In other words, the researchers combined a bunch of different outcome variables into one measurement, potentially obfuscating important differences between the outcomes.
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And we know working memory capacity correlates with language comprehension, academic performance, and a whole host of outcome variables that we care about.
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While the Berkeley paper only appears to match on population, the NBER paper only appears to include the outcome variables, such as wages, jobs, payroll and hours worked, as the matching variables.
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Examining 122 outcome variables capturing nine dimensions of national security including governance, conflict, economic performance, health and environmental preservation, my co-authors and I have found that the first political order is both highly significant and displays the largest or second-largest explanatory power for outcomes.
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In certain social contexts such as initiating social relationships, and with certain outcome variables, such as feeling good about oneself, healthy narcissism can be helpful. In other contexts, such as maintaining long-term relationships and with outcome variables, such as accurate self-knowledge, healthy narcissism can be unhelpful.
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Dynamic system control experiments require participants to try to control the level of outcome variables through the control of the level of income variables. Participants have knowledge of outcome variables throughout the experiment and are free to change input variables accordingly. In these experiments, participants are usually able to bring the system to control but are unable to verbalize the rules they followed in order to do so. For example, in the sugar production task conducted by Berry and Broadbent in 1984 participants were asked to take on the role of the manager of a sugar production factory.
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Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance. MIS Quarterly, 13, 319- 340. perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness influences behavioral intentions and ultimately technology related behaviors. Other scholars have behavioral intentions to act as a mediator between TSE and other outcome variables (performance).
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Pruden conducted a study of 150 U.S businessmen designed to validate expected outcomes based on Presthus's theoretical typology. His study confirmed the hypothesis expected on the three orientations with regard to the five outcome variables. His results showed that the three orientations are in fact distinct from one another. Pruden's research was qualitative in nature (McCroskey 2004).
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He further noted that definitions of presenteeism, which are centered on attending work while sick, have received more evidence of construct validity. In other words, when defined as coming to work while sick, presenteeism seems to relate more to logical outcome variables and correlates. Simply viewing presenteeism as a negative act that leads to productivity loss and decreased health may be restricting potential analysis of the construct.
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Retrospective performance outcomes can be used in investigation of the self-serving bias. An example of this is reported company performance followed up by self-report of outcome attributions. These self-report attributions can then be used to assess how successes and failures are viewed by company employees and executives. This method can be used for numerous outcome variables to determine the presence or absence of the self-serving bias.
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Perkins, H. W. & Craig, D. W. (2006). "A successful social norms campaign to reduce alcohol misuse among college student-athletes". Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67, 868-879. When critiquing this study, one should ask how many dependent variables were assessed, as this group of researchers often assesses as many as 20 or more outcome variables and finds change in 2 or 3 and calls the program successful.
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Research about the counseling process and outcome uses a variety of research methodologies to answer questions about if, how, and why counseling works. Quantitative methods include randomly controlled clinical trials, correlation studies over the course of counseling, or laboratory studies about specific counseling process and outcome variables. Qualitative research methods can involve conducting, transcribing and coding interviews; transcribing and/or coding therapy sessions; or fine-grain analysis of single counseling sessions or counseling cases.
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The pipeline approach (stepped-wedge design) uses beneficiaries already chosen to participate in a project at a later stage as the comparison group. The assumption is that as they have been selected to receive the intervention in the future they are similar to the treatment group, and therefore comparable in terms of outcome variables of interest. However, in practice, it cannot be guaranteed that treatment and comparison groups are comparable and some method of matching will need to be applied to verify comparability.
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In those cases, researchers must be aware of not certifying about causal attribution when their design doesn't allow for it. For example, in observational designs, participants are not assigned randomly to conditions, and so if there are differences found in outcome variables between conditions, it is likely that there is something other than the differences between the conditions that causes the differences in outcomes, that is – a third variable. The same goes for studies with correlational design. (Adér & Mellenbergh, 2008).
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Operationalizing success in multi-modal pain therapy is a challenge and is up to now characterized by tremendous heterogeneity. There are efforts to define core sets of patient-relevant outcome variables to be measured in clinical trials in general and for multi-modal pain therapy. Meanwhile, a core outcome measure set based on PROMS was developed with routine data and validated for operationalizing success in multimodal pain therapy. Validation studies suggest also suitability for depicting long-term success in the sense of sustainability of treatment effects.
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There is evidence that PECS is easily learned by most students, with its primary benefit being a means of communication for children and adults who have limited or no speech due to autism or other communication disorders. With regard to the intervention setting for AAC training, there is evidence that PECS is most readily learned when instruction takes place in a general education setting.Ganz et al. (2013) Moderation of effects of AAC based on setting and types of aided AAC on outcome variables: An aggregate study of single-case research with individuals with ASD.
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In the pure experimental design, the independent (predictor) variable is manipulated by the researcher – that is – every participant of the research is chosen randomly from the population, and each participant chosen is assigned randomly to conditions of the independent variable. Only when this is done is it possible to certify with high probability that the reason for the differences in the outcome variables are caused by the different conditions. Therefore, researchers should choose the experimental design over other design types whenever possible. However, the nature of the independent variable does not always allow for manipulation.
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McCroskey did two studies putting different variables into each study to see the effect on the three different types of orientations, ambivalent, indifferent, and upward mobile (Papa 2008). The outcome variables in study 1 were job satisfaction, communication, apprehension, nonverbal immediacy, assertiveness, and responsiveness. For ambivalents the result showed that they had a negative strong relationship for job satisfaction, positive weak relationship for communication apprehension, negative moderate relationship for nonverbal immediacy, no relationship for assertiveness, and negative weak relationship for responsiveness. For the indifferents it showed that they had a negative moderate relationship for job satisfaction, no relationship for communication apprehension, no relationship for nonverbal immediacy, a negative weak relationship for assertiveness and no relationship for responsiveness.
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For the upward mobile it showed that there was a positive weak relationship for job satisfaction, negative weak relationship for communication apprehension, positive moderate relationship for nonverbal immediacy, positive moderate relationship for assertiveness, and a positive moderate relationship for responsiveness(Pruden). For study 2 the outcome variables were job satisfaction, competence, caring, trustworthiness, extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. For the ambivalent it showed a negative moderate relationship for job satisfaction, negative moderate relationship for competence, negative strong relationship for caring, negative moderate relationship for trustworthiness, negative weak relationship for extraversion, positive weak relationship for neuroticism, and positive moderate relationship for psychoticism. For the indifferent it showed negative weak relationship for job satisfaction, negative weak relationship for competence, negative weak relationship for caring, negative weak relationship for trustworthiness, no relationship for extraversion, positive weak relationship for neuroticism, and positive moderate relationship for psychoticism.
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