" In the new version, "preliterate children" was replaced with "young children.
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In a largely preliterate age, Notre Dame's sculptures and paintings were sources of religious education.
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She's gifted at charades and Pictionary, she just needs to be whispered the clue, given that she's preliterate.
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At the correct hour (in our home, it's 7 am) the clock glows green, creating a visual cue for preliterate children.
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Yes, many preliterate kids send emoji-only text messages, and ages three to five seems to be the peak time for them.
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"They're used to mark ownership in what is not totally a preliterate society, but not a fully literate society," Davis tells CNN.
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Among his books was the critically acclaimed "Barbarian Europe" (2004), a comparative study of the preliterate Slavic and Germanic peoples in the Middle Ages.
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One reason I learned to read was so that I could understand "hard books" like "Little Women," which was read aloud to me as a preliterate child.
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And, he pointed out, the scientists had said their findings could help "preliterate" children — which seemed odd, since the children in the study were ages 8 to 11.
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Designers and their fans alike are so stoned on storytelling and the seductions of reference that one starts to yearn for the preliterate — or pre-Internet, anyway — world.
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Amazon, on the other hand, has this kind of access to children not just once they are old enough to sign up for social media, but at a preliterate age.
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I recognize that genre fantasy movies have always dealt with real-world issues, but it's typically been through horror films, not colorful action films based on characters that were created to entertain preliterate children.
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Indeed, this painting's tribal look is instructive: recalling that the preliterate prehistoric precedent of these art brut artists is to be found in ancestral divinatory activities of the seer/soothsayer often found among nomadic tribal cultures all across the globe.
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You then appeal to people who are not articulate, and you make them feel that while they may not be able to argue with their adversaries, they have a kind of preliterate virtue that literacy and intellectual life has robbed them of.
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In Ted Chiang's parable-like short story "The Truth of Fact, the Truth of Feeling," from his new collection, "Exhalation," a teenager in a preliterate West African village is taught to read and write by a European missionary but finds it impossible to capture the performance of the village's best storyteller in the new medium: When Kokwa told the story, he didn't merely use words; he used the sound of his voice, the movement of his hands, the light in his eyes.
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Retrieved on 23 January 2015. Some people have drawn analogies between certain aspects of hypnotism and areas such as crowd psychology, religious hysteria, and ritual trances in preliterate tribal cultures.
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There are three kinds of global cultural codes: preliterate (traditional), literary and screen full. Each type contains basic cultural code, opened to self-generation of new, secondary cultural codes.Culture and Cultural Studies: Glossary. Moscow, 2003.
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Many remain preliterate and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.
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The Chavín, a Peruvian preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. The Chavín civilization spanned from 900 to 300 BCE.
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Prehistoric music, once more commonly called primitive music, is the name given to all music produced in preliterate cultures (prehistory), beginning somewhere in very late geological history. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in most of Europe (1500 BC) and later music in subsequent European-influenced areas, but still exists in isolated areas. Prehistoric music thus technically includes all of the world's music that has existed before the advent of any currently extant historical sources concerning that music, for example, traditional Native American music of preliterate tribes and Australian Aboriginal music. However, it is more common to refer to the "prehistoric" music of non-European continents – especially that which still survives – as folk, indigenous or traditional music.
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The psychiatrist Anthony Stevens called The Origins and History of Consciousness, "a great but misguided book". Stevens argues that Neumann's assumptions that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, that preliterate human beings were "unconscious", and that Western consciousness has been subjected to different selection pressures to that of other civilized populations, are fallacious and biologically untenable.
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Bookchin writes of preliterate societies organized around mutual need but ultimately overrun by institutions of hierarchy and domination, such as city-states and capitalist economies, which he attributes uniquely to societies of humans and not communities of animals. He proposes confederation between communities of humans run through democracy rather than through administrative logistics.
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It has been suggested that Genesis 22 contains an intrusion of the liturgy of a rite of passage, including mock sacrifice, as commonly found in early and preliterate societies, marking the passage from youth to adulthood.T. McElwain (2005) The Beloved and I: New Jubilees Version of Sacred Scripture with Verse Commentaries pages 57–58.
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Retrieved 5 March 2013Jones.The End of Roman Britain. p.71. - ..the repetitious entries for invading ships in the Chronicle (three ships of Hengest and Horsa; three ships of Aella; five ships of Cerdic and Cynric; two ships of Port; three ships of Stuf and Wihtgar), drawn from preliterate traditions including bogus eponyms and duplications, might be considered a poetic convention.
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There are a number of ancient placenames from other languages, including Thracian or Dacian, such as Plovdiv, derived from Pulpudeva (itself derived from Philipoppolis), German and Celtic, such as Vidin from Dunonia and Bononia. The placename Varna of the non-metathesized group CorC bears witness of Old Bulgarian's preliterate period - or perhaps stemming from a more ancient Proto-Indo-European root.
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One of the strongest pieces of evidence that supports this model was a study conducted by Paul Ekman and Friesen (1971), where members of a preliterate tribe in Papua New Guinea reliably recognized the facial expressions of individuals from the United States. Culturally isolated and with no exposure to US media, there was no possibility of cross-cultural transmission to the Papuan tribesmen.
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Other substantial construction projects of a similar date do exist, however, such as Wat's Dyke and Danevirke, in what is now Germany as well as such sites as Stonehenge from millennia earlier. The dyke can be regarded in the light of these counterparts as the largest and most recent great construction of the preliterate inhabitants of Britain.Patrick Wormald, "Offa's Dyke", in James Campbell et al., The Anglo- Saxons, pp. 120–121.
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These include story form, metaphor, binary opposites, rhyme, rhythm and pattern, humor, mental imagery among others. These tools first become present in preliterate people, which generally happen to be children before the age of seven. The second chapter describes the cognitive tools that are added with the onset of literacy. These include a sense of reality, interest in extremes of experience, association with heroes, connecting knowledge with human meaning, narrative understanding among others.
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The first epics were products of preliterate societies and oral history poetic traditions. Oral tradition was used alongside written scriptures to communicate and facilitate the spread of culture. In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. Early twentieth-century study of living oral epic traditions in the Balkans by Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated the paratactic model used for composing these poems.
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The mbila (plural "timbila") is associated with the Chopi people of the Inhambane Province, in southern Mozambique. It is not to be confused with the mbira. The style of music played on it is believed to be the most sophisticated method of composition yet found among preliterate peoples. The gourd-resonated, equal-ratio heptatonic-tuned mbila of Mozambique is typically played in large ensembles in a choreographed dance, perhaps depicting a historical drama.
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Prehistoric music (previously primitive music) is a term in the history of music for all music produced in preliterate cultures (prehistory), beginning somewhere in very late geological history. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in different parts of the world, but still exists in isolated areas. However, it is more common to refer to the "prehistoric" music which still survives as folk, indigenous or traditional music. Prehistoric music is studied alongside other periods within music archaeology.
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Mandeep Kaur Basran, a professor of the Department of Sociology of the University of Saskatchewan, wrote that the book has "refreshing arguments" and that it complements The Sikhs in Canada: Migration: Race, Class, and Gender by Gurcharn S. Basran and B. Singh Bolaria.Basran, p. 151. Dusenbery argued that Nayar's analysis may incorrectly make recent Punjabi Sikh immigrants "stand-ins for all immigrants from "traditional," "agricultural," or "preliterate" societies, who presumably experience the same problems of "adaptation to modernity.""Dusenbery, p. 211-212.
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Springer Netherlands. Volume 16, Number 4 / December, 1992 Working with Wallace V. Friesen, Ekman demonstrated that the findings extended to preliterate Fore tribesmen in Papua New Guinea, whose members could not have learned the meaning of expressions from exposure to media depictions of emotion. Ekman and Friesen then demonstrated that certain emotions were exhibited with very specific display rules, culture-specific prescriptions about who can show which emotions to whom and when. These display rules could explain how cultural differences may conceal the universal effect of expression.
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It was also source of academic interest in Sweden, where Mikael Kindborg proposed a static representation of ToonTalk programs and in Portugal, where Leonel Morgado studied its potential to enable computer programming by preliterate children. ToonTalk was influenced by the Janus computer programming language and the Actor model. The main communication abstraction in ToonTalk is the bird/nest pair. When you (the programmer or a robot) give a thing to a bird, she flies to her nest and puts the thing in it, then returns.
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The Early history of Cambodia follows the prehistoric and protohistoric development of Cambodia as a country in mainland Southeast Asia. Thanks to archaeological work carried out since 2009 this can now be traced back to the Neolithic period. As excavation sites have become more numerous and modern dating methods are applied, settlement traces of all stages of human civil development from neolithic Hunter-gatherer groups to organized preliterate societies are documented in the region.David Chandler, A History of Cambodia (Westview Publishers: Boulder Colorado, 2008) p. 13.
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Wallace' model 1956 describes the process of a revitalization movement. It is derived from studies of a Native American religious movement, The Code of Handsome Lake, which may have led to the formation of the Longhouse Religion. > Wallace derived his theory from studies of so-called primitive peoples > (preliterate and homogeneous), with particular attention to the Iroquois > revitalization movement led by Seneca religious leader and prophet Handsome > Lake (1735-1815). Wallace believed that his revitalization model applies to > movements as broad and complex as the rise of Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, > or Wesleyan Methodism.
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Wycliffe Global Alliance website: Contact Us Wycliffe missionaries develop alphabets, help preliterate people learn to read and write, and translate the Bible into written versions of currently spoken languages. By developing written languages, the organization is helping to "save lost and dying languages." Due to technological advances, Wycliffe's missionaries in the United States connect with translation teams in other areas of the world to translate the Bible into additional languages. As a result, translations that used to take 20 or 30 years to finish can be completed in six or seven years.
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The chaos, monsters and violence in ancient myths are representative of the forces that shape each age. They believed that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate astronomy that became lost with the rise of the Greco-Roman civilization. Santillana and von Dechend in their book Hamlet's Mill, An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time (1969) clearly state that ancient myths have no historical or factual basis other than a cosmological one encoding astronomical phenomena, especially the precession of the equinoxes.Giorgio de Santillana & Hertha von Dechend, Hamlet's Mill, David R Godine: Boston, 1977.
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Examples of basic emotions The emotion wheel. For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions.
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Much narrative poetry—such as Scottish and English ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems—is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition. It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, alliteration and kennings, once served as memory aids for bards who recited traditional tales. Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Juan Ruiz, William Langland, Chaucer, Fernando de Rojas, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe, Alfred Tennyson, and Anne Carson.
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The seventh Ishráq of Baháʼu'lláh's Ishráqat stipulates as follows: :"Unto every father hath been enjoined the instruction of his son and daughter in the art of reading and writing... " While there do exist a number of preliterate or non-literate cultures, Baháʼís assume the spread of literacy to be one of the signs of an "ever-advancing civilization." For example, a priesthood is not needed in this era because the ability to read and write is no longer restricted to a professional class, with the masses reduced to auditors of their sacred texts.
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In many societies, especially preliterate ones, the cultural transmission of folk music requires learning by ear, although notation has evolved in some cultures. Different cultures may have different notions concerning a division between "folk" music on the one hand and of "art" and "court" music on the other. In the proliferation of popular music genres, some traditional folk music became also referred to as "World music" or "Roots music". The English term "folklore", to describe traditional folk music and dance, entered the vocabulary of many continental European nations, each of which had its folk- song collectors and revivalists.
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Most of the characteristics that distinguish it from other forms of utterance-- rhythm, rhyme, compression, intensity of feeling, the use of refrains--appear to have come about from efforts to fit words to musical forms. In the European tradition the earliest surviving poems, the Homeric and Hesiodic epics, identify themselves as poems to be recited or chanted to a musical accompaniment rather than as pure song. Another interpretation is that rhythm, refrains, and kennings are essentially paratactic devices that enable the reciter to reconstruct the poem from memory. In preliterate societies, these forms of poetry were composed for, and sometimes during, performance.
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Emishi paying homage to Shōtoku Taishi (1321–4), a precursor to Ainu genre painting; detail from the Pictorial Biography of Prince Shōtoku (ICP), , kept at Ibaraki Prefectural Museum of History or (アイヌ絵 Ainu-e) is the Japanese art historical term for depictions of Ainu by Wajin, prevalent from the mid-Edo period to the early Meiji period (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries). The preliterate Ainu had no painting tradition of their own. Typical subjects include myths and legends, rituals, encounters with wajin, hunting, fishing, and forms of entertainment. Artists active in the genre include , , , Kakizaki Hakyō, , , , and .
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Taboos were essentially "rules of avoidance which express danger attitudes". This was a considerable advance on the view, commonplace at that time that taboos were emblematic of neurotic trends in primitive society. Robert Parker, paraphrasing Steiner, observes:- : > "The system of taboo is not, as it has seemed to some observers, the product > of a cultural neurosis, but a way in which "attitudes to values are > expressed in terms of dangers'.' In his dissertation on slavery, he showed how goods with a purely utilitarian value are "translated" into ritual and ceremonial values which then form the basis of power in several preliterate societies.
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The very early origin of the myth in preliterate times means that during the more than a millennium when it was to some degree part of the fabric of culture, its perceived significance likely passed through numerous developments. Several euhemeristic attempts to interpret the Golden Fleece "realistically" as reflecting some physical cultural object or alleged historical practice have been made. For example, in the 20th century, some scholars suggested that the story of the Golden Fleece signified the bringing of sheep husbandry to Greece from the east; in other readings, scholars theorized it referred to golden grain, or to the sun. A sluice box used in placer mining.
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They believed that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate astronomy that became lost with the rise of the Greco-Roman civilization. Santillana and von Dechend state that ancient myths have no historical basis but a cosmological one based on a primitive form of astrology. They recognized the importance of the heliacally rising constellation as markers for the astrological ages and claimed that knowledge of this phenomenon had been known for thousands of years previously. They claim that to understand ancient thinking it is necessary to understand astrology, not the modern sun-sign or horoscopic astrology, but the astrology of ancient times which was the lingua franca of ancient times.
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Research on the classification of perceived emotions has centered around the debate between two fundamentally distinct viewpoints. One side of the debate posits that emotions are separate and discrete entities whereas the other side suggests that emotions can be classified as values on the dimensions of valence (positive versus negative) and arousal (calm/soothing versus exciting/agitating). Psychologist Paul Ekman supported the discrete emotion perspective with his groundbreaking work comparing emotion perception and expression between literate and preliterate cultures. Ekman concluded that the ability to produce and perceive emotions is universal and innate and that emotions manifest categorically as basic emotions (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, and possibly contempt).
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In the Pauline epistles baptism effects and represents the believer's union with Christ, a union by which the believer shares in Christ's death and resurrection; cleanses of sin; incorporates into the Body of Christ and makes one "drink of the Spirit." The conception of a sacramental principle, widespread not only in the Greco-Roman world, but even in pre-Columbian America and in preliterate societies, took on a unique significance, and to Paul's influence is attributed an interpretation given to the Christian rite in terms of the Greco-Roman mysteries but little weight can be attached to the counterparts of baptism in mystery religions as an explanation of the Christian practice.
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"The desire to pass on tales of current events could be found even in cultures that did not have writing—let alone printing presses or computers—to whet or satisfy their thirst for news. Observers have often remarked on the fierce concern with the news that they find in preliterate or semiliterate peoples. […] It is difficult, if not impossible, to find a society that does not exchange news and that does not build into its rituals and customs means for facilitating that exchange." Sufficiently important news would be repeated quickly and often, and could spread by word of mouth over a large geographic area.
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1865 illustration of Hop-o'-My-Thumb and the ogre by Alexander Zick A fairy tale, fairytale, wonder tale, magic tale, or Märchen is an instance of a folklore genre that takes the form of a short story. Such stories typically feature entities such as dwarfs, dragons, elves, fairies, giants, gnomes, goblins, griffins, mermaids, talking animals, trolls, unicorns, or witches, and usually magic or enchantments. In most cultures, there is no clear line separating myth from folk or fairy tale; all these together form the literature of preliterate societies. Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described)Thompson, Stith.
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Scott argues that the particular social and cultural characteristics of the hill people were adapted to escape capture by the lowland states and should not be viewed as relics of barbarism abandoned by civilization. Peter Leeson examined a variety of institutions of private law enforcement developed in anarchic situations by eighteenth century pirates, preliterate tribesmen, and Californian prison gangs. These groups all adapted different methods of private law enforcement to meet their specific needs and the particulars of their anarchic situation. Anarcho-primitivists base their critique of civilization partly on anthropological studies of nomadic hunter-gatherers, noting that the shift towards domestication has likely caused increases in disease, labor, inequality, warfare and psychological disorders.
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The End of Roman Britain. p.71. - ..the repetitious entries for invading ships in the Chronicle (three ships of Hengest and Horsa; three ships of Ælle; five ships of Cerdic and Cynric; two ships of Port; three ships of Stuf and Wihtgar), drawn from preliterate traditions including bogus eponyms and duplications, might be considered a poetic convention. The chronicle describes how on landing Ælle slew the local defenders and drove the remainder into the Forest of Andred and then goes on to describe Ælle's battle with the British in 485 near the bank of Mercredesburne, and his siege of Pevensey in 491 after which the inhabitants were massacred.Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Parker MS. 485AD.
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The condition of international relations is best described as international anarchy; > 'While in domestic politics the struggle for power is governed and > circumscribed by law, in international politics, law is governed and > circumscribed by the struggle for power. (This is why) international > politics is called power politics... War is the only means by which states > can in the last resort defend vital interests...the causes of war are > inherent in power politics.' Hans Morgenthau believed international law to be the weakest and most primitive system of law enforcement; he likened its decentralised nature to the law that prevails in preliterate tribal societies. Monopoly on violence is what makes domestic law enforceable; but between nations, there are multiple competing sources of force.
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Some believe Ovid's Pyramus and Thisbe, as well as the story of Ariadne at Naxos might have also contributed to the development of the Tristan legend. The sequence in which Tristan and Iseult die and become interwoven trees also parallels Ovid's love story of Baucis and Philemon in which two lovers are transformed in death into two different trees sprouting from the same trunk. However this also occurs in the saga of Deidre of the Sorrows making the link more tenuous and ignores the (now lost) oral traditions of preliterate societies, relying only on written records which are known to have been damaged – especially during the Dissolution of the Monasteries – during the development of modern nation states such as England and France.
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The Chopi people of the coastal Inhambane Province are known for a unique kind of xylophone called mbila (pl: timbila) and the style of music played with it, which "is believed to be the most sophisticated method of composition yet found among preliterate peoples." Ensembles consist of around ten xylophones of four sizes and accompany ceremonial dances with long compositions called ngomi which consist of an overture and ten movements of different tempos and styles. The ensemble leader serves as poet, composer, conductor, and performer, creating a text, improvising a melody partially based on the features of the Chopi's tone language, and composing a second countrapuntal line. The musicians of the ensemble partially improvise their parts according to style, instrumental idiom, and the leader's indications.
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Edwin Sutherland adopted the concept of social disorganization to explain the increases in crime that accompanied the transformation of preliterate and peasant societies—in which "influences surrounding a person were steady, uniform, harmonious and consistent"—to modern Western civilization, which he believed was characterized by inconsistency, conflict, and un-organization (1934: 64). He also believed that the mobility, economic competition, and individualistic ideology that accompanied capitalist and industrial development had been responsible for the disintegration of the large family and homogeneous neighborhoods as agents of social control. The failure of extended kin groups expanded the realm of relationships no longer controlled by the community and undermined governmental controls, leading to persistent "systematic" crime and delinquency. Sutherland also believed that such disorganization causes and reinforces the cultural traditions and cultural conflicts that support antisocial activity.
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Prehistoric warfare refers to war that occurred between societies without recorded history. The existence — and even the definition — of war in humanity's hypothetical state of nature has been a controversial topic in the history of ideas at least since Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan (1651) argued a "war of all against all", a view directly challenged by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in a Discourse on Inequality (1755) and The Social Contract (1762). The debate over human nature continues, spanning contemporary anthropology, archaeology, ethnography, history, political science, psychology, primatology, and philosophy in such divergent books as Azar Gat's War in Human Civilization and Raymond C. Kelly's Warless Societies and the Origin of War. For the purposes of this article, "prehistoric war" will be broadly defined as a state of organized lethal aggression between autonomous preliterate communities.
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The English Settlements, Chapter 5: Saxons, Angles and Jutes on the Saxon Shore If the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is to be believed, the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which eventually merged to become England were founded when small fleets of three or five ships of invaders arrived at various points around the coast of England to fight the sub-Roman British, and conquered their lands.Jones. The End of Roman Britain. p. 71. – ..the repetitious entries for invading ships in the Chronicle (three ships of Hengest and Horsa; three ships of Aella; five ships of Cerdic and Cynric; two ships of Port; three ships of Stuf and Wihtgar), drawn from preliterate traditions including bogus eponyms and duplications, might be considered a poetic convention. The language of the migrants, Old English, came over the next few centuries to predominate throughout what is now England, at the expense of British Celtic and British Latin.
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Field wrote that Bookchin "reminds us of what humankind has been, warns us of what it is becoming, and dares us to imagine what it could be in a social structure geared to interdependence and environmental sensitivity rather than to competition and wanton destruction." She credited him with describing "essential differences in outlook between class and preclass societies", clarifying "the philosophical linkage between the propensities to objectify nature and to objectify one’s fellow human being", and providing a "valuable inventory of Western antiestablishment currents from the Adamites and Ranters to May 1968". However, she criticized his account of the emergence of civilization for its reliance on the anthropologists Paul Radin and Dorothy D. Lee, and found his description of preliterate societies oversimplified and "sanitized" in its emphasis on peaceful egalitarianism. She believed that he deliberately minimized "the importance of technoeconomic factors", and unconvincingly proposed "age stratification as the key to domination".
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An important work, it was released when there were few professional archaeologists across Europe and most museums focused on their locality; The Dawn was a rare example that looked at the larger picture across the continent. Its importance was also due to the fact that it introduced the concept of the archaeological culture into Britain from continental scholarship, thereby aiding in the development of culture- historical archaeology. Childe later said the book "aimed at distilling from archaeological remains a preliterate substitute for the conventional politico- military history with cultures, instead of statesmen, as actors, and migrations in place of battles". In 1926 he published a successor, The Aryans: A Study of Indo-European Origins, exploring the theory that civilisation diffused northward and westward into Europe from the Near East via an Indo- European linguistic group known as the Aryans; with the ensuing racial use of the term "Aryan" by the German Nazi Party, Childe avoided mention of the book.
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Chapter 33: "The Possible Consequences of Direct Contact" Shklovskii and Sagan argued that sub-lightspeed interstellar travel by extraterrestrial life was a certainty when considering technologies that were established or feasible in the late 1960s; "...civilizations, aeons more advanced than ours, must be plying the spaces between stars..." that repeated instances of extraterrestrial visitation to Earth were plausible; Note: Even allowing for millions of years between visits from a hypothetical "galactic survey ship", Sagan calculated ≈10ˆ4 such visits could have occurred "during [Earth's] geologic time" and that pre-scientific narratives can offer a potentially reliable means of describing contact with aliens. Sagan illustrates this hypothesis by citing the 1786 expedition of French explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse, which made the earliest first contact between European and Tlingit cultures. The contact story was preserved as an oral tradition by the preliterate Tlingit. Over a century after its occurrence it was then recorded by anthropologist George T. Emmons.
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