What's emanating from your throat should sound unpolished, marked by cracking and what linguists call ingressive phonation, or vocalizing as you suck in breath.
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Because despite any exactitude of gesture and phonation—the open-hanging mouth, the tongue-thrust, the accent's glides, the nonrhotics, the shrugging and grimacing, the peeved shaken fist and wag of the finger—the true thing being impersonated goes unsaid.
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Kuang identified two types of phonation: pitch-dependent and pitch-independent.Kuang, J.-J. (2013). Phonation in Tonal Contrasts (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Los Angeles.
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The release of the voiced glottal click is "creaky", as the voiceless nasal often is. In Miller's treatment of phonation, this is perhaps a morphological contrast superimposed on the basic five-phonation system.
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Gordon and Ladefoged established a continuum of phonation, where several types can be identified.Gordon, Matthew & Ladefoged, Peter. (2001). Phonation types: A cross-linguistic overview. Journal of Phonetics, 29, 383-406. doi:10.006/jpho.2001.0147.
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A major distinction between speech sounds is whether they are voiced. Sounds are voiced when the vocal folds begin to vibrate in the process of phonation. Many sounds can be produced with or without phonation, though physical constraints may make phonation difficult or impossible for some articulations. When articulations are voiced, the main source of noise is the periodic vibration of the vocal folds.
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Phonation occurring in excised larynges would also not be possible according to this theory.
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Along with the manner of articulation and phonation, this gives the consonant its distinctive sound.
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Articulations like voiceless plosives have no acoustic source and are noticeable by their silence, but other voiceless sounds like fricatives create their own acoustic source regardless of phonation. Phonation is controlled by the muscles of the larynx, and languages make use of more acoustic detail than binary voicing. During phonation, the vocal folds vibrate at a certain rate. This vibration results in a periodic acoustic waveform comprising a fundamental frequency and its harmonics.
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The Voice Quality Symbol for electrolaryngeal phonation in speech is И, approximating the symbol for electricity.
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Contrast of tones has long been thought of as differences in pitch height. However, several studies pointed out that tone is actually multidimensional. Contour, duration, and phonation may all contribute to the differentiation of tones. Recent investigations using perceptual experiments seem to suggest phonation counts as a perceptual cue.
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In linguistics, voicelessness is the property of sounds being pronounced without the larynx vibrating. Phonologically, it is a type of phonation, which contrasts with other states of the larynx, but some object that the word phonation implies voicing and that voicelessness is the lack of phonation. The International Phonetic Alphabet has distinct letters for many voiceless and modally voiced pairs of consonants (the obstruents), such as . Also, there are diacritics for voicelessness, and , which is used for letters with a descender.
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The interaction between pitch and phonation type in Mon: phonetic implications for a theory of tonogenesis. Mon-Khmer Studies 16-17:11-24. While difference in pitch in certain environments was found to be significant, there are no minimal pairs that are distinguished solely by pitch. The contrastive mechanism is the vowel phonation.
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The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, phonation is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Phoneticians in other subfields, such as linguistic phonetics, call this process voicing, and use the term phonation to refer to any oscillatory state of any part of the larynx that modifies the airstream, of which voicing is just one example.
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There are multiple values of phonation, one being the typical one (what some phoneticians call "modal voicing"). The other types of phonation have been variously termed checked vowels, creaky voice vowels and breathy voice vowels. Some Mixe variants are vowel innovative and some, notably North Highland Mixe, have complicated umlaut systems raising vowel qualities in certain phonological environments.
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Chaos Appl. Sci. Engrg., 9, 2197–2202, (1999). and in studies of phonation to model the right and left vocal fold oscillators.
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Stridency may be a type of phonation called harsh voice. A similar phonation, without the trill, is called ventricular voice; both have been called pressed voice. Bai, of southern China, has a register system that has allophonic strident and pressed vowels. There is no official symbol for stridency in the IPA, but a superscript (for a voiced epiglottal trill) is often used.
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The narrow opening between the folds is referred to as the glottis. As air moves through the glottis, it causes a distortion of the air particles which sets the vocal folds into vibratory motion. It is this vibratory motion that produces phonation or voice. In dysphonia, there is an impairment in the ability to produce an appropriate level of phonation.
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Vowels may be long or short, but long vowels may be sequences rather than distinct phonemes. The other vowel quality sequences—better known as diphthongs—disregarding the added complexity of phonation, are . All plain vowels may be nasalized. No other phonation may be nasalized, but nasalization occurs in combination with other phonations as the second vowel of a sequence ("long vowel" or "diphthong").
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It is a surgical procedure used in conditions like adductor spasmodic dysphonia (a condition in which there is distortion of the voice due to excessively tight closure of the glottis on phonation). Generally, lateralization thyroplasty is intended to prevent this tight closure of the glottis at the terminal stage of phonation by lateralizing the position of the vocal cord. This is a completely mechanical process.
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This index is made up of many measurements of the voice include voice frequency measurements (high and low), maximum phonation time (MPT), and jitter (frequency instability).
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Evaluation of a stuttering treatment based on reduction of short phonation intervals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1229–1244. Retrieved on 2015-03-22.
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The higher frequency is explained as a result of the glottis being tense. Other such phonation types include breathy voice, or murmur; slack voice; and creaky voice.
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These studies have demonstrated that adults who stutter can learn to control the frequency of relatively short intervals of phonation (e.g., 30–150 ms) during oral reading and spontaneous speaking tasks. These studies have also demonstrated that adults who stutter can be trained to reduce the frequency of those same PIs (known as target range phonation intervals or TRPIs) by at least 50% while still achieving natural-sounding speech.
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They have a minimal role in normal phonation, but are often used to produce deep sonorous tones in Tuvan throat singing, as well as in musical screaming and the death growl singing style used in various forms of metal. Simultaneous voicing with the vocal and vestibular folds is diplophonia. Some voice actors occasionally employ small amounts of this phonation for its dark, growling quality while portraying a "villainous" or antagonistic voice.
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In phonology, a register is a combination of tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological parameter. For example, among its vowels, Burmese combines modal voice with low tone, breathy voice with falling tone, creaky voice with high tone, and glottal closure with high tone. These four registers contrast with each other, but no other combination of phonation (modal, breath, creak, closed) and tone (high, low, falling) is found.
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Miller treats the glottalization in these clicks as phonation, so that both oral and nasal clicks occur with five phonations: tenuis, voiced, aspirated, murmured (breathy voiced), and glottalized.
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Interpretations of reconstructed PIE voiced stops as preglottalized and as creaky stops are not mutually exclusive, since glottal closure is often realized as creaky phonation on neighboring sounds.
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The fundamental frequency has been influenced by the glottal gap size and subglottal pressure and when the phonation threshold pressure has been exceeded, there will be vocal fold vibration.
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This allows for the training of safe vocal behaviours, and provides opportunity for existing vocal trauma/lesions to heal sufficiently. Flow phonation therapy, straw phonation and lip buzzes are examples of these methods. # Surgical Methods: surgical treatment for certain vocal pathologies is considered when other methods of management have failed and is rarely performed before puberty. If the vocal use is considered a causal factor, these behaviours must be managed before surgery is performed.
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The term "phonation" means the process to produce intelligible sounds for the correct interpretation of speech. Speaking in a moderate tone enables the audience to process the information word for word.
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Khmer once had a phonation distinction in its vowels, but this now survives only in the most archaic dialect (Western Khmer). The distinction arose historically when vowels after Old Khmer voiced consonants became breathy voiced and diphthongized; for example became . When consonant voicing was lost, the distinction was maintained by the vowel (); later the phonation disappeared as well (). These processes explain the origin of what are now called a-series and o-series consonants in the Khmer script.
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In linguistics, a phone is called voiceless if there is no phonation during its occurrence. In speech, voiceless phones are associated with vocal folds that are elongated, highly tensed, and placed laterally (abducted) when compared to vocal folds during phonation. Fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch, can be varied through a variety of means. Large scale changes are accomplished by increasing the tension in the vocal folds through contraction of the cricothyroid muscle.
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Ingham, Montgomery, & Ulliana, 1983Ingham, R.J., Montgomery, J., & Ulliana, L. (1983). The effect of manipulating phonation duration on stuttering. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 26, 579–587. Retrieved on 2015-03-22.).
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Dzongkha is a tone language and has two register tones: high and low. The tone of a syllable determines the allophone of the onset and the phonation type of the nuclear vowel.
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Gǀui may be analyzed as having two abstract phonemic tones, plus breathy voice, which is covered here rather than under vowels. Monosyllabic morphemes carry one of two tones, high and low. Bimoraic roots carry one of six tones: high-level, high-mid (or "high falling"), mid-low (or "mid"), low-mid dipping/rising, high falling (or "falling"), and low falling (or "low"). Low falling and low-mid are accompanied by a breathy voice phonation, the other four with a clear phonation.
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Some characteristics of voice are phonation, pitch, loudness, and rate. These characteristics can be used to evaluate a person's voice and can aid in the voice analysis process. Phonation is typically tested by looking at different types of data collected from a person such as words with long vowels, words with many phonemes, or just typical speech. A person's pitch can be evaluated by making the person produce the highest and lowest sounds they can, as well as sounds in between.
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With advances in fiber-optic laryngoscopy at the end of the twentieth century, new types of phonation were discovered that involve more of the larynx than just the glottis. One of the few languages studied thus far, the Togolese language Kabiyé, has a vocalic distinction that had been assumed to be one of tongue root. However, it turned out to be a phonation distinction of faucalized voice versus harsh voice. It is not yet clear whether that is characteristic of ±ATR distinctions in general.
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The optimal position for vibration, and the phonation type most used in speech, modal voice, exists in the middle of these two extremes. If the glottis is slightly wider, breathy voice occurs, while bringing the vocal folds closer together results in creaky voice. The normal phonation pattern used in typical speech is modal voice, where the vocal folds are held close together with moderate tension. The vocal folds vibrate as a single unit periodically and efficiently with a full glottal closure and no aspiration.
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The phonatory process, or voicing, occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the glottis, creating a pressure drop across the larynx. When this drop becomes sufficiently large, the vocal folds start to oscillate. The minimum pressure drop required to achieve phonation is called the phonation threshold pressure (PTP), and for humans with normal vocal folds, it is approximately 2–3 cm H2O. The motion of the vocal folds during oscillation is mostly lateral, though there is also some superior component as well.
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One of the key functions of the larynx is phonation, the production of sound. Phonation requires the vocal cords to be adducted (positioned towards the midline) so that they can meet and vibrate together as air is expelled between them. Physiologically, the glottis is closed by intrinsic laryngeal muscles such as the lateral cricoarytenoid, thyroarytenoid, and interarytenoid muscles. These muscles act on the arytenoid cartilages at the posterior ends of the vocal cords and are innervated by the left and right recurrent laryngeal nerves.
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Modal voice, creaky voice, and breathy voice (murmured vowels) are phonation types that are used contrastively in some languages. Often, they co-occur with tone or stress distinctions; in the Mon language, vowels pronounced in the high tone are also produced with creaky voice. In such cases, it can be unclear whether it is the tone, the voicing type, or the pairing of the two that is being used for phonemic contrast. The combination of phonetic cues (phonation, tone, stress) is known as register or register complex.
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They vibrate, modulating the flow of air being expelled from the lungs during phonation. The 'true vocal cords' are distinguished from the 'false vocal folds', known as vestibular folds or ventricular folds, which sit slightly superior to the more delicate true folds. These have a minimal role in normal phonation, but can produce deep sonorous tones, screams and growls. The length of the vocal fold at birth is approximately six to eight millimeters and grows to its adult length of eight to sixteen millimeters by adolescence.
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Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, whispery voice, soughing and susurration) is a phonation in which the vocal folds vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are adjusted to let more air escape which produces a sighing-like sound. A simple breathy phonation, (not actually a fricative consonant, as a literal reading of the IPA chart would suggest), can sometimes be heard as an allophone of English between vowels, such as in the word behind, for some speakers. In the context of the Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit and Hindi and comparative Indo-European studies, breathy consonants are often called voiced aspirated, as in the Hindi and Sanskrit stops normally denoted bh, dh, ḍh, jh, and gh and the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European phoneme gʷʰ. , as breathy voice is a different type of phonation from aspiration.
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The Modifying Phonation Intervals (MPI) Stuttering Treatment Program is very effective in training adults who stutter to achieve generalized fluent and natural sounding speech by learning to speak with a reduced number of short intervals of phonation. The program is designed to be a computer-aided, bio-feedback program that requires appropriate software (MPI smartphone app) and hardware (a throat microphone headset) which records the phonation intervals, or PIs, from the surface of the speaker’s throat. The app records all PIs as well as speaker-rated speech performance measures. All PIs recorded within a specified ms range are able to be fed back in real time to the speaker via graphics and audio signal. It is this PI feedback that the speaker uses in order to learn to reduce the frequency of target range PIs and which reduces the speaker’s frequency of stuttering.
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Journal of Singing, 63(1), pp 57-62. Folia Phoniatrica,Bunch, Meribeth (1976). A Cephalometric Study of Structures of the Head and Neck during Sustained Phonation of Covered and Open Qualities. Folia Phoniatrica, 28 pp 321-328.
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Pitch and Phonation Type Perception in Wenzhou Dialect Tone. In The Third International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Languages (TAL 2012).Yu, K. M. & Lam, H. W. (2011). The role of creaky voice in Cantonese tonal perception.
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Phonation is the process of producing vocal sound by the vibration of the vocal folds that is in turn modified by the resonance of the vocal tract.Titze, I. R. (2008). The human instrument. Sci.Am. 298 (1):94–101.
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Dysarthria is the reduced ability to motor plan volitional movements needed for speech production as the result of weakness/paresis and/or paralysis of the musculature of the oral mechanism needed for respiration, phonation, resonance, articulation, and/or prosody.
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Lip and tongue trills aid in the balance of resonance, as well as coordinate the muscles of respiration, phonation and articulation. In addition, subglottal pressure may increase during lip trills, and result in the generation greater vocal fold vibration.
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Retrieved 22. Nov. 2017.. Thavung makes a four-way distinction between clear and breathy phonation combined with glottalized final consonants. This is very similar to the situation in the Pearic languages in which, however, the glottalization is in the vowel.
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The glottis controls phonation, and works simultaneously with many consonants. It is not normally considered an articulator, and an ejective such as , with simultaneous closure of the velum and glottis, is not normally considered to be a co-articulated consonant.
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In many languages, the "fricatives" are not true fricatives. This is a historical usage of the word. They instead represent transitional states of the glottis (phonation) without a specific place of articulation, and may behave as approximants. is a voiceless transition.
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Similar to other modern and historical Austroasiatic languages such as Middle Khmer, western dialects of Khmu, and the Monic and Katuic languages,Huffman (1985), pg 358 Sa'och employs a system of phonemic register in which words contrast according to their phonation, or voice quality. However, unlike these languages, which mostly display a two-way contrast (e.g. between clear and breathy voice), Sa'och and other Pearic languages contrast four different voice qualities.Ferlus (2011), pp 41, 42-46 In a tonal language, an entire syllable carries the tone but in "register" languages, phonation is manifested only on the vowels.
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Modal voice is the vocal register used most frequently in speech and singing in most languages. It is also the term used in linguistics for the most common phonation of vowels. The term "modal" refers to the resonant mode of vocal folds; that is, the optimal combination of airflow and glottal tension that yields maximum vibration. In linguistics, modal voice is the only phonation found in the vowels and other sonorants (consonants such as m, n, l, and r) of most of the languages of the world, but a significant minority contrasts modal voice with other phonations.
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A phonation disorder is a problem with pitch, loudness, or intensity that originates in the vocal folds of the larynx. Phonation disorders may be functional, caused by continuous yelling or throat clearing, excessive smoking, or speaking at an abnormally low frequency or pitch. The results may be an increased size or thickening of the vocal folds, lesions or polyps on the vocal folds, or problems with elasticity of the larynx. In these cases, the treatment involves resting the voice and learning to speak at optimal pitches and volumes, as well as eliminating external causes such as smoking.
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Both egressive and ingressive sounds rely on holding the vocal folds in a particular posture and using the lungs to draw air across the vocal folds so that they either vibrate (voiced) or do not vibrate (voiceless). Pulmonic articulations are restricted by the volume of air able to be exhaled in a given respiratory cycle, known as the vital capacity. The lungs are used to maintain two kinds of pressure simultaneously in order to produce and modify phonation. To produce phonation at all, the lungs must maintain a pressure of 3–5 cm H20 higher than the pressure above the glottis.
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In a study by Medes et al., prolonged exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noise (<500 Hz) in long durations has an effect on vocal range (i.e. longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range). Another study by Baliatsas et al.
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Esophageal speech uses air supply to create phonation from the esophagus and pharyngo-esophageal segment to act as a replacement for the glottis. It is usually acquired following speech therapy after laryngectomy as a replacement for laryngeal speech.Diedrich WM. Youngstrom KA. (1966). Alaryngeal Speech.
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Laryngeal cysts are cysts involving the larynx or more frequently supraglottic locations, such as epiglottis and vallecula. Usually they do not extend to the thyroid cartilage. They may be present congenitally or may develop eventually due to degenerative cause. They often interfere with phonation.
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In a number of East Asian languages, tonal differences are closely intertwined with phonation differences. In Vietnamese, for example, the ngã and sắc tones are both high-rising but the former is distinguished by having glottalization in the middle. Similarly, the nặng and huyền tones are both low-falling, but the nặng tone is shorter and pronounced with creaky voice at the end, while the huyền tone is longer and often has breathy voice. In some languages, such as Burmese, pitch and phonation are so closely intertwined that the two are combined in a single phonological system, where neither can be considered without the other.
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Physiologic voice therapy may be adopted when the voice disorder is caused by a disturbance in the physiology of the vocal mechanism. Therapy directly modifies the abnormal physiologic activity affecting respiration, phonation, and resonance. Physiologic voice therapy aims to create a balance between the various subsystems.
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Other contributions to the study of speech production include a model by which one can predict the spectral shape of turbulent speech excitation (depending on the dimensions of the turbulent jet), and work related to the vocal fold configurations that lead to different modes of phonation.
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The following combinations of letters and diacritics are used.Ball, Esling & Dickson (1995) "The VoQS System for the Transcription of Voice Quality", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25.02, p. 71-80\. Updated 2015. They indicate an airstream mechanism, phonation or secondary articulation across a stretch of speech.
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Baarin has the short vowel phonemes and the corresponding long vowels.Bayarmendü 1997: 7 The consonant phonemes are .Bayarmendü 1997: 53-54 That is, as in Khalkha and Khorchin, the basic phonation contrast in plosives and affricates is based on aspiration, not on voicedness. This even includes .
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In that model, murmur is a compound phonation of approximately modal voice plus whisper. It is possible that the realization of murmur varies among individuals or languages. The IPA uses the term "breathy voice", but VoQS uses the term "whispery voice". Both accept the term "murmur", popularised by Ladefoged.
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File:Illu larynx.jpg The larynx or voice box is an organ in the neck housing the vocal folds, which are responsible for phonation. In humans, the larynx is descended. Our species is not unique in this respect: goats, dogs, pigs and tamarins lower the larynx temporarily, to emit loud calls.
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Mechanically the importance of this connection is that it supports the larynx by anchoring it to the surrounding cricothryroid muscles, as well as draws it closer to the nasal cavity during phonation. The stylohyal bones are often reduced in many other mammals, however, they are more prominent in laryngeally echolocating bats and are part of the mammalian hyoid apparatus. The hyoid apparatus functions in breathing, swallowing, and phonation in microbats as well as other mammals. An important feature of the bony connection in laryngeally echolocating microbats is the extended articulation of the ventral portion of the tympanic bones and the proximal end of the stylohyal bone that bends around it to make this connection.
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The pathophysiology of MTD is multifactorial. Voice production requires the coordination of multiple muscles and other structures in the larynx. Multiple factors cause the muscles of the larynx to become tense. This changes the position of the larynx and affects the cartilaginous structures within the larynx leading to abnormal phonation.
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Geneid et al. (2016/2018) showed that kulning, as compared to falsetto, exhibits a better contact of the vocal folds and a longer glottal closure in the phonation cycle. Using nasofiberendoscopy also showed medial and anteroposterior narrowing of the laryngeal inlet and approximation of the false vocal folds in kulning.
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This is created by producing the air supply needed for phonation in the pharynx and creating a replacement for the glottis using the tongue and the upper alveolus, the palate, or the pharyngeal wall.Weinberg B, Westerhouse J. (1973). A study of pharyngeal speech. J Speech Hear Disord. 38(1):111-8.
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Microbats and a few megabats emit ultrasonic sounds to produce echoes. Sound intensity of these echos are dependent on subglottic pressure. The bats’ cricothyroid muscle controls the orientation pulse frequency, which is an important function. This muscle is located inside the larynx and it is the only tensor muscle capable of aiding phonation.
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The effect is that stuttering will also be reduced or eliminated without necessarily reducing the rate of speech. Recent findingsIngham, R.J., Ingham, J.C., Bothe, A.K., Wang, Y., & Kilgo, M. (2015). Efficacy of the modifying phonation intervals (MPI) stuttering treatment program with adults who stutter. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 24, 256–271.
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Combinations of symbols are also used, such as } for nasal whispery voice,Laver (1994) Principles of Phonetics, p. 421. } for whispery creaky falsetto, or } for ventricular phonation with nasal lisp.Ball & Lowry (2001) Methods in Clinical Phonetics, p. 39. If the number of diacritics on a letter becomes excessive, the notation may be broken up.
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Titze, I. R. (2006). The Myoelatic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation, Iowa City:National Center for Voice and Speech, 2006. The tone of voice may be modulated to suggest emotions such as anger, surprise, fear, happiness or sadness. The human voice is used to express emotion, and can also reveal the age and sex of the speaker.
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Such devices are created as aids to those unable to create the sound phonation needed for audible speech such as after laryngectomies.Deng Y., Patel R., Heaton J. T., Colby G., Gilmore L. D., Cabrera J., Roy S. H., De Luca C.J., Meltzner G. S.(2009). Disordered speech recognition using acoustic and sEMG signals. In INTERSPEECH-2009, 644-647.
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The term "Depth-Kymography" is included in the current medical terminology. Human vocal folds vibrate in a very complex manner. During phonation vocal folds move in the horizontal and vertical directions. The imaging of the vocal fold vibrations is done by inserting an endoscope through the mouth and the vocal folds are viewed from the top.
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Like other Vietic languages, the Arem language makes use of a tonal or phonational system that is unique to Vietic languages. Like many southern Vietic Languages, the Arem language also makes use of pre-syllables or sesquisyllables within the language. Arem lacks the breathy phonation common to most Vietic languages, but does have glottalized final consonants.
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The muscles of the larynx are divided into intrinsic and extrinsic muscles. The extrinsic muscles pass between the larynx and parts around it; the intrinsic muscles are confined entirely within the larynx. The intrinsic muscles are divided into respiratory and the phonatory muscles (the muscles of phonation). The respiratory muscles move the vocal cords apart and serve breathing.
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The cricothyroid muscle produces tension and elongation of the vocal folds by drawing up the arch of the cricoid cartilage and tilting back the upper border of the cricoid cartilage lamina; the distance between the vocal processes and the angle of the thyroid is thus increased, and the folds are consequently elongated, resulting in higher pitch phonation.
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During glottal closure, the air flow is cut off until breath pressure pushes the folds apart and the flow starts up again, causing the cycles to repeat. The textbook entitled Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation by Ingo Titze credits Janwillem van den Berg as the originator of the theory and provides detailed mathematical development of the theory.
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Zapotec languages all display contrastive phonation type differences in vowels. Minimally they have simple vowels vs. some kind of laryngealization or creakiness; see Quioquitani Zapotec, for example.Ward, Zurita Sánchez and Marlett (2008) Others have a contrast between simple, laryngealized and "checked" vowels (which sound like they end in a glottal stop); see Isthmus Zapotec, for example.
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A few languages also have pre-glottalised nasal clicks, which have very brief prenasalisation but have not been phonetically analysed to the extent that other types of clicks have. All languages have nasal clicks, and all but Dahalo and Damin also have oral clicks. All languages but Damin have at least one phonation contrast as well.
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Alaryngeal speech is speech using an airstream mechanism that uses features other than the glottis to create voicing. There are three types: esophageal, buccal, and pharyngeal speech. Each of these uses an alternative method of creating phonation to substitute for the vocal cords in the larynx. These forms of alaryngeal speech are also called "pseudo-voices".
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Hirano and Sato studies suggested that the macula flava is responsible for the synthesis of the fibrous components of the VF. Fibroblasts have been found mostly aligned in the direction of the vocal ligament, along bundles of fibers. It then was suggested that the mechanical stresses during phonation were stimulating the fibroblasts to synthesize those fibers.
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Like many other Oto- Manguean languages, Mazatecan languages have complex phonologies characterized by complex tone systems and several uncommon phonation phenomena such as creaky voice, breathy voice and ballistic syllables. The following review of a Mazatecan phoneme inventory will be based on the description of the Jalapa de Díaz variety published by Silverman, Blankenship et al. (1995).
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Psychogenic aphonia is often seen in patients with underlying psychological problems. Laryngeal examination will usually show bowed vocal folds that fail to adduct to the midline during phonation. However, the vocal folds will adduct when the patient is asked to cough. Treatment should involve consultation and counseling with a speech pathologist and, if necessary, a psychologist.
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Deep voice privilege is the social privilege gained by those with a deep voice. A study found a correlation between voice pitch, salary and size of business for chief executive officers. A spectral analysis of United States presidential debates found that a fundamental frequency of phonation below 500 Hertz was a good predictor of success in the popular vote.
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There is some confusion as to the nature of murmured phonation. The IPA and authors such as Peter Ladefoged equate phonemically contrastive murmur with breathy voice in which the vocal folds are held with lower tension (and further apart) than in modal voice, with a concomitant increase in airflow and slower vibration of the glottis. In that model, murmur is a point in a continuum of glottal aperture between modal voice and breath phonation (voicelessness). Others, such as Laver, Catford, Trask and the authors of the Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS), equate murmur with whispery voice in which the vocal folds or, at least, the anterior part of the vocal folds vibrates, as in modal voice, but the arytenoid cartilages are held apart to allow a large turbulent airflow between them.
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Singing is an integrated and coordinated act and it is difficult to discuss any of the individual technical areas and processes without relating them to the others. For example, phonation only comes into perspective when it is connected with respiration; the articulators affect resonance; the resonators affect the vocal folds; the vocal folds affect breath control; and so forth. Vocal problems are often a result of a breakdown in one part of this coordinated process which causes voice teachers to frequently focus in, intensively, on one area of the process with their student until that issue is resolved. However, some areas of the art of singing are so much the result of coordinated functions that it is hard to discuss them under a traditional heading like phonation, resonation, articulation, or respiration.
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Difficulties with phonation are not likely to occur. The majority of patients are satisfied with function of the nose after reconstruction. Ideally, standardized semistructered interviews are used to assess aesthetic outcome after nasal reconstruction. Studies using these interviews showed that generally patients are very satisfied with the result although they reported aggravating of their nasal appearance compared to before surgery.
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However, its characteristics are also influenced by the preceding vowels and whatever other sounds surround it. Therefore, it can be described as a segment whose only consistent feature is its breathy voice phonation in such languages. It may have real glottal constriction in a number of languages (such as Finnish), making it a fricative. Lamé contrasts voiceless and voiced glottal fricatives.
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They can be emailed, embedded on websites or shared on social media. In addition, speech synthesis is a valuable computational aid for the analysis and assessment of speech disorders. A voice quality synthesizer, developed by Jorge C. Lucero et al. at University of Brasilia, simulates the physics of phonation and includes models of vocal frequency jitter and tremor, airflow noise and laryngeal asymmetries.
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Symptomatic voice therapy aims to directly or indirectly modify the symptoms that are caused by a voice disorder. Techniques are implemented to facilitate the production and maintenance of a voice that is most appropriate for the individual. Symptomatic voice therapy can modify respiration, phonation, resonance, voice, loudness, rate, and laryngeal muscle tension and may assist in gender reassignment voice change.
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The cartilages in the larynx adjust the shape, position and tension of the vocal cords. Speech enhancers are used to improve the clarity and pronunciation of speech for correct interpretation of speech. The articulation of voice enhances the resonance of speech and enables people to speak intelligibly. Speaking at a moderate pace and using clear pronunciation improves the phonation of sounds.
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The nerves within the corticospinal tract are involved in movement of muscles of the body. Because of the crossing-over of fibres, muscles are supplied by the side of the brain opposite to that of the muscle. The nerves within the corticobulbar tract are involved in movement in muscles of the head. They are involved in swallowing, phonation, and movements of the tongue.
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One example is Texmelucan Zapotec, which has four contrasting tones: three contour tones and one level tone, as shown in the figure. These tones are used for "word play" frequently. center A typical system for a Central Zapotec language has two level tones plus contours, but there are complex interactions between tone, stress and phonation type, e.g. San Lucas Quiaviní (Chávez Peón 2010).
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Some stellate cells were present in the macula flava, but started to show some signs of degeneration. The stellate cells synthesized fewer ECM molecules, and the cytoplasmic processes were shown to be short and shrinking, suggesting a decreased activity. Those results confirm the hypothesis that phonation stimulates stellate cells into producing more ECM. Furthermore, using a specially designed bioreactor, Titze et al.
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The subglottal pressure, the driving force in phonation, needs to be adapted in accordance with the laryngeal conditions.” In other words, the very act of singing consistently within one technique or another literally causes the voice to physically develop in different ways, and thus change the timbre of that particular voice. Another example would be a coloratura soprano in opera.
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As well as the Canary Islands, whistled speech occurs in some parts of Southern Africa and Eastern Africa. Most whistle languages, of which there are several hundred, are based on tonal languages. Only the tone of the speech is saved in the whistle, while aspects as articulation and phonation are eliminated. These are replaced by other features such as stress and rhythmical variations.
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Phonation is the production of a periodic sound wave by vibration of the vocal folds. Airflow from the lungs, as well as laryngeal muscle contraction, causes movement of the vocal folds. It is the properties of tension and elasticity that allow the vocal folds to be stretched, bunched, brought together and separated. During prephonation, the vocal folds move from the abducted to adducted position.
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A depressor consonant is a consonant that depresses (lowers) the tone of its or a neighboring syllable. This is a consequence of the phonation (type of voicing) of the consonant. The Nguni languages of South Africa are well known for the lowering effects of certain breathy consonants on tone, as are the Wu dialects of Chinese. Specific examples of languages with depressor consonants are Zulu and Shanghainese.
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Voice disorders range from aphonia (loss of phonation) to dysphonia, which may be phonatory and/or resonance disorders. Phonatory characteristics could include breathiness, hoarseness, harshness, intermittency, pitch, etc. Resonance characteristics refer to overuse or underuse of the resonance chambers resulting in hypernasality or hyponasality. Several examples of voice problems are vocal cord nodules or polyps, vocal cord paralysis, paradoxical vocal fold movement, and spasmodic dysphonia.
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Yanesha' has three basic vowel qualities, , , and . Each contrasts phonemically between short, long, and "laryngeal" or glottalized forms. Laryngealization generally consists of glottalization of the vowel in question, creating a kind of creaky voice. In pre-final contexts, a variation occurs—especially before voiced consonants—ranging from creaky phonation throughout the vowel to a sequence of a vowel, glottal stop, and a slightly rearticulated vowel: ma'ñorr ('deer') → .
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Titze, I. R. (2006). The Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation, Iowa City:National Center for Voice and Speech, 2006. These two theories are not in contention with one another and it is quite possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the neurochronaxic theory, was in considerable vogue in the 1950s, but has since been largely discredited.
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Michel Ferlus's main discoveries relate to the effects of monosyllabicization on the phonological structure of Southeast Asian languages. Tonogenesis (the development of lexical tones), registrogenesis (the development of lexically contrastive phonation-type registers), the evolution of vowel systems all partake in a general (panchronic) model of evolution.Ferlus, Michel. 1979. “Formation Des Registres Et Mutations Consonantiques Dans Les Langues Mon- khmer.” Mon-Khmer Studies 8: 1–76.
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Computerized feedback devices (such as CAFET or Dr. Fluency) use computer technology to increase control over breathing and phonation. A microphone gathers information about the stutterer’s speech and feedback is delivered on a computer screen. Measurements include intensity (loudness), voice quality, breathing patterns, and voicing strategies. These programs are designed to train features related to prolonged speech, a treatment technique which is frequently used in stuttering therapy.
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Besides the conventional laryngoscopes, many other devices have been developed as alternatives to direct laryngoscopy. These include a number of indirect fiberoptic viewing laryngoscopes such as the flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope. The flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope or rhinoscope can be used for office-based diagnostics or for tracheal intubation. The patient can remain conscious during the procedure, so that the vocal folds can be observed during phonation.
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The Bai language (Bai: ; ) is a language spoken in China, primarily in Yunnan province, by the Bai people. The language has over a million speakers and is divided into three or four main dialects. Bai syllables are always open, with a rich set of vowels and eight tones. The tones are divided into two groups with modal and non-modal (tense, harsh or breathy) phonation.
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Triply articulated consonants are only attested as glottalized doubly articulated consonants, and this can be argued to be an effect of phonation or airstream mechanism rather than as a third articulation, just as other glottalized consonants are not considered to be doubly articulated. The most obvious case are the various types of glottalized clicks mentioned above. Another example is 'unreleased' final in Vietnamese, which after or is often labial-velar .
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Subglottal pressure builds and air flow forces the folds apart, inferiorly to superiorly. If the volume of airflow is constant, the velocity of the flow will increase at the area of constriction and cause a decrease in pressure below once distributed. This negative pressure will pull the initially blow open folds back together again. The cycle repeats until the vocal folds are abducted to inhibit phonation or to take a breath.
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Acoustic measures can be used to provide objective measures of vocal function. Signal processing algorithms are applied to voice recordings made during sustained phonation or during spontaneous speech. The acoustic parameters which can then be examined include fundamental frequency, signal amplitude, jitter, shimmer, and noise-to-harmonic ratios. However, due to limitations imposed by the algorithms employed, these measures cannot be used with patients who exhibit severe dysphonia.
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For example, Chipewyan has laminal dental vs. apical alveolar ; other languages may contrast velar with palatal and uvular . Affricates may also be a strategy to increase the phonetic contrast between aspirated or ejective and tenuis consonants. According to Kehrein, no language contrasts a non-sibilant, non-lateral affricate with a stop at the same place of articulation and with the same phonation and airstream mechanism, such as and or and .
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The MPI Stuttering Treatment Program is based on a series of experimental studies by Roger Ingham and colleagues (Gow & Ingham, 1992;Gow, M.L, & Ingham, R.J. (1992). The effect of modifying electroglottograph identified intervals of phonation on stuttering. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 35, 495–511. Retrieved on 2015-03-22. Ingham, Kilgo, Ingham, Moglia, Belknap, & Sanchez, 2001;Ingham, R.J., Kilgo, M., Ingham, J.C., Moglia, R., Belknap, H., & Sanchez, T. (2001).
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Chant therapy is used to minimize hyperfunctionality by affecting loudness and voice quality. The technique employs the continuous tone quality found in music chanting. More specifically, it elevates the pitch of the voice during phonation, prolongs the vowels, de-stresses syllables, and lessens word- initial glottal attacks. The goals of the chant-talk approach are to use voice quality and pitch techniques to decrease the effort used while talking.
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Children may experience problems with their voice due to misuse or abnormalities in the vocal mechanisms. There are two types of voice disorders: those of phonation, and those of resonance. Both types can be the result of either abuse or physical structure. Voice disorders are among the most successfully treated speech and language problems because they can be solved with surgery or reconditioning of the voice (Boone 286).
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Laryngeally echolocating bats, in general, produce ultrasonic waves with their larynx that is specialized to produce sounds of short wavelength. The larynx is located at the cranial end of the trachea and is surrounded by cricothyroid muscles and thyroid cartilage. For reference, in humans, this is the area where the Adam's apple is located. Phonation of ultrasonic waves is produced through the vibrations of the vocal membranes in the expiratory air.
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This medical procedure consists of pulling the vocal processes of the arytenoid medially while monitoring the voicing quality being produced by the patient. When the best phonation appears to be achieved, the vocal processes are then maintained in place by a thread. A further surgical intervention used to mitigate vocal fold paresis is laryngeal reinnervation. This procedure restores nerve supply to the larynx and can be accomplished according to different techniques.
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Mixe phonology is complicated and little documented. There is a palatalized series of all consonant phonemes (as in Russian, Polish, or Gaelic) and possibly a fortis/lenis distinction in the stop series, the recognition of which however is obscured by a tendency of allophonic voicing of consonants in voiced environments. Syllable nuclei are notoriously complex in Mixe, varying in length and phonation. Most descriptions report three contrastive vowel lengths.
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Arytenoid adduction with or without medialization thyroplasty significantly improves quality of life for patients with vocal cord paralysis. Subjective outcome measures of voice quality include the Grade, Roughness, Breathiness, Asthenia, Strain (GBRAS) voice scale, Voice Handicap Index, and closure of the glottic gap. Objective outcome measures include mean and maximum phonation time, phonotory airflow, and signal-to-noise ratio. Arytenoid adduction produces improvements in all of these parameters.
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The viscoelastic properties of human vocal fold lamina propria are essential for their vibration, and depend on the composition and structure of their extracellular matrix (ECM). Adult VF have a layered structure which is based on the layers differential in ECM distribution. Newborns on the other hand, do not have this layered structure. Their VF are uniform, and immature, making their viscoelastic properties most likely unsuitable for phonation.
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A voice pathology called Reinke's edema, swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid, occurs in the superficial lamina propria or Reinke's space. This causes the vocal fold mucosa to appear floppy with excessive movement of the cover that has been described as looking like a loose sock.T. Watterson (Personal communication, February 5, 2008). The greater mass of the vocal folds due to increased fluid lowers the fundamental frequency (f0) during phonation.
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Ballistic syllables are a phonemic distinction in Otomanguean languages: Chinantec and Amuzgo. They have been described as characterized with increased sub-glottal pressure (Mugele 1982) or laryngeal abduction (Silverman 1994). The acoustic effect is a fortis release of the consonant, a gradual surge in the intensity of the vowel, followed by a rapid decay in intensity into post- vocalic aspiration. They may thus be a form of phonation.
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These ideas might be linked to those of the renowned structural linguist Roman Jakobson, who claimed that "the sucking activities of the child are accompanied by a slight nasal murmur, the only phonation to be produced when the lips are pressed to the mother's breast ... and the mouth is full".Jakobson, R. 1960. "Why 'Mama' and 'Papa'". In B. Caplan and S. Wagner (eds), Essays in Honor of Heinz Werner.
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The vocal fry register (also known as pulse register, laryngealization, pulse phonation, creak, croak, popcorning, glottal fry, glottal rattle, glottal scrape, or strohbass) is the lowest vocal register and is produced through a loose glottal closure that permits air to bubble through slowly with a popping or rattling sound of a very low frequency. During this phonation, the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together, which causes the vocal folds to compress rather tightly and become relatively slack and compact. This process forms a large and irregularly vibrating mass within the vocal folds that produces the characteristic low popping or rattling sound when air passes through the glottal closure. The register (if well controlled) can extend far below the modal voice register, in some cases up to 8 octaves lower, such as in the case of Tim Storms who holds the world record for lowest frequency note ever produced by a human, a G−7, which is only 0.189 Hz, inaudible to the human ear.
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In linguistics, a tenuis consonant ( or ) is an obstruent that is voiceless, unaspirated and unglottalized. In other words, it has the "plain" phonation of with a voice onset time close to zero (a zero-VOT consonant), as Spanish p, t, ch, k or English p, t, k after s (spy, sty, sky). For most languages, the distinction is relevant only for stops and affricates. However, a few languages have analogous series for fricatives.
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They are known from !Kung languages such as Juǀʼhoansi, from Taa, and from the Bantu languages Xhosa and Zulu. They are pronounced like modally voiced nasal clicks, but in addition are followed by a period of murmured phonation, and like other breathy-voiced consonants, may have a depressor effect on tone (in Zulu and Xhosa, for example). They are typically transcribed something like or ; in Juǀʼhõa, they are written , and in Zulu and Xhosa, as .
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If they are pulled farther apart, they do not vibrate and so produce voiceless phones. If they are held firmly together they produce a glottal stop. If the vocal folds are held slightly further apart than in modal voicing, they produce phonation types like breathy voice (or murmur) and whispery voice. The tension across the vocal ligaments (vocal cords) is less than in modal voicing allowing for air to flow more freely.
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While the sensory input described above is (general) visceral sensation (diffuse, poorly localized), the vocal fold also receives general somatic sensory innervation (proprioceptive and touch) by the superior laryngeal nerve. Injury to the external laryngeal nerve causes weakened phonation because the vocal folds cannot be tightened. Injury to one of the recurrent laryngeal nerves produces hoarseness, if both are damaged the voice may or may not be preserved, but breathing becomes difficult.
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Traill describes the phonations of the East ǃXoon dialect as plain , murmured , or glottalized . may also be both glottalized and murmured , as well as pharyngealized / or strident ('sphincteric') /. may be both pharyngealized and glottalized , for 26 vowels not counting nasalization or length. Murmured vowels after plain consonants contrast with plain vowels after aspirated consonants, and likewise glottalized vowels with ejective consonants, so these are phonations of the vowels and not assimilation with consonant phonation.
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As do other consonants, clicks vary in phonation. Oral clicks are attested with four phonations: tenuis, aspirated, voiced and breathy voiced (murmured). Nasal clicks may also vary, with plain voiced, breathy voiced / murmured nasal, aspirated and unaspirated voiceless clicks attested (the last only in Taa). The aspirated nasal clicks are often said to have 'delayed aspiration'; there is nasal airflow throughout the click, which may become voiced between vowels, though the aspiration itself is voiceless.
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Two languages, Gǀwi and Yeyi, contrast plain and nasal glottalised clicks, but in languages without such a contrast, the glottalised click is nasal. Miller (2011) analyses the glottalisation as phonation, and so considers these to be simple clicks. Various languages also have prenasalised clicks, which may be analysed as consonant sequences. Sotho, for example, allows a syllabic nasal before its three clicks, as in nnqane 'the other side' (prenasalised nasal) and seqhenqha 'hunk'.
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Human VF are paired structures located in the larynx, just above the trachea, which vibrate and are brought in contact during phonation. The human VF are roughly 12 – 24 mm in length, and 3–5 mm thick. Histologically, the human VF are a laminated structure composed of five different layers. The vocalis muscle, main body of the VF, is covered by the mucosa, which consists of the epithelium and the lamina propria.
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Other benign pathological phenomena like polyps, vocal fold nodules and edema will also introduce disordered phonation. Any injury to human vocal folds elicits a wound healing process characterized by disorganized collagen deposition and, eventually, formation of scar tissue. Verdolini and her group sought to detect and describe acute tissue response of injured rabbit VF model. They quantified the expression of two biochemical markers: interleukin 1 and prostaglandin E2, which are associated with acute wound healing.
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Laminal, 17. Apical, 18. Sub-apical In articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a consonant is the point of contact where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an articulatory gesture, an active articulator (typically some part of the tongue), and a passive location (typically some part of the roof of the mouth). Along with the manner of articulation and the phonation, it gives the consonant its distinctive sound.
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The hallmark of flaccid dysarthria is weakness, affecting different muscles, depending on where the damage has occurred. Some common signs include the following Phonation and prosody: Damage to cranial nerve X can present as changes in voice quality. One or both vocal folds may be effectively paralyzed, or have diminished function. If a vocal fold is stuck in an adducted or closed position, the voice will be harsh and low in volume.
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One possible combination of source and filter in the human vocal tract. In human speech production, the sound source is the vocal folds, which can produce a periodic sound when constricted or an aperiodic (white noise) sound when relaxed. The filter is the rest of the vocal tract, which can change shape through manipulation of the pharynx, mouth, and nasal cavity. Fant roughly compares the source and filter to phonation and articulation, respectively.
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Precise and expeditious timing of these muscles is essential for the production of temporally complex speech sounds, which are characterized by transitions as short as 10 ms between frequency bands and an average speaking rate of approximately 15 sounds per second. Speech production requires airflow from the lungs (respiration) to be phonated through the vocal folds of the larynx (phonation) and resonated in the vocal cavities shaped by the jaw, soft palate, lips, tongue and other articulators (articulation).
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Glottal consonants are those produced using the vocal folds in the larynx. Because the vocal folds are the source of phonation and below the oro-nasal vocal tract, a number of glottal consonants are impossible such as a voiced glottal stop. Three glottal consonants are possible, a voiceless glottal stop and two glottal fricatives, and all are attested in natural languages. Glottal stops, produced by closing the vocal folds, are notably common in the world's languages.
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Lesions in cerebrocerebellum, which receives input exclusively from the cerebral cortex and projects its output to premotor and motor cortices, result in impairments in highly skilled sequences of learned movements, for instance, playing a musical instrument. Lesions may also result in problems with planning movements and ipsilateral incoordination, especially of the upper limb and to faulty phonation and articulation. Pathological interaction between cerebellothalamic tract and basal ganglia may be the explanation for the resting tremor in Parkinson's disease.
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The stød has sometimes been described as a glottal stop, but acoustic analyses have shown that there is rarely a full stop of the airflow involved in its production. Rather it is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice, that affects the phonation of a syllable by dividing it into two phases. The first phase has a relatively high intensity and a high pitch (measured as F0), whereas the second phase sees a drop in intensity and pitch.
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Chart of the Voice Quality Symbols, as of 2016 Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS) are a set of phonetic symbols used to transcribe disordered speech for what in speech pathology is known as "voice quality". This phrase only means what it does in phonetics (that is, phonation) in a few cases. In others it means secondary articulation. VoQS symbols are normally combined with curly braces that span a section of speech, just as with prosody notation in the extended IPA.
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The larynx (), commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the top of the neck involved in breathing, producing sound and protecting the trachea against food aspiration. The larynx houses the vocal folds, and manipulates pitch and volume, which is essential for phonation. It is situated just below where the tract of the pharynx splits into the trachea and the esophagus. The word larynx (plural larynges) comes from a similar Ancient Greek word (λάρυγξ lárynx).
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The cricothyroid muscle is the only tensor muscle of the larynx aiding with phonation. It attaches to the anterolateral aspect of the cricoid and the inferior cornu and lower lamina of the thyroid cartilage, and its action tilts the thyroid forward to help tense the vocal cords. Not to be confused with the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, which are the only muscles directly responsible for opening (abducting) the space between the vocal cords to allow for respiration.
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The materials serve the purpose of filling up the vocal folds and increasing their volume. This allows the paralyzed vocal fold to make contact with the alternate fold, in order to more efficiently produce phonation. While injection augmentation has been long considered best practice, neither technique nor materials used have been standardized across clinicians. With this, results prove to be both safe and effective, but variable in their duration, lasting anywhere from 2 to 12 months.
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For patients with significant paralysis at 12 months post-onset, medialization thyroplasty may be suggested. This surgical procedure introduces a shim between the inner wall of the larynx and the soft tissue supporting the vocal fold. As a result, the paralyzed vocal fold is supported in a position closer to the midline of the glottis, and retains its ability to vibrate and phonate efficiently. In addition to medialization thyroplasty, arytenoid adduction can be performed to improve phonation results.
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This is accomplished through several tasks including sustained phonation of the vowels /i/, /a/ and /u/, reading a standardized passage and producing a spontaneous speech sample. Then the therapist and the individual determine what the target pitch should be, based on the gender acceptable range for cis women (i.e. a socially acceptable pitch based on the average female vocal pitch range). When therapy begins, they establish a starting frequency to work on, that is slightly above the client's SFF.
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Danish is characterized by a prosodic feature called stød (lit. "thrust"). This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice. Some sources have described it as a glottal stop, but this is a very infrequent realization, and today phoneticians consider it a phonation type or a prosodic phenomenon. It has phonemic status, since it serves as the sole distinguishing feature of words with different meanings in minimal pairs such as bønder ("peasants") with stød, versus bønner ("beans") without stød.
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His second vocalise, an ascending glissando followed by a descent from scale degree five to scale degree one in major, isolates the release of breath (as in Bernoulli's Principle) as the primary force of tone generation. His third vocalise is a legato ascending and descending arpeggiation of a major triad, utilizing the same phonemes as the first vocalise. His fourth vocalise trains the balanced onset of phonation through the performance of a sequence of detached tones on .
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According to the Frame Dominance Theory, when the mandible (jaw) is elevated, a consonant sound will be produced. When the mandible is lowered, a vowel-like sound is produced. Therefore, during a reduplicated sequence of sounds, the consonant and vowels are alternated as the mandible elevates and depresses. The opening and closing of the mouth alone will not produce babbling, and phonation (or voicing) is necessary during the movement in order to create a meaningful sound.
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Daniel Jones developed the cardinal vowel system to describe vowels in terms of the features of tongue height (vertical dimension), tongue backness (horizontal dimension) and roundedness (lip articulation). These three parameters are indicated in the schematic quadrilateral IPA vowel diagram on the right. There are additional features of vowel quality, such as the velum position (nasality), type of vocal fold vibration (phonation), and tongue root position. This conception of vowel articulation has been known to be inaccurate since 1928.
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The mucosa layer vibrates at a frequency range of 100–1000 Hz and displacement at 1mm approximately. The intermediate layer of LPs consists primarily of elastic fiber while the deep layer LP consists of fewer elastin and more collagen fibers. These two layers have poor differentiated boundary but are increasingly stiffer than SLLPs. The intermediate and deep layers of LPs compose the vocal ligaments which are enclosed within the vocal folds and are responsible for strain in phonation.
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In addition to these changes in phonation, someone may have issues changing their pitch or loudness. Or, they may speak in short phrases, as they release more air than normal through their larynx while speaking. Resonance: Damage to the cranial nerves innervating muscles that control the velum may result in hypernasal speech. This can sound like someone is saying things through their nose, making oral sounds like "b" or "d" sound more like "m" or "n", respectively.
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Janwillem van den Berg (26 November 1920 in Akkrum - 18 October 1985 in Groningen) was a Dutch speech scientist and medical physicist who played a major role in establishing the myoelastic-aerodynamic theoryTitze, I. R. (2006). The Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation, Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech, 2006. of voice production. The most notable aspect of van den Berg's theory is its impact on modern speech science in providing a foundation for modern models of vocal fold function.
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In essence, the two doctors believed that through knowledge of the aggregate patient data, the disease and treatment would be understood. In 1840, Gavarret and Gabriel Andral were the first to show that blood composition varied depending on the pathological condition of the subject. Their research demonstrated the value of blood chemistry as a means of confirming diagnoses. His later work largely dealt with topics in the fields of biophysics and physiology, that included research of acoustic and phonation phenomena.
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Most of the Palaungic languages lost the contrastive voicing of the ancestral Austroasiatic consonants, with the distinction often shifting to the following vowel. In the Wa branch, this is generally realized as breathy voice vowel phonation; in Palaung–Riang, as a two-way register tone system. The Angkuic languages have contour tone — the U language, for example, has four tones, high, low, rising, falling, — but these developed from vowel length and the nature of final consonants, not from the voicing of initial consonants.
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There are two variables to degrees of voicing: intensity (discussed under phonation), and duration (discussed under voice onset time). When a sound is described as "half voiced" or "partially voiced", it is not always clear whether that means that the voicing is weak (low intensity) or if the voicing occurs during only part of the sound (short duration). In the case of English, it is the latter. Juǀʼhoansi and some of the neighboring languages are typologically unusual in having contrastive partially voiced consonants.
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Voiced epiglottal consonants are not deemed possible due to the cavity between the glottis and epiglottis being too small to permit voicing. Glottal consonants are those produced using the vocal folds in the larynx. Because the vocal folds are the source of phonation and below the oro-nasal vocal tract, a number of glottal consonants are impossible such as a voiced glottal stop. Three glottal consonants are possible, a voiceless glottal stop and two glottal fricatives, and all are attested in natural languages.
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The pressure differential can fall below levels required for phonation either because of an increase in pressure above the glottis (superglottal pressure) or a decrease in pressure below the glottis (subglottal pressure). The subglottal pressure is maintained by the respiratory muscles. Supraglottal pressure, with no constrictions or articulations, is equal to about atmospheric pressure. However, because articulations—especially consonants—represent constrictions of the airflow, the pressure in the cavity behind those constrictions can increase resulting in a higher supraglottal pressure.
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The vocal folds are sometimes called 'true vocal folds' to distinguish them from the 'false vocal folds' known as vestibular folds or ventricular folds. These are a pair of thick folds of mucous membrane that protect and sit slightly superior to the more delicate true folds. They have a minimal role in normal phonation, but are often used to produce deep sonorous tones in Tibetan chant and Tuvan throat singing, as well as in musical screaming and the death growl vocal style.
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The vibratory and viscoelastic characteristics of human VFs are mainly attributed to the molecular composition of SLLPs. In normal vocal fold, the jelly-like "Reinke's space" is very loose and abundant with interstitial proteins such as hyaluronic acid, fibronectin, proteoglycan like fibromodulin, decorin and versican. All these ECM components together regulate the water content of vocal fold and render the viscous shear property for it. The squamous epithelium and superficial lamina propria form the vocal mucosa which serves as vibratory component in phonation.
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Northern Khmer has the typical Mon-Khmer consonant and syllable structure although there is no phonemic phonation. The primary divergences from Central Khmer phonology are in the realizations of some syllable-final consonants and in the vowel inventory. Northern Khmer is also losing the sesquisyllabic pattern of its sister languages.Phon-ngam, Prakorb; 1992; The Problem of Aspirates in Central Khmer and Northern Khmer Many dysllables have lost all but the first consonant of the pre-syllable, creating a great number of consonant clusters.
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Suprasegmental phenomena encompass such elements as stress, phonation type, voice timbre, and prosody or intonation, all of which may have effects across multiple segments. Consonants and vowel segments combine to form syllables, which in turn combine to form utterances; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations. Acoustically, these different segments are characterized by different formant structures, that are visible in a spectrogram of the recorded sound wave. Formants are the amplitude peaks in the frequency spectrum of a specific sound.
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Medical and surgical treatments have been recommended to treat organic dysphonias. An effective treatment for spasmodic dysphonia (hoarseness resulting from periodic breaks in phonation due to hyperadduction of the vocal folds) is botulinum toxin injection. The toxin acts by blocking acetylcholine release at the thyro-arytenoid muscle. Although the use of botlinum toxin injections is considered relatively safe, patients' responses to treatment differ in the initial stages; some have reported experiencing swallowing problems and breathy voice quality as a side- effect to the injections.
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Just as open syllables have ten vowels, so too do closed syllables: /æ/ /ɪ/ /ɛ~ɜ/ /u̯æ~ʊ/ /u̯ɛ/ /u̯ɪ/ /eɪ/ /oʊ/ /aɪ/ /aʊ/. It is worth noting that in Yangon MSB no vowel quality exists in both closed and open syllables, and that therefore nasalisation and the glottal stop cannot be said to be contrastive features in and of themselves. In fact, with the exception of tone (and its inherent length, intensity, and phonation) no supgrasegmental features can really be said to be phonemic.
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Phonation disorders may also be organic, due to viral growths, cancer, paralysis of laryngeal nerves, surgical intubation, or external traumas such as being hit in the throat with a baseball. These problems may require surgical removal of growths or reconstruction of the larynx, accompanied by voice therapy (Boone 287-96). A resonance disorder occurs when any part of the vocal tract is altered or dysfunctional. In the case of an oral resonance disorder, the tongue sits too high in the front or back of the mouth.
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However small and fast adjustments are made to the subglottal pressure to modify speech for suprasegmental features like stress. A number of thoracic muscles are used to make these adjustments. Because the lungs and thorax stretch during inhalation, the elastic forces of the lungs alone can produce pressure differentials sufficient for phonation at lung volumes above 50 percent of vital capacity. Above 50 percent of vital capacity, the respiratory muscles are used to "check" the elastic forces of the thorax to maintain a stable pressure differential.
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A. Blanton (Personal Communication, March 11, 2009). The superficial layer of the lamina propria is a structure that vibrates a great deal during phonation, and the viscoelasticity needed to support this vibratory function depends mostly on extracellular matrices. The primary extracellular matrices of the vocal fold cover are reticular, collagenous and elastic fibers, as well as glycoprotein and glycosaminoglycan. These fibers serve as scaffolds for structural maintenance, providing tensile strength and resilience so that the vocal folds may vibrate freely but still retain their shape.
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It has long been noted that in many languages, both phonologically and historically, the glottal consonants do not behave like other consonants. Phonetically, they have no manner or place of articulation other than the state of the glottis: glottal closure for , breathy voice for , and open airstream for . Some phoneticians have described these sounds as neither glottal nor consonantal, but instead as instances of pure phonation, at least in many European languages. However, in Semitic languages they do appear to be true glottal consonants.
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Good posture also makes it easier to initiate phonation and to tune the resonators as proper alignment prevents unnecessary tension in the body. Vocal pedagogists have also noted that when singers assume good posture it often provides them with a greater sense of self-assurance and poise while performing. Audiences also tend to respond better to singers with good posture. Habitual good posture also ultimately improves the overall health of the body by enabling better blood circulation and preventing fatigue and stress on the body.
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Natural breathing has three stages: a breathing-in period, a breathing out period, and a resting or recovery period; these stages are not usually consciously controlled. Within singing, there are four stages of breathing: a breathing-in period (inhalation); a setting up controls period (suspension); a controlled exhalation period (phonation); and a recovery period. These stages must be under conscious control by the singer until they become conditioned reflexes. Many singers abandon conscious controls before their reflexes are fully conditioned which ultimately leads to chronic vocal problems.
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He returned to the Opéra-Comique and ended his career in 1863. Appointed professor at the Conservatoire de Paris in 1851, he was the author of a two-volume singing textbook : I. Nouvelles recherches sur la phonation (1861) and II. De la physiologie appliquée au mécanisme du chant (1863). In 1870, he was appointed sub-prefect in Ancenis, where he distinguished himself during an epidemic of smallpox by going to treat the sick himself. He died in 1872 in Paris at the age of 49.
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At the other extreme, the Bantu language Ngwe has 14 vowel qualities, 12 of which may occur long or short, making 26 oral vowels, plus six nasalized vowels, long and short, making a total of 38 vowels; while !Xóõ achieves 31 pure vowels, not counting its additional variation by vowel length, by varying the phonation. As regards consonant phonemes, Puinave and the Papuan language Tauade each have just seven, and Rotokas has only six. !Xóõ, on the other hand, has somewhere around 77, and Ubykh 81.
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HA plays a very important role in the vocal fold biomechanics. In fact, HA has been described as the ECM molecule that not only contributes to the maintenance of an optimal tissue viscosity that allows phonation, but also of an optimal tissue stiffness that allows frequency control. CD44 is a cell surface receptor for HA. Cells such as fibroblasts are responsible for synthesizing ECM molecules. Cell surface matrix receptors in return, feed back to the cells through cell-matrix interaction, allowing the cell to regulate its metabolism.
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Speech-language pathologists provide behavioral treatment of VCD. Speech therapy usually involves educating the client on the nature of the problem, what happens when symptoms are present, and then comparing this to what happens during normal breathing and phonation. Intervention goals target teaching a client breathing and relaxation exercises so that they can control their throat muscles and keep the airway open, allowing air to flow in and out. Breathing techniques can be taught to reduce tension in the throat, neck, and upper body and bring attention to the flow of air during respiration.
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There are four independently controllable articulations that may double up in the same manner of articulation: labial, coronal, dorsal, and pharyngeal. (The glottis controls phonation, and works simultaneously with many consonants. It is not normally considered an articulator, and an ejective , with simultaneous closure of the velum and glottis, is not considered a doubly articulated consonant.) Approximant consonants, such as and , may be either doubly or secondarily articulated. For example, in English, is a labialized velar that could be transcribed as , but the Japanese is closer to a true labial–velar .
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The phonemic inventory is typical of modern Mon-Khmer languages and, along with the other Pearic languages, shows some phonological influences from the late Middle Khmer of the 17th century. Samre also shows influence from Thai in that it has a developing tonal system. Like many other Austroasiatic languages in general, and the Pearic languages in particular, Samre vowels may differ in voice quality, a system known as "register", or "phonation". However, the breathy voice versus clear voice distinction is no longer contrastive and is secondary to a word's tone.
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This method relies heavily on education and guides children towards the use of vocally safe behaviours, such as hydration. It also explains the need to reduce traumatic behaviours including loud phonation, coughing, imitation of animal and machine noises, hard glottal stops and yelling across long distances. In therapy, children are taught to monitor their vocal behaviour for these signs and are sometimes trained to use an alternative gentle and quiet voice. # Direct Treatment Methods: Direct treatment methods are used to facilitate the use of normal voice behaviours in children with dysphonia.
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The phonology of Danish is similar to that of the other closely related Scandinavian languages, Swedish and Norwegian, but it also has distinct features setting it apart. For example, Danish has a suprasegmental feature known as stød which is a kind of laryngeal phonation that is used phonemically. It also exhibits extensive lenition of plosives, which is noticeably more common than in the neighboring languages. Because of that and a few other things, spoken Danish is rather hard to understand for Norwegians and Swedes, although they can easily read it.
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Vibratory sensations resulting from the closely related processes of phonation and resonation, and kinesthetic ones arising from muscle tension, movement, body position, and weight serve as a guide to the singer on correct vocal production. Another problem in describing vocal sound lies in the vocal vocabulary itself. There are many schools of thought within vocal pedagogy and different schools have adopted different terms, sometimes from other artistic disciplines. This has led to the use of a plethora of descriptive terms applied to the voice which are not always understood to mean the same thing.
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Good body alignment also makes it easier to initiate phonation and to tune the resonators as proper alignment prevents unnecessary tension in the body. Voice Instructors have also noted that when singers assume good body alignment it often provides them with a greater sense of self-assurance and poise while performing. Audiences also tend to respond better to singers with good body alignment. Habitual good body alignment also ultimately improves the overall health of the body by enabling better blood circulation and preventing fatigue and stress on the body.
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During the next few centuries, the increasing influence of Buddhism and Buddhist scholars brought Chinese linguists in touch with the tradition of Sanskrit grammar, which included a highly advanced understanding of phonology and phonetics, including a system of analyzing sounds by distinctive features, such as place of articulation and type of phonation. This led to rime tables such as the Yunjing (c. 1150 AD), a sophisticated analysis of the sound system of the Qieyun. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), scholars such as Duan Yucai diligently studied the sound system of Middle and Old Chinese.
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The phonation system proposed by the glottalic theory is common among the world's languages. Moreover, the revised system explains a number of phonological peculiarities in the reconstructed system. The absence of a labial plain voiced stop in the protolanguage now becomes an absence of a labial ejective , proportionally a rather more common state of affairs. The theory also provides a completely-coherent explanation to the patterning of the stop series in roots (Hopper 1973): # In many languages that have glottalized consonants, there is a phonetic constraint against two such consonants in the same root.
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The fundamental frequency of the acoustic wave can be controlled by adjusting the muscles of the larynx, and listeners perceive this fundamental frequency as pitch. Languages use pitch manipulation to convey lexical information in tonal languages, and many languages use pitch to mark prosodic or pragmatic information. For the vocal folds to vibrate, they must be in the proper position and there must be air flowing through the glottis. Phonation types are modeled on a continuum of glottal states from completely open (voiceless) to completely closed (glottal stop).
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The glottis is defined as the true vocal folds and the space between them. It is composed of an intermembranous portion or anterior glottis, and an intercartilaginous portion or posterior glottis. The border between the anterior and posterior glottises is defined by an imaginary line drawn across the vocal fold at the tip of the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage. The anterior glottis is the primary structure of vocal fold vibration for phonation and the posterior glottis is the widest opening between the vocal folds for respiration.
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Lubrication of the vocal folds through adequate hydration is essential for normal phonation to avoid excessive abrasion, and the microridges and microvilli help to spread and retain a mucous coat on the epithelium. Surgery of the vocal folds can disturb this layer with scar tissue, which can result in the inability of the epithelium to retain an adequate mucous coat, which will in turn impact lubrication of the vocal folds. The epithelium has been described as a thin shell, the purpose of which is to maintain the shape of the vocal fold.
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One of the vibratory phenomena that occurred inside the larynx is alternating A-P (anterior-posterior) and P-A traveling waves, which happened due to the unusual larynx layout. This can be characterized by its unique glottal opening/closing pattern. When the trachea is at pressure of approximately 6 kPa, phonation begins in the larynx and the laryngeal tissue starts to vibrate at approximately 15 kPa. Vocal production mechanisms at certain frequencies are similar to that of humans and other mammals and the laryngeal tissues are subjected to self-maintained oscillations.
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Subjective measures include scales such as the Grade, Roughness, Breathiness, Asthenia, Strain Scale (GRBAS); the Reflux Symptom Index; the Voice Handicap Index (VHI); and a voice symptom scale. Objective measures often rely on acoustic parameters such as jitter, shimmer, signal-to-noise ratio, and fundamental frequency, among others. Aerodynamic measures such as vital capacity and maximum phonation time (MPT) have also been used as an objective measure. However, there is not yet a consensus on how best to use the measures or which measures are best to assess treatment outcomes for LPR.
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The vestibular folds of the larynx play a significant role in the maintenance of the laryngeal functions of breathing and preventing food and drink from entering the airway during swallowing. They aid phonation (speech) by suppressing dysphonia. In some ethnic singing and chanting styles, such as in Tuva, Sardinia, Mongolia, South Africa and Tibet(...) the vestibular folds may be used in co-oscillation with the vocal folds, producing very low or high pitched sounds(most of the time, one octave higher). Conversely, people who have had their epiglottis removed because of cancer do not choke any more than when it was present.
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In the phonology, written Hurrian only seems to distinguish a single series of phonemic obstruents without any contrastive phonation distinctions (the variation in voicing, though visible in the script, was allophonic); in contrast, written Urartian distinguishes as many as three series: voiced, voiceless and "emphatic" (perhaps glottalized). Urartian is also characterized by the apparent reduction of some word-final vowels to schwa (e.g. Urartian ulə vs Hurrian oli "another", Urartian eurišə vs Hurrian evrišše "lordship", Hurrian 3rd person plural enclitic pronoun -lla vs Urartian -lə). As the last two examples shows, the Hurrian geminates are also absent in Urartian.
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Vocal fold, scheme Glottal cycle, chest voice This view understands chest voice as the vocal register used within normal speech. It was discovered via stroboscope that during ordinary phonation, or speaking, in a man, the vocal folds contact with each other completely during each vibration, closing the gap between them fully, if just for a small length of time. This closure cuts off the escaping air. When the air pressure in the trachea rises as a result of this closure, the folds are blown apart, while the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages remain in apposition.
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The four primary phonation types, other than "breathed" (meaning voiceless), each receive a distinct letter: :} modal voice :} falsetto :} whisper (Typically only the normally modally voiced segments are whispery, while the voiceless segments remain voiceless. Note that this "whisper" is distinct from the "whispery voice" below.) :} creak Modifications are made with diacritics. The terms "whispery voice" and "breathy voice" follow Catford (1977) and differ from the vocabulary of the IPA, with VoQS "whispery voice" being equivalent to IPA "breathy voice" / "murmur". The notations } and } are therefore often confused, and } should perhaps be used for VoQS "whispery voice" with e.g.
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In most languages, the lips during vowel production can be classified as either rounded or unrounded (spread), although other types of lip positions, such as compression and protrusion, have been described. Lip position is correlated with height and backness: front and low vowels tend to be unrounded whereas back and high vowels are usually rounded. Paired vowels on the IPA chart have the spread vowel on the left and the rounded vowel on the right. Together with the universal vowel features described above, some languages have additional features such as nasality, length and different types of phonation such as voiceless or creaky.
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Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder resulting from neurological injury of the motor component of the motor–speech system and is characterized by poor articulation of phonemes. In other words, it is a condition in which problems effectively occur with the muscles that help produce speech, often making it very difficult to pronounce words. It is unrelated to problems with understanding language (that is, dysphasia or aphasia), although a person can have both. Any of the speech subsystems (respiration, phonation, resonance, prosody, and articulation) can be affected, leading to impairments in intelligibility, audibility, naturalness, and efficiency of vocal communication.
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Vocal fold length and tension can be controlled by rocking the thyroid cartilage forward and backward on the cricoid cartilage (either directly by contracting the cricothyroids or indirectly by changing the vertical position of the larynx), by manipulating the tension of the muscles within the vocal folds, and by moving the arytenoids forward or backward. This causes the pitch produced during phonation to rise or fall. In most males the vocal folds are longer and with a greater mass than most females' vocal folds, producing a lower pitch. The vocal apparatus consists of two pairs of mucosal folds.
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Both coughing and throat clearing are predictable and necessary actions because they clear the respiratory passageway, but both place the vocal folds under significant strain. Another important role of the larynx is abdominal fixation, a kind of Valsalva maneuver in which the lungs are filled with air in order to stiffen the thorax so that forces applied for lifting can be translated down to the legs. This is achieved by a deep inhalation followed by the adduction of the vocal folds. Grunting while lifting heavy objects is the result of some air escaping through the adducted vocal folds ready for phonation.
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These exercises may include tongue twisters, or the famous "me, may, ma, moh, moo" that many actors are seen doing in film. Resonators are the hard and soft surfaces within the oral cavity that affect the sound waves produced during phonation. Hard surfaces, such as the hard palate, cannot be controlled by the singer, but soft surfaces, such as the soft palate, can be trained to change the timbre of the sound. A vocal warm up should include exercises which direct sound towards these hard and soft surfaces – these exercises can incorporate a variety of sound effects, including whoops, wails, and nasal sounds.
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Real-time MRI of a vocal tract while singing. Singing when done with proper vocal technique is an integrated and coordinated act that effectively coordinates the physical processes of singing. There are four physical processes involved in producing vocal sound: respiration, phonation, resonation, and articulation. These processes occur in the following sequence: # Breath is taken # Sound is initiated in the larynx # The vocal resonators receive the sound and influence it # The articulators shape the sound into recognizable units Although these four processes are often considered separately when studied, in actual practice, they merge into one coordinated function.
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With an effective singer or speaker, one should rarely be reminded of the process involved as their mind and body are so coordinated that one only perceives the resulting unified function. Many vocal problems result from a lack of coordination within this process. Since singing is a coordinated act, it is difficult to discuss any of the individual technical areas and processes without relating them to the others. For example, phonation only comes into perspective when it is connected with respiration; the articulators affect resonance; the resonators affect the vocal folds; the vocal folds affect breath control; and so forth.
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Konotey-Ahulu has recently developed a method for writing African tonal languages, explained in a book titled Mother Tongue – Introducing The Tadka Phonation Technique For Speaking An African Tonal Language: Krobo/Dangme-Ga of South-East Ghana (82 pages – . T-A’D Co Watford, UK, 2001). The book aims to help educate some Africans to read their own language more easily and quickly than has hitherto been possible. It will also explain the basic principles of Public Health information about genetic and acquired disease to those who do not read English, and promises to be a great tool in adult education.
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The majority of vocal fold lesions primarily arise in the cover of the folds. Since the basal lamina secures the epithelium to the superficial layer of the lamina propria with anchoring fibers, this is a common site for injury. If a person has a phonotrauma or habitual vocal hyperfunction, also known as pressed phonation, the proteins in the basal lamina can shear, causing vocal fold injury, usually seen as nodules or polyps, which increase the mass and thickness of the cover. The squamous cell epithelium of the anterior glottis are also a frequent site of laryngeal cancer caused by smoking.
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The concept of manner is mainly used in the discussion of consonants, although the movement of the articulators will also greatly alter the resonant properties of the vocal tract, thereby changing the formant structure of speech sounds that is crucial for the identification of vowels. For consonants, the place of articulation and the degree of phonation of voicing are considered separately from manner, as being independent parameters. Homorganic consonants, which have the same place of articulation, may have different manners of articulation. Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but some phoneticians, such as Peter Ladefoged, consider them to be independent.
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Western Khmer, also known as Chanthaburi Khmer, is the dialect of the Khmer language spoken by the Khmer people native to the Cardamom Mountains on both sides of the border between western Cambodia and eastern Central Thailand (Chanthaburi Province). Developing in an historically isolated region, Western Khmer is the only dialect of modern Khmer to conserve the Middle Khmer phonation contrast of breathy voice versus modal voice that has been all but lost in the other dialects.Wayland & Jongman. Chanthaburi Vowels: Phonetic and Phonemic Analyses Mon-Khmer Studies 31:65-82Acoustic correlates of breathy and clear vowels: the case of Khmer.
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Several different terms are used to refer to contact granulomas (contact ulcer, vocal fold granuloma, vocal process granuloma, etc). The term contact ulcer was first used in the early 20th century at which time the single cause of this condition was believed to be excessive force when the vocal folds make contact during phonation or non-phonatory behaviors (i.e. coughing). Later, the same condition was observed in patients recovering from recent intubation and, more recently, came to be associated with inflammation and irritation resulting from gastro-esophageal reflux. Likewise, use of both ulcer and granuloma reflect the fact that this condition can present as an ulcerated lesion or as granulated tissue.
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Unlike the surrounding Burmese and Thai languages, Mon is not a tonal language. As in many Mon–Khmer languages, Mon uses a vowel- phonation or vowel-register system in which the quality of voice in pronouncing the vowel is phonemic. There are two registers in Mon: #Clear (modal) voice, analyzed by various linguists as ranging from ordinary to creaky #Breathy voice, vowels have a distinct breathy quality One study involving speakers of a Mon dialect in Thailand found that in some syllabic environments, words with a breathy voice vowel are significantly lower in pitch than similar words with a clear vowel counterpart.Thongkum, Theraphan L. 1988.
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This view is that since all registers originate in laryngeal function, it is meaningless to speak of registers being produced in the head. The vibratory sensations which are felt in the head are resonance phenomena and should be described in terms related to resonance, not to registers. These vocal pedagogists prefer the term "head voice" over the term register and divide the human voice into four registers: the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is more consistent with modern understandings of human physiology and in keeping with stroboscope videos of laryngeal function during vocal phonation.
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Another alternative to the glottalic theory proposed by James Clackson bases the contrast on phonation. Observing that the traditional voiced aspirated series is preserved in languages like Sanskrit not as true voiced aspirates but as voiced consonants with breathy or murmured voice, Clackson suggests the contrast between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirates could be reframed as stops conditioned by three phonations: voiceless, creaky or stiff voice, and breathy voice. That, he argues, is typologically more common than voiced aspirates without voiceless counterparts. Schirru has also suggested that the voiced aspirated stops could be better analyzed as having the feature [+slack vocal folds] or [−stiff vocal folds].
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The myoelastic theory states that when the vocal cords are brought together and breath pressure is applied to them, the cords remain closed until the pressure beneath them, the subglottic pressure, is sufficient to push them apart, allowing air to escape and reducing the pressure enough for the muscle tension recoil to pull the folds back together again. The pressure builds up once again until the cords are pushed apart, and the whole cycle keeps repeating itself. The rate at which the cords open and close, the number of cycles per second, determines the pitch of the phonation. The aerodynamic theory is based on the Bernoulli energy law in fluids.
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The theory states that when a stream of breath is flowing through the glottis while the arytenoid cartilages are held together (by the action of the interarytenoid muscles), a push-pull effect is created on the vocal fold tissues that maintains self-sustained oscillation. The push occurs during glottal opening, when the glottis is convergent, and the pull occurs during glottal closing, when the glottis is divergent. Such an effect causes a transfer of energy from the airflow to the vocal fold tissues which overcomes losses by dissipation and sustain the oscillation. The amount of lung pressure needed to begin phonation is defined by Titze as the oscillation threshold pressure.
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Cross-section of the head and neck Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation, although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound. There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators.
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Within the ECM community of vocal ligament, fibrous proteins such as elastin and collagen are pivotal in maintaining the proper elastic biomechanical property of vocal fold. Elastin fibers impart the flexibility and elasticity of the vocal folds and, collagen is responsible for the resistance and resiliece to tensile strength. The normal strain level of vocal ligament ranges from 0–15% during phonation These fibrous proteins exhibit distribution variations spatially and temporally due to fibroblast turnover during tissue maturation and aging. Each vocal ligament is a band of yellow elastic tissue attached in front to the angle of the thyroid cartilage, and behind to the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage.
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The concept is primarily used for the production of consonants, but can be used for vowels in qualities such as voicing and nasalization. For any place of articulation, there may be several manners of articulation, and therefore several homorganic consonants. Normal human speech is pulmonic, produced with pressure from the lungs, which creates phonation in the glottis in the larynx, which is then modified by the vocal tract and mouth into different vowels and consonants. However humans can pronounce words without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech, of which there are three types: esophageal speech, pharyngeal speech and buccal speech (better known as Donald Duck talk).
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Jamestown C. McKinney, a renowned vocal pedagogue and longtime professor of voice at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary's school of church music, defines vocal resonance as "the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air."McKinney, James (1994) The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, Nashville, TN: Genovex Music Group. Throughout the vocal literature, various terms related to resonation are used, including: amplification, filtering, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation. Acoustic authorities would question many of these terms from a strictly scientific perspective.
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Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation; although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound. There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators.
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Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby. Disturbances to the individual's natural ability to speak vary in their etiology based on the integrity and integration of cognitive, neuromuscular, and musculoskeletal activities. Speaking is an act dependent on thought and timed execution of airflow and oral motor / oral placement of the lips, tongue, and jaw that can be disrupted by weakness in oral musculature (dysarthria) or an inability to execute the motor movements needed for specific speech sound production (apraxia of speech or developmental verbal dyspraxia). Such deficits can be related to pathology of the nervous system (central and /or peripheral systems involved in motor planning) that affect the timing of respiration, phonation, prosody, and articulation in isolation or in conjunction.
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In ordinary fluent conversation people pronounce roughly four syllables, ten or twelve phonemes and two to three words out of their vocabulary (that can contain 10 to 100 thousand words) each second. Errors in speech production are relatively rare occurring at a rate of about once in every 900 words in spontaneous speech. Words that are commonly spoken or learned early in life or easily imagined are quicker to say than ones that are rarely said, learnt later in life, or are abstract. Normally speech is created with pulmonary pressure provided by the lungs that generates sound by phonation through the glottis in the larynx that then is modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and consonants.
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Despite his range, he cannot be regarded as a tenore contraltino. He had, for instance, in his repertoire the role of Lindoro in L'italiana in Algeri, but, when he had to confront "the extremely high tessitura and the mainly syllabic writing of [his entrance aria] 'Languir per una bella', he transposed the aria down a minor third, performing it in C major instead of E flat".Celletti, p 166, note 1 (translation by Frederick Fuller) García was also able to master falsetto vocal phonation to such a point that, in a tonadilla of his, El poeta calculista, he could perform a duet with himself, where he sang both the tenor and the soprano parts.Caruselli, II, p.
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All vocal sounds are created by vibrations in the larynx caused by air from the lungs. Breathing in everyday life is a subconscious bodily function which occurs naturally, however the singer must have control of the intake and exhalation of breath to achieve maximum results from their voice. Natural breathing has three stages: a breathing-in period, a breathing-out period, and a resting or recovery period; these stages are not usually consciously controlled. Within singing there are four stages of breathing: # breathing-in period (inhalation) # setting up controls period (suspension) # controlled exhalation period (phonation) # recovery period These stages must be under conscious control by the singer until they become conditioned reflexes.
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The process of altering a source sound as it passes through the filter of the vocal tract creates the many different vowel and consonant sounds of the world's languages as well as tone, certain realizations of stress and other types of linguistic prosody. The larynx also has a similar function to the lungs in creating pressure differences required for sound production; a constricted larynx can be raised or lowered affecting the volume of the oral cavity as necessary in glottalic consonants. The vocal folds can be held close together (by adducting the arytenoid cartilages) so that they vibrate (see phonation). The muscles attached to the arytenoid cartilages control the degree of opening.
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The patient's speech is assessed by observing the patient's spontaneous speech, and also by using structured tests of specific language functions. This heading is concerned with the production of speech rather than the content of speech, which is addressed under thought process and thought content (see below). When observing the patient's spontaneous speech, the interviewer will note and comment on paralinguistic features such as the loudness, rhythm, prosody, intonation, pitch, phonation, articulation, quantity, rate, spontaneity and latency of speech. A structured assessment of speech includes an assessment of expressive language by asking the patient to name objects, repeat short sentences, or produce as many words as possible from a certain category in a set time.
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Similar to many Mon-Khmer languages, Tampuan employs clear (modal) vowels and lax (breathy) vowels. However the existence of relatively few minimal pairs in which difference in register or phonation is the sole difference in two words led Huffman to categorize Tampuan as a “transitional language” rather than a register language.Huffman, Franklin. 1976. “The Register Problem in Fifteen Mon-Khmer Languages”. Cornell University Crowley, on the other hand, cites extensive diphthongization, especially in the Eastern Dialect, as a sign that Tampuan has crossed the threshold into the category of a register language and is possibly in the process of evolving to Huffman's final phase, namely, a “restructured” language exemplified by modern Khmer.
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This theory states that the frequency of the vocal fold vibration is determined by the chronaxie of the recurrent nerve, and not by breath pressure or muscular tension. Advocates of this theory thought that every single vibration of the vocal folds was due to an impulse from the recurrent laryngeal nerves and that the acoustic center in the brain regulated the speed of vocal fold vibration. Speech and voice scientists have long since abandoned this theory as the muscles have been shown to not be able to contract fast enough to accomplish the vibration. In addition, persons with paralyzed vocal folds can produce phonation, which would not be possible according to this theory.
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So-called voiced aspirated consonants are nearly always pronounced instead with breathy voice, a type of phonation or vibration of the vocal folds. The modifier letter after a voiced consonant actually represents a breathy-voiced or murmured dental stop, as with the "voiced aspirated" bilabial stop in the Indo-Aryan languages. This consonant is therefore more accurately transcribed as , with the diacritic for breathy voice, or with the modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiced glottal fricative . Some linguists restrict the double-dot subscript to murmured sonorants, such as vowels and nasals, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript hook-aitch for the breathy-voiced release of obstruents.
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The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative. Danish has a very large vowel inventory consisting of 27 phonemically distinctive vowels, and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon stød, a kind of laryngeal phonation type. Due to the many pronunciation differences that set apart Danish from its neighboring languages, particularly the vowels, difficult prosody and "weakly" pronounced consonants, it is sometimes considered to be a "difficult language to learn, acquire and understand", and some evidence shows that children are slower to acquire the phonological distinctions of Danish compared to other languages. The grammar is moderately inflective with strong (irregular) and weak (regular) conjugations and inflections.
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Dida has a ten-vowel system: nine vowels distinguished by "tenseness", likely either pharyngealization or supra-glottal phonation (contraction of the larynx) of the type described as retracted tongue root, plus an uncommon mid-central vowel . The non-contracted vowels are , and the contracted vowels . (These could be analyzed as , but here are transcribed with lower vowels to reflect their phonetic realization. There is no tense contrast with the low vowel.) The formants of the tense vowels show them to be lower than their non-tense counterparts: the formants of the highest tense vowels overlap the formants of the non-tense mid vowels, but there is visible tension in the lips and throat when these are enunciated carefully.
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Michael Maniaci (born May 3, 1976) is an American opera singer. Possessing a male soprano voice, Maniaci is noted for his claim to be able to sing into the upper soprano range without resorting to falsetto, an otherwise common phonation for men who sing in high registers, such as countertenors. Although this was possible for castrati because of the hormonal imbalance following castration, Maniaci claims that, for some unknown reason, his larynx did not develop and lengthen completely during puberty, causing his voice not to "break" in the usual manner. Maniaci claims that this physical particularity has given him the ability to sing in the soprano register without sounding like a typical countertenor or a female singer.
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A common theme that has been identified in all tetrapods, including humans and microbats: (1) a respiratory system with lungs; (2) a vocal tract that filters emitted sound before it exits into the surrounding environment; and (3) every tetrapod has a larynx that quickly closes to function in protection of the lungs, as well as it often might function in phonation, as is the case in humans and microbats. One feature of the mammal vocalization system that results in variation of sound production, especially for microbats and megabats, is the length of vocal folds. The vocal folds determine the lowest frequency at which the folds can vibrate. Compared to humans, the length of vocal folds in microbats is very short.
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Vocal problems are often a result of a breakdown in one part of this coordinated process which causes voice teachers to frequently focus in intensively on one area of the process with their student until that issue is resolved. However, some areas of the art of singing are so much the result of coordinated functions that it is hard to discuss them under a traditional heading like phonation, resonation, articulation, or respiration. Once the voice student has become aware of the physical processes that make up the act of singing and of how those processes function, the student begins the task of trying to coordinate them. Inevitably, students and teachers will become more concerned with one area of the technique than another.
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For baritones and bass voices, the voce faringea can be used for creating a light, flexible and graceful tone quality in medium and high ranges. It is particularly suitable for the interpretation of intimate and lyric moments in the art song as well as in the opera and oratorio repertoire. Since in classical singing, female voices are trained to expand the head register into their low range, typically, tones down to B3 or A3 can also be produced in the light register mode. Nevertheless, many sopranos, mezzo-sopranos and altos feel that their voices are losing strength when singing low notes in head voice and that the phonation is in general becoming breathier and increasingly unstable below about E4 down.
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Laryngologists also recommend this type of treatment to patients who have an organic voice disorder - such as vocal fold nodules, cysts or polyps as well as to treat functional dysphonia. Certain surgical treatments can be implemented as well - phono microsurgery (removal of vocal fold lesions performed with a microscope), laryngeal framework surgery (the manipulation of the voice box), as well as injection augmentation (injection of substance to vocal folds to improve closure). Surgical treatments may be recommended for patients having an organic dysphonia. A combination of both an indirect treatment method (an approach used to change external factors affecting the vocal folds) and a direct treatment method (an approach used where the mechanisms functioning during the use of the vocal folds, such as phonation or respiration, are the main focus) may be used to treat dysphonia.
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Since the early 19th century, vocal pedagogy has made use of the vocalise as a means to present to the student specific technical challenges with an aim to solving those challenges in order to make a sound of ever increasing quality and consistency. Smith’s pedagogy differs from this tradition in that he has developed a series of six vocalises, which he trains in sequence, that he has designed to first isolate two specific activities that produce vocal sound: phonation, as in conversational speech, and breath release, as in a voiced sigh. In isolation, these activities do not necessarily produce a pleasing or complete sound. Subsequent vocalises in Smith’s progression seek to achieve balance between these two forces. Smith‘s first vocalise, a slow, sostenuto declamation of the phrase on a single pitch, isolates intention to speak as the primary force of tone generation.
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In addition, an increase of vocal folds mass by slightly altering the coordinative contraction of the thyroarytenoid (TA) and cricothyroid (CT) muscles and a strengthening of glottal adduction were mentioned as physiological basis for developing a falsetto tone into the mixed voice. Recent scientific investigations including the analysis of electroglottogram and flow glottogram data as well as sound spectra of a falsetto dominant mixed phonation mode, also referred to as voce faringea, have provided evidence that may help to define certain characteristics of a forgotten singing practice of the bel canto tenors in the primo ottocento. Specific physiological and acoustic peculiarities of the voce faringea and a clear distinction from the falsetto and chest registers could be documented. Assumptions that the production of voce faringea requires peculiar configuration of both the laryngeal mechanism and the vocal tract were confirmed.
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The vocal fry register has been a recognized and identifiable register in American English only within the past few decades, but its characteristic sound was recognized much earlier. Discussion of the vocal fry or pulse register began first within the field of phonetics and speech therapy and did not enter the vocabulary of vocal music pedagogists until the early 1970s, when it was initially controversial. However, the controversy surrounding the term within vocal music has subsided as more research into the use of the vocal fry register within the context of singing ensued. In particular, vocal pedagogist Margaret Greene's videotaping of the physiological processes occurring in the body while singers were phonating in the vocal fry register offered solid evidence that this type of vocal phonation should be considered a vocal register from both speech pathology and vocal music perspectives.
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Like other consonants, clicks can be described using four parameters: place of articulation, manner of articulation, phonation (including glottalisation) and airstream mechanism. As noted above, clicks necessarily involve at least two closures, which in some cases operate partially independently: an anterior articulation traditionally represented by the special click symbol in the IPA—and a posterior articulation traditionally transcribed for convenience as oral or nasal, voiced or voiceless, though such features actually apply to the entire consonant. The literature also describes a contrast between velar and uvular rear articulations for some languages. In some languages that have been reported to make this distinction, such as Nǁng, all clicks have a uvular rear closure, and the clicks explicitly described as uvular are in fact cases where the uvular closure is independently audible: contours of a click into a pulmonic or ejective component, in which the click has two release bursts, the forward (click-type) and then the rearward (uvular) component.
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Wadih El Safi being a classically trained tenor, is not a verified fact since none of his known works provide a proof of classical singing techniques. He has been known for singing in the belting school class and his phonation are a testimonial of this practice. This is further confirmed in what arguably is his most famous song "Lebnan Ya Ote'et Sama" ("لبنان يا قطعة سما" in Arabic, specifically Lebanese dialect) in which his voice shifts to the so-called Falsetto or more widely recognized today as the "Voce Piena Testa" or the full head register on the second transition "Secondo passagio" around "EB4" note above middle "C4" not overlapping "F4", meaning that his voice falls in the Baritone categorization rather than a tenor precisely a lyric baritone which is often linked to these transition areas. El Safi has no record for singing the "B4" and "C5" tenors' famous "High C" which are the characteristic signature of a tenor's laryngeal mechanism (constriction of the pharynx ) even though many of his age did.
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"Velar" clicks in these languages have only a single release burst, that of the forward release, and the release of the rear articulation isn't audible. However, in other languages all clicks are velar, and a few languages, such as Taa, have a true velar–uvular distinction that depends on the place rather than the timing of rear articulation and is audible in the quality of the vowel. Regardless, in most of the literature the stated place of the click is the anterior articulation (called the release or influx), whereas the manner is ascribed to the posterior articulation (called the accompaniment or efflux). The anterior articulation defines the click type and is written with the IPA letter for the click (dental , alveolar , etc.), whereas the traditional term 'accompaniment' conflates the categories of manner (nasal, affricated), phonation (voiced, aspirated, breathy voiced, glottalised), as well as any change in the airstream with the release of the posterior articulation (pulmonic, ejective), all of which are transcribed with additional letters or diacritics, as in the nasal alveolar click, or or—to take an extreme example—the voiced (uvular) ejective alveolar click, .
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The sound categories (simultaneously belonging to the phonetic and the phonological level) are uniformly construed as sets not of individual sounds but of sound sequences of the idiolect system, allowing a treatment of affricates and long consonants (elements of Consonantal-in-S), diphthongs and long vowels (elements of Vocalic-in-S) and the like alongside simple vowels and consonants. The intonation structure assigns sets of 'auditory values' (pitches, degrees of loudness, phonation modes etc.) to the syllables of a (syllabic) sound sequence identified by the constituent structure. Prosodic phenomena in both accent languages and tone languages are then treated in a unified way: differences of tone or stress are represented through sets of auditory values directly within a specific component of a phonological word, namely, the phonological intonation structure, which is properly linked to the (syntactic) intonation structures of syntactic units in which the phonological word occurs; and tone languages differ from accent languages mainly in the way phonological intonation structures are 'processed' in syntactic intonation structures. The constituents of a structured sound sequence are connected through phonological relations (p-nucleus, p-complement, p-modifier).
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Chaka Khan In recent years, the pharyngeal voice has been rediscovered also by representatives of the CCM (Contemporary Commercial Music) genres like Aretha Franklin, Natalie Cole, Chaka Khan, Stevie Wonder, Michael Jackson, Freddy Mercury, Axl Rose, Brian Johnson or Jon Bon Jovi as well as by well-known stars of the Broadway musical. In contemporary popular music singing styles the pharyngeal voice is typically seen as an effective coupling mechanism between the modal and falsetto registers and primarily used in semi-metallic and metallic phonation modes—for example by male rock and hard rock artists singing in exceptionally high vocal ranges similar to those of the high bel canto tenor repertoire of the early nineteenth century. In addition, the pharyngeal voice can also be trained and used in a particularly effectively way by female CCM vocalists as an extension or partly replacement of the traditional belting technique, which is typically based on the laryngeal modal or chest register. Regarding the resonance strategy for both vocal mechanisms, which is in particular the aim to amplify metallic sound components, there can be found wide similarities for belting and the pharyngeal voice, why the latter is also known as Faux Belt or Fake Belt.
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