105 Sentences With "random samples" | Random Sentence Generator

The problem with taking random samples is that it's random.

They don't at all seem like random samples of the ongoing.

The pollsters dialed numbers from random samples of both landlines and cell phones.

In most random samples of 2,000, the response rate is almost always under 10 percent.

But for one test the results differed by 21 to 130 percent based on nine random samples.

Later genetic analysis found that any two random samples were about 99.97 percent genetically identical to one another.

To check the accuracy, he manually compared the computer's automated analysis to random samples chosen from Google Earth.

First, because of the difficulties of contacting hard-to-reach groups of voters, modern polls are not simple random samples.

Regulators no longer have to hope that spot checks or random samples of trade information will point them to problems.

The CNN polls in Nevada and South Carolina were conducted by telephone among random samples of adults in each state.

There's an on-site lab where technicians test random samples from every aspect of production, from raw materials to fully finished dishes.

By taking random samples from 64 donors in 1992, she found a hepatitis C infection rate of 34%; locally, more than 80%.

Typically, compliance departments would review random samples of transactions across the countries in which it operates to review for any illegal payments.

The study had some limitations, including that multiple random samples of people from various studies were used, which may not be representative of all of Europe.

The Justice Department used random samples of both its sexual victimization survey and an alternative survey when evaluating a center to protect the identities of respondents.

He said Bavarian authorities had taken random samples of migrant passports and a "significant proportion" of them was counterfeit, but this had not been detected by BAMF officials.

According to a 2016 report from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, existing research shows that, in random samples of employees, 25 percent of women said they had experienced sexual harassment.

After collecting random samples of local restaurant menus and testing them for bacteria, Dawson and his team discovered that for the most part, there were low numbers of bacteria living on them.

Mr. Dervishi estimated that the surviving documents comprised random samples from the files of only 12,000 or so Sigurimi collaborators — roughly 10 percent of the total — between 1944, when Hoxha took power, and 1991.

In order to protect consumers, there are several checks and balances in place — among them, scientists who test random samples of food products sold in the US to make sure they're safe to eat.

It includes both real-time data pulled from random samples over the last seven days, as well as non-real time — data that can stretch between the year 2004 and 36 hours prior to your search.

In the immediate aftermath of the 2016 election, there was an intense focus on America's voting machines, particularly the pricey touch-screen devices that lack the paper trail necessary to audit random samples of the tallies or conduct a reliable — if slow — manual recount.

A paper from researchers at George Washington University and the University of Miami suggested focusing on smaller clusters of hate speech, banning random samples of users over time rather than all at once, recruiting volunteers to argue with hate clusters in public, and pitting hate clusters with differing ideologies against one another to sap them of their energy.

For example, suppose a census were conducted. After the completion of the census, random samples from the frame could be drawn to be counted again.

Random number tables have been used in statistics for tasks such as selected random samples. This was much more effective than manually selecting the random samples (with dice, cards, etc.). Nowadays, tables of random numbers have been replaced by computational random number generators. If carefully prepared, the filtering and testing processes remove any noticeable bias or asymmetry from the hardware-generated original numbers so that such tables provide the most "reliable" random numbers available to the casual user.

Another graphical method for the identification of power-law probability distributions using random samples has been proposed. This methodology consists of plotting a bundle for the log- transformed sample. Originally proposed as a tool to explore the existence of moments and the moment generation function using random samples, the bundle methodology is based on residual quantile functions (RQFs), also called residual percentile functions,Joe, H. (1985), "Characterizations of life distributions from percentile residual lifetimes", Ann. Inst. Statist. Math. 37, Part A, 165–172.

Language sampling is utilised to obtain random samples of a child’s language during play, conversation or narration. Language sampling must be used with standardized assessments to compare and diagnose a child as a late talker.

Testing for community transmission began on 15 March. 65 laboratories of the Department of Health Research and the Indian Council of Medical Research (DHR-ICMR) have started testing random samples of people who exhibit flu-like symptoms and samples from patients without any travel history or contact with infected persons. As of 18 March, no evidence of community transmission was found after results of 500 random samples tested negative. Between 15 February and 2 April, 5,911 SARI (Severe Acute Respiratory Illnesses) patients were tested throughout the country of which, 104 tested positive (1.8%) in 20 states and union territories.

In order to minimize selection biases, stratified random sampling is often used. This is when the population is divided into sub- populations called strata, and random samples are drawn from each of the strata, or elements are drawn for the sample on a proportional basis.

In machine learning the random subspace method, also called attribute bagging or feature bagging, is an ensemble learning method that attempts to reduce the correlation between estimators in an ensemble by training them on random samples of features instead of the entire feature set.

A sample from a recording of Symphonie Fantastique by Hector Berlioz can be heard at the beginning of "Garden Seed". Also random samples from the 1965 film Simon of the Desert directed by Luis Buñuel, can be heard in "Dream Sequence I" and "Dream Sequence II".

This means, for example, that a (good) 32-bit LCG can be used to obtain about a thousand random numbers; a 64-bit LCG is good for about 221 random samples (a little over two million), etc. For this reason, in practice LCGs are not suitable for large-scale Monte Carlo simulations.

Unit circle area Monte Carlo integration. Estimate by these 900 samples is 4× = 3.15111... When more efficient methods of finding areas are not available, we can resort to “throwing darts”. This Monte Carlo method uses the fact that if random samples are taken uniformly scattered across the surface of a square in which a disk resides, the proportion of samples that hit the disk approximates the ratio of the area of the disk to the area of the square. This should be considered a method of last resort for computing the area of a disk (or any shape), as it requires an enormous number of samples to get useful accuracy; an estimate good to 10−n requires about 100n random samples .

In statistics, randomness is commonly used to create simple random samples. This allows surveys of completely random groups of people to provide realistic data that is reflective of the population. Common methods of doing this include drawing names out of a hat, or using a random digit chart (a large table of random digits).

A variety of Y-DNA haplogroups are seen among certain random samples of people in Hunza. Most frequent among these are R1a1 and R2a, which are associated with Indo-European peoples and the Bronze Age migration into South Asia c. 3000 BC, and probably originated in either South Asia, Central AsiaR. Spencer Wells et al.

Slice sampling is a type of Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm for pseudo- random number sampling, i.e. for drawing random samples from a statistical distribution. The method is based on the observation that to sample a random variable one can sample uniformly from the region under the graph of its density function.Damlen, P., Wakefield, J., & Walker, S. (1999).

Thinking Pictures is currently collaborating with The New York Times on a network of digital newsracks, called the Timestation Digital Newsracks. The Timestation devices display random samples of a newspaper’s content and allow users to manage their online subscriptions. About 50 Timestations are deployed, mostly in New York City. The Wall Street Journal is also experimenting with the technology.

In the second- stage, one adult was selected within each sampled household. The sampling frame consisted of a database of addresses used by Marketing Systems Group (MSG) to provide random samples of addresses. Complete data were collected from 3,630 respondents. The methodology report, complete data set and the survey instruments are available on the HINTS website.

In the second-stage, one adult was selected within each sampled household. The sampling frame consisted of a database of addresses used by Marketing Systems Group (MSG) to provide random samples of addresses. Complete data were collected from 3,185 respondents. The methodology report, complete data set and the survey instruments are available on the HINTS website.

In the second-stage, one adult was selected within each sampled household. The sampling frame consisted of a database of addresses used by Marketing Systems Group (MSG) to provide random samples of addresses. Complete data were collected from 3,677 respondents. The methodology report, complete data set and the survey instruments are available on the HINTS website.

Studies of LGBT parenting have sometimes suffered from small and/or non-random samples and inability to implement all possible controls, due to the small LGBT parenting population and to cultural and social obstacles to identifying as an LGBT parent. A 1993 review published in the Journal of Divorce & Remarriage identified fourteen studies addressing the effects of LGBT parenting on children. The review concluded that all of the studies lacked external validity and that therefore: "The conclusion that there are no significant differences in children reared by lesbian mothers versus heterosexual mothers is not supported by the published research database." Fitzgerald's 1999 analysis explained some methodological difficulties: > Many of these studies suffer from similar limitations and weaknesses, with > the main obstacle being the difficulty in acquiring representative, random > samples on a virtually invisible population.

This implies that Pr[x] is also computable in polynomial time. #Polynomial-time samplable distributions (P-samplable): these are distributions from which it is possible to draw random samples in polynomial time. These two formulations, while similar, are not equivalent. If a distribution is P-computable it is also P-samplable, but the converse is not true if P ≠ P#P.

Frank Sulloway argues that firstborns are more conscientious, more socially dominant, less agreeable, and less open to new ideas compared to laterborns. Large-scale studies using random samples and self-report personality tests, however, have found milder effects than Sulloway claimed, or no significant effects of birth order on personality.Harris, J. R. (2006). No two alike: Human nature and human individuality.

Although historically "manual" randomization techniques (such as shuffling cards, drawing pieces of paper from a bag, spinning a roulette wheel) were common, nowadays automated techniques are mostly used. As both selecting random samples and random permutations can be reduced to simply selecting random numbers, random number generation methods are now most commonly used, both hardware random number generators and pseudo-random number generators.

Fritz Scholz and Michael A. Stephens (1987) discuss a test, based on the Anderson–Darling measure of agreement between distributions, for whether a number of random samples with possibly different sample sizes may have arisen from the same distribution, where this distribution is unspecified. The R package kSamples implements this rank test for comparing k samples among several other such rank tests.

Because no grass stage exists for this hybrid, it has significant height growth during the first year. Thus, it is easily detected in uniform plantings of longleaf pine. Also called "bastard pine", Sonderegger pine may have qualities superior to those of its parents. Differences in wood properties are not significant when compared to random samples of the two parent species.

Methods for random number generation where the marginal distribution is a binomial distribution are well-established.Devroye, Luc (1986) Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation, New York: Springer-Verlag. (See especially Chapter X, Discrete Univariate Distributions) One way to generate random samples from a binomial distribution is to use an inversion algorithm. To do so, one must calculate the probability that for all values from through .

Price's square root law is sometimes offered as a property of or as similar to the Pareto distribution. However, the law only holds in the case that \alpha=1. Note that in this case, the total and expected amount of wealth are not defined, and the rule only applies asymptotically to random samples. The extended Pareto Principle mentioned above is a far more general rule.

The Kinsey Institute Data from Alfred Kinsey's Studies . Published online. His results, however, have been disputed, especially in 1954 by a team consisting of John Tukey, Frederick Mosteller and William G. Cochran, who stated much of Kinsey's work was based on convenience samples rather than random samples, and thus would have been vulnerable to bias.Cochran, W. G., Mosteller, F. and Tukey, J. W. (1954).

This is especially useful when computing orbital dynamics, as many other integration schemes, such as the (order-4) Runge–Kutta method, do not conserve energy and allow the system to drift substantially over time. Because of its time-reversibility, and because it is a symplectic integrator, leapfrog integration is also used in Hamiltonian Monte Carlo, a method for drawing random samples from a probability distribution whose overall normalization is unknown.

Unlike statistical learning theory and most statistical theory in general, algorithmic learning theory does not assume that data are random samples, that is, that data points are independent of each other. This makes the theory suitable for domains where observations are (relatively) noise-free but not random, such as language learning Jain, S. et al (1999): Systems That Learn, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. and automated scientific discovery.

There are various approaches to constructing random samples from the Student's t-distribution. The matter depends on whether the samples are required on a stand-alone basis, or are to be constructed by application of a quantile function to uniform samples; e.g., in the multi-dimensional applications basis of copula-dependency. In the case of stand-alone sampling, an extension of the Box–Muller method and its polar form is easily deployed.

Pathologic staging, where a pathologist examines sections of tissue, can be particularly problematic for two specific reasons: visual discretion and random sampling of tissue. "Visual discretion" means being able to identify single cancerous cells intermixed with healthy cells on a slide. Oversight of one cell can mean mistaging and lead to serious, unexpected spread of cancer. "Random sampling" refers to the fact that lymph nodes are cherry-picked from patients and random samples are examined.

There is a claim that the 45,000-year-old Divje Babe Flute used a diatonic scale; however, there is no proof or consensus of it even being a musical instrument."Random Samples", Science April 1997, vol 276 no 5310 pp 203–205 (available online). There is evidence that the Sumerians and Babylonians used a version of the diatonic scale. This derives from surviving inscriptions that contain a tuning system and musical composition.

The "new urban history" was a short-lived movement that attracted a great deal of attention In the 1960s, then quickly disappeared.Stephan Thernstrom and Richard Sennett, eds., Nineteenth-century Cities: Essays in the New Urban History (1970) It used statistical methods and innovative computer techniques to analyze manuscript census data, person by person, focusing especially on the geographical and social mobility of random samples of residents. Numerous monographs appeared, but it proved frustrating to interpret the results.

A successive independent samples design draws multiple random samples from a population at one or more times. This design can study changes within a population, but not changes within individuals because the same individuals are not surveyed more than once. Such studies cannot, therefore, identify the causes of change over time necessarily. For successive independent samples designs to be effective, the samples must be drawn from the same population, and must be equally representative of it.

This technique, thus, is essentially the process of taking random subsamples of preceding random samples. Multistage sampling can substantially reduce sampling costs, where the complete population list would need to be constructed (before other sampling methods could be applied). By eliminating the work involved in describing clusters that are not selected, multistage sampling can reduce the large costs associated with traditional cluster sampling. However, each sample may not be a full representative of the whole population.

If librarians are just accessing the collection for preservation purposes, they can easily count ranges, columns, shelves and books Ibid. Chrzastowski and use Microsoft Excel or other spreadsheet software to create random samples. Misplacement of books on shelves does have associated costs—in the patron's satisfaction with the library's services and in staff time trying to locate missing books. It may be well worth the extra time to figure out how to extract random items from your library's ILS to complete your sample.

The study involved 6,596 people from Evans County and 3,921 people from Bulloch County. The study population from Evans county consisted of African-American and Caucasian males, ages 40–74, along with a 15-39 year old group that were involved in other studies. Then, the people were divided up into 10 random, equal in size, random samples. Also, a 50% random sample of the 15-39 year old group was taken by including people from the first five samples solely.

As the number of random splits approaches infinity, the result of repeated random sub-sampling validation tends towards that of leave-p-out cross-validation. In a stratified variant of this approach, the random samples are generated in such a way that the mean response value (i.e. the dependent variable in the regression) is equal in the training and testing sets. This is particularly useful if the responses are dichotomous with an unbalanced representation of the two response values in the data.

Although more sophisticated and robust methods have been proposed, the most frequently used graphical methods of identifying power-law probability distributions using random samples are Pareto quantile-quantile plots (or Pareto Q–Q plots), mean residual life plotsBeirlant, J., Teugels, J. L., Vynckier, P. (1996a) Practical Analysis of Extreme Values, Leuven: Leuven University PressColes, S. (2001) An introduction to statistical modeling of extreme values. Springer-Verlag, London. and log–log plots. Another, more robust graphical method uses bundles of residual quantile functions.

Lastly, if R is significantly less than 1, the population is clumped. Statistical tests (such as t-test, chi squared, etc.) can then be used to determine whether R is significantly different from 1\. The variance/mean ratio method focuses mainly on determining whether a species fits a randomly spaced distribution, but can also be used as evidence for either an even or clumped distribution. To utilize the Variance/Mean ratio method, data is collected from several random samples of a given population.

Consumer product failures are often tracked by the number of returns. For systems in dormant storage or on standby, it is necessary to establish a formal surveillance program to inspect and test random samples. Any changes to the system, such as field upgrades or recall repairs, require additional reliability testing to ensure the reliability of the modification. Since it is not possible to anticipate all the failure modes of a given system, especially ones with a human element, failures will occur.

The participants were tested for each type of learning during separate sessions, so the information processes would not interfere with each other. During each session, participants sat in front of a computer screen and various lines were displayed. These lines were created by using a randomization technique where random samples were taken from one of four categories. For ruled-based testing, these samples were used to construct lines of various length and orientation that fell into these four separate categories.

His diehard paper came with the quotation "Nothing is random, only uncertain" attributed to Gail Gasram, though this was simply the reverse of Marsaglia G. He also developed some of the most commonly used methods for generating random numbers and using them to produce random samples from various distributions. Some of the most widely used being the multiply-with- carry, subtract-with-borrow, xorshift, KISS and Mother methods for random numbers, and the ziggurat algorithm for generating normally or other unimodally distributed random variables.

No export certificates will be issued until these issues are satisfactorily resolved. Random samples were taken from horse meat processed in 2008, 2009 and 2010 tested positive for EU prohibited drug residues. Sworn statements made by horse owners on veterinary medical treatment histories were not authenticated and proven false, including cases of positive results for EU prohibited drug residues. From January and October 2010, of the 62,560 US horses shipped to slaughter 5,336 were rejected at the border due to advanced pregnancy, health problems or injuries.

Interacting MCMC methodologies are a class of mean field particle methods for obtaining random samples from a sequence of probability distributions with an increasing level of sampling complexity. These probabilistic models include path space state models with increasing time horizon, posterior distributions w.r.t. sequence of partial observations, increasing constraint level sets for conditional distributions, decreasing temperature schedules associated with some Boltzmann-Gibbs distributions, and many others. In principle, any Markov chain Monte Carlo sampler can be turned into an interacting Markov chain Monte Carlo sampler.

An RRT grows a tree rooted at the starting configuration by using random samples from the search space. As each sample is drawn, a connection is attempted between it and the nearest state in the tree. If the connection is feasible (passes entirely through free space and obeys any constraints), this results in the addition of the new state to the tree. With uniform sampling of the search space, the probability of expanding an existing state is proportional to the size of its Voronoi region.

Records of land holding have been used to administer taxes around the world for many centuries. In the nineteenth century international institutions for cooperation was established, such as the International Statistical Institute. In recent decades administrative data on individuals and organization are increasingly computerized and systematic and therefore more feasibly usable for statistics, although they do not come from random samples. Using the reporting tools of routine reports, audit trails, and computer programming to cross examine databases, administrative data are increasingly used for research.

In the frequentist interpretation, probabilities are discussed only when dealing with well- defined random experiments (or random samples). Neyman's derivation of confidence intervals embraced the measure theoretic axioms of probability published by Kolmogorov a few years previously and referenced the subjective (Bayesian) probability definitions of Jeffreys published earlier in the decade. Neyman defined frequentist probability (under the name classical) and stated the need for randomness in the repeated samples or trials. He accepted in principle the possibility of multiple competing theories of probability while expressing several specific reservations about the existing alternative probability interpretation.

Paul, Salwen, and Dupagne (2000) also found three significant moderators of the perceptual component of the third-person effect hypothesis: (1) sampling – samples obtained from nonrandom samples yielded greater third-person effect differences than samples obtained from random samples; (2) respondent – samples obtained from student samples yielded greater third-person effect differences than samples obtained from non-student samples; and (3) message – different types of content (e.g., general media messages, pornography, television violence, commercial advertisements, political content, nonpolitical news, etc.) have differing effects on the size of the obtained third-person perceptions.

However, those who identify inmates as homosexual individuals eligible for the K6G unit rely on stereotypes constructed by society about gay men. This procedure prevents homosexual men who are not open about their sexuality, particularly those of color, from coming out as gay for fear of abuse if they do so. Finally, serious health concerns have begun to arise with the issue of mass incarceration in the Los Angeles County Jails. Several organizations and scholars have analyzed random samples of prisoners with illnesses and the healthcare that they receive while incarcerated.

The probabilistic roadmap. planner is a motion planning algorithm in robotics, which solves the problem of determining a path between a starting configuration of the robot and a goal configuration while avoiding collisions. An example of a probabilistic random map algorithm exploring feasible paths around a number of polygonal obstacles. The basic idea behind PRM is to take random samples from the configuration space of the robot, testing them for whether they are in the free space, and use a local planner to attempt to connect these configurations to other nearby configurations.

Gallup poll collected extensive data in a project called "Who Speaks for Islam?". John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed present data relevant to Islamic views on peace, and more, in their book Who Speaks for Islam? The book reports Gallup poll data from random samples in over 35 countries using Gallup's various research techniques (e.g. pairing male and female interviewers, testing the questions beforehand, communicating with local leaders when approval is necessary, travelling by foot if that is the only way to reach a region, etc.) There was a great deal of data.

In econometrics and signal processing, a stochastic process is said to be ergodic if its statistical properties can be deduced from a single, sufficiently long, random sample of the process. The reasoning is that any collection of random samples from a process must represent the average statistical properties of the entire process. In other words, regardless of what the individual samples are, a birds-eye view of the collection of samples must represent the whole process. Conversely, a process that is not ergodic is a process that changes erratically at an inconsistent rate.

Possible errors in the collection and analysis of the data used in the Employee Confidence Index include sampling error, coverage error, error associated with nonresponse, error associated with question wording and response options, and associated post-survey weighting and adjustment errors. Therefore, Harris Interactive avoids calculating a margin of error for the Index as it would be misleading. All that can be calculated are different possible sampling errors with different probabilities based on pure, unweighted, random samples with 100% response rates. These are only theoretical because no published polls come close to this ideal.

When sampling a function of N variables, the range of each variable is divided into M equally probable intervals. M sample points are then placed to satisfy the Latin hypercube requirements; this forces the number of divisions, M, to be equal for each variable. This sampling scheme does not require more samples for more dimensions (variables); this independence is one of the main advantages of this sampling scheme. Another advantage is that random samples can be taken one at a time, remembering which samples were taken so far.

The NAOOA regularly collects, from the retail marketplace, random samples of olive oil which are tested to ensure compliance with standards set by the International Olive Council. Companies are notified of the results and if needed, the Food and Drug Administration is notified. In 2013, the NAOOA sued Kangadis Food for falsely labeling Capatriti brand oil as olive oil when the product was in fact pomace oil (oil made from pits and skins of olives). The lawsuit resulted in a federal judge ordering Kangadis Foods to relabel or recall its product.

Escape hoods that are certified to ANSI/ISEA 110 will provide the specified level of protection to escape from the byproducts of fire including particulate matter, carbon monoxide, other toxic gases and the effects of radiant heat.Introduction of Smoke Escape Hood To earn certification, the escape hood must meet specified requirements for physical characteristics. Escape hoods are tested for donning, optical properties, corrosion resistance and proving the operational packaging does not leak. During the certification process random samples are conditioned by exposure to vibration, puncture and tear, and extremes of pressure and temperature.

This suggests that severe periodontitis in not uniformly distributed among various races, ethnicities and socioeconomic groups. Hugoson (1998) examined three random samples of 600, 597 and 584 subjects in 1973, 1983 and 1993 respectively. These subjects were aged 20–70 years. The severity of disease was divided into five groups, with group 5 having the most severe disease. There was an apparent increase from 1% to 2% to 3% over the three study periods, which may have been due to an increase of dentate subjects in the older age groups.

Bottom-up approach is usually costlier compared to top-down, as it involves more labor and resources involved in conducting the audit. It is mainly focused on identifying the apparent and real losses more accurately with actual field measurements. Apparent losses can be identified by analyzing billing systems to identify discrepancies, by performing meter calibration and accuracy test on random samples, and by assessing a sample of places for unauthorized consumption potential. Real losses are predominantly due to leakages which can be identified by various techniques and methods detailed in manual using bottom-up approach.

Social psychologists study the way in which people in general are susceptible to social influence. Several experiments have documented an interesting, unexpected example of social influence, whereby the mere knowledge that others were present reduced the likelihood that people helped. The only way to be certain that the results of an experiment represent the behaviour of a particular population is to ensure that participants are randomly selected from that population. Samples in experiments cannot be randomly selected just as they are in surveys because it is impractical and expensive to select random samples for social psychology experiments.

Instead, stochastic approximation algorithms use random samples of F(\theta,\xi) to efficiently approximate properties of f such as zeros or extrema. Recently, stochastic approximations have found extensive applications in the fields of statistics and machine learning, especially in settings with big data. These applications range from stochastic optimization methods and algorithms, to online forms of the EM algorithm, reinforcement learning via temporal differences, and deep learning, and others. Stochastic approximation algorithms have also been used in the social sciences to describe collective dynamics: fictitious play in learning theory and consensus algorithms can be studied using their theory.

After the letter had been signed by 32 persons, GPSO started as a project in the World Wide Web on September 2008. In October the journal Science wrote: "At a time when some developed nations are paying citizens to bolster flagging birth-rates (Science, 30 June 2006, p. 1894), a grass-roots group of scientists and environmentalists is calling for a new push to limit human numbers".Science, “Random Samples” section, October 31, Volume 322, Issue 5902 GPSO is being supported by the World Union for Protection of Life (WUPL), which was founded in Luxembourg 1964.

Practically, an ensemble of chains is generally developed, starting from a set of points arbitrarily chosen and sufficiently distant from each other. These chains are stochastic processes of "walkers" which move around randomly according to an algorithm that looks for places with a reasonably high contribution to the integral to move into next, assigning them higher probabilities. Random walk Monte Carlo methods are a kind of random simulation or Monte Carlo method. However, whereas the random samples of the integrand used in a conventional Monte Carlo integration are statistically independent, those used in MCMC are autocorrelated.

In computational statistics, the preconditioned Crank–Nicolson algorithm (pCN) is a Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method for obtaining random samples – sequences of random observations – from a target probability distribution for which direct sampling is difficult. The most significant feature of the pCN algorithm is its dimension robustness, which makes it well-suited for high- dimensional sampling problems. The pCN algorithm is well-defined, with non- degenerate acceptance probability, even for target distributions on infinite- dimensional Hilbert spaces. As a consequence, when pCN is implemented on a real-world computer in large but finite dimension N, i.e.

For example, to study normative judgments of family status, "there might be 10 levels of income; 50 head-of-household occupations, and 50 occupations for spouses; two races, white and black; and ten levels of family size".Heise, David R. Surveying Cultures: Discovering Shared Conceptions and Sentiments (Wiley Interscience, 2010), p. 78 Since this approach can lead to huge universes of stimuli – half a million in the example – Rossi proposed drawing small random samples from the universe of stimuli for presentation to individual respondents, and pooling judgments by multiple respondents in order to sample the universe adequately. Main effects of predictor variables then can be assessed, though not all interactive effects.

All six of the Apollo missions on which samples were collected landed in the central nearside of the Moon, an area that has subsequently been shown to be geochemically anomalous by the Lunar Prospector mission. In contrast, the numerous lunar meteorites are random samples of the Moon and consequently provide a more representative sampling of the lunar surface than the Apollo samples. Half the lunar meteorites, for example, likely sample material from the farside of the Moon. At the time the first meteorite from the Moon was discovered in 1982, there was speculation that some other unusual meteorites that had been found previously originated from Mars.

ANOVA is a form of statistical hypothesis testing heavily used in the analysis of experimental data. A test result (calculated from the null hypothesis and the sample) is called statistically significant if it is deemed unlikely to have occurred by chance, assuming the truth of the null hypothesis. A statistically significant result, when a probability (p-value) is less than a pre-specified threshold (significance level), justifies the rejection of the null hypothesis, but only if the a priori probability of the null hypothesis is not high. In the typical application of ANOVA, the null hypothesis is that all groups are random samples from the same population.

Also, researchers usually have to face the problem of deciding whether or not a real-world probability distribution follows a power law. As a solution to this problem, Diaz proposed a graphical methodology based on random samples that allow visually discerning between different types of tail behavior. This methodology uses bundles of residual quantile functions, also called percentile residual life functions, which characterize many different types of distribution tails, including both heavy and non-heavy tails. However, Stumpf claimed the need for both a statistical and a theoretical background in order to support a power-law in the underlying mechanism driving the data generating process.

As the largest Voronoi regions belong to the states on the frontier of the search, this means that the tree preferentially expands towards large unsearched areas. The length of the connection between the tree and a new state is frequently limited by a growth factor. If the random sample is further from its nearest state in the tree than this limit allows, a new state at the maximum distance from the tree along the line to the random sample is used instead of the random sample itself. The random samples can then be viewed as controlling the direction of the tree growth while the growth factor determines its rate.

The flakes are based on 1243 whole flakes with random samples taken from roughly 100 specimens. To name a few of the flakes discovered, there are curved back geometric which represent roughly 30 percent of the retouched implements found. Pointed lunates were also discovered which represent an even larger portion of curved backed geometric category, 59 percent to be exact, none of the pointed lunates bear an eared projection at the tip, however, in the more recent periods, the tip on one is more emphasized. Another type of flake discovered was the deep lunate with a mean length of and only thirty three of these specimens being collected.

However, different variance-correlation matrix can be specified to account for this, and the heterogeneity of variance can itself be modeled. ;Independence of observations Independence is an assumption of general linear models, which states that cases are random samples from the population and that scores on the dependent variable are independent of each other. One of the main purposes of multilevel models is to deal with cases where the assumption of independence is violated; multilevel models do, however, assume that 1) the level 1 and level 2 residuals are uncorrelated and 2) The errors (as measured by the residuals) at the highest level are uncorrelated.

At least 767,235 signatures, 67.43% of the submitted signatures, had to be estimated to be valid in order for the petition to qualify for a second mandatory phase to review all of the submitted signatures, not just random samples. Also on September 12, 2014, the campaign announced its intent to "... conduct a review of the signatures determined to be invalid by the registrars in several counties to determine if they were in fact valid signatures." To qualify for a full check of all signatures in all fifty-eight counties, the review must find about 450 wrongly invalidated signatures among those submitted in the fifteen counties that sampled 3% of the total signatures submitted in each of those fifteen counties.

The concept underlying the method is based on the probability integral transform, in that a set of independent random samples derived from any random variable should on average be uniformly distributed with respect to the cumulative distribution function of the random variable. The MPS method chooses the parameter values that make the observed data as uniform as possible, according to a specific quantitative measure of uniformity. One of the most common methods for estimating the parameters of a distribution from data, the method of maximum likelihood (MLE), can break down in various cases, such as involving certain mixtures of continuous distributions. In these cases the method of maximum spacing estimation may be successful.

In statistics, inferences are made about characteristics of a population by studying a sample of that population's individuals. In order to arrive at a sample that presents an unbiased estimate of the true characteristics of the population, statisticians often seek to study a simple random sample—that is, a sample in which every individual in the population is equally likely to be included. The result of this is that every possible combination of individuals who could be chosen for the sample has an equal chance to be the sample that is selected (that is, the space of simple random samples of a given size from a given population is composed of equally likely outcomes).

T.M.F. Smith et alia. In the United States, the ASA's guidelines for undergraduate statistics specify that introductory statistics should emphasize the scientific methods of data collection, particularly randomized experiments and random samples: further, the first course should review these topics when the theory of "statistical inference" is studied. Similar recommendations occur for the Advanced Placement (AP) course in Statistics. The ASA and AP guidelines are followed by contemporary textbooks in the US, such as those by Freedman, Purvis & Pisani (Statistics) and by David S. Moore (Introduction to the Practice of Statistics with McCabe and Statistics: Concepts and Controversies with Notz) and by Watkins, Schaeffer & Cobb (Statistics: From Data to Decisions and Statistics in Action).

Probability density functions of the order statistics for a sample of size n = 5 from an exponential distribution with unit scale parameter In statistics, the kth order statistic of a statistical sample is equal to its kth-smallest value. Together with rank statistics, order statistics are among the most fundamental tools in non-parametric statistics and inference. Important special cases of the order statistics are the minimum and maximum value of a sample, and (with some qualifications discussed below) the sample median and other sample quantiles. When using probability theory to analyze order statistics of random samples from a continuous distribution, the cumulative distribution function is used to reduce the analysis to the case of order statistics of the uniform distribution.

Experts distinguish between population-based studies, which extrapolate from random samples of the population, and body counts, which tally reported deaths and likely significantly underestimate casualties. Population-based studies produce estimates of the number of Iraq War casualties ranging from 151,000 violent deaths as of June 2006 (per the Iraq Family Health Survey) to 1,033,000 (per the 2007 Opinion Research Business (ORB) survey). Other survey-based studies covering different time- spans find 461,000 total deaths (over 60% of them violent) as of June 2011 (per PLOS Medicine 2013), and 655,000 total deaths (over 90% of them violent) as of June 2006 (per the 2006 Lancet study). Body counts counted at least 110,600 violent deaths as of April 2009 (Associated Press).

Similarly, the applicable toy safety standards to which a toy is tested by a laboratory may not discover a hazard in a product: in the case of 2007's magnetic toy recalls and the Bindeez recall, the products in question met the requirements laid down in the applicable safety standard, yet were found to present an inherent risk. Proposed process and quality control standards, similar to the ISO 9000 systems, seek to eliminate production errors and control materials to avoid deviation from the design. The creation of manufacturing quality standards for toys will help ensure consistency of production. Using a continual improvement model, production can be subject to constant scrutiny, rather than assuming the compliance of all production by testing random samples.

This continuity suggests the impressiveness of petroglyphs of the facades of caves and rocks reflected to ancient Iranian artisans. This continuity can be traced from eighth millennium BC by the potteries in Ganj Dareh (near Qeysvand, Harsin in Kermanshah Province), to the third and first millennium BC, considering the bronze period in Lorestan. Iran provides exclusive demonstrations of script formation from pictogram, ideogram, linear (2300 BC) or proto-Elamite, geometric old Elamite script, Pahlavi script, Arabic script (906 years ago), Kufi script, and Persian script back to at least 250 years ago. The most recent chronology of petroglyphs in Iran was done employing the General Antiparticle Spectrometer in 2008 that helped gather data from random samples; though, this is a demanding job that needs a systematic and comprehensive supported effort.

If the paired observations are numeric quantities (such as the actual length of the hind leg and foreleg in the Zar example), and the differences between paired observations are random samples from a single normal distribution, then the paired t-test is appropriate. The paired t-test will generally have greater power to detect differences than the sign test. The asymptotic relative efficiency of the sign test to the paired t-test, under these circumstances, is 0.637. However, if the distribution of the differences between pairs is not normal, but instead is heavy-tailed (platykurtic distribution), the sign test can have more power than the paired t-test, with asymptotic relative efficiency of 2.0 relative to the paired t-test and 1.3 relative to the Wilcoxon signed rank test.

"The odds of being classified as shy were 1.52 times greater for children exposed to shorter compared to longer daylengths during gestation." In their analysis, scientists assigned conception dates to the children relative to their known birth dates, which allowed them to obtain random samples from children who had a mid-gestation point during the longest hours of the year and the shortest hours of the year (June and December, depending on whether the cohorts were in the United States or New Zealand). The longitudinal survey data included measurements of shyness on a five-point scale based on interviews with the families being surveyed, and children in the top 25th percentile of shyness scores were identified. The data revealed a significant co-variance between the children who presented as being consistently shy over a two-year period, and shorter day length during their mid-prenatal development period.

In computational physics and statistics, the Hamiltonian Monte Carlo algorithm (also known as hybrid Monte Carlo), is a Markov chain Monte Carlo method for obtaining a sequence of random samples which converge to being distributed according to a target probability distribution for which direct sampling is difficult. This sequence can be used to estimate integrals with respect to the target distribution (expected values). Hamiltonian Monte Carlo corresponds to an instance of the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm, with a Hamiltonian dynamics evolution simulated using a time-reversible and volume-preserving numerical integrator (typically the leapfrog integrator) to propose a move to a new point in the state space. Compared to using a Gaussian random walk proposal distribution in the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm, Hamiltonian Monte Carlo reduces the correlation between successive sampled states by proposing moves to distant states which maintain a high probability of acceptance due to the approximate energy conserving properties of the simulated Hamiltonian dynamic when using a symplectic integrator.

The result of the 2019 election was in stark contrast to the aggregation of opinion polls conducted over the period of the 45th parliament and the 2019 election campaign. Apart from a few outliers, Labor had been ahead for the entire period, by as much as 56% on a two-party-preferred basis after Scott Morrison took over the leadership of the Liberal Party in August 2018—although during the campaign, Labor's two-party estimate was between 51 and 52%. During the ABC's election coverage, election analyst Antony Green stated, "at the moment, on these figures, it's a bit of a spectacular failure of opinion polling", with the election results essentially a mirror image of the polls with the Coalition's two-party vote at around 51%. The former director of Newspoll, Martin O'Shannessy, cited changes in demographics and telephone habits which have changed the nature of polling from calling random samples of landlines to calling random mobile numbers and automated "robocalls"—with the ensuing drop in response rates resulting in lower quality data due to smaller samples and bias in the sample due to who chooses to respond.