Then, they quantify the likelihood of the differences between the two occurring by chance.
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These kinds of encounters with Chavistas and Maduro supporters — some occurring by chance, others by design — are not limited to Florida.
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The "improbability of synchrony occurring by chance" overrides all other information, he said, even knowledge that an invisible body cannot be yours.
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Weinstein asked a bridge-playing math professor at the University of Chicago to calculate the probability of such a precise correlation's occurring by chance.
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The analysis was performed by economist David Neumark, a professor at UC Irvine, who claims the likelihood of such a disparity occurring by chance is less than one in 1 billion.
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Cott's description and in particular his drawings convinced biologists that the markings must have survival value, rather than occurring by chance. Further, as Cuthill and Székely indicate, the bodies of animals that have such patterns must therefore have been shaped by natural selection.
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The population is largely of Polish or German ancestry, with many tracing ancestry to the Hunsrück region of Germany, which has a higher than average twinning rate. The rate in Cândido Godói could reflect genetic founder effect: rare genetic traits occurring by chance among a small group founding a community will be more common among their descendants than in the population at large.
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Lavrov said, "There are ground[s] to presume that this is not occurring by chance. You can see what is happening in Tibet, how the separatists there are acting. The Albanians in Macedonia are already demanding a level of autonomy that is a clear step toward independence. Furthermore, events in other areas of the world give us grounds to assume that we are only at the beginning of a very precarious process".
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Cohen's kappa coefficient (κ) is a statistic that is used to measure inter- rater reliability (and also Intra-rater reliability) for qualitative (categorical) items. It is generally thought to be a more robust measure than simple percent agreement calculation, as κ takes into account the possibility of the agreement occurring by chance. There is controversy surrounding Cohen's kappa due to the difficulty in interpreting indices of agreement. Some researchers have suggested that it is conceptually simpler to evaluate disagreement between items.
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As DNA profiling became a key piece of evidence in the court, defense lawyers based their arguments on statistical reasoning. For example: Given a match that had a 1 in 5 million probability of occurring by chance, the lawyer would argue that this meant that in a country of say 60 million people there were 12 people who would also match the profile. This was then translated to a 1 in 12 chance of the suspect's being the guilty one. This argument is not sound unless the suspect was drawn at random from the population of the country.
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Mathematicians have discovered that it is possible in principle to have multiple bodies in non-elliptical orbits that repeat periodically, although most such orbits are not stable regarding small perturbations in mass, position, or velocity. However, some special stable cases have been identified, including a planar figure-eight orbit occupied by three moving bodies. Further studies have discovered that nonplanar orbits are also possible, including one involving 12 masses moving in 4 roughly circular, interlocking orbits topologically equivalent to the edges of a cuboctahedron. Finding such orbits naturally occurring in the universe is thought to be extremely unlikely, because of the improbability of the required conditions occurring by chance.
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Cott concluded that the effect was concealment "so long as the false configuration is recognized in preference to the real one". Such patterns embody, as Cott stressed, considerable precision as the markings must line up accurately for the disguise to work. Cott's description and in particular his drawings convinced biologists that the markings, and hence the camouflage, must have survival value (rather than occurring by chance); and further, as Cuthill and Székely indicate, that the bodies of animals that have such patterns must indeed have been shaped by natural selection. Bernard Kettlewell claimed that changes in the frequencies of light and dark morphs of the peppered moth, Biston betularia were direct evidence of natural selection.
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