Embraer launched the Praetors at the NBAA show last year.
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Embraer launched the Praetors at the National Business Aviation Association's (NBAA) show last year.
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Roman judicial officials, called praetors, also had lictors — but only half as many, since consuls outranked them.
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The Longitude will compete with the new longer-range, midsized Praetors launched by Embraer SA on Sunday and Bombardier Inc's Challeger 350 and 650 aircraft.
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Other praetors had foreign affairs-related responsibilities, and often acted as governors of the provinces.Lintott, pp. 107-109 Since praetors held imperium powers, they could command an army.Lintott, p.
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As Rome acquired territory, the need for provincial governors grew. The province of Sicily was created in 241 BC, while Corsica and Sardinia was created in 238 BC. In 227 BC, two praetors were assigned the administration of these two provinces. Two more praetors were added when the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior were created in 197 BC. After this, no praetors were added even when the number of provinces increased. It became customary to extend the authority of consuls and the praetors at the end of their annual terms.
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As Rome acquired territories beyond Italy which she annexed as provinces there was a need to send governors there. In 227 BC, after the annexation of the first two Roman provinces, (Sicilia in 241 BC and Corsica et Sardinia in 238 BC), two praetors were added to the two praetors who acted as chief justices in the city of Rome and were assigned the administration of these two provinces. Two more praetors were added when the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior were created in 197 BC. After this no new praetors were added even though the number of provinces increased. The Romans began to extend the imperium of the consuls and the praetors in Rome at the end of their annual term.
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Consuls and praetors, as well as censors and curule aediles, were regarded as "curule magistrates". They would sit on a curule chair, which was a symbol of state power. Consuls and praetors where attended by bodyguards called lictors. The lictors would carry fasces.
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Under the old republic, the Proconsuls governed the more challenging provinces. Therefore, the legions were mostly stationed in these provinces. Under the old system, the Praetors and Pro-Praetors governed the more stable provinces. These provinces, therefore, had very little military infrastructure.
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Taylor, 85 The president of the Centuriate Assembly was usually a Consul (although sometimes a Praetor). Only Consuls (the highest-ranking of all Roman Magistrates) could preside over the Centuriate Assembly during elections because the higher-ranking Consuls were always elected together with the lower-ranking Praetors. Consuls and Praetors were usually elected in July, and took office in January. Two Consuls, and at least six Praetors, were elected each year for an annual term that began in January and ended in December.
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In general, Consular authority did not extend beyond the civil administration of Italy or the senatorial provinces.Abbott, 376 Julius Caesar had increased the number of Praetors to sixteen,Abbott, 376 but Caesar's successor, the emperor Augustus, reduced this number to twelve. The number of Praetors reached its maximum of eighteen under the emperor Claudius.Abbott, 377 The chief Praetor in Rome, the Urban Praetor (praetor urbanus), outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury.
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This arrangement continued (except for the year 43 BC, when no quaestors were chosen) until 28 BC, when Augustus transferred the aerarium to two praefecti aerarii, chosen annually by the Senate from ex-praetors. In 23 these were replaced by two praetors (praetores aerarii or ad aerarium), selected by lot during their term of office. Claudius in 44 restored the quaestors, but had them nominated by the emperor for three years. In 56, Nero substituted two ex-praetors selected under the same conditions.
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At the start of each year, it was customary for praetors to issue a standing edict outlining how they intended to dispense justice during that year. However, since many praetors were ignoring their own edicts and deciding cases inconsistently, Cornelius passed a law forcing them to obey the terms of their initial edicts.
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64–71 Normal governors of Roman territories were either praetors, propraetors or proconsuls. The latter were praetors or consuls who were assigned a governorship after their year in office and/or whose imperium (the power to command an army) was extended – the offices of the consuls and praetors conferred the power to command an army. Therefore, Lentulus and Acudinus were sent to Hispania without holding the usual public office, but they were given proconsular power so that they could command the armies in Hispania. This gave the Roman territory in Hispania a somewhat unofficial status.
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The terms for all annual offices would begin on New Year's Day, and end on the last day of December. The two highest ranking ordinary magistrates, the consuls and praetors, held a type of authority called imperium (Latin for "command"). Imperium allowed a magistrate to command a military force. Consuls held a higher grade of imperium than praetors.
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Six praetors become the norm again in the mid-170s, with administrative needs prioritized over the moral issues.Brennan, Praetorship pp. 625–626.
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The expansion of Roman authority over other lands required the addition of praetors. Two were created in 227 BC, for the administration of Sicily and Sardinia, and two more when the two Hispanic provinces were formed in 197 BC. The dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla transferred administration of the provinces to former consuls and praetors, simultaneously increasing the number of praetors elected each year to eight, as part of his constitutional reforms. Julius Caesar raised the number to ten, then fourteen, and finally to sixteen.In the late Republic the census was discovering a population of the city of Rome numbering in the millions.
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In 81 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla added two new praetors so that two proconsuls and six propraetors could be created to govern the ten provinces Rome had acquired by then. The praetors who had previously governed the first four provinces were reassigned to judicial affairs in Rome as the judicial load in the city had increased. Sulla made the governorships annual and required the holder to leave the province within thirty days after the arrival of his successor.Cicero, Letters to Friends, 3.6 In 52 BC Pompey introduced a law which provided that the promagitracies were to be assigned five years after the term of office of the consuls and praetors.
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The Praetorship was a costly position to hold as praetors were expected to possess a treasury from which they could draw funds for their municipal duties.
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Sources are unclear on whether Marius joined the annual race of former praetors for the consulship, but it is likely that he failed to be elected at least once.
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In ancient Rome, praetors were either civic or military leaders. The praetorianus were initially elite guards for military praetors, under the Republic.8 Things You May Not Know About the Praetorian Guard As the Republic ended, the first emperor, Augustus, set up an elite guard of praetorianus to protect himself. The early Praetorian Guard differed greatly from that in later times, which came to be a vital force in the power politics of Rome.
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The senate did not take any immediate action and instead decided to get the new praetors to ask for instructions after they were elected in the forthcoming elections.Livy, The history of Rome, 33.19.7; 33.21.6–9 At the end of the year, soon after the elections of the new consuls and praetors, news arrived that the army of Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus had been routed in Hispania Citerior and that the praetor had been mortally wounded.
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The most powerful magistrates, such as the extraordinary magistrates, consuls, and praetors, held a kind of authority known as imperium, the authority to command in a military or judicial sense.
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The Praetor Urbanus was not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors was absent from Rome, the other would perform the duties of both.
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The following is a list of Roman praetors as reported by ancient sources. A praetor in ancient Rome was a person who held an annual office below the level of a consul but who still received a grant of imperium, allowing him to command armed forces. Two praetors each year had specific duties in Rome: the praetor urbanus (who presided in civil cases between citizens) and the praetor peregrinus (who administered justice among foreigners). Unless otherwise noted all dates are reported in BC.
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Lenel is best known for his reconstruction of the fundamental text of the Roman legal system, the so-called edictum perpetuum of the Roman praetors. The praetors were the government officials responsible for the administration of justice during the Roman republic and the principate. The edictum (or edict) was the text in which the newly elected praetor announced how he would handle his responsibilities. More precisely, the edict announced, under what circumstances it would succeed and when it would fail.
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Also in 199 BC, the people of the city of Gades (Cadiz) in Hispania asked that no prefect should be sent to their town and this was granted (in 206 BC, the Romans had concluded a treaty with Gades in which it was agreed that a Roman centurion was to act as Roman prefect in the town). In 198 BC, the number of Roman praetors was increased from four to six because it was decided to create two new provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. The two capitals were Tarraco (Tarragona) and Curdoba (Córdoba). They were to be headed by praetors and the praetors for 197 BC, Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus and Marcus Helvius, were sent to Hispania Citerior and Ulterior respectively. They were given 8,000 Latin infantry and 400 cavalry each to replace the old soldiers, who were sent back home.
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Their position as chief judges was transferred to the praetors in 366 BC. After this time, the consul would only serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases and only when called upon by decree of the Senate.
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Numerius Fabius Buteo died in Massalia (Marseilles) while on his way. His replacement was chosen by lot between the two departing praetors and the assignment fell on Publius Furius Philus.Livy, The History of Rome, pp. 42.1.2, 5; 42.4.
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Plutarch termed the opposition "the secret disease from which the state had long been suffering." The tribunes were primarily populares. They relied for their authority on the laws of the assemblies. The consuls and praetors were primarily optimates.
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The praetors left their camp the following night. At dawn the enemy approached the rampant and were surprised that it was empty. They remained in their camp for the next few days. Then they moved to the River Tagus.
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However, this process might take from months to years. Titles are limited to 50 characters in length. Entries have no length limit. Newcomer, Newcomer awaiting approval, Registered reader, Praetors, and Hacivat are some of the user roles in Ekşi Sözlük.
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Lintott, Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 101. The powers of a magistrate came from the people of Rome (both plebeians and patricians).Lintott, Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 95. The imperium was held by both consuls and praetors.
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In the “Star Trek” franchise, Praetor is the usual title of the leader of the Romulan Empire. In the New Phyrexia expansion of the Magic: the Gathering collectible card game, the five Phyrexian rulers were labeled as praetors. In the 2016 game “Doom”, the armor worn by the protagonist is called the Praetor suit. In the 2017 game “Xenoblade Chronicles 2”, one of the central antagonists Amalthus holds the title of Praetor in the Praetorium of Indol. In the popular book series by Rick Riordan, “The Heroes of Olympus”, there is a Senate with two Praetors, one male and one female.
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During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the Consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to the emperor. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows. The Praetors also lost a great deal of power, and ultimately had little authority outside of the city. The chief Praetor in Rome, the Urban Praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury.
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Flaminius was elected praetor for the year 227 BC. It was the first year in which four praetors were elected as Rome had gained overseas provinces, meaning Flaminius was made the first praetor of Sicily.Livy, Perochiae, 20. Through his position in Sicily he was tasked with ruling over the Sicilians as praetors held imperium, which gave him the power to command an army and to quell any rebellions against Rome's administration in Sicily. He was also the magistrate who dealt with all judicial matters that arose in Sicily and regularly exchanged messages with the senate in Rome to resolve judicial matters.
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In the early Republic, they held judicial duties until these responsibilities were moved to the praetors and later to permanent courts; similarly, they held financial responsibilities until these duties were transferred to the quaestors. The consuls also held vague religious duties inherited from the kings, along with their more important military functions, serving as the commander-in-chief of Rome's armies. The next magistrate was the praetor, who increased in number over the course of the Republic and were primarily judges. In the later Republic, praetors were increasingly sent out to the provinces to serve as provincial governors, especially as prorogued magistrates.
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The Lex Baebia et Cornelia of 181It is unclear whether legislation on the number of praetors was a separate law, or a provision of the law on ambitus usually known as the Lex Baebia; see Brennan, Praetorship pp. 169–170 on the likelihood that the two measures were part of the same law. devised a complicated system aimed at limiting the number of ex-praetors vying for the consulship. In the sortition for provinciae, the two Spains were to be left out in odd-numbered years, and only four praetorships would be available in those years.
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The new praetors were ordered to leave as soon as possible.Livy, The History of Rome, 40.1.2, 4.7; 40.2.5 The Celtiberians attacked Fulvius Flaccus while he was besieging the town of Urbicua (probably in the modern province of Cuenca or the province of Guadalajara).
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Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors.Magistratus by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pp. 723–724 of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website, 8 December 2006.
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While abroad, each consul would command an army.Byrd, 179 His authority abroad would be nearly absolute. Praetors administered civil lawByrd, 32 and commanded provincial armies. Every five years, two censors were elected for an 18-month term, during which they would conduct a census.
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Livy, The History of Rome, 37.50.11–12; 37.57.1–6 In 188 BC, Lucius Manlius Acidinus Fulvianus and Gaius Atinius were the praetors of Hispania Citerior and Ulterior respectively. They were given more troops; 3,000 infantry and 200 cavalry were added to each provincial legion.
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7; 45.4.1 In 168 BC, Hispania was assigned to Publius Fonteius. In 167 BC, after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC) it was decided to reconstitute two provinces in Hispania. The praetors Cneius Fulvius and Licinius Nerva were assigned Hispania Citerior and Ulterior respectively.
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Consul for the whole year of AD 19, he and his colleague Norbanus brought forward the lex Junia Norbana, which prevented slaves manumitted by Praetors from receiving the franchise, and precluding their descendants from inheritance. Freedmen under this law came to be known as Latini Juniani.
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Livy, The History of Rome, 38.35.10; 39.7.1; 39.21 In 186 BC, the praetors Gaius Calpurnius Piso (Hispania Ulterior) and Lucius Quinctius Crispinus (Hispania Citerior) were given reinforcements consisting of 20,000 Latin and 3,000 Roman infantry and 800 Latin and 200 Roman cavalry. They conducted a common campaign.
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They were also given imperium so that they could also command an army. During the Second Samnite War, Rome increased the number of her legions. The position of propraetor was instituted. These were praetors whose imperium was extended and were given the task to command a reserve army.
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His Libri ad Edictum embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His Probabilium lib. VIII., a collection of definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one of his most characteristic productions.
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Praetors also presided over the "permanent jury courts" (quaestio perpetua).Abbott, 377 The irrelevancy of the Praetorship became obvious when the emperor Hadrian issued a decree (the edictum perpetuum),Abbott, 377 which robbed the Praetors of their authority to issue edicts and transferred most of their judicial powers to either the Consuls or to district court judges. Under the empire, the Plebeian Tribunes remained sacrosanct,Abbott, 378 and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies.Abbott, 378 The emperor, who held tribunician powers, dominated the College of Tribunes, and while technically any member of the college could veto any other member, no Tribune dared to oppose the emperor.
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They also had powers to enforce public order. Caesar overshadowed Bibulus throughout his year in office, particularly in the provision of the ludi Romani, a religious festival involving multiple ceremonies and secular entertainments.Broughton, pg. 158 He again served alongside Caesar in 62 BC when both were elected praetors, judicial magisterial positions.
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Livy, Ab urbe condita 8.12. From then on, praetors appear frequently in Roman history, first as generals and judges, then as provincial governors. Beginning in the late Republic, a former Praetor could serve as a Propraetor ("in place of the Praetor") and act as the governor of one of Rome's provinces.
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The Grand Council meets every year when no Grand Chapter is held. The Grand Council consists of the Grand Officers, Past Grand Consuls, members of the Executive Committee, Grand Trustees, Grand Praetors, members of the Leadership Training Board and one undergraduate from each province. It may amend the Statutes or Executive Committee Regulations.
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While the consuls had supreme military authority, they had to be provided with financial resources by the Roman Senate while they were commanding their armies.Lintott, p. 21 While abroad, the consul had absolute power over his soldiers, and over any Roman province. The praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies,Byrd, p.
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The presiding magistrate would then begin a discussion by referring an issue to the senators, who would discuss the issue, one at a time, by order of seniority, with the first to speak, the most senior senator, known as the princeps senatus (leader of the Senate), who was then followed by ex-consuls (consulares), and then the praetors and ex-praetors (praetorii). This continued, until the most junior senators had spoken. Senators who had held magisterial office always spoke before those who had not, and if a patrician was of equal seniority as a plebeian, the patrician would always speak first.Abbott, 228 A senator could make a brief statement, discuss the matter in detail, or talk about an unrelated topic.
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However, with the decline of the other traditional Roman offices such as that of tribune the praetorship remained an important portal through which aristocrats could gain access to either the Western or Eastern Senates. The praetorship was a costly position to hold as praetors were expected to possess a treasury from which they could draw funds for their municipal duties. There are known to have been eight praetors in the Eastern Roman Empire who shared the financial burden between them. The late Eastern Roman Senate was very different from the Republican Senate as the offices of aedile and tribune had long fallen into abeyance and by the end of the 4th century the quaestorship was on the point of disappearing, save as a provincial magistrate.
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To reduce this risk, he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for ten years before being reelected to any office. Sulla then established a system where all Consuls and Praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office.Abbott, 105 The number of Praetors (the second-highest ranking magistrate, after the Consul) were increased, so that there would be enough magistrates for each province under this system. These two reforms were meant to ensure that no governor would be able to command the same army for an extended period of time, so as to minimize the threat that another general might attempt to march on Rome.
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Sulla then sent one of his praetors, Marcus Minucius Thermus, to besiege Mytilene and finish the revolt before it could spread.Lee Fratatuono, Lucullus, pp 38-39; Seutonius, Divus Iulius, II Thermus used the forces available in Asia province to conduct his siege, since the Fimbrians formed the permanent garrison of Asia they were probably involved.
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The citizens in each tribe were divided into five classes based on property and then each group was subdivided into two centuries by age. All in all, there were 373 centuries. Like the assembly of tribes, each century had one vote. The Comitia Centuriata elected the praetors (judicial magistrates), the censors, and the consuls.
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He cited the praetors Sextilius and Bellinus and the daughter of Antonius among the important Romans who were seized for a ransom. The pirates also mocked their captives if they were Romans. Piracy spread over the whole of the Mediterranean, making it unnavigable and closed to trade. This caused scarcity of provisions.Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Pompey, 24–25.1.
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When the kings were replaced by two annually elected praetores in c. 500 BC, the standard levy remained of the same size, but was now divided equally between the Praetors, each commanding one legion of 4,500 men. It is likely that the hoplite element was deployed in a Greek-style phalanx formation in large set-piece battles.
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However, these were relatively rare, with most fighting consisting of small-scale border- raids and skirmishing. In these, the Romans would fight in their basic tactical unit, the centuria of 100 men. In addition, separate clan-based forces remained in existence until c. 450 BC at least, although they would operate under the Praetors' authority, at least nominally.
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In the political context the centuria was the constituent voting unit in the assembly of the centuries (Latin comitia centuriata), an old form of popular assembly in the Roman Republic, the members of which cast one collective vote. Its origin seems to be the homonymous military unit. The comitia centuriata elected important magistrates like consuls and praetors.
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Twice defeating Roman praetors, their success soon sparked a number of other rebellions in the peninsula. The Iberian peninsula became a centre of military activity and an opportunity for advancement. As Appian claimed, “[the consuls] took the command not for the advantage of the city [Rome], but for glory, or gain, or the honour of a triumph.” Appian.
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Only Roman citizens (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer magisterial powers (potestas) on any individual magistrate.Lintott, p. 95 The most important power was imperium, which was held by consuls (the chief magistrates) and by praetors (the second highest- ranking ordinary magistrate). Defined narrowly, imperium simply gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force.
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Proconsular imperium became an extension (prorogatio) of the imperium of a consul. During the Third Samnite War (298–290 BC) the propraetors were also created. These were praetors whose imperium was extended and who were given the task of commanding reserve armies. Prorogatio was the extension of imperium beyond the one-year term of the consul or praetor.
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During the Republic, command of a fleet was given to a serving magistrate or promagistrate, usually of consular or praetorian rank.Rodgers (1976), p. 60 In the Punic Wars for instance, one consul would usually command the fleet, and another the army. In the subsequent wars in the Eastern Mediterranean, praetors would assume the command of the fleet.
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Initially, things were quiet, but in 187 BC, the two praetors informed Rome that Celtiberians and Lusitanians were in arms and were ravaging the lands of the allies. Gaius Atinius fought the Lusitanians near Hasta, defeated them, killing 6,000 of them, and seized their camp. He then attacked Hasta, which he seized easily. However, he died in the battle.
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Meanwhile, the praetors, who had gathered auxiliaries from the allied Hispanic towns, encamped twelve miles from this river. Then they marched to the river banks at night. At dawn they saw an enemy fort on a hilltop on the other side of the river. They found two fords, split the army into two and crossed the river.
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The province remained quiet in the winter. In 183 BC, the two provinces in Hispania were reserved for the current praetors. In that year Aulus Terentius took on successful actions against the Celtiberians near the Ebro, in Ausetanian territory (in the north-eastern corner of Hispania). He took by storm several places the Celtiberians had fortified.
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Appian wrote that his 'treaties were longed for in subsequent wars'.Appian, Roman History: The Foreign Wars, Book 6: The Wars in Spain, pp. 43 Unlike previous praetors he spent time to negotiate and cultivate personal relations with tribal leaders. This was reminiscent of the friendly relations established by Scipio Africanus during the Second Punic War.
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Both men found excuses not to go. Were are not told why these two praetors were unwilling to take their office; normally they were taken up eagerly. It is at this point that we find out who the other praetor was. Livy wrote that the praetorships of Marcus Titinius and Titus Fonteius in Hispania were extended.
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196 BC began to require that candidates for the consulship must first have served as praetors, and fiercer competition for the praetorship stimulated campaign corruption and bribery (ambitus). Baebius spearheaded legislation to crack down on ambitus. Anyone convicted of bribery was disqualified from holding public office for ten years. This law was accompanied by an attempt to regulate prorogation.
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Appian wrote that Gracchus' ‘treaties were longed for in subsequent wars’.Appian, Roman History, The Foreign Wars, Book 6, The Spanish wars, 43 Unlike previous praetors he spent time to negotiate and cultivate personal relations with tribal leaders. This was reminiscent of the friendly relations established by Scipio Africanus during the Second Punic War.Livy, The History of Rome, 40.47.
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While this was formally "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate stating the Senate's position on some topic, the senatus consulta were usually obeyed by the magistrates. If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law that was passed by a popular assembly, the law overrode the senatus consultum. Meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city (the pomerium), though the official meeting place, or curia was at the centre of the Roman forum. The president of the Senate was normally one of the consuls, but it could be called to meet by any of the praetors or tribunes, both of whom had the authority to call the Senate, though praetors rarely did so unless the consuls were away and the tribunes almost never did so.
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In Rome, there were primarily two kinds of praetor, the praetor urbanus and the praetor peregrinus, in charge of suits involving citizens and foreigners, respectively. They were also assigned, in the late Republic, to various permanent courts with specific criminal jurisdiction. When the consuls were away, the praetors were empowered to command armies and serve in the place of the consuls, and thus also held authority to call assemblies and introduce legislation Over time, as Rome's empire grew, the two annual consuls ceased to be enough to command its many armies in the field or administer its many provinces. To solve this problem, it became normal to prorogue the authority of current consuls and praetors beyond their normal terms so they could continue to command in the field.
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Brunt (1971) 418 This would have required the depleted ranks of equites to provide at least 252 senior officers (126 tribuni militum, 63 decuriones and 63 praefecti sociorum), plus the army commanders (Consuls, Praetors, Quaestors, Proconsuls, etc.). It was probably from this time that equites became largely an officer-class, while legionary cavalry was henceforth composed mainly of commoners of the first class.
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Middle-aged married Roman women crowded the streets, blocked access to the forum, and intercepted their approaching husbands, demanding to restore the traditional ornaments of Roman matrons. They even begged the praetors, consuls and other magistrates. Even Flaccus hesitated, but his colleague Cato was inflexible, and made a characteristically impolite speech, which was later retold by Livy.Livy, History of Rome, xxxiv.
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Lutatius was therefore the only candidate for commanding the war in Sicily. The senate appointed the praetor Quintus Valerius Falto as his second-in-command. This was somewhat of a novelty, since a second praetorship was created only a few years earlier, thereby allowing one of the praetors to leave Rome. Typically the two consuls shared the command of the army.
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Publius Nigidius Figulus (c. 98 – 45 BC)Jerome, in his Chronicon, is the authority for the date of Nigidius's death. was a scholar of the Late Roman Republic and one of the praetors for 58 BC. He was a friend of Cicero, to whom he gave his support at the time of the Catilinarian conspiracy.Plutarch, Cicero, 20; Cicero, Pro Sulla, XIV. 42.
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This law was supported by M. Porcius Cato, the famous legislative and moral reformer.John Hazel, Who's Who in the Roman World (Routledge, 2001), p. 58 online. But because this limit only decreased the number of administrators available for other provinces, resulting in further use of prorogation, six praetors became the norm again in the mid-170s, and the moral issues were set aside.
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Holmes, pg. 241; Anthon & Smith, pg. 125 In 40 BC, Atratinus was elected praetor suffectus, as all the previously elected praetors had retired from office after the Treaty of Brundisium between Octavianus, Mark Antony and Lepidus. Late in 40 BC, he and his colleague Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus convened the Senate to introduce Herod the Great, who received the title of King of Judea.
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Two of the praetors were more prestigious than the others. The first was the Praetor Peregrinus, who was the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other was the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He had the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, and served as judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors.
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Classical Latin Praetor became medieval Latin Pretor; Praetura, Pretura, etc. During the interwar period the 71 counties of Romania were divided into a various numbers of plăşi (singular: plasă), headed by a Pretor, appointed by the Prefect. The institution headed by the Pretor was called Pretură. Currently, this office has survived only in the Republic of Moldova, where praetors are the heads of Chişinău's five sectors.
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The senate then passed a Senatus consultum which forbad the eunuch from asking any of the other praetors for help. Although this was limited to one case, it is possible that the consul used his full Imperium maius to oversee all of Orestes’ legal cases for the rest of the year.Brennan, T. Corey, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic: Volume 2: 122 to 49 BC (2001), pg.
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The majority of votes in any century decided how that century voted. Each century received one vote, regardless of how many electors each Century held. Once a majority of centuries voted in the same way on a given measure, the voting ended, and the matter was decided.Taylor, 40 Only the Centuriate Assembly could declare war or elect the highest-ranking Roman magistrates: consuls, praetors and censors.
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Under the republic, Praetors were the second highest ranking magistrates after the Consuls, which was why Propraetors were given provinces that were more stable. Under the early empire, the emperor commanded these Proconsular provinces, while the senate commanded the more stable Propraetorial provinces. It was by this that the emperor held command authority over most of the Roman army. Augustus, the first Roman Emperor.
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This extension applied only outside the city walls of Rome. It was an extension of the military command of the consul, but not of his public office. As the number of Roman legions was increased, there was a need to increase the number of military commanders. The office of the praetor was introduced in 366 BC. The praetors were the chief justices of the city.
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Rome's dominion of Iberia met with much opposition. In 197 BC, Rome divided the southeastern coast of Iberia into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, and two elected praetors were assigned to command the legions. As with many other tribes of Iberia, the inhabitants of the Lusitanian castros, or citanias, would have been granted peregrina stipendiariaSmith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.Scripta Nova.
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32 and, eventually, began to act as chief judges over the courts. Praetors usually stood for election with the consuls before the assembly of the soldiers, the Centuriate Assembly. After they were elected, they were granted imperium powers by the assembly. In the absence of both senior and junior consuls from the city, the Urban praetor governed Rome, and presided over the Roman Senate and Roman assemblies.
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Technically they outranked all other ordinary magistrates (including consuls and praetors). This ranking, however, was solely a result of their prestige, rather than any real power they had. Since the office could be easily abused (as a result of its power over every ordinary citizen), only former consuls (usually patrician consuls) were elected to the office. This is what gave the office its prestige.
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In 1872, he received the degree of Dr. jur., four years later, he obtained the habilitation at the University of Leipzig. In 1882, Lenel became famous, when he won a prize which had been offered by the Bavarian Academy of Sciences with his reconstruction of the edict of the praetors (see below). In the same year of 1882, Lenel became a professor at the University of Kiel.
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The role of the praetors in Rome was reduced to organising public games. With regard to the provinces, Tacitus did not specify whether this applied to both imperial and senatorial provinces. He did not use the term propraetor either. Given that in the senatorial provinces the role of the procurators was restricted to supervising the imperial estates, it is unlikely that they took on judicial roles there.
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In 181 BC, The command of the praetors of the previous year, Publius Manlius (who had been Cato's second-in-command in 195 BC) and Quintus Fulvius Flaccus was extended. They had been assigned Hispania Ulterior and Citerior respectively. They received reinforcements of 3,000 Roman and 6,000 allied infantry and 200 Roman and 300 allied cavalry. A serious war broke out in Hispania Citerior.
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The first two "Roman Consuls" in a given year, the consules ordinarii, were appointed by the Emperor, and their term now ended on April 21, while all other Consuls in a given year (the less-prestigious consules suffecti) were elected by the Senate. The Senate also elected "Praetors" and "Quaestors"', although the approval of the Emperor was required before any election could be certified.
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Abbott, 382 The Emperor always outranked all of his fellow Senators and was followed by "Consuls" (the highest-ranking magistrate) and former Consuls, then by "Praetors" (the next highest ranking magistrate) and former Praetors, and so on. A senator's tenure in elective office was considered when determining rank, while Senators who had been elected to an office did not necessarily outrank Senators who had been appointed to that same office by the EmperorAbbott, 382 Members of the senatorial order were distinguished by a broad reddish-purple stripe edging their togas – the formal dress of all Roman citizens. Under the Empire, the power that the Emperor held over the Senate was absolute, which was due, in part, to the fact that the Emperor held office for life.Abbott, 385 During Senate meetings, the Emperor sat between the two Consuls,Abbott, 383 and usually acted as the presiding officer.
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Mandatum is gratuitous agency. By the old and strict Roman law, one person could not in theory represent another, but the contract of mandatum was an exception. The execution of a mandatum was the gratuitous performance of an act for another, the rights of both the mandator (principal) and the mandatary (agent) being amply protected by the praetors. A mandate might be for the benefit of the mandator only.
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After serving either as quaestor or as aedile, a man of 39 years could run for praetor. The number of praetors elected varied through history, generally increasing with time. During the republic, six or eight were generally elected each year to serve judicial functions throughout Rome and other governmental responsibilities. In the absence of the consuls, a praetor would be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy.
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Lintott, 113 The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate.Polybius, 132Byrd, 20 Two Consuls were elected every year, and they had supreme power in both civil and military matters. Throughout the year, one Consul was superior in rank to the other Consul, and this ranking flipped every month, between the two Consuls.Cicero, 236 Praetors administered civil law, presided over the courts, and commanded provincial armies.
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109 Chart Showing the Checks and Balances in the Constitution of the Roman Republic Every five years, two censors were elected for an eighteen-month term. Since the censorship was the most prestigious of all offices, usually only former consuls were elected to it.Lintott, p. 116 Censors were elected by the assembly of Roman Soldiers, the Centuriate Assembly, usually after the new consuls and praetors for the year began their term.
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Roman law specified that only the elected magistrates (consuls and praetors) could hold imperium within Italy. Any promagistrate who entered Italy at the head of his troops forfeited his imperium and was therefore no longer legally allowed to command troops. Exercising imperium when forbidden by the law was a capital offence. Furthermore, obeying the commands of a general who did not legally possess imperium was a capital offence.
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Livy, The History of Rome, 35.22.5–8 In 191 BC, the term Gaius Flaminius was extended and Lucius Aemilius Paulus replaced Marcus Fulvius Nobilitor in Hispania Ulterior. The two praetors were to serve for two years because the war in Greece against Antiochus III had begun. They were allowed to have additional fresh troops, 3,000 infantry and 300 cavalry, and two-thirds of these were to be Latin allies.
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They lost 12,000 men and 5,000 men and 400 horses were captured. Quintus Fulvius then marched through Celtiberian territory, ravaged the countryside and stormed many forts until the Celtiberians surrendered. In Hispania Ulterior the praetor Publius Manlius fought several successful actions against the Lusitanians.Livy, The History of Rome, 40.30–34 In 180 BC, the praetors Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Lucius Postumius Albinus were assigned Hispania Citerior and Ulterior respectively.
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The auspicia maxima were reserved primarily for consuls and censors, but these were two different types of auspices. Consuls and censors were not colleagues, and the censors lacked military auspices (auspicia militiae). Praetors, however, held a form of auspicia maxima and could also lead an army, though their imperium was lesser than that of the consuls.T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), vol.
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It was a precursor to habeas corpus. If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune. In addition, once a magistrate's one-year term of office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended.
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The two men had just the status of military commanders. The manner of their appointment in not known. This constitutional oddity continued for seven years, until 197 BC, when two provinces were created in Hispania and they were assigned to two praetors as per normal procedure. It looks like Rome may have improvised when she retained this new territory and that the status and form of administration was regularised after seven years.
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On October 21, 2019, Ion Ceban proposed to the ACUM Block (DT and PAS) to build the coalition within the Municipal Council, which would allow a stable majority to be achieved in the deliberative fore of the Capital. He expressed the readiness, if he reaches the mayor position, to assign to the potential coalition partners two functions of deputy mayor, the leadership of the Municipal Council, as well as two functions of praetors.
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The praetor was, in an English sense, the chief justice, and yet more than that. The consuls were his peers; he was elected by the same electorate and sworn in on the same day with the same oath. (The Comitia Centuriata elected consuls and praetors.) Until 337 BC the praetor was chosen only from among the patricians. In that year eligibility for the praetura was opened to the plebeians, and one of them, Quintus Publilius Philo, won the office.
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As imperial administrators, their duties extended to matters that the republic would have considered minima. Two praetors were appointed by Claudius for matters relating to Fideicommissa (trusts), when the business in that department of the law had become considerable, but Titus reduced the number to one; and Nerva added a Praetor for the decision of matters between the Fiscus (treasury) and individuals. Marcus AureliusCapitolinus, Vita Marci Antonini Chapter 10. appointed a Praetor for matters relating to tutela (guardianship).
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By 395 AD, the praetors' responsibilities had been reduced to a purely municipal role.Bury, J.B. History of the Later Roman Empire, Volume 1, Chapter 1. Their sole duty was to manage the spending of money on the exhibition of games or on public works. However, with the decline of the other traditional Roman offices such as that of tribune the praetorship remained an important portal through which aristocrats could gain access to either the Western or Eastern Senates.
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It had no praetors, tribunes, or quaestors. Although it did have senators, they held the title clarus, not clarissimus, like those of Rome. It also lacked the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food supply, police, statues, temples, sewers, aqueducts, or other public works. The new programme of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors, and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and moved to the new city.
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With the abolition of the Roman monarchy in 509 BC, the imperium, or executive power, of the king was divided between two annually-elected magistrates, known as praetors. In time they would come to be known as consuls, although probably not until the creation of a third, junior praetor in 367 BC.Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 286 ("Consul"). Neither consul was superior to the other, and the decisions of one could be appealed to the other (provocatio).
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The Roman territories to the north of the Lower Danube were divided into three provincesUpper Dacia, Lower Dacia, and Dacia Porolissensisin the reign of Emperor Hadrian. He also withdrew the Legion IV Flavia Felix from the province. Upper Dacia, where the only Roman legion stationed in the next century, was administered by former praetors; the two other provinces were ruled by governors from the ordo equester. During the Marcomannic Wars, a new legionthe Legio V Macedonicawas transferred to Dacia.
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The following table shows Early Republican military commanders against the Gauls on the Italian peninsula. These men were granted imperium as consuls and praetors, the highest elected offices in Roman government, and also as dictatores. The dictatorship most likely originated as a military office;"The tradition about the invention of the dictatorship is confused," notes Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 109–113 online, in part because the office was situational.
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However, they were reassigned to the command of Bruttium (Calabria, the toe of Italy) and of the fleet in Greece respectively. Gaius Flaminus and Marcus Fulvius Nobilitor retained their posts. The two praetors fought in the right praetorial order, Gaius Flaminius took the wealthy Vaccaei city of Licabrum by storm and captured the chief Conribilo alive. Fulvius Nobilitor won two battles and seized the towns of Vescelia (Vilches) and Helo and many forts, while others surrendered voluntarily.
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The incoming Praetor by his Edict laid out legal principles he intended to follow when making judicial decisions during his year in office. To some degree the new Praetor had sufficient discretion to modify the existing Edict of the former Praetor. Many years the new Praetor would simply adopt and so continue the contents of Edict he "inherited" from his predecessor. Praetors often did not possess any special expertise in law, but rather were successful politicians.
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Of the ordinary magistrates, there were two further divisions: the higher magistrates, composed of consuls, praetors, their prorogued equivalents and the censors; and the lower magistrates, composed of the tribunes, aediles, quaestors and other minor positions. All higher magistrates were elected by the Centuriate Assembly. The most powerful ordinary magistrate was the consul, of whom there were two, who served for the period of one year. These consuls had the authority to call assemblies of the people.
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During this same time, the consul L. Quinctius Flamininus levied troops in preparation for war the following year.R.M. Errington, "Rome against Philip and Antiochus," in The Cambridge Ancient History: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C. (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 2nd edition, reprinted 2003), vol. 8, pp. 282–283 online. From 192 to 190, praetors were regularly dispatched to southern Italy to guard the coastline against rumored attack and to ensure the continued loyalty of Roman allies.
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Livy writes that when the Romans learnt of the Latins' secret talks with the Campanians they sent for the ten leading men among the Latins to come to Rome and receive instructions, pretending to be concerned for the Samnites. At this time, the Latins had two praetors, Lucius Annius of Setia and L. Numisius of Circeii, both colonies. Through their efforts, the colonies of Signia and Velitrae and also the Volsci were convinced to take up arms against Rome.Livy, viii.
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Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished in the same day, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held.Livy ix.34. The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different auspices from those at the election of the consuls and praetors, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the maxima auspicia.Gellii xiii.15.
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As magistrates, they had standing duties to perform, especially of a religious nature. However, a consul or praetor could be taken away from his current duties at any time to head a task force, and there were many, especially military. Livy mentions that, among other tasks, these executive officers were told to lead troops against perceived threats (domestic or foreign), investigate possible subversion, raise troops, conduct special sacrifices, distribute windfall money, appoint commissioners and even exterminate locusts. Praetors could delegate at will.
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Hadrian enacted, through the jurist Salvius Julianus, the first attempt to codify Roman law. This was the Perpetual Edict, according to which the legal actions of praetors became fixed statutes, and as such could no longer be subjected to personal interpretation or change by any magistrate other than the Emperor.Laura Jansen, The Roman Paratext: Frame, Texts, Readers, Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 66Kathleen Kuiper (Editor), Ancient Rome: From Romulus and Remus to the Visigoth Invasion, New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, 2010, p.
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According to William Smith, this Atilius is the first Atilius who bears the surname Serranus, which afterwards became the name of a distinct family in the gens. Caius Atilius Serranus, who was a praetor in 218 BC and a failed candidate for the consulship in 216, was his son and the ancestor of all subsequent praetors and consuls from this family. One of his descendants, Sextus Atilius Serranus, became a consul in 136 BC with Lucius Furius Philus (wrongly called Publius by Smith).
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The executive magistrates of the Roman Republic were officials of the ancient Roman Republic (c. 510 BC – 44 BC), elected by the People of Rome. Ordinary magistrates (magistratus) were divided into several ranks according to their role and the power they wielded: censors, consuls (who functioned as the regular head of state), praetors, curule aediles, and finally quaestor. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers.
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Thereafter in descending order came the censor (who, while the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate by virtue of his prestige, held little real power), the consul, the praetor, the curule aedile, and the quaestor. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates of equal rank, such as two praetors, then it was called par potestas (negation of powers).Abbott, p.
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After the conflict, Rome took possession of the Punic empire in Spain, and some Celtiberians soon challenged the new dominant power that loomed in the borders of its territory. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus spent the years 182 to 179 pacifying the Celtiberians. Gracchus boasted of destroying over 300 Celtiberian settlements. In 155 BC, a raid into Hispania Ulterior (Farther Spain) by the Lusitani and the defeat of two successive Roman praetors encouraged the town of Segeda in Hispania Citerior (Nearer Spain) to rebel.
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The gens Quinctilia, also written Quintilia, was a patrician family at Rome, dating from the earliest period of Roman history, and continuing well into imperial times. Despite its great antiquity, the gens never attained much historical importance. The only member who obtained the consulship under the Republic was Sextus Quinctilius Varus in 453 BC. The gens produced numerous praetors and other magistrates, but did not obtain the consulship again for over four hundred years.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol.
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We know this through an inscription found near Alcala del los Gazules, 80 km east of Cadiz.Silva, L., Viriathus and the Lusitianians Resistance to Rome, 45, 259 n. 199 In 189 BC, Publius Junius Brutus and Lucius Plautius Hypsaeus were the praetors of Hispania Ulterior and Citerior respectively. Publius Iunius was reassigned from Etruria to Hispania when Lucius Baebius Dives (who had been assigned to Hispania Ulterior) died in Massalia (Marseilles) on his way to Hispania when he was attacked by Ligurians.
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Livy made a mistake and wrote that they were praetors for three and two years respectively. Both were accused of most serious offences and both cases were adjourned. Cato made a speech (Pro Hispanis de frumento) in which he attacked Publius Furius Philus for unjust valuation of grain received as tribute. At the new trial it was reported that both men had gone into exile outside Roman territory, the former to Praeneste, the latter to Tibur (two Latin towns, today's Palestrina and Tivoli).
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It would declare "videant consules ne res publica detrimenti capiat" ("let the consuls see to it that the state suffer no harm"). In effect, the consuls would be vested with dictatorial powers. After the establishment of the Principate, the old magistracies (consuls, praetors, censors, aediles, quaestors and tribunes) lost the majority of their actual powers, effectively being reduced to municipal officers in charge of various games and holidays. The vast majority of actual political and administrative work was transferred into the emperor.
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The praetors Publius Manlius and Quintus Fulvius Flaccus were given military command for Hispania Ulterior and Citerior respectively in 182 BC and this was extended to 181 BC. They received reinforcements of 3,000 Roman and 6,000 allied infantry and 200 Roman and 300 allied cavalry. The Celtiberians gathered 35,000 men. Livy wrote: ‘hardly ever before had they raised so large a force’. Quintus Fulvius Flaccus drew as many auxiliary troops from the friendly tribes as he could, but his numbers were inferior.
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The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of "Command" (Imperium), which was held only by consuls and praetors. This gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military or otherwise). Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Since this did create problems for some magistrates, these magistrates occasionally had their command powers extended, which, in effect, allowed them to retain the powers of their office as a promagistrate.
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An iudex would then prescribe a remedy according to the facts of the case. The sentences of the iudex were supposed to be simple interpretations of the traditional customs, but—apart from considering what traditional customs applied in each case—soon developed a more equitable interpretation, coherently adapting the law to newer social exigencies. The law was then adjusted with evolving institutiones (legal concepts), while remaining in the traditional mode. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a laical body of prudentes.
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Cicero, de provinciis consularibus oratio, 2, 7; pro Balbo 27, 61 In 81 BC, Sulla added two praetors so that the two proconsuls and six propraetors could be assigned to govern the ten provinces Rome ruled at that time. Sulla made the governorships annual and required the holder to leave the province within thirty days after the arrival of his successor.Cicero, Letters to Friends, 3.6. In 67 BC, Pompey received extraordinary powers and an unprecedented multiyear proconsulship to deal with the problem of piracy.
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The traditional principles that senatorial rank was hereditary and that the normal way of becoming a member of the Senate itself was by holding a magistracy still remained in full force.Bury, J.B. History of the Later Roman Empire, Volume 1, Chapter 1. By the time of the permanent division of the Roman Empire in 395, praetors' responsibilities had been reduced to a purely municipal role. Their sole duty was to manage the spending of money on the exhibition of games or on public works.
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Taken from Tacitus ( Annals, Book 4): "...after various and often fruitless complaints from the praetors, the emperor Tiberius finally brought forward a motion about the licentious behavior of the players. 'They had often,' he said. 'Sought to disturb the public peace, and to bring disgrace on private families, and the old Oscan farce, once a wretched amusement for the vulgar, had become at once so indecent and popular, that it must be checked by the Senate's authority'. The players, upon this, were banished from Italy".
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Higher ranking senators spoke before those of lower rank, although the emperor could speak at any time. Besides the emperor, consuls and praetors could also preside over the senate. Since no senator could stand for election to a magisterial office without the emperor's approval, senators usually did not vote against bills that had been presented by the emperor. If a senator disapproved of a bill, he usually showed his disapproval by not attending the senate meeting on the day that the bill was to be voted on.
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The fasces lictoriae ("bundles of the lictors") symbolised power and authority (imperium) in ancient Rome, beginning with the early Roman Kingdom and continuing through the republican and imperial periods. By republican times, use of the fasces was surrounded with tradition and protocol. A corps of apparitores (subordinate officials) called lictors each carried fasces before a magistrate, in a number corresponding to his rank. Lictors preceded consuls (and proconsuls), praetors (and propraetors), dictators, curule aediles, quaestors, and the Flamen Dialis during Roman triumphs (public celebrations held in Rome after a military conquest).
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This later changed, and both Plebeians and Patricians could stand for Curule Aedileship. The elections for Curule Aedile were at first alternated between Patricians and Plebeians, until late in the 2nd century BC, when the practice was abandoned and both classes became free to run during all years. While part of the cursus honorum, this step was optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office was usually held after the quaestorship and before the praetorship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.
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Competition for the praetorship became fierce, and campaign corruption (ambitus) virulent. The Lex Baebia et Cornelia of 181 devised a complicated system aimed at limiting the number of ex-praetors vying for the consulship. In the sortition for provinciae, the two Spains were to be left out in odd-numbered years, and only four praetorships would be available in those years. In effect, a provincial appointment in Spain meant automatic prorogation, resulting in a two-year term — and sometimes a shortage of administrators for other provinces that in turn required further prorogation.
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The idea of potestas originally referred to the power, through coercion, of a Roman magistrate to promulgate edicts, give action to litigants, etc. This power, in Roman political and legal theory, is considered analogous in kind though lesser in degree to military power. The most important magistrates (such as consuls and praetors) are said to have imperium, which is the ultimate form of potestas, and refers indeed to military power. Potestas strongly contrasts with the power of the Senate and the prudentes, a common way to refer to Roman jurists.
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Ancient Indian jurisprudence is mentioned in various Dharmaśāstra texts, starting with the Dharmasutra of Bhodhayana. In Ancient China, the Daoists, Confucians, and Legalists all had competing theories of jurisprudence. Jurisprudence in Ancient Rome had its origins with the (periti)—experts in the jus mos maiorum (traditional law), a body of oral laws and customs. Praetors established a working body of laws by judging whether or not singular cases were capable of being prosecuted either by the edicta, the annual pronunciation of prosecutable offense, or in extraordinary situations, additions made to the edicta.
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Senators of the early Empire could ask extraneous questions or request that a certain action be taken by the Senate. Higher ranking senators spoke before lower ranking senators, although the Emperor could speak at any time.Abbott, 383 Besides the Emperor, Consuls, and Praetors could also preside over the Senate. The Senate ordinarily met in the Curia Julia, usually on either the Kalends (the first day of the month), or the Ides (around the fifteenth day of the month), although scheduled meetings occurred more frequently in September and October.
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The Executive Committee meets at least four times a year. The Executive Committee consists of 12 members; Grand Consul, Grand Pro Consul, Grand Quaestor, the immediate Past Grand Consul, a Grand Trustee elected by the Board of Grand Trustees, two Grand Praetors elected by the Praetorial College, one alumnus member-at-large, two undergraduate representatives elected by the undergraduate delegates from each chapter, and the two most recent International Balfour Award winners. The committee regulates the budget and expenditures as well as assign duties to the International Headquarters staff.
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That would mean that, when he was in the city, he might not be the constitutional magistrate with the most authority. Thanks to his prestige or auctoritas, his wishes would usually be obeyed, but there might be some difficulty. To fill this power vacuum, the Senate voted that Augustus's imperium proconsulare maius (superior proconsular power) should not lapse when he was inside the city walls. All armed forces in the city had formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and consuls, but this situation now placed them under the sole authority of Augustus.
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Augustus professed that the senate would keep the finest portion of the empire while he would take on the hardship and danger of defending precarious provinces which were vulnerable to internal rebellions or to external attacks (in the case of provinces along the borders of the empire). In reality he kept the provinces where the bulk of the legions were stationed and left the senators provinces which would be unarmed and unprepared for battle. Among the senatorial provinces, Asia and Africa were assigned to ex-consuls, and the others to ex-praetors.
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After the end of the Second Punic War, the Turdetani rose against their Roman governor in 197 BC. When Cato the Elder became consul in 195 BC, he was given the command of the whole of Hispania. Cato first put down the rebellion in the northeast, then marched south and put down the revolt by the Turdetani, "the least warlike of all the Hispanic tribes".Livy, Ab Urbe Condita Libri, 34, 17. Cato was able to return to Rome in 194, leaving two praetors in charge of the two provinces.
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Oakley (1998), p. 394 it could even have been entirely invented by a later writer to bring the war to an end with Rome in a suitably triumphant fashion.Oakley (1998), p. 311 The sparse mentions of praetors in the sources for the 4th century BC are generally thought to be historical; it is possible therefore that as praetor Ti. Aemilius really was involved in the peace negotiations with the Samnites.Oakley (1998), p. 394 The First Samnite War ended in a negotiated peace rather than one state dominating the other.
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Tribune () was the title of various elected officials in ancient Rome. The two most important were the tribunes of the plebs and the military tribunes. For most of Roman history, a college of ten tribunes of the plebs acted as a check on the authority of the senate and the annual magistrates, holding the power of ius intercessionis to intervene on behalf of the plebeians, and veto unfavourable legislation. There were also military tribunes, who commanded portions of the Roman army, subordinate to higher magistrates, such as the consuls and praetors, promagistrates, and their legates.
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Cato returned to Rome in 194, leaving two praetors in charge of the two Iberian provinces. In the late Roman Republic, Hispania remained divided like Gaul into a "Nearer" and a "Farther" province, as experienced marching overland from Gaul: Hispania Citerior (the Ebro region), and Ulterior (the Guadalquivir region). The battles in Hispania during the 1st century BC were largely confined to the north. In the reorganization of the Empire in 14 BC, when Hispania was remade into the three Imperial provinces, Baetica was governed by a proconsul who had formerly been a praetor.
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At the end of 196 BC, it was decided that, with war in Hispania raging, a consul with a consular army of two legions plus 15,000 Latin infantry and 800 cavalry transported by 20 ships was needed. Hispania was assigned to Marcus Porcius Cato (the Elder). The praetors Appius Claudius Nero and Publius Manlius were given Hispania Ulterior and Citerior respectively and the latter was to be an assistant to the consul. They were allowed to levy 2,000 infantry and 200 cavalry each to add to the legion each of their predecessors had in Hispania.
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Livy, The History of Rome, 41.21.3 In a passage that comes after the recording of the praetors for 174 BC, Livy wrote about a praetor called Appius Claudius and noted that on his arrival in Hispania the Celtiberians, who had surrendered to Tiberius Gracchus were quiet during the praetorship of Marcus Titinius, rebelled. Presumably he was a praetor for 175 BC and the record of his election was in the part of chapter 18 of book 40, which is lost. He was probably the praetor of Hispania Citerior.
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Soon after 125, the emperor Hadrian appointed Julianus to collect and revise all the edicta praetorum or Praetors' Edicts available. For centuries each incoming praetor urbanus had issued these annual edicts, which announced his legal positions for the next year. "The contents of the praetorian Edict can be summed up as constituting the praetor's programme of office: he is announcing to the public, at the beginning of his term, how he intends to exercise his office."Fritz Schulz, History of Roman Legal Science (Oxford University 1946, 1967) at 150.
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The body was primarily called for the election of consuls, praetors, and censors; while it could hear legislation, trials, and only it could declare an offensive war, these were increasingly rare by the second century BC. The Tribal assembly () dates from time immemorial, as no ancient historian mentions its establishment. In the early Republic, there were four urban tribes and 17 rural tribes. In 241 BC, fourteen rural tribes were added, bringing the total to thirty-five. The "tribes" were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather a district to which people were assigned.
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It might be that it was the Lex Genucia which truly introduced power-sharing between patricians and plebeians and that the Lex Licinia Sextia may simply have been an administrative adjustment which transferred plebeian access to the highest office from the consular tribunes to the consulship and, thus, Lucius Sextius becoming the first plebeian consul "becomes rather less impressive." Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, pp.337-38 Von Fritz and Sordi also think that the Lex Licinia Sextia on the consuls and the praetors was an administrative reform.
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On the triumph of the party of Vespasian, he was, notwithstanding, appointed one of the praetors; but the Roman senate would not allow him to enter upon the dignity, and conferred his office upon Plotius Grypus, on 1 January 70. Domitian, however, almost immediately afterwards restored him to the praetorship.Tacitus, Histories, iv.39, 40 Tettius was legate of Legio III Augusta from 80 through 82, effectively making him also governor of Numidia those years;Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), pp.
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Ius strictum means "strict law", or law interpreted without any modification and in its utmost rigor. It is a very rare term in the materials of classical Roman law. It is really a Byzantine term, occurring in Justinian’s Institutes in reference to the strict actions of the law, primarily describing the rigid limitations of the forms of action available under the law, particularly with older laws. It is often used by later commentators to distinguish it from the moderating influence of the praetors, or judges who expanded the law through actions ex fida bona, or what we would now call equity.
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Eventually, he was given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies, including the right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders.Abbott, 345 The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors. Under the republic, Proconsuls (usually former Consuls) were made governors of the more challenging provinces, and as such, most of the Roman army was under the command of one of the Proconsuls. In contrast, the "Propraetors" (usually former Praetors) were made governors of the more stable provinces.
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418 During the early 60s BC, following the sacking of the port of Ostia by pirates, Pompey held the powers of the office. Around 7 BC, the first Roman Emperor, Augustus, followed this example, and after vesting himself with these powers, specified that two former praetors should be appointed every year to carry out the functions of this office. Augustus transferred powers from the aedile to this office, and specified that all holders of this office be members of the Equestrian order. Augustus also specified that these officers were to be aided by an adjutor (from the 2nd century the subpraefectus).
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This was because Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, one of the praetors, called for an inquiry into his conduct in the previous year. Caesar went to Rome and put the matter before the senate, but this was not taken up and he returned to Gaul. He was also a target for prosecution by a plebeian tribune, but he was not brought to trial because he pleaded with the other tribunes not to prosecute him on the grounds of his absence from Rome. Lucius Domitius was now a candidate for the consulship and openly threatened to take up arms against him.
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Halted there by a mob, he set fire to Rome.Appian paints these violent partisan instances as episodes in the Roman civil wars, defining civil war in the Foreword of his work of the same name as a sanguinary conflict between factions of the same people, each claiming jurisdiction under the authority of the same government. In their attempt to find a Constitution that would satisfy both the Patricians and the Plebeians the Romans had created two categories of senior magistrates: the Consuls and Praetors, and the Tribunes. With competing duties and of parallel authorities they were expected to cooperate, yielding when superseded.
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102-104 All senior magistrates (consuls, praetors, censors, and plebeian tribunes) were required to actively look for omens (auspicia impetrativa); simply having omens thrust upon them (auspicia oblativa) was generally not adequate. Omens could be discovered while observing the heavens, while studying the flight of birds, or while studying the entrails of sacrificed animals. When a magistrate believed that he had witnessed such an omen, he usually had a priest (augur) interpret the omen. A magistrate was required to look for omens while presiding over a legislative or senate meeting, and while preparing for a war.
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Abbott, 233 Through these decrees, the senate directed the magistrates, especially the Roman Consuls (the chief magistrates) in their prosecution of military conflicts. The senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome. This was especially the case with regard to its management of state finances, as only it could authorize the disbursal of public funds from the treasury. As the Roman Republic grew, the senate also supervised the administration of the provinces, which were governed by former consuls and praetors, in that it decided which magistrate should govern which province.
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For centuries the monetary affairs of the Roman Republic had rested in the hands of the Senate. These elite liked to present themselves as steady and fiscally conservative, but as the 19th-century historian of Rome Wilhelm Ihne remarked: The aerarium (state treasury) was supervised by members of the government rising in power and prestige, the Quaestors, Praetors, and eventually the Prefects. With the dawn of the Roman Empire, a major change took place, as the emperors assumed the reins of financial control. Augustus adopted a system that was, on the surface, fair to the Senate.
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There was one exception to this rule, the province of Africa, where there was always at least a single legion to protect the province from Berber tribes. Augustus decreed that at least ten provinces would be held by the authority of the Roman people through the agency of the Senate. Though all ten were "proconsular", only two of these provinces (Asia and Africa), were actually governed by senators with proconsular imperium, the remaining eight being governed by propraetors. The two proconsular governors served for one year, while the eight praetors served typically for up to 3 years.
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The Consul was the highest Roman magistrate. The Praetor (the office was later divided into two, the Urban and Peregrine Praetors) was the highest judge in matters of private law between individual citizens, while the Curule Aediles, who supervised public works in the city, exercised a limited civil jurisdiction in relation to the market.p4 and p18, Nicholas, Barry, An Introduction to Roman Law (Oxford University Press, 1975) Roman magistrates were not lawyers, but were advised by jurists who were experts in the law. The term was maintained in most feudal successor states to the western Roman Empire.
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64-5, 72 Tacitus wrote that Augustus conferred judicial power to the equestrian governors of the province of Egypt and that later a large number of judicial cases which had been presided over by the praetors both in Rome and in the other provinces were similarly transferred. The emperor Claudius (reigned 41–54) remarked that the judgement of his procurators ought to have the same validity as the rulings of the emperor and handed the judicial power over to them in full.Tacitus, Annals, 12.60 In this manner the emperor gained direct control over judicial matters via their procuratorial agents in Rome.
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1–2 In 182 BC, the praetors Publius Manlius (who had been Cato's second-in-command in 195 BC) and Quintus Fulvius Flaccus were assigned Hispania Ulterior and Citerior respectively. In Rome it was known that in Hispania Citerior there was war with the Celtiberians and that the army in Hispania Ulterior has lost military discipline due to the idleness caused by the long illness of Publius Sempronius. The reinforcements for the two provinces were 4,000 Roman and 7,000 allied infantry and 200 Roman and 300 allied cavalry. Aulus Terentius sent news that Publius Sempronius had died after more than a year's illness.
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Around this time, the practice of electing military tribunes with consular authority was dropped. In 366 BC, in an effort by the patricians to reassert their influence over the magisterial offices, two new offices were created. These two offices, the praetorship and the curule aedileship (so-called because its holder, like consuls and praetors, had the right to sit in a curule seat), were at first open only to patricians, but within a generation they were open to plebeians as well. Beginning around the year 350 BC, the senators and the plebeian tribunes began to grow closer.
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Murena's son was praetor in 65 BC, and consul in 63 BC, the first of his family to reach this rank. He was promptly charged by an election rival with bribery, and was defended in court by Cicero. His former commanding officer, Lucullus, was there as a character witness. Cicero said that Murena, father, and his father, had been honorable praetors at Rome, that the family was plebeian, that the charges were trumped up, and in his view it was high time that the plebeian family were admitted to a Senatorial post (De Murena, Chapter 12).
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An increase in the number of praetors during this period is linked to the annexation of territories as "provinces" in the modern sense of a geographical region organized under formal administration. In 228–227 BC, two new praetorships were created and assigned to Rome's first administrative provinces, Sicily (Sicilia) and Sardinia (Corsica et Sardinia).Brennan, Praetorship, p. 605. Earlier dates for Sicily and Sardinia as provinciae refer to military commands prior to formal annexation — though what constitutes "annexation" during this period is sometimes unclear. In 197 BC, two more praetorships were created along with the administrative provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, bringing the number to six.Lintott Constitution, p. 114.
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OED, s.v. "Celery". Celery's late arrival in the English kitchen is an end-product of the long tradition of seed selection needed to reduce the sap's bitterness and increase its sugars. By 1699, John Evelyn could recommend it in his Acetaria. A Discourse of Sallets: "Sellery, apium Italicum, (and of the Petroseline Family) was formerly a stranger with us (nor very long since in Italy) is an hot and more generous sort of Macedonian Persley or Smallage... and for its high and grateful Taste is ever plac'd in the middle of the Grand Sallet, at our Great Men's tables, and Praetors feasts, as the Grace of the whole Board".
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Abbott, 377 The chief Praetor in Rome, the urban praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury.Abbott, 377 Under the empire, the plebeian tribunes remained sacrosanct,Abbott, 378 and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies.Abbott, 378 Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome.Abbott, 379 Under Augustus, the Aediles lost control over the grain supply to a board of commissioners.
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Abbott, 257 The Centuriate Assembly could also pass a law that granted constitutional command authority, or "Imperium", to Consuls and Praetors (the lex de imperio or "Law on Imperium"), and Censorial powers to Censors (the lex de potestate censoria or "Law on Censorial Powers").Abbott, 257 In addition, the Centuriate Assembly served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases (in particular, cases involving perduellio), and ratified the results of a Census.Taylor, 3, 4 Since the Romans used a form of direct democracy, citizens, and not elected representatives, voted before each assembly. As such, the citizen-electors had no power, other than the power to cast a vote.
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Polybius VI.19, 26 The duplication and rotation of command was a characteristic feature of the Roman Republic, which, from the time of the expulsion of the kings, had always aimed for collegiate offices, to avoid excessive concentration of power (e.g. two Consuls, two Praetors etc.). Equites (and anyone else) who aspired to public office were required to perform at least 10 years' military service, which implies that the minimum age for public office was 27 years (16+10)Polybius VI.19 A military tribune wore a bronze cuirass (often engraved), pteruges, a mantle, and an Attic-style helmet with horsehair plume. Unlike lower ranks, officers never adopted mail armour.
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Term limits can date back to the American Revolution, and prior to that to the democracies and republics of antiquity. The council of 500 in ancient Athens rotated its entire membership annually, as did the ephorate in ancient Sparta. The ancient Roman Republic featured a system of elected magistrates—tribunes of the plebs, aediles, quaestors, praetors, and consuls —who served a single term of one year, with re-election to the same magistracy forbidden for ten years (see cursus honorum). According to historian Garrett Fagan, office holding in the Roman Republic was based on "limited tenure of office" which ensured that "authority circulated frequently", helping to prevent corruption.
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They then marched against the capital and set up camp opposite the walls of Constantinople on September25, 1047. Tornikios' attack against Constantinople, from the Madrid Skylitzes The Byzantine bureaucracy distrusted the military aristocracy and had been systematically undermining it, for example removing the day-to-day running of the military forces of each province from the traditionally aristocratic strategoi and giving it to the civil magistrates (praetors). Emperor Constantine belonged to this bureaucratic faction, and had been actively reducing the size of the army during the five years since he had come to the throne. This was a major cause of the unrest in Thrace and of Tornikios' own dissatisfaction.
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X. FL. i. e. curator denariorum flandorum, or are signed by praetors (P), aediles (CVR AED), or quaestors (Q). During the Roman Empire, this appears on the bronze coinage only (except during the first few years of hero's reign, when it is also found on the precious metal coinage), and it suggests that although the emperor kept the minting of gold and silver coins under his own authority, the Senate, as a sop to its pride, was allowed to retain nominal authority over bronze coinage. In any case, the magistrate's control of the legend on the coinage lent itself to the production of coins containing political messages.
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Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this,Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain, 658–59. as the Senate was allowed itself to elect praetors and quaestors, in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating new magistrates (adlectio). An inscription in honor of city prefect (336–337) Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time".; The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalized as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could now dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats.
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While the consul Cicero and the contemporary historian Livy do mention the military uses of the dictatorship, others, such as the contemporary historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, mention its use for the purposes of maintaining order during times of plebeian unrest. For a dictator to be appointed, the Roman Senate had to pass a decree (a senatus consultum), authorizing a Roman consul to nominate a dictator, who then took office immediately. Often the dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved. Ordinary magistrates (such as consuls and praetors) retained their offices, but lost their independence and became agents of the dictator.
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Polybius, 132 Only the Centuriate Assembly could elect Consuls, Praetors and Censors, only it could declare war,Abbott, 257 and only it could ratify the results of a census.Taylor, 3, 4 While it had the power to pass ordinary laws (leges), it rarely did so. Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the Plebeian Council The organization of the Tribal Assembly was much simpler than was that of the Centuriate Assembly, in contrast, since its organization was based on only thirty-five Tribes. The Tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical divisions (similar to modern U.S. Congressional districts or Commonwealth Parliamentary constituencies).
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The historian Tacitus mentions Cato in his Annales. At the beginning of the year 28, during the ascendancy of the powerful prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus, Titus Sabinus, an eques of the highest rank, was imprisoned due to his friendship with the deceased Germanicus, an enemy of Sejanus. "He had indeed persisted in showing marked respect towards [Germanicus'] wife and children," writes Tacitus, "as their visitor at home, their companion in public, the solitary survivor of so many clients." Cato, along with three other ex-praetors -- Latinus Latiaris, Petitius Rufus, and Marcus Opsius -- managed to elicit treasonable comments from Sabinus, which they then passed on to Tiberius.
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Praetorians originated as guards of Roman generals during the Roman Republic. They are first recorded as bodyguards of the Scipio family around 275 BC. Generals with imperium (the right to command an army) were magistrates or promagistrates, accompanied at all times by their lictors, who would act as close protection. Consuls and proconsuls had twelve lictors, whilst praetors and propraetors had six; enough to guard the general's tent in camp, but too few to be effective as a bodyguard in battle. There was no permanent bodyguard formation, so some military officers began to surround themselves with temporary units of hand-picked soldiers to ensure their security during battle.
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Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Sulla also wanted to reduce the risk that a future general might attempt to seize power, as he himself had done. To this end he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for ten years before being reelected to any office. Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office.
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People in this sense meant the whole government. The latter, however, was essentially divided into the aristocratic Senate, whose will was executed by the consuls and praetors, and the comitia centuriāta, "committee of the centuries", whose will came to be safeguarded by the Tribunes. One of the ways the emperor Commodus (180–192) paid for his donatives and mass entertainments was to tax the senatorial order, and on many inscriptions, the traditional order is provocatively reversed (Populus Senatusque...). Beginning in 1184, the Commune of Rome struck coins in the name of the SENATVS P Q R. From 1414 until 1517, the Roman Senate struck coins with a shield inscribed SPQR.
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Previous complaints of like nature had been adjudicated by the senate or the consuls.Cf. note 8 in the translation of Livy by Alfred C. Schlesinger, 43.2 The senate appointed the recuperatores (recuperators) to investigate extortion and maladministration by the praetors and to recover damages for provincial plaintiffs. The trials were a precursor of the standing court of recovery of property (quaestio de pecuniis repetundis) established by a Calpurnian Law of 149 BC, whose judges were transferred from the patrician aristocracy to the equestrians by Gaius Gracchus in 122 BC.Johnson, Coleman-Norton & Bourne, Ancient Roman Statutes, Austin, 1961, pp. 38Gruen E., S., Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts (1968), p.
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Lusitania was probably the area of the peninsula that resisted the Roman invasion for the longest time. Until the year 155 BC, the Lusitanian chief Punicus made raids into the part of Lusitania controlled by Rome, ending with the twenty-year peace made by the former praetor Sempronius Gracchus. Punicus obtained an important victory against the praetors Manilius and Calpurnius, inflicting 6,000 casualties. After the death of Punicus, Caesarus took charge of the fight against Rome, vanquishing the Roman troops again in 153 BC, revealing his banner in the battle, which triumphantly showed to the rest of the Iberian peoples how to display the vulnerability of Rome.
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Lucullus was elected as one of the Praetors for 104 BC, probably Praetor Peregrinus, the magistrate responsible for hearing appeals and judicial cases outside the city of Rome in Italy. During his Praetorship a young Roman knight (Eques), Titus Minucius Vettius, led a slave revolt around the city of Capua in Campania. Vettius had fallen in love with a beautiful young slave girl and, promising to pay her owner the huge sum of seven Attic talents, had he been permitted to take her. However, when the time within which it had been agreed that payment would be made expired, Vettius was unable to fulfil his promise.
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Serapio's son, the fourth Scipio Nasica, was even more conservative, and rose to be consul in 111 BC. This Scipio Nasica's sons became praetors only shortly before the Marsic or Social War (starting 91 BC). However, a grandson (adopted into the plebeian-noble Caecilii Metelli) became the Metellus Scipio who allied himself with Pompey the Great and Cato the Younger, and who opposed Julius Caesar. Metellus Scipio was the last Scipio to distinguish himself militarily or politically. None of Scipio's descendants, apart from Scipio Aemilianus—his wife's nephew who became his adoptive grandson—came close to matching his political career or his military successes.
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Prorogation takes on a new importance with the annexation of Macedonia and the Roman province of Africa in 146 BC. The number of praetors was not increased even though the two new territories were organized as praetorian provinces. For the first time since the 170s, it became impossible for sitting magistrates to govern all the permanent praetorian provinciae, which now numbered eight.This includes the six territorial provinces requiring a governor (Sicily, Sardinia, the two Spains, Macedonia, and Africa), and the two city jurisdictions of the praetor urbanus and the praetor peregrinus. This point marks the beginning of the era of the so-called "Roman governor," a post for which there is no single word in the Republic.
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This was half the number of lictors to which the consuls were entitled, and the same number accorded to the praetors after the institution of that magistracy in 366 BC. As with other magistrates, the lictors of the magister equitum were expected to remove the axes from their fasces when entering the Pomerium, an area of the city of Rome that was considered sacred. Only the lictors of the dictator, who was entitled to an escort of twenty-four lictors, representing the full authority of the Roman state, retained their axes within the Pomerium, symbolizing that the dictator retained the power of life and death, even within Rome's sacred precinct.Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 429 ("Fasces").
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In the Roman Republic, collegiality was the practice of having at least two people, and always an even number, in each magistrate position of the Roman Senate. Reasons were to divide power and responsibilities among several people, both to prevent the rise of another king and to ensure more productive magistrates. Examples of Roman collegiality include the two consuls and censors; six praetors; eight quaestors; four aediles; ten tribunes and decemviri, etc. There were several notable exceptions: the prestigious, but largely ceremonial (and lacking imperium) positions of pontifex maximus and princeps senatus held one person each; the extraordinary magistrates of Dictator and Magister Equitum were also one person each; and there were three triumviri.
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Julius Caesar pausing on the banks of the Rubicon In January, 49 BC, Caesar's opponents in the Senate, led by Lentulus, Cato and Scipio, tried to strip Caesar of his command (provinces and legions) and force him to return to Rome as a private citizen (liable to prosecution). Caesar's allies in the Senate, especially Mark Anthony, Curio, Cassius and Caelius Rufus, tried to defend their patron, but were threatened with violence. On 7 January the Senate passed the consultum ultimum (declaring a state of emergency) and charged the consuls, praetors, tribunes and proconsuls with the defence of the state. That night Anthony, Cassius, Curio and Cealius Rufus fled from Rome and headed north to join Caesar.
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The latter chose this time to make his statement about Curtius being a self-made man. This emperor in this story seems to appear as a public figure, which may indicate that the date of his vote for Curtius is before 26, when he retired to Capri on a permanent basis, leaving the government up to his trusted friend, Sejanus. If that is the case, and the apt candidate, Curtius, was being groomed for consular rank at the minimum age of 25, then he can have been born no later than the year 1. There were far fewer praetors at Rome than quaestors, but Tacitus still does not say which he was, or where located.
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After the legendary expulsion of the last King, Tarquin the Proud, a harsh ruler at the end of the Roman Kingdom, most of the powers and authority of the king were ostensibly given to the newly instituted consulship. This change in leadership came about when the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped the wives and daughters of powerful Roman nobles. A group of nobles led by Lucius Junius Brutus, with the support of the Roman Army, expelled Tarquinius and his family from Rome in 509 BC. Originally, consuls were called praetors ("leader"), referring to their duties as the chief military commanders. By at least 300 BC the title of Consul became commonly used.
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He also rigidly formalised the cursus honorum by clearly stating the progression of office and associated age requirements. Next, to aid administration, he doubled the number of quaestors to 20 and added two more praetors; the greater number of magistrates also meant he could shorten the length of provincial assignments (and lessen the chances of building provincial power bases) by increasing the rate of turnover. Moreover, magistrates were barred from seeking reelection to any post for ten years and barred for two years from holding any other post after their term ended. After securing election as consul in 80 BC, Sulla resigned the dictatorship and attempted to solidify his republican constitutional reforms.
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Lex de consule altero ex plebe (et de praetore ex patribus creando?). This law provided for the termination of the military tribunes with consular powers and the return to regular consulships, one of which was to be held by the plebeians. It is possible that the law also provided for the creation of a new and elected magistracy (office of state), the praetorship, as Livy wrote that in 367 BC "the plebs gave way to the nobility on the appointment of a praetor";Livy, The History of Rome, 6.42 that is, the plebeians agreed that the praetor should be a patrician. The praetors were chief justices who presided over criminal trials and could appoint judges for civil cases.
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In ancient Rome a collegium was a "body, guild, corporation united in colleagueship; of magistrates, praetors, tribunes, priests, augurs; a political club or trade guild".Cassell's Latin Dictionary, Marchant, J.R.V, & Charles, Joseph F., (Eds.), Revised Edition, 1928, p.107 Thus a college was a form of corporation or corporate body, an artificial legal person (body/corpus) with its own legal personality, with the capacity to enter into legal contracts, to sue and be sued. In mediaeval England there were colleges of priests, for example in chantry chapels; modern survivals include the Royal College of Surgeons in England (originally the Guild of Surgeons Within the City of London), the College of Arms in London (a body of heralds enforcing heraldic law), an electoral college (to elect representatives), etc.
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Lintott, Constitution p. 114. In the 2nd century BC, proconsular imperium had ceased to be granted by the popular assembly; the now-fictional prorogatio was justified by military emergencies as decided by the Senate. "Unusual political influence" was required for prorogations of longer than one year.Lintott, Constitution p. 114. The Lex Baebia of 181 BC, which cracked down on electoral bribery, was accompanied by an attempt to regulate prorogation in relation to the praetorship. Advancement through the political career track had not been regularized before the 190s; the consulship and praetorship might be held in either order, without prerequisites. A law dating around 196 BC began to require that candidates for the consulship first serve as praetors, now numbering six.
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Abbott, 374 If an individual was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to the emperor. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows.Abbott, 376 The Praetors also lost a great deal of power, and ultimately had little authority outside of the city.
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The Centuriate Assembly was supposedly founded by the legendary Roman King Servius Tullius, less than a century before the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 BC. As such, the original design of the Centuriate Assembly was known as the "Servian organization". Under this organization, the assembly was supposedly designed to mirror the Roman army during the time of the Roman Kingdom, with a division such that the citizen-soldiers had the responsibility of electing the consuls and praetors, and therefore, their leaders. The Roman army was based on units called centuries, which were comparable to Companies in a modern army. While Centuries in the Roman army always consisted of about one hundred soldiers, Centuries in the Centuriate Assembly usually did not.
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He reportedly carried out his duties as consul well, although he was prone to violence and earned the nickname "Castor" from fighting an equestrian. There was also an incident at a theater between the Praetorians and claqueurs ("actors") in which Drusus reportedly sided with the actors, preventing the Praetorian Guard from punishing unruly actors. In Annals 1.77, Tacitus says the unruly behavior of actors and the crowds were later addressed by the Senate which passed measures allowing the praetors to punish riotous spectators. Such were his excesses that Tiberius decided to make him governor of Illyricum the following year, both to give him experience in war and bolster his popularity with the troops - perhaps also to keep him away from the indulgences of city life.
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The proverbial "arrogance" and "tyranny" of the Tarquins, epitomised by the Lucretia incident, is probably a reflection of the patricians' fear of the Tarquins' growing power and their erosion of patrician privilege, most likely by drawing support from the plebeians (commoners). To ensure patrician supremacy, the autocratic power of the kings had to be fragmented and permanently curtailed. Thus, the replacement of a single ruler by a collegiate administration, which soon evolved into two Praetors, later called Consuls, with equal powers and limited terms of office (one year, instead of the life tenancy of the kings). In addition, power was further fragmented by the establishment of further collegiate offices, known to history as Roman magistrates: (three Aediles and four Quaestors).
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100 BC, Gallia is a flexible word that refers often to Cisalpine Gaul alone, but sometimes to Gaul as an indefinite totality and sometimes in a very limited sense to only Cispadane Gaul. The following table lists consuls, praetors and promagistrates — no dictatores are recorded against the Gauls — assigned to Gallia until 125 BC, when the administration of Cisalpina should be considered in light of actions in Transalpine Gaul. After 197 BC, commanders of praetorian rank are no longer assigned to Liguria or against the Gauls; military operations in northern Italy are usually conducted by both consuls during this period, or one consul if another war was being waged abroad.T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), vol.
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Cicero's popularity approached its heights during his aedileship and the subsequent years when he eclipsed Quintus Hortensius as Rome's leading orator. Consequently, he was not only elected to all the chief offices at the first attempt and the minimum permitted age (always a difficult task for a novus homo without noble or even senatorial ancestry), but returned first of all the candidates he stood against every time. That was rarely achieved even by sons of the highest and wealthiest noble families and underlines the genuine depth and breadth of Cicero's popularity among Romans of all but the poorest classes. This unprecedented phenomenon for a new man is perhaps best underlined by the elections in 67 BC for the praetors of 66.
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He might have been referred to the mentioned missing text. Richardson holds that a man with the cognomen Cento (usually written as Centho in the literary sources) is recorded in the Fasti Triumphales and that he may have been the praetor of Hispania Ulterior who succeed Titus Fontueus. Therefore, he must have won a battle, but there is no record of his activities.Richardson, Hispaniae, Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218–82 BC, pp. 103. The Fasti Triumphales is a list of triumphs form the foundation of Rome to 12 BC. In 173 BC, the praetors Numerius Fabius Buteo and Marcus Matienus were assigned Hispania Citerior and Ulterior respectively. They were reinforced by 3,000 Roman infantry and 200 cavalry.
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The proverbial "arrogance" and "tyranny" of the Tarquins, epitomised by the rape of Lucretia incident, is probably a reflection of the patricians' fear of the Tarquins' growing power and their erosion of patrician privilege, most likely by drawing support from the plebeians (commoners). To ensure patrician supremacy, the autocratic power of the kings had to be fragmented and permanently curtailed. Thus the replacement of a single ruler by a collegiate administration, which soon evolved into two praetores (Praetors, renamed Consuls in 305 BC), with equal powers and limited terms of office (one year, instead of the life tenancy of the kings). In addition, power was further fragmented by the establishment of further collegiate offices, known to history as Roman magistrates: three Aediles and four Quaestors.
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The rituals of the Argei were archaic religious observances in ancient Rome that took place on March 16 and March 17, and again on May 14 or May 15. By the time of Augustus, the meaning of these rituals had become obscure even to those who practiced them. For the May rites, a procession of pontiffs, Vestals, and praetors made its way around a circuit of 27 stations (sacella or sacraria), where at each they retrieved a figure fashioned into human form from rush, reed, and straw, resembling men tied hand and foot. After all the stations were visited, the procession, accompanied by the Flaminica Dialis in mourning guise, moved to the Pons Sublicius, the oldest known bridge in Rome, where the gathered figures were tossed into the Tiber River.
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The modern concept of a head of state, insofar as the republican times excepting the dictatorships are concerned, can hardly be translated to Roman conceptions, but most other powers—the imperium—were ceded to the consuls (the etymology suggests that these were originally the king's chief counsellors) and to the praetors ("leaders")Before the formal establishment of the office of praetor below the consulate, this was at least another generic name, and quite possibly another title, of the consuls, cf. the names "praetorium" for the military leader's tent etc. after the creation of that office (about 367, according to Livy); thereby at least roughly separating the judiciary from the executive. According to tradition (which is disputed by historians for the first decades), the consulate was always entrusted to two persons to prevent autocracy.
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Chart showing the checks and balances of the constitution of the Roman Republic Andrew Lintott notes that many modern historians follow Theodor Mommsen's view that during the Roman Republic there were two assemblies of the tribes and that the ancient sources used the term comitia tributa with reference both of them. One was the assembly by the tribes which was used for plebeian meetings to which the patricians were excluded and which was convened by the plebeian tribunes. The other assembly based on the tribes was convened by the Roman consuls or the praetors and was an assembly of the whole of the Roman people (both patricians and plebeians). However, the ancient sources did not have a differentiation in terminology for the two of them and used the term comitia tributa for both.
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To reduce this risk, he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for ten years before being reelected to any office. Sulla then established a system where all Consuls and Praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office. These two reforms were meant to ensure that no governor would be able to command the same army for an extended period of time so as to minimize the threat that another general might attempt to march on Rome. With his reforms enacted, Sulla resigned as Dictator and retired to private life in 79 BC, dying the next year in 78 BC. Without his continued presence in Rome, Sulla's reforms were soon undone.
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His fresh and compact force fought against a long column that was hindered by many pack animals, and was tired from a long march. At first, the Lusitanians threw the Romans into confusion. Then the battle became more even, and eventually, the Romans won and pursued the fugitives. The Lusitanians lost 12,000 men and 140 men, mainly cavalrymen, were captured. The Romans lost 73 men.Livy, The History of Rome, 34.43.7; 35.1 In 193 BC, the praetors Gaius Flaminius and Marcus Fulvius Nobilitor were assigned Hispania Citerior and Ulterior respectively. Gaius Flaminius was a veteran who had fought in Hispania during the Second Punic War.Livy, The History of Rome, 34.55.6 Because of the events of the previous year some friends told Gaius Flaminius that a great war had flared up in Hispania.
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74–96 Lintott disagrees with the notion that there was only one assembly based on the tribes, which was the one of the plebeians. He notes that there are examples in which laws were proposed to the comitia tributa by the consuls, who did not preside over the assembly of the plebeians. Examples of such laws are the law which increased the number of quaestors to twenty, which was attributed to Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the lex Gabinia Calpurnia de insula Delo of 58 BC and the lex Quinctia of 9 BC. Moreover, the consuls conducted the elections of the curule aediles, who were not plebeian officials, before the tribes. Therefore, it is likely that the term comitia tributa was used both for the assemblies presided over by the consuls and the praetors and the assemblies presided over by the plebeian tribunes.
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Over time, the consulship was increasingly devalued, as the practice of selecting suffect consuls expanded, with sometimes up to 12 pairs of colleagues being elected every year by the Antonine period. With its duties of state increasingly being folded into the office of emperor, its judicial authority was emphasised in the Senate's new role as a criminal court; and with loss of practically all of the position's political powers, the consuls took over responsibility for organising public games to celebrate holidays and imperial events. With the neutering of the political power of many of the Republic's magistracies, many of the former high offices of state effectively became municipal offices with primarily administrative duties only in Rome. The praetors became administrators of the grain dole and games, retaining some judicial authority over civil and criminal cases until the third century.
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Marcian laid out legal reforms in his novels, or codes of law, containing 20 laws, many of which were targeted at reducing the corruption and abuses of office that had existed during the reign of Theodosius; five of which are preserved in full. Marcian mandated that the office of praetorship (officer in charge of public games and works) could only be given to senators who resided in Constantinople, attempted to curb the practice of selling administrative offices, and decreed that consuls should be responsible for the maintenance of Constantinople's aqueducts. He repealed the , a tax on senators' property that amounted to seven pounds of gold per annum. Marcian removed the financial responsibilities of the consuls and praetors, held since the time of the Roman Republic, to fund public sports and games or give wealth to the citizens of Constantinople, respectively.
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The setting of City of Villains was the Rogue Isles, a fictitious group of islands off the eastern coast of the United States. There, under the watchful gaze of Lord Recluse and the Arachnos organization, prospective villains fought to make a name for themselves, seizing any opportunity that presented itself. The setting of the Going Rogue expansion was Praetoria, a parallel dimension version of Paragon City where the world was ravaged by Hamidon and his Devouring Earth legions and only Emperor Marcus Cole managed to bring stability to a world ravaged by the Hamidon Wars. Superpowered individuals living in Praetoria begin as Praetors, working for Emperor Cole, but decide to either join the Loyalist faction and remain a member of the Praetorian armed police force or join the Resistance and attempt to reveal the corruption of Emperor Cole (otherwise known as Tyrant) and free humanity from his rule.
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Prorogation became fully institutionalized, and even the praetor urbanus was sometimes prorogued. Governors who received established territorial provinces could expect longer tenures.Brennan, Praetorship pp. 626–627. The addition of the wealthy Asian province in 133 BC as a bequest of Attalus III put further pressure on the system, again without increasing the number of praetorships: In one major administrative development for which the career of Marius offers the clearest evidence, praetors now needed to remain in Rome to preside over increased activity in the criminal courts, often occasioned by prosecutions for extortion in the provinces or electoral corruption,Asconius remarks that when a praetor was given an extended command, it allowed him to extort enough money out of allies to buy the consulship, which in turn would give him another chance to plunder a province before he lost his immunity from prosecution as a magistrate; scholion to Pro Scauro 14.3, as cited by Brennan, p. 584.
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Praetor ( , ), also spelled prætor or pretor in English, was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army (in the field or, less often, before the army had been mustered); and as an elected magistratus (magistrate), assigned various duties (which varied at different periods in Rome's history). The functions of the magistracy, the praetura (praetorship), are described by the adjective:In the Latin language, the ending of the adjective agrees with the case, gender, and number, of the noun, which is why the ending of praetori- varies in the phrases given. the praetoria potestas (praetorian power), the praetorium imperium (praetorian authority), and the praetorium ius (praetorian law), the legal precedents established by the praetores (praetors). Praetorium, as a substantive, denoted the location from which the praetor exercised his authority, either the headquarters of his castra, the courthouse (tribunal) of his judiciary, or the city hall of his provincial governorship.
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Roman ambivalence toward physical pleasure is expressed by the infamia of those whose bodies provided it publicly.Hallett, pp. 66–67. In a technical sense, infamia was an official loss of legal standing for a freeborn person as a result of misconduct, including sexual misconduct, but the word could be used for ill repute in general.Both the censors and the praetors could impose infamia as a legal status; McGinn (1998), p. 65ff. Infamia was an "inescapable consequence" of certain professions, including not only prostitutes and pimps but performers such as actors, dancers, and gladiators:Hallett, p. 67. The Tabula Heracleensis, "probably from the time of Julius Caesar," lists those who are barred from holding local magistracies, including anyone "who has or shall ... have been hired out for the purpose of fighting as a gladiaor ... or who has or shall have prostituted his person; or who has been or shall have been a trainer of gladiators or actors, or who shall run a brothel" (as quoted by Hallett, p. 70).
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In the Roman Republic, and Empire, the curule chair (sella curulis, supposedly from currus, "chariot") was the seat upon which magistrates holding imperium were entitled to sit. This includes dictators, magistri equitum, consuls, praetors, curule aediles, and the promagistrates, temporary or de facto holders of such offices. Additionally, the censors and the Flamen of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) were also allowed to sit on a curule seat, though these positions did not hold imperium. Livy writes that the three flamines maiores or high priests of the Archaic Triad of major gods were each granted the honor of the curule chair.Ab urbe condita 1:20 According to Livy the curule seat, like the Roman toga, originated in Etruria,Livy, Ab urbe condita, I.8: Me haud paenitet illis auctoribus assentiri, quibus et apparitores hoc genus ab Etruscis finitimis, unde sella curulis, unde toga praetexta sumpta est... and it has been used on surviving Etruscan monuments to identify magistrates.
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Rémy, Les carrières sénatoriales dans les provinces romaines d'Anatolie au Haut-Empire (31 av. J.-C. - 284 ap. J.-C.), (Istanbul: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes- Georges Dumézil, 1989), p. 63 Fronto's promotion to the Senate was in two steps: first he was adlected inter tribunicos, that is, with the rank of having been plebeian tribune; then advanced to praetorian rank. His advancement excused him from the expenses of the praetorship, foremost of which were sponsoring the ludi or public games, which was a considerable expense: one inscription records that for three of the six ludi the state allocated over 1,600,000 sesterces for them, and praetors were expected to match or exceed this amount with their contributions.Richard Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton: University Press, 1984), pp. 59-62 Promoting Fronto to the Senate in two steps was an unusual approach; all but one other man Vespasian is known to have adlected to the Senate were directly adlected inter praetorios.Houston, "Vespasian's Adlection of Men in Senatum", American Journal of Philology, 98 (1977), p. 46 n. 68.
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Andrew Lintott, Imperium Romanum: Politics and Administration (Routledge, 1993), pp. 6 and 12. After a series of decisive victories against Gauls and Ligurians in 200, provinciae pertaining to the Gauls take on an increasingly diplomatic and administrative character. The province of Cisalpina at first was one of the military commands that might be assigned to the two consuls and six praetors before the territory had been annexed.E.S. Staveley, "Rome and Italy in the Early Third Century," in The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge University Press, 1970), vol. 7, part 2, p. 431 online. A military command (imperium) was sometimes extended past a magistrate's one-year term of elected office for a year or two (see prorogatio); this prorogation allowed Rome to maintain continuity in ongoing military operations under experienced officers while still controlling and limiting the number of individuals authorized to hold command.Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 1999.), p. 113 ff.; T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 625–626. After major military operations had ceased, the commander's abilities as an administrator were put to the test.
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