Fan controllers can produce a fixed fan speed using an inline resistor or diode; or a variable speed using a potentiometer to supply a lower voltage. Fan speed can also be reduced more crudely by plugging them into the power supply's 5 volt line instead of the 12 volt line (or between the two for a potential difference of 7 volts, although this cripples the fan's speed sensing).
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In this manner, a "dot" that is too small to see or that has accidentally disappeared can still be clearly differentiated from a "jump". On a circuit diagram, the symbols for components are labelled with a descriptor or reference designator matching that on the list of parts. For example, C1 is the first capacitor, L1 is the first inductor, Q1 is the first transistor, and R1 is the first resistor. Often the value or type designation of the component is given on the diagram beside the part, but detailed specifications would go on the parts list.
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The properties of a transformer offer many advantages. The current transformer rejects common mode voltages, so an accurate single-ended voltage measurement can be made on a grounded secondary. The effective series resistance R_s of the primary winding is set by the burden resistor on the secondary winding R and the transformer turns ratio N, where: R_s = R / N^2. The core of some current transformers is split and hinged; it is opened and clipped around the wire to be sensed, then closed, making it unnecessary to free one end of the conductor and thread it through the core.
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The fibers are usually made of carbon or carbon-filled rubber, and the strap is bound with a stainless steel clasp or plate. They are usually used in conjunction with an antistatic mat on the workbench, or a special static-dissipating plastic laminate on the workbench surface. The wrist strap is usually worn on the nondominant hand (the left wrist for a right-handed person). It is connected to ground through a coiled retractable cable and 1 megohm resistor, which allows high-voltage charges to leak through but prevents a shock hazard when working with low-voltage parts.
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To enable Type-AB receptacles to distinguish which end of a cable is plugged in, plugs have an "ID" pin in addition to the four contacts in standard-size USB connectors. This ID pin is connected to GND in Type-A plugs, and left unconnected in Type-B plugs. Typically, a pull-up resistor in the device is used to detect the presence or absence of an ID connection. The OTG device with the A-plug inserted is called the A-device and is responsible for powering the USB interface when required, and by default assumes the role of host.
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He also tells Oneira that he and she are destined to search for a book of alchemy called the Lux Ata or "Book of Black Light". The resulting quest involves aliens, string theory, a sinister official from the electricity board called "Mister Resistor", a TV cooking show, a cappuccino bar, a comedian travelling by flying saucer, and a dead science fiction author. Oneira's boyfriend Pete is transformed from an up-and-coming young financier in the City into a bucket of water and a pair of Argyll socks while their expensive penthouse flat is destroyed by a ravenous refrigerator.
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Working on high voltage power lines Specifying a voltage measurement requires explicit or implicit specification of the points across which the voltage is measured. When using a voltmeter to measure potential difference, one electrical lead of the voltmeter must be connected to the first point, one to the second point. A common use of the term "voltage" is in describing the voltage dropped across an electrical device (such as a resistor). The voltage drop across the device can be understood as the difference between measurements at each terminal of the device with respect to a common reference point (or ground).
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In the water-flow analogy, sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage (difference in electric potential) is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping and a capacitor/inductor could be likened to a "U" shaped pipe where a higher water level on one side could store energy temporarily. The relationship between voltage and current is defined (in ohmic devices like resistors) by Ohm's law.
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However, during construction the team realized that the electrons were free to travel back into the accelerator area. Christofilos solved this by introducing resistor wires that slightly slowed the electrons after entering the tank, so they no longer possessed the energy needed to flow back out. After some work ironing out bugs, the first results were published in June 1964. The accelerator worked, operating at 4 MeV and 120 amps, and a stable E-layer was confirmed, albeit generating only 2 A/cm of current, just 0.05% of the diamagnetic field required to reverse the field.
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Advantages:its mobility gives a rubber tyred gantry crane wide appliance Being mobile, RTGs are often powered by diesel generator systems (gensets) of 100 to 600 kW. Due to the lack of an electrical grid to dump energy when containers are being lowered they often have large resistor packs to rapidly dissipate the energy of a lowering or decelerating container.Fuel Saving Flywheel Technology for Rubber Tired Gantry Cranes in World Ports Diesel-powered RTGs are notorious polluters at ports, as each burns up to 10 gallons of diesel fuel per hour. There are also electric rubber tired gantry cranes.
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Harold Beverage experimented with receiving antennas similar to the Beverage antenna in 1919 at the Otter Cliffs Radio Station. He discovered in 1920 that an otherwise nearly bidirectional long-wire antenna becomes unidirectional by placing it close to the lossy earth and by terminating one end of the wire with a resistor. In 1921, beverage was granted a patent for his antenna. That year, Beverage long-wave receiving antennas up to nine miles (14 km) long had been installed at RCA's Riverhead, New York, Belfast, Maine, Belmar, New Jersey, and Chatham, Massachusetts receiver stations for transatlantic radiotelegraphy traffic.
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Electronic circuits contain active components, usually semiconductors, and typically exhibit non-linear behaviour, requiring complex analysis. The simplest electric components are those that are termed passive and linear: while they may temporarily store energy, they contain no sources of it, and exhibit linear responses to stimuli. The resistor is perhaps the simplest of passive circuit elements: as its name suggests, it resists the current through it, dissipating its energy as heat. The resistance is a consequence of the motion of charge through a conductor: in metals, for example, resistance is primarily due to collisions between electrons and ions.
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The LFR is a two-port element that has the following characteristics: (1) an equivalent resistive characteristic R at the input terminals, and (2) a power source P at the output terminals. The value of P is determined by the power consumed by the equivalent resistor R. This power is supplied (by the power source P) to the bus U that powers the total system. The TVT (and TVG) can be realized by a family of switched-mode circuits. The losses, which practically occur in these circuits, can be modeled by a series and parallel resistors (r, and rp, respectively).
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In 1941, Bishop Clemens von Galen led protests against the Nazi euthanasia programme. In 1941, a pastoral letter of the German Bishops proclaimed that "the existence of Christianity in Germany is at stake", and a 1942 letter accused the government of "unjust oppression and hated struggle against Christianity and the Church". At the close of the war, the resistor Joseph Frings, succeeded the appeaser Adolf Bertram as chairman of the Fulda Bishops' Conference, and, along with Galen and Preysing, was promoted to Cardinal by Pius XII. The Anschluss with Austria increased the number and percentage of Catholics within the Reich.
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Owners manuals for the Corvettes in which it was first implemented contained photographs of the system components "captioned to caution drivers not to disconnect [the] wire, or the skip-shift function would no longer function." These photos, along with the continuing, decades-long ability to bypass the system easily with a simple resistor, make it clear that GM has never intended to make the system difficult to bypass. If anything, it has been made as simple as possible while still satisfying federal regulations. Skip shift eliminators are produced for quick and simple DIY installation to circumvent the GM CAGS system.
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The transformers have their low-voltage windings connected one in a delta and other in a wye. All these transformers share a common tank. On the 50 Hz side, two 275/54 kV transformers, in separate tanks, feed the valves, again with one in delta and the other in star connection of the low-voltage windings. The DC smoothing reactor has an inductance of 0.12 H and is designed for a current of 2,400 A. On each side filters for the 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th harmonic exist, which consist of a series connection of a capacitor, an inductor and a resistor.
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If the ice crystals are aligned perpendicular to the temperature gradient (r-crystals), they can be approximated as two resistor elements in series. For this case, the Rice is limiting and will dictate the localized thermal conditions. The lower thermal resistance for the z-crystal case leads to lower temperatures and greater heat flux at the growing crystals tips, driving further growth in this direction while, at the same time, the large Rice value hinders the growth of the r-crystals. Each ice crystal growing within the slurry will be some combination of these two scenarios.
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EPM is considered a valuable elastomer due to its useful chemical and physical properties; it is resistant to heat, oxidation, ozone and the weather (owing to its stable, saturated backbone) and it is also not susceptible to color loss. As a non-polar compound, EPM is an electrical resistor and it is insoluble in many polar solvents, both protic and aprotic. Amorphous forms of EPM are flexible at low temperatures (with glass transition points around -60 °C). Via selection of certain sulfur compounds EPM can remain heat resistant up to 130 °C and up to 160 °C with peroxide curing.
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Four heavy duty dummy loads used at an amplifier shootout When testing audio amplifiers, it is common to replace the loudspeaker with a dummy load, so that the amplifier's handling of large power levels can be tested without actually producing intense sound. The simplest is a resistor bank to simulate the voice coil's resistance. For loudspeaker simulation, a more complex network is more accurate, however, as actual loudspeakers are reactive and non-linear. There are many designs for loudspeaker simulators, which emphasize different characteristics of the actual speaker, such as the voice coil's inductance, mechanical suspension compliance, and cone mass.
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To the power supply, the entire computer system looked like a simple resistor. The high-performance ECL circuitry generated considerable heat, and Cray's designers spent as much effort on the design of the refrigeration system as they did on the rest of the mechanical design. In this case, each circuit board was paired with a second, placed back to back with a sheet of copper between them. The copper sheet conducted heat to the edges of the cage, where liquid Freon running in stainless steel pipes drew it away to the cooling unit below the machine.
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Experienced Tesla coil builders almost exclusively use the top circuit, often augmenting it with low pass filters (resistor and capacitor (RC) networks) between the supply transformer and spark gap to help protect the supply transformer. This is especially important when using transformers with fragile high-voltage windings, such as neon sign transformers (NSTs). Regardless of which configuration is used, the HV transformer must be of a type that self- limits its secondary current by means of internal leakage inductance. A normal (low leakage inductance) high-voltage transformer must use an external limiter (sometimes called a ballast) to limit current.
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The ringer equivalence of 1 represents the loading effect of a single traditional telephone ringing circuit, such as that within the Western Electric model 500 telephone. The ringer equivalence of modern telephone equipment may be significantly lower than 1. For example, externally powered electronic ringing telephones may have a value as low as 0.1, while modern analog-ringing telephones, in which the ringer is powered from the telephone line, typically have a REN of approximately 0.8. In the United States, the FCC Part 68 specification defined REN 1 as equivalent to a 6930 Ω resistor in series with an (microfarad) capacitor.
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To receive radiotelegraphy, the feedback was increased until the tube oscillated, then the oscillation frequency was tuned to one side of the transmitted signal. The incoming radio carrier signal and local oscillation signal mixed in the tube and produced an audible heterodyne (beat) tone at the difference between the frequencies. A widely used design was the Armstrong circuit, in which a "tickler" coil in the plate circuit was coupled to the tuning coil in the grid circuit, to provide the feedback. The feedback was controlled by a variable resistor, or alternately by moving the two windings physically closer together to increase loop gain, or apart to reduce it.
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Like other MOSFETs, PMOS transistors have four modes of operation: cut-off (or subthreshold), triode, saturation (sometimes called active), and velocity saturation. While PMOS logic is easy to design and manufacture (a MOSFET can be made to operate as a resistor, so the whole circuit can be made with PMOS FETs), it has several shortcomings as well. The worst problem is that there is a direct current (DC) through a PMOS logic gate when the PUN is active, that is, whenever the output is high, which leads to static power dissipation even when the circuit sits idle. Also, PMOS circuits are slow to transition from high to low.
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Otherwise pin 21 is left open in the adapter (indicating wired or remote use). Assuming that pin 21 is tied to PGND in a camera's hotshoe, this allows flashes compatible with the Multi Interface Shoe to detect if they are mounted on the camera or not as it is necessary for ADI to work. In the ADP-MAA adapter, pins 2 and 3 ("ID2" and "ID1") are directly connected to GND, whereas pin 1 ("ID3") is pulled low via a 470 kΩ resistor. The first cameras to use the Multi Interface Shoe are the SLT-A99, NEX-6, NEX-VG900, NEX-VG30, DSC-RX1 and DSC-HX50.
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This phenomenon can be described with a series circuit of cascaded RC (resistor/capacitor) elements with serial RC time constants. These result in delayed current flow, reducing the total electrode surface area that can be covered with ions if polarity changes – capacitance decreases with increasing AC frequency. Thus, the total capacitance is only achieved after longer measuring times. Illustration of the measurement conditions for measuring the capacitance of supercapacitors Out of the reason of the very strong frequency dependence of the capacitance this electrical parameter has to be measured with a special constant current charge and discharge measurement, defined in IEC standards 62391-1 and -2.
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A more usual alternative to additional filter components, if the DC load requires very low ripple voltage, is to follow the input filter with a voltage regulator. A voltage regulator operates on a different principle than a filter, which is essentially a voltage divider that shunts voltage at the ripple frequency away from the load. Rather, a regulator increases or decreases current supplied to the load in order to maintain a constant output voltage. A simple passive shunt voltage regulator may consist of a series resistor to drop source voltage to the required level and a Zener diode shunt with reverse voltage equal to the set voltage.
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Double-scroll attractor from a simulation In the mathematics of dynamical systems, the double-scroll attractor (sometimes known as Chua's attractor) is a strange attractor observed from a physical electronic chaotic circuit (generally, Chua's circuit) with a single nonlinear resistor (see Chua's Diode). The double-scroll system is often described by a system of three nonlinear ordinary differential equations and a 3-segment piecewise-linear equation (see Chua's equations). This makes the system easily simulated numerically and easily manifested physically due to Chua's circuits' simple design. Using a Chua's circuit, this shape is viewed on an oscilloscope using the X, Y, and Z output signals of the circuit.
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Since biological tissues have extremely low levels of electrical activity (in the range of microvolts), neurophysiology's progress had to wait for them. Like many German physiologists of his time, Marxow had a good knowledge and ability with physics, and invented a number of devices for the purpose of his studies, particularly the reonome (a kind of rheostat, or variable resistor used to control finely the intensity of an electrical stimulus). He also adapted the Lippmann's capillary electrometer in order to use it for measuring subtle bioelectrical phenomena. From the bioelectricity of nerves, Marxow turned his attention, from 1876 on, to the global electrical activity of the cerebral hemispheres.
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Some machines (such as a sewing machine motor) require partial or variable power. In the past, control (such as in a sewing machine's foot pedal) was implemented by use of a rheostat connected in series with the motor to adjust the amount of current flowing through the motor. It was an inefficient scheme, as this also wasted power as heat in the resistor element of the rheostat, but tolerable because the total power was low. While the rheostat was one of several methods of controlling power (see autotransformers and Variac for more info), a low cost and efficient power switching/adjustment method was yet to be found.
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Simple Pierce oscillator The Pierce oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator particularly well-suited for use in piezoelectric crystal oscillator circuits. Named for its inventor, George W. Pierce (1872–1956), the Pierce oscillator is a derivative of the Colpitts oscillator. Virtually all digital IC clock oscillators are of Pierce type, as the circuit can be implemented using a minimum of components: a single digital inverter, one resistor, two capacitors, and the quartz crystal, which acts as a highly selective filter element. The low manufacturing cost of this circuit and the outstanding frequency stability of the quartz crystal give it an advantage over other designs in many consumer electronics applications.
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She was also the first Royal Navy ship to be completely lit by electricity, and the first to have underwater torpedo tubes. The electrical installation provided 800 volts DC to power arc lamps in the engine and boiler rooms and Swan incandescent bulbs in other parts of the ship. The circuitry was complicated because the lighting consisted of sets of 18 Swan lamps and an arc lamp arranged in series. Each incandescent bulb was fitted with an automatic mechanism to switch in a resistor to maintain continuity should it fail, so that the set of 19 lights would not be extinguished if one failed.
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Each of these offers a way to see some part of the world. The lumped element model, for instance, suggests that we think of circuits in terms of components with connections between them, with signals flowing instantaneously along the connections. This is a useful view, but not the only possible one. A different ontology arises if we need to attend to the electrodynamics in the device: Here signals propagate at finite speed and an object (like a resistor) that was previously viewed as a single component with an I/O behavior may now have to be thought of as an extended medium through which an electromagnetic wave flows.
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The circuit contains: a triode, a resistor R, a capacitor C, a coupled inductor-set with self inductance L and mutual inductance M. In the serial RLC circuit there is a current i, and towards the triode anode ("plate") a current ia, while there is a voltage ug on the triode control grid. The Van der Pol oscillator is forced by an AC voltage source Es. Author James Gleick described a vacuum tube Van der Pol oscillator in his book from 1987 Chaos: Making a New Science. According to a New York Times article, Gleick received a modern electronic Van der Pol oscillator from a reader in 1988.
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Potentials within the heatsink represent internal temperatures and current flows represent heat flow. In many cases the internal heat source may be modelled with a constant current source, rather than a voltage, giving a better analogy of power loss as heat, rather than assuming a simple constant temperature. If the external airflow is restricted, the 'ambient' electrode may be subdivided and each section connected to a common voltage supply through a resistor or current limiter, representing the proportionate or maximum heatflow capacity of that airstream. As heatsinks are commonly manufactured from extruded aluminium sections, the two-dimensional paper is not usually a serious limitation.
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A common application of series circuit in consumer electronics is in batteries, where several cells connected in series are used to obtain a convenient operating voltage. Two disposable zinc cells in series might power a flashlight or remote control at 3 volts; the battery pack for a hand-held power tool might contain a dozen lithium-ion cells wired in series to provide 48 volts. Series circuits were formerly used for lighting in electric multiple units trains. For example, if the supply voltage was 600 volts there might be eight 70-volt bulbs in series (total 560 volts) plus a resistor to drop the remaining 40 volts.
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Unlike other capacitor microphones, they require no polarizing voltage, but often contain an integrated preamplifier that does require power (often incorrectly called polarizing power or bias). This preamplifier is frequently phantom powered in sound reinforcement and studio applications. Monophonic microphones designed for personal computers (PCs), sometimes called multimedia microphones, use a 3.5 mm plug as usually used, without power, for stereo; the ring, instead of carrying the signal for a second channel, carries power via a resistor from (normally) a 5 V supply in the computer. Stereophonic microphones use the same connector; there is no obvious way to determine which standard is used by equipment and microphones.
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Hydrogen can be removed from individual tetraphenylporphyrin (H2TPP) molecules by applying excess voltage to the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STAM, a); this removal alters the current-voltage (I-V) curves of TPP molecules, measured using the same STM tip, from diode-like (red curve in b) to resistor-like (green curve). Image (c) shows a row of TPP, H2TPP and TPP molecules. While scanning image (d), excess voltage was applied to H2TPP at the black dot, which instantly removed hydrogen, as shown in the bottom part of (d) and in the re-scan image (e). Such manipulations can be used in single-molecule electronics.
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Resistors above about 1 ohm in value can be measured using a variety of techniques, such as an ohmmeter or by using a Wheatstone bridge. In such resistors, the resistance of the connecting wires or terminals is negligible compared to the resistance value. For resistors of less than an ohm, the resistance of the connecting wires or terminals becomes significant, and conventional measurement techniques will include them in the result. Symbol for four terminal resistor To overcome the problems of these undesirable resistances (known as 'parasitic resistance'), very low value resistors and particularly precision resistors and high current ammeter shunts are constructed as four terminal resistors.
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Parasitic base and emitter resistances distort current-voltage characteristics of real-world transistors, introducing logarithming error and distorting output signal. To improve precision beyond what was attainable through the use of oversized core transistors, Blackmer suggested his own eight-transistor core with interleaved local feedback loops. The circuit, first produced as hybrid dbx202C in 1978, and as monolithic 2150/2151/2155 ICs in 1981, minimizes log-error distortion when the value of each feedback resistor equals the sum of equivalent emitter resistances on npn and pnp-type transistors. A simple model predicts that this approach neutralizes all sources of logarthming error, but in reality feedback cannot compensate for current crowding effects.
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In November 1999 issue of Everyday Practical Electronics (EPE) magazine, the "Ingenuity Unlimited" (reader ideas) section had a novel circuit idea entitled "One Volt LED - A Bright Light" by from Swindon, Wilts, UK. Three example circuits were shown for operating LEDs from supply voltages below 1.5 Volts. The basic circuits consisted of a transformer-feedback NPN transistor voltage converter based on the blocking oscillator. After testing three transistors (ZTX450 at 73% efficiency, ZTX650 at 79%, and BC550 at 57%), it was determined that a transistor with lower Vce(sat) yielded better efficiency results. Also, a resistor with lower resistance would yield a high current.
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Active termination provides a better impedance match than passive termination because most flat ribbon cables have a characteristic impedance of approximately 110 Ω. Forced perfect termination (FPT) is similar to active termination, but with added diode clamp circuits which absorb any residual voltage overshoot or undershoot. There is a special case in SCSI systems that have mixed 8-bit and 16-bit devices where high-byte termination may be required. In current practice most parallel SCSI buses are LVD and so require external, active termination. The usual termination circuit consists of a +2.85 V linear regulator and commercially available SCSI resistor network devices (not individual resistors).
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Diagram of center-tapped transformer In electronics, a center tap (CT) is a contact made to a point halfway along a winding of a transformer or inductor, or along the element of a resistor or a potentiometer. Taps are sometimes used on inductors for the coupling of signals, and may not necessarily be at the half-way point, but rather, closer to one end. A common application of this is in the Hartley oscillator. Inductors with taps also permit the transformation of the amplitude of alternating current (AC) voltages for the purpose of power conversion, in which case, they are referred to as autotransformers, since there is only one winding.
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Extremely good speed control from standstill to full speed, and consistent torque, can be obtained by varying the generator and/or motor field current. This method of control was the de facto method from its development until it was superseded by solid state thyristor systems. It found service in almost any environment where good speed control was required, from passenger lifts through to large mine pit head winding gear and even industrial process machinery and electric cranes. Its principal disadvantage was that three machines were required to implement a scheme (five in very large installations, as the DC machines were often duplicated and controlled by a tandem variable resistor).
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From 1939 she became increasingly active in the Welfare Office of the Berlin Diocesan Authority ("Hilfswerk"), and in 1941 she became managing director under the Cathedral Provost Bernhard Lichtenberg. Lichtenberg was a noted anti-Nazi resistor, who was under the watch of the Gestapo for his courageous support of prisoners and Jews, and who was arrested in 1941 and died en route to Dachau in 1943.Bernhard Lichtenberg; German Resistance Memorial Centre, Index of Persons; retrieved at 4 September 2013 After this, Sommer took operational charge of the agency, reporting to Bishop Konrad von Preysing. Presying was one of the leading Catholic voices against Nazism in Germany.
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A more advanced quenching, which was explored from the 1970s onwards, is a scheme called active quenching. In this case a fast discriminator senses the steep onset of the avalanche current across a 50 Ω resistor (or integrated transistor) and provides a digital (CMOS, TTL, ECL, NIM) output pulse, synchronous with the photon arrival time. The circuit then quickly reduces the bias voltage to below breakdown (active quenching), then relatively quickly returns bias to above the breakdown voltage ready to sense the next photon. This mode is called active quench active reset (AQAR), however depending on circuit requirements, active quenching passive reset (AQPR) may be more suitable.
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The output of the MK484 can be fed into the base of a transistor to provide greater amplification as a class-A amplifier, however this is often an inefficient design. Conversely, the LM386 audio amplifier may be used to drive a small speaker. Note that higher voltage is required if the LM386 is to be used. Therefore, small signal diodes (such as 1N4148) are recommended to create a voltage drop, or use a Zener DC–DC converter with a red LED (in forward, can double as a power indicator) and a resistor (several hundred ohms for 9V operation), as to avoid overvolting the MK484.
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A Maxwell-Wien bridge A Maxwell bridge is a modification to a Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown inductance (usually of low Q value) in terms of calibrated resistance and inductance or resistance and capacitance. When the calibrated components are a parallel resistor and capacitor, the bridge is known as a Maxwell-Wien bridge. It is named for James C. Maxwell, who first described it in 1873. It uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive impedance can be compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance when put in the opposite arm and the circuit is at resonance; i.e.
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Often designers use potentiometers, which are adjusted during end testing until the desired function of the circuit is reached. In many applications, the end user of the product would prefer not to have potentiometers, as they can drift, be mis- adjusted or develop noise. Therefore, manufacturers determine the needed resistance or capacitance values by measurement and calculation methods and afterwards solder the suitable component into the final PCB; this approach is called "Select on Test" (SOT) and is quite labor-intensive. It is simpler to substitute the potentiometer or the SOT part with a trimmable chip resistor or chip capacitor, and the potentiometer adjusting screwdriver is replaced by the laser trimming.
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The analogous connection used with MOS transistors is an open-drain connection. Open-drain outputs can be useful for analog weighting, summing, and limiting as well as digital logic. An open drain terminal is connected to ground when a high voltage (logic 1) is applied to the gate, yet presents a high impedance when a low voltage (logic 0) is applied to the gate. This high impedance state occurs because the terminal is at an undefined voltage (floating) thus such a device requires an external pull-up resistor connected to the positive voltage rail (logic 1) in order to provide a logic 1 as output.
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Any increase of the drain-to-source voltage will increase the distance from drain to the pinch-off point, increasing the resistance of the depletion region in proportion to the drain-to-source voltage applied. This proportional change causes the drain-to-source current to remain relatively fixed, independent of changes to the drain-to-source voltage, quite unlike its ohmic behavior in the linear mode of operation. Thus, in saturation mode, the FET behaves as a constant-current source rather than as a resistor, and can effectively be used as a voltage amplifier. In this case, the gate-to-source voltage determines the level of constant current through the channel.
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This can be improved a little by adding a load resistor to the detector output, but this also has the undesirable effect of decreasing sensitivity. Another technique is to reduce the range of power being measured (so that it is brought within the square law range of the detector) by measuring at a point other than a maximum. The maximum is then calculated from the known mathematical shape of the standing wave pattern. This has the objection that it adds significantly to the labour required to make the measurements, as does the technique of precisely calibrating the detector and adjusting the readings on the meter according to a calibration chart.
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Mead is credited by Gordon Moore with coining the term Moore's law, to denote the prediction Moore made in 1965 about the growth rate of the component count, "a component being a transistor, resistor, diode or capacitor," fitting on a single integrated circuit. Moore and Mead began collaborating around 1959 when Moore gave Mead "cosmetic reject" transistors from Fairchild Semiconductor for his students to use in his classes. During the 1960s Mead made weekly visits to Fairchild, visiting the research and development labs and discussing their work with Moore. During one of their discussions, Moore asked Mead whether electron tunneling might limit the size of a workable transistor.
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Figure 3: A low-pass filter, which is implemented with a Sallen–Key topology, with fc = 15.9 kHz and Q = 0.5 Starting with a more or less arbitrary choice for e.g. C and n, the appropriate values for R and m can be calculated in favor of the desired f_0 and Q. In practice, certain choices of component values will perform better than others due to the non-idealities of real operational amplifiers.Stop-band limitations of the Sallen–Key low- pass filter. As an example, high resistor values will increase the circuit's noise production, whilst contributing to the DC offset voltage on the output of opamps equipped with bipolar input transistors.
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Signal terminators are designed to specifically match the characteristic impedances at both cable ends. For many systems, the terminator is a resistor, with a value chosen to match the characteristic impedance of the transmission line, and chosen to have acceptably low parasitic inductance and capacitance at the frequencies relevant to the system. Examples include 75-ohm resistors often used to terminate 75-ohm video transmission coaxial cables. Types of transmission line cables include balanced line such as ladder line, and twisted pairs (Cat-6 Ethernet, Parallel SCSI, ADSL, Landline Phone, XLR audio, USB, Firewire, Serial); and unbalanced lines such as coaxial cable (Radio antenna, CATV, 10BASE5 Ethernet).
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High-voltage stack A cascode may also be combined with a voltage ladder to form a high-voltage transistor. The input transistor may be of any low-UCEO type, while the others, acting as stacked linear series voltage regulators, should be able to withstand a considerable fraction of the supply voltage. Note that for a large output-voltage swing, their base voltages should not be bypassed to ground by capacitors, and the uppermost ladder resistor should be able to withstand the full supply voltage. This shows that a linear series voltage regulator is actually a current buffer with its input and output designations swapped.
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The battery pack also contains relays, or contactors, which control the distribution of the battery pack's electrical power to the output terminals. In most cases there will be a minimum of two main relays which connect the battery cell stack to the main positive and negative output terminals of the pack, which then supply high current to the electrical drive motor. Some pack designs will include alternate current paths for pre-charging the drive system through a pre-charge resistor or for powering an auxiliary buss which will also have their own associated control relays. For safety reasons these relays are all normally open.
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Switching loads (inductive, capacitive, and resistive), such as electric motors, transformers, heaters, lamps, ballast, power supplies, etc., all cause electromagnetic interference especially at currents above 2 A. The usual method used for suppressing EMI is by connecting a snubber network, a resistor in series with a capacitor, across a pair of contacts. While this may offer modest EMI reduction at very low currents, snubbers do not work at currents over 2 A with electromechanical contacts. Another method for suppressing EMI is the use of ferrite core noise suppressors (or ferrite beads), which are inexpensive and which clip on to the power lead of the offending device or the compromised device.
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A photoresistor (acronymed LDR for Light Decreasing Resistance, or light- dependent resistor, or photo-conductive cell) is a passive component that decreases resistance with respect to receiving luminosity (light) on the component's sensitive surface. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increase in incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits and light-activated and dark-activated switching circuits acting as a resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megaohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms.
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While computer-related Easter eggs are often found in software, occasionally they exist in hardware or firmware of certain devices. On some home computers the BIOS ROM contains Easter eggs. Notable examples include some errant 1993 AMI BIOS that on November 13, 1993, proceeded to play "Happy Birthday" via the PC speaker repeatedly instead of booting, as well as several early Apple Macintosh models that had pictures of the development team in the ROM. These Mac Easter eggs were well-publicized in the Macintosh press at the time along with the means to access them, and were later recovered by an NYC Resistor team, a hacker collective, through elaborate reverse engineering.
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In this way, the probe provides a uniform 10× attenuation from DC (with the attenuation provided by the resistors) to very high AC frequencies (with the attenuation provided by the capacitors). In the past, the bypass capacitor in the probe head was adjustable (to achieve this 10× attenuation). More modern probe designs use a laser-trimmed thick-film electronic circuit in the head that combines the 9 megohm resistor with a fixed-value bypass capacitor; they then place a small adjustable capacitor in parallel with the oscilloscope's input capacitance. Either way, the probe must be adjusted so that it provides uniform attenuation at all frequencies.
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A 'barnacle' or engineering prototype fix in the form of wires and cut tracks on a printed circuit board On printed circuit boards, a barnacle may be as simple as cutting a trace, soldering a wire in order to connect two points on the circuit board, or adding a component such as a resistor or capacitor. A barnacle may also be a complex subassembly or daughterboard. Barnacles in hardware assemblies allow an engineer to repair design errors, experiment with design changes or enhancements, or otherwise alter circuit behaviour. Although usually a barnacle-implemented change is incorporated into a new fabrication cycle circuit before production, occasionally there are final-assembly barnacles.
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In a mixture between a dielectric and a metallic component, the conductivity \sigma and the dielectric constant \epsilon of this mixture show a critical behavior if the fraction of the metallic component reaches the percolation threshold. The behavior of the conductivity near this percolation threshold will show a smooth change over from the conductivity of the dielectric component to the conductivity of the metallic component and can be described using two critical exponents s and t, whereas the dielectric constant will diverge if the threshold is approached from either side. To include the frequency dependent behavior, a resistor-capacitor model (R-C model) is used.
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As the main Miller theorem, besides helping circuit analysis process, the dual version is a powerful tool for designing and understanding circuits based on modifying impedance by additional current. Typical applications are some exotic circuits with negative impedance as load cancellers,Negative-resistance load canceller helps drive heavy loads capacitance neutralizers, Howland current source and its derivative Deboo integrator. In the last example (see Fig. 1 there), the Howland current source consists of an input voltage source VIN, a positive resistor R, a load (the capacitor C acting as impedance Z) and a negative impedance converter INIC (R1 = R2 = R3 = R and the op-amp).
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The Class 6E1 locomotives were equipped with regenerative brakes. With regenerative braking, the energy generated by the traction motors is dissipated by the resistor grid banks at the substations, when it is not absorbed by other locomotives in the same electrical section. A stumbling block was that the regeneration equipment at many of the sub-stations along the route was unreliable. Since there was no guarantee that another train would be in the same section to absorb the regenerated energy, there was always the risk that line voltage could exceed 4.1 kV, which would make either the sub-station or the locomotive trip out.
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8P8C keyed female connector (jack). The RJ45S, a standard jack once specified for modem or data interfaces, uses a mechanically-keyed variation of the 8P8C body with an extra tab that prevents it from mating with other connectors; the visual difference from the more- common 8P8C is subtle. The original RJ45S keyed 8P2C modular connector had pins 5 and 4 wired for tip and ring of a single telephone line, and pins 7 and 8 shorting a programming resistor, but is obsolete today. The 8P8C connector is often incorrectly called RJ45 connector in several fields such as telecommunications and computer networking but it lacks the extra tab.
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While Beverage antennas have excellent directivity, because they are close to lossy Earth, they do not produce absolute gain; their gain is typically from −20 to −10 dBi. This is rarely a problem, because the antenna is used at frequencies where there are high levels of atmospheric radio noise. At these frequencies the atmospheric noise, and not receiver noise, determines the signal-to-noise ratio, so an inefficient antenna can be used. The antenna is not used as a transmitting antenna since, to do so, would mean a large portion of the drive power is wasted in the terminating resistor Directivity increases with the length of the antenna.
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Since their introduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the best precision and stability of any resistor available. One of the important parameters of stability is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil resistors is extremely low, and has been further improved over the years. One range of ultra-precision foil resistors offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/°C, tolerance ±0.005%, long-term stability (1 year) 25 ppm, (3 years) 50 ppm (further improved 5-fold by hermetic sealing), stability under load (2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 μV/°C, noise −42 dB, voltage coefficient 0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 μH, capacitance 0.5 pF.
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Typical panel mount potentiometer Drawing of potentiometer with case cut away, showing parts: (A) shaft, (B) stationary carbon composition resistance element, (C) phosphor bronze wiper, (D) shaft attached to wiper, (E, G) terminals connected to ends of resistance element, (F) terminal connected to wiper. An assortment of small through-hole potentiometers designed for mounting on printed circuit boards. A potentiometer (colloquially, pot) is a three-terminal resistor with a continuously adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob or by a linear slider. The name potentiometer comes from its function as an adjustable voltage divider to provide a variable potential at the terminal connected to the tapping point.
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The bandwidth of large capacitively loaded VLF antennas is so narrow (50-100 Hz) that even the small frequency shifts of FSK and MSK modulation may exceed it, throwing the antenna out of resonance, causing the antenna to reflect some power back down the feedline. The traditional solution is to use a "bandwidth resistor" in the antenna which reduces the Q, increasing the bandwidth; however this also reduces the power output. A recent alternative used in some military VLF transmitters is a circuit which dynamically shifts the antenna's resonant frequency between the two output frequencies with the modulation.Johnson, Richard (1993) Antenna Engineering Handbook, 3rd Ed., p.
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The DC current through the resistor- coil branch has no effect on the incoming audio signal. But the DC current passing through the microphone is turned into AC (in response to voice sounds) which then passes through only the upper branch of the coil's (A3) primary winding, which has far fewer turns than the lower primary winding. This causes a small portion of the microphone output to be fed back to the speaker, while the rest of the AC goes out through the phone line. A lineman's handset is a telephone designed for testing the telephone network, and may be attached directly to aerial lines and other infrastructure components.
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Since no current flows through a tube's grid connection, these batteries had no current drain and lasted the longest, usually limited by their own shelf life. The supply from the grid bias battery was rarely, if ever, disconnected when the radio was otherwise switched off. Even after AC power supplies became commonplace, some radio sets continued to be built with C batteries, as they would almost never need replacing. However more modern circuits were designed using cathode biasing, eliminating the need for a third power supply voltage; this became practical with tubes using indirect heating of the cathode along with the development of resistor/capacitor coupling which replaced earlier interstage transformers.
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Schematic of basic AC-to-DC power supply, showing (from L-R) transformer, full-wave bridge rectifier, filter capacitor and resistor load DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power supplies will employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer output voltage to a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed through an electronic filter to convert it to an unregulated DC voltage. The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC voltage is known as ripple.
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They are only able to output above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load condition the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the isolated transformer to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the resulting very high voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits may briefly turn on but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very small low-power dummy load such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb can be attached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary load attached.
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One version of Chua's circuit, where the nonlinear Chua's diode is synthesized by an op amp negative impedance converter (OPA1) and a diode–resistor network (D1, D2, R2) An autonomous circuit made from standard components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) must satisfy three criteria before it can display chaotic behaviour. It must contain: # one or more nonlinear elements, # one or more locally active resistors, # three or more energy-storage elements. Chua's circuit is the simplest electronic circuit meeting these criteria. As shown in the top figure, the energy storage elements are two capacitors (labeled C1 and C2) and an inductor (labeled L; L1 in lower figure).
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Such outputs are used for driving external devices, for a wired-OR function in combinational logic, or for a simple way of driving a logic bus with multiple devices connected to it. Pull-up resistors may be discrete devices mounted on the same circuit board as the logic devices. Many microcontrollers intended for embedded control applications have internal, programmable pull-up resistors for logic inputs so that not many external components are needed. Some disadvantages of pull-up resistors are the extra power consumed when current is drawn through the resistor and the reduced speed of a pull-up compared to an active current source.
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The engine's drive by wire throttle allows the engine management computer to smooth out the engine's power delivery, making the system nearly imperceptible on some vehicles. When the VCM system disables cylinders, an "ECO" indicator lights on the dashboard, Active Noise Cancellation (ANC) pumps an opposite-phase sound through the audio speakers to reduce cabin noise, and Active Control Engine Mount (ACM) systems reduce vibration. Owners of vehicles equipped with VCM frequently face vibration problems due to engine motor mount malfunction while ECO mode is enabled. Instead of replacing motor mounts, owners often override the VCM with a bypass mechanism, such as an in-line resistor based temperature override module.
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The load bank presents the source with electrical characteristics similar to its standard operating load, while dissipating the power output that would normally be consumed by it. The power is usually converted to heat by a heavy duty resistor or bank of resistive heating elements in the device, and the heat removed by a forced air or water cooling system. The device usually also includes instruments for metering, load control, and overload protection. Load banks can either be permanently installed at a facility to be connected to a power source when needed, or portable versions can be used for testing power sources such as standby generators and batteries.
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The wire supplying the field current is often referred to as the "exciter" wire. The drawback of this arrangement is that if the warning lamp burns out or the "exciter" wire is disconnected, no current reaches the field windings and the alternator will not generate power. Some warning indicator circuits are equipped with a resistor in parallel with the lamp that permit excitation current to flow if the warning lamp burns out. The driver should check that the warning indicator is on when the engine is stopped; otherwise, there might not be any indication of a failure of the belt which may also drive the cooling water pump.
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H2TPP molecules by applying excess voltage to the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STAM, a); this removal alters the current-voltage (I-V) curves of TPP molecules, measured using the same STM tip, from diode-like (red curve in b) to resistor-like (green curve). Image (c) shows a row of TPP, H2TPP and TPP molecules. While scanning image (d), excess voltage was applied to H2TPP at the black dot, which instantly removed hydrogen, as shown in the bottom part of (d) and in the re-scan image (e). A unimolecular rectifier is a single organic molecule which functions as a rectifier (one-way conductor) of electric current.
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A coupling capacitor's ability to prevent a DC load from interfering with an AC source is particularly useful in Class A amplifier circuits by preventing a 0 volt input being passed to a transistor with additional resistor biasing; creating continuous amplification. Capacitive coupling decreases the low frequency gain of a system containing capacitively coupled units. Each coupling capacitor along with the input electrical impedance of the next stage forms a high-pass filter and the sequence of filters results in a cumulative filter with a −3dB frequency that may be higher than those of each individual filter. So for adequate low frequency response, the capacitors used must have high capacitance ratings.
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For high-precision measurements of very small resistances, the above types of meter are inadequate. This is partly because the change in deflection itself is small when the resistance measured is too small in proportion to the intrinsic resistance of the ohmmeter (which can be dealt with through current division), but mostly because the meter's reading is the sum of the resistance of the measuring leads, the contact resistances and the resistance being measured. To reduce this effect, a precision ohmmeter has four terminals, called Kelvin contacts. Two terminals carry the current from and to the meter, while the other two allow the meter to measure the voltage across the resistor.
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The internal structure of a current limiting diode The simplest constant-current source or sink is formed from one component: a JFET with its gate attached to its source. Once the drain-source voltage reaches a certain minimum value, the JFET enters saturation where current is approximately constant. This configuration is known as a constant- current diode, as it behaves much like a dual to the constant voltage diode (Zener diode) used in simple voltage sources. Due to the large variability in saturation current of JFETs, it is common to also include a source resistor (shown in the adjacent image) which allows the current to be tuned down to a desired value.
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One limitation with the circuits in Figures 5 and 6 is that the thermal compensation is imperfect. In bipolar transistors, as the junction temperature increases the drop (voltage drop from base to emitter) decreases. In the two previous circuits, a decrease in will cause an increase in voltage across the emitter resistor, which in turn will cause an increase in collector current drawn through the load. The end result is that the amount of 'constant' current supplied is at least somewhat dependent on temperature. This effect is mitigated to a large extent, but not completely, by corresponding voltage drops for the diode, D1, in Figure 6, and the LED, LED1, in Figure 5.
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As the speed of the motor reduces, the current flow through its windings increases, drawing up to 140 amps at stall speed. This would very quickly burn the motor out if sustained, so the motor's load is constantly monitored by the C5's electronics. If it stalls under full load the electronics disable the motor after 4 seconds, while if it is under heavy load (around 80 or 90 amps) it trips after two or three minutes. A heat-sensitive resistor inside the motor warns the driver if the vehicle is beginning to overheat and disconnects the motor after a short time, and a third line of defence is provided by a metallic strip mounted on the motor.
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A PCB-mounted, rotary mechanical incremental encoder Mechanical (or contact) incremental encoders use sliding electrical contacts to directly generate the A and B output signals. Typically, the contacts are electrically connected to signal ground when closed so that the outputs will be "driven" low, effectively making them mechanical equivalents of open collector drivers and therefore subject to the same signal conditioning requirements (i.e. external pull-up resistor). The maximum output frequency is limited by the same factors that affect open-collector outputs, and further limited by contact bounce – which must be filtered by the encoder interface – and by the operating speed of the mechanical contacts, thus making these devices impractical for high frequency operation.
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The M62 was a dedicated freight mover and lacked any central heating apparatus for coaches, even though most Soviet satellite-state customers needed to use them in dual cargo/passenger role regularly (Soviet trains of the era were heated with individual per-coach drum fireplaces). In cold times a dedicated heating wagon had to be added to MÁV's M62-drawn trains, producing steam from oil-fired boilers (1960-70s era), later on generating electricity for resistor-based heating (1980s era). This proved to be a high-cost solution, in contrast to the M61 NOHAB, which could produce 750 kg of steam per hour using an internal water tank and engine waste heat, with minimal effects on fuel consumption.
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Direct-coupler transistor logic (DCTL) circuit of the Leprechaun computer Direct-coupled transistor logic (DCTL) is similar to resistor–transistor logic (RTL) but the input transistor bases are connected directly to the collector outputs without any base resistors. Consequently, DCTL gates have fewer components, are more economical, and are simpler to fabricate onto integrated circuits than RTL gates. Unfortunately, DCTL has much smaller signal levels, has more susceptibility to ground noise, and requires matched transistor characteristics. The transistors are also heavily overdriven; that is a good feature in that it reduces the saturation voltage of the output transistors, but it also slows the circuit down due to a high stored charge in the base.
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If the voltage is transferred unchanged (the voltage gain Av is 1), the amplifier is a unity gain buffer; also known as a voltage follower because the output voltage follows or tracks the input voltage. Although the voltage gain of a voltage buffer amplifier may be (approximately) unity, it usually provides considerable current gain and thus power gain. However, it is commonplace to say that it has a gain of 1 (or the equivalent 0 dB), referring to the voltage gain. As an example, consider a Thévenin source (voltage VA, series resistance RA) driving a resistor load RL. Because of voltage division (also referred to as "loading") the voltage across the load is only VA RL / ( RL \+ RA ).
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This a special acoustic tour band that is made up of Southern Empire, Unitopia, Resistor, and United Progressive Fraternity. Southern Empire were playing gigs in Adelaide in February and March 2017, and touring Europe between September and October 2017. Meanwhile, Trueack is working with Steve Unruh on the next UPF albums called Loss and Hope, collaborating with artists such as Steve Hackett, Jerry Marotta, Colin Edwin, Nick Magnus, Chris Lebled, Jon Davison, Charlie Cawood, Lisa Wetton, Michelle Young, Angus Kay, George Perdikis, Hasse Froberg, Fraternity Symphonic Orchestra (60 piece) and along with some of the biggest names in the environmental space, the album is expected to have a lot interest. The album will be released in Feb 2019.
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The Fender Princeton Reverb is a guitar amplifier combo, essentially a Princeton with built-in reverb and vibrato. The 12 Watt Blackface version was introduced in 1964 and available until 1967, in 1968 it was changed to the Silverface version with a drip edge around the grill cloth. Amps produced after the end of 1969 saw a change in circuitry, the removal of the drip edge and the rectifier was changed from a 5AR4 to a 5U4GB along with a change in bias resistor value, a "boost" pull switch to the volume control pot was added in 1977. In 1980 and 1981 the Silverface version was cosmetically changed back to the Blackface.
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This last action connected the flight sequencer system's impulses to the instrument's solenoid actuator. These impulses were then converted into a slow, regular mechanical advance which cascaded through the mechanical components, effecting the computations needed to move the globe and other indicators. Meanwhile, the instrument's variable resistor and cam-activated electric blade contacts modulated electrical signals from other electrical instruments through the spacecraft and its control systems, feeding them with an analog representation of the spacecraft's displacement relative to Earth coordinates. From a systems design perspective, it is remarkable, even in the early 1960s, that a mechanical system generated crucial, primary data to electrical and electronic control and telemetry systems through the spacecraft.
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The emf is due solely to the chemistry in the battery that causes charge separation, which in turn creates an electrical voltage that drives the current. # For a circuit consisting of an electrical generator that drives current through a resistor, the emf is due solely to a time-varying magnetic field within the generator that generates an electrical voltage that in turn drives the current. (The ohmic IR drop plus the applied electrical voltage again is zero. See Kirchhoff's Law) # A transformer coupling two circuits may be considered a source of emf for one of the circuits, just as if it were caused by an electrical generator; this example illustrates the origin of the term "transformer emf".
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As the capacitance changes, the charge across the capacitor does change very slightly, but at audible frequencies it is sensibly constant. The capacitance of the capsule (around 5 to 100 pF) and the value of the bias resistor (100 MΩ to tens of GΩ) form a filter that is high-pass for the audio signal, and low- pass for the bias voltage. Note that the time constant of an RC circuit equals the product of the resistance and capacitance. Within the time-frame of the capacitance change (as much as 50 ms at 20 Hz audio signal), the charge is practically constant and the voltage across the capacitor changes instantaneously to reflect the change in capacitance.
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Most plug-in wattmeters are not useful for measuring standby power, also called vampire power if the device in standby is not doing anything useful such as being prepared to wake under timer control. Many meters only have a resolution of 1W when reading power; the Kill-a-Watts read down to 0.1W, but this is still too coarse for measuring low standby power. Modification to read standby power has been described and discussed in detail (with oscilloscope waveforms and measurements).Measuring standby power Essentially, the meter's shunt resistor, used to generate a voltage proportional to load current, is replaced by a much larger value, typically 100 times larger, with protective diodes.
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Figure 2: Adding an emitter resistor decreases gain, but increases linearity and stability Common-emitter amplifiers give the amplifier an inverted output and can have a very high gain that may vary widely from one transistor to the next. The gain is a strong function of both temperature and bias current, and so the actual gain is somewhat unpredictable. Stability is another problem associated with such high-gain circuits due to any unintentional positive feedback that may be present. Other problems associated with the circuit are the low input dynamic range imposed by the small-signal limit; there is high distortion if this limit is exceeded and the transistor ceases to behave like its small-signal model.
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When operating properly and the line cord was stretched to full length, the cord got "warm" and was safe enough (until the heat made the rubber insulation crack). When the cord was coiled up or otherwise insulated (like from a curtain resting on it) it could get very hot, and frequently caused a fire. Resistance line cords are no longer available and the vintage cords are no longer serviceable, so the radio must be partially redesigned with either a dropping capacitor, dropping resistor, or some other workaround for safe operation. :AC/DC sets lacking resistance line cords instead used tube filaments in series that added up to the line voltage, effectively moving the resistance into the radio.
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The HSDL4220 infrared LED is originally unsuitable for 10 Mbit/s operation. It has a bandwidth of 9 MHz, where 10 Mbit/s Manchester- modulated systems need bandwidth of around 16 MHz. Operation in a usual circuit with current drive would lead to substantial signal corruption and range reduction. Therefore, Twibright Labs developed a special driving technique consisting of driving the LED directly with 15-fold 74AC04 gate output in parallel with RF voltage applied current-unlimited directly to the LED through large capacitors. As the voltage to keep the nominal LED average current (100mA) varies with temperature and component tolerances, an AC- bypassed current sense resistor is put in series with the LED.
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Four Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) power inverters carry electric current to each of the four AC traction motors. A static inverter off of the main prime mover supplies head-end power (HEP). The locomotive also features dynamic braking with regenerative capability, allowing the locomotive to divert power generated by dynamic braking away from the resistor grids to HEP and onboard locomotive auxiliary power demands. In response to a 2013 Request for Information from Metro-North Railroad, Siemens said they would be capable of producing a dual-mode variant of the Charger with onboard energy storage for use by Metro-North and Long Island Rail Road, as well as intercity service on Amtrak's Empire Corridor.
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Passive balancing equalizes the state of charge at some fixed point – usually either "top balanced", with all cells reaching 100% SOC at the same time; or "bottom balanced", with all cells reaching minimum SOC at the same time. This can be accomplished by bleeding energy from the cells with higher state of charge (e.g., a controlled short through a resistor or transistor), or shunting energy through a path in parallel with a cell during the charge cycle so that less of the (typically regulated constant) current is consumed by the cell. Passive balancing is inherently wasteful, with some of the pack's energy spent as heat for the sake of equalizing the state of charge between cells.
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Such a theory has met with resistance: Macdonald (1962) and Harris (1971) claimed that extracting power from the zero-point energy to be impossible, so FDT could not be true. Grau and Kleen (1982) and Kleen (1986), argued that the Johnson noise of a resistor connected to an antenna must satisfy Planck's thermal radiation formula, thus the noise must be zero at zero temperature and FDT must be invalid. Kiss (1988) pointed out that the existence of the zero-point term may indicate that there is a renormalization problem—i.e., a mathematical artifact—producing an unphysical term that is not actually present in measurements (in analogy with renormalization problems of ground states in quantum electrodynamics).
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According to the same way of reasoning there are not disconnectors for separate motor groups, in the power circuitry; and when one electric engine is damaged, entire motor car turns off. VVP-105 quick switch with a diafragmatic lead is in use for protecting circuitry from short circuit currents. It brakes electric engine circuit when the current gets over 600 A. Differential relay can serve for the protection purpose, in case of overthrows and fan-outs (?) on the ground when the current does not rich 600 A. The overloading relay has no effect on disconnecting devices; it liquidates overloading in starting mode, by lowering switching conditions and adding the additional resistor in a circuit.
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They would then be brought to trial and executed. The exact number of executions carried out by the commission is unknown but is thought to have run into hundreds. Following a final confession, where Aitken admitted to falsifying her powers, Marion Walker (an active resistor of John Cowper's witch hunts) distributed Aitken's confession, which ultimately brought the period to an end - leading to James I rendering the existing commissions at Falkland Palace invalid. Aitken's short-lived success also led to imitators such as Anne Ewing in Kirkcaldy who after large-scale witch hunts in Kirkcaldy was loaned by the magistrates of Kirkcaldy to their colleagues in Inverkeithing on condition that she was to return.
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In the course of extensive research on the history of electronic music instruments, in 2000 Manfred Miersch, a Berlin artist and musician, made a remarkable discovery: the Trautonium is not the only instrument of its kind; another exists that produces subharmonic sounds — the "Subharchord". As described above, this instrument was invented in the GDR under difficult technical conditions, but using the latest technology available. However, the Subharchord differs from the Mixturtrautonium in key respects. The Subharchord has a keyboard and is played like an organ, whereas the Mixturtrautonium’s manual is a resistor wire over a metal plate, which is pressed at various points to create sound (like a ribbon-controller), a rather difficult procedure.
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While one beam scanned the sky for new targets, others were formed to examine the threat tubes and generate high-quality tracking information very early in the engagement. More beams were formed to track the RVs once they had been picked out, and still more to track the Sprints on their way to the interceptions. To make all of this work, MAR required data processing capabilities on an unprecedented level, so Bell proposed building the system using the newly invented resistor–transistor logic small-scale integrated circuits. Nike-X centralized the battle control systems at their Defense Centers, consisting of a MAR and its associated underground Defense Center Data Processing System (DCDPS).
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For either enhancement- or depletion-mode devices, at drain-to-source voltages much less than gate-to- source voltages, changing the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance, and drain current will be proportional to drain voltage (referenced to source voltage). In this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor and the FET is said to be operating in a linear mode or ohmic mode. If drain-to-source voltage is increased, this creates a significant asymmetrical change in the shape of the channel due to a gradient of voltage potential from source to drain. The shape of the inversion region becomes "pinched-off" near the drain end of the channel.
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While quite similar to normal potentiometers, digital potentiometers are constrained by current limit in the range of tens of milliamperes. Also, most digital potentiometers limit the voltage range on the two input terminals (of the resistor) to the digital supply range (0–5 VDC), so additional circuitry is required to replace a conventional potentiometer. Further, instead of the seemingly continuous control that can be obtained from a multiturn resistive potentiometer, digital potentiometers have discrete steps in resistance. (Schematic needed) Another constraint is that special logic is often required to check for zero crossing of an analog AC signal to allow the resistance value to be changed without causing an audible click in the output for audio amplifiers.
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As such, devices such as a Starling Resistor are often used to predict fluid flow under these conditions. Fluid is forced through an elastically deforming tube which passes through a region of high external pressure causing a flattening of the tube depending on the relative pressures of the inside and outside of the tube. In the absence of any flow (puD pd), an increase in pe generates a compressive stress in the tube wall causing it to buckle from a circular to an elliptic cross-section (except, of course, near its ends, where it is attached to the rigid tubes). Buckling to a shape with more than two lobes may arise in short, tethered, or inhomogeneous tubes.
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This method has become popular with North American passenger railroads where head end power loads are typically in the area of 500 kW year round. Using HEP loads in this way has prompted recent electric locomotive designs such as the ALP-46 and ACS-64 to eliminate the use of dynamic brake resistor grids and also eliminates any need for any external power infrastructure to accommodate power recovery allowing self-powered vehicles to employ regenerative braking as well. A small number of steep grade railways have used 3-phase power supplies and induction motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains, as the motors rotate with the supply frequency both when driving and braking.
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Representation of a lumped model made up of a voltage source and a resistor. The lumped-element model (also called lumped-parameter model, or lumped- component model) simplifies the description of the behaviour of spatially distributed physical systems into a topology consisting of discrete entities that approximate the behaviour of the distributed system under certain assumptions. It is useful in electrical systems (including electronics), mechanical multibody systems, heat transfer, acoustics, etc. Mathematically speaking, the simplification reduces the state space of the system to a finite dimension, and the partial differential equations (PDEs) of the continuous (infinite-dimensional) time and space model of the physical system into ordinary differential equations (ODEs) with a finite number of parameters.
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In much the same way as the analogue ammeter formed the basis for a wide variety of derived meters, including voltmeters, the basic mechanism for a digital meter is a digital voltmeter mechanism, and other types of meter are built around this. Digital ammeter designs use a shunt resistor to produce a calibrated voltage proportional to the current flowing. This voltage is then measured by a digital voltmeter, through use of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC); the digital display is calibrated to display the current through the shunt. Such instruments are often calibrated to indicate the RMS value for a sine wave only, but many designs will indicate true RMS within limitations of the wave crest factor.
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The Resistor-E automated air-traffic control system has been installed, which provides assistance during approach, landing and short range navigation down to a distance of 30 metres short of flight deck to the pilots. Along with various other sub-systems, it provides navigation and flight data to ship-borne aircraft operating at long distances from the carrier. When delivered, Vikramaditya had yet to be fitted with any on-board armament, leaving her dependent on her battle group for self-defence. This was rectified during the ship's short refit of April–June 2015, when she was fitted with four license-built AK-630 CIWS, and a Barak 1 SAM system stripped from the decommissioned .
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Probes intended for up to 100 kV typically employ a resistor voltage divider, with an input resistance of hundreds or thousands of megohms to minimize circuit loading. High linearity and accuracy is achieved by using resistors with extremely low voltage coefficients, in matched sets that maintain a consistent, precise divider ratio across the probe's operating temperature. Voltmeters have input resistance that effectively alters the probe's divider ratio, and parasitic capacitance that combines with the probe's resistance to form an RC circuit; these can easily reduce DC and AC accuracy, respectively, if left uncompensated. To mitigate these effects, voltage divider probes usually include additional components that improve frequency response and allow them to be calibrated for different meter loads.
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The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier needs a path for DC to ground; if the signal source does not supply a DC path, or if that source requires a given load impedance, then the circuit will require another resistor from the non-inverting input to ground. When the operational amplifier's input bias currents are significant, then the DC source resistances driving the inputs should be balanced.An input bias current of 1 µA through a DC source resistance of 10 kΩ produces a 10 mV offset voltage. If the other input bias current is the same and sees the same source resistance, then the two input offset voltages will cancel out.
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At Fulham Volz attained cult- figure status with the fans, in part due to his commitment, passion and community involvement. He was also popular with the club's faithful given that he rode his bicycle to home games. He had several nicknames at Craven Cottage, such as '220 Volz', 'The Electrician', 'Mr Resistor', 'The Hoff' due to his adulation of David Hasslehoff, 'The Lightbulb' and the rather simple 'Volzy'. For the match against Aston Villa on Saturday 21 October 2006, he had 'The Hoff' written on his boots for good luck and promptly scored his first goal in three years. Volz signed a contract extension upon 9 December 2006, which kept him at the club until 2009.
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Some current sense amplifiers measure current flowing in a single direction; bidirectional amplifiers measure current flow in both directions through the sense resistor. Normal differential amplifiers and operational amplifiers powered between two power supply rails (say VCC and VEE) can only handle signals that lie between these two power rails. If a voltage outside the power supply rails is applied to the input, internal ESD protection diodes turn on, causing large currents to flow and damage these parts. Specialised current-sense amplifiers, by contrast are designed so that, when powered from a low-voltage power rail such as VCC = 5 V and VEE = 0 V, they can withstand pin voltages much higher than VCC and much lower than VEE.
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Example of pinched hysteresis curve, V versus I One of the resulting properties of memristors and memristive systems is the existence of a pinched hysteresis effect. For a current-controlled memristive system, the input u(t) is the current i(t), the output y(t) is the voltage v(t), and the slope of the curve represents the electrical resistance. The change in slope of the pinched hysteresis curves demonstrates switching between different resistance states which is a phenomenon central to ReRAM and other forms of two-terminal resistance memory. At high frequencies, memristive theory predicts the pinched hysteresis effect will degenerate, resulting in a straight line representative of a linear resistor.
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Discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. They usually absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require little attention to their power rating. An aluminium-encased power resistor rated for dissipation of 50 W when mounted on a heat-sink Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below.
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On the other hand, a resistor between the gate and MT1 helps draw leakage currents out of the device, thus improving the performance of the TRIAC at high temperature, where the maximum allowed dv/dt is lower. Values of resistors less than 1kΩ and capacitors of 100nF are generally suitable for this purpose, although the fine-tuning should be done on the particular device model. For higher-powered, more-demanding loads, two SCRs in inverse parallel may be used instead of one TRIAC. Because each SCR will have an entire half-cycle of reverse polarity voltage applied to it, turn-off of the SCRs is assured, no matter what the character of the load.
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The resistor Maria Terwiel helped to spread knowledge of the famous sermons condemning the Nazi movement given by Clemens von Galen, Bishop of Munster, as well as helping Jews escape to abroad. She was executed on 5 August 1943. The successful protests of women can also be noted, called the Rosenstraße, racially "Aryan" women married to Jews who, in February 1943, obtained the release of their husbands. Women also fought for the Resistance from abroad, like Dora Schaul, a Communist who had left Germany in 1934 and involved from July 1942 with clandestine networks, Deutsch Arbeit (German Labour) and Deutsche-Feldpost (My German countryside), from the School of Military Health in Lyon.
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The C battery's positive terminal was connected to the cathode of the tubes (or "ground" in most circuits) and whose negative terminal supplied this bias voltage to the grids of the tubes. Later circuits, after tubes were made with heaters isolated from their cathodes, used cathode biasing, avoiding the need for a separate negative power supply. For cathode biasing, a relatively low-value resistor is connected between the cathode and ground. This makes the cathode positive with respect to the grid, which is at ground potential for DC. However C batteries continued to be included in some equipment even when the "A" and "B" batteries had been replaced by power from the AC mains.
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By using a voltage source and resistor, the clamper can be biased to bind the output voltage to a different value. The voltage supplied to the potentiometer will be equal to the offset from zero (assuming an ideal diode) in the case of either a positive or negative clamper (the clamper type will determine the direction of the offset). If a negative voltage is supplied to either positive or negative, the waveform will cross the x-axis and be bound to a value of this magnitude on the opposite side. Zener diodes can also be used in place of a voltage source and potentiometer, hence setting the offset at the Zener voltage.
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The IBM PC AT came with a 192-watt switching power supply, significantly higher than the 130-watt XT power supply. According to IBM's documentation, in order to function properly, the AT power supply needed a load of at least 7.0 amperes on the +5V line and a minimum of 2.5 amperes on its +12V line. The power supply would fail to start unless these minimum load requirements were met, but the AT motherboard did not provide much load on the +12V line. To solve this problem, entry-level IBM AT models that didn't have a hard drive were shipped with a 5-ohm, 50-watt resistor connected on the +12V line of the hard disk power connector.
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A logarithmic resistor ladder is an electronic circuit composed of a series of resistors and switches, designed to create an attenuation from an input to an output signal, where the logarithm of the attenuation ratio is proportional to a digital code word that represents the state of the switches. The logarithmic behavior of the circuit is its main differentiator in comparison with digital- to-analog converters in general, and traditional R-2R Ladder networks specifically. Logarithmic attenuation is desired in situations where a large dynamic range needs to be handled. The circuit described in this article is applied in audio devices, since human perception of sound level is properly expressed on a logarithmic scale.
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Thus, most if not all current ETC systems use closed loop feedback systems, such as PID control, whereby the ECU tells the throttle to open or close a certain amount. The throttle position sensor(s) are continually read and then the software makes appropriate adjustments to reach the desired amount of engine power. There are two primary types of throttle position sensors (TPS): a potentiometer or a non-contact sensor Hall Effect sensor (magnetic device). A potentiometer is a satisfactory way for non-critical applications such as volume control on a radio, but as it has a wiper contact rubbing against a resistance element, dirt and wear between the wiper and the resistor can cause erratic readings.
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Distributed-element circuits are designed with the distributed-element model, an alternative to the lumped- element model in which the passive electrical elements of electrical resistance, capacitance and inductance are assumed to be "lumped" at one point in space in a resistor, capacitor or inductor, respectively. The distributed- element model is used when this assumption no longer holds, and these properties are considered to be distributed in space. The assumption breaks down when there is significant time for electromagnetic waves to travel from one terminal of a component to the other; "significant", in this context, implies enough time for a noticeable phase change. The amount of phase change is dependent on the wave's frequency (and inversely dependent on wavelength).
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For random-access type memories, a 1T1R (one transistor, one resistor) architecture is preferred because the transistor isolates current to cells that are selected from cells that are not. On the other hand, a cross-point architecture is more compact and may enable vertically stacking memory layers, ideally suited for mass-storage devices. However, in the absence of any transistors, isolation must be provided by a "selector" device, such as a diode, in series with the memory element or by the memory element itself. Such isolation capabilities are inferior to the use of transistors if the on/off ratio for the selector is not sufficient, limiting the ability to operate very large arrays in this architecture.
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The field of the instrument is energized by the circuit current flow. The two moving coils, A and B, are connected in parallel with the circuit load. One coil, A, will be connected through a resistor and the second coil, B, through an inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to current in A. At unity power factor, the current in A is in phase with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum torque, driving the instrument pointer toward the 1.0 mark on the scale. At zero power factor, the current in coil B is in phase with circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer towards 0.
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He recruited his thin film technician with precision resistor fabrication skills that were essential for improving the accuracy of DACs, which became the biggest-selling type of product that helped launch the company. Semiconductor and materials engineer Wadie Khadder was hired with founder stock from Fairchild to support Bresee in both semiconductor process engineering and also the critical precision thin film technology initially needed for producing high accuracy 2-chip D/A converters. PMI pioneered the design and manufacture of the first 10-bit semiconductor IC DACs on the market. In March 1970, during the IEEE Annual Convention in New York, PMI caused a major stir in engineering circles by introducing the aimDac100, the first 10-bit 2-chip DAC in a DIP semiconductor package.
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All equipment using RF electronics should be inside a screened conductive box and all connections in or out of the box should be filtered to avoid the passage of radio signals. A common and effective method of doing so for wires carrying DC supplies, 50/60 Hz AC connections, audio and control signals is to use a feedthrough capacitor, whose job is to short circuit any RF on the wire to ground. The use of ferrite beads is also common. If an intentional transmitter produces interference, then it should be run into a dummy load; this is a resistor in a screened box or can which will allow the transmitter to generate radio signals without sending them to the antenna.
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