131 Sentences With "nonequilibrium" | Random Sentence Generator

"On the surface of Earth, almost everything is nonequilibrium," Vicsek said.

Entropy maximization has long been thought to be a trait of nonequilibrium systems.

But recent developments in nonequilibrium physics, complex systems science and information theory are challenging that view.

And nonequilibrium thermodynamics seems to be telling us that this is just what matter does under such circumstances.

As we reported, DARPA will be funding time crystal research through their DRINQS, Driven and Nonequilibrium Quantum Systems, program.

There's a corollary to this apparent urge for energy-efficient, organized, predictive systems to appear in a fluctuating nonequilibrium environment.

Looked at this way, Darwinian evolution can be regarded as a specific instance of a more general physical principle governing nonequilibrium systems.

" At the more advanced level, they suggest "Glass is a nonequilibrium, non-crystalline condensed state of matter that exhibits a glass transition.

Bartolo's work suggests a fundamental (though not fully formed) connection between the onset of reversibility and the emergence of hyperuniformity in such nonequilibrium systems.

Using the concepts and methods of statistical mechanics in a nonequilibrium setting, England and his colleagues argue that these well-adapted systems are the ones that absorb and dissipate the energy of the environment, generating entropy in the process.

In these "nonequilibrium" systems, which include shaken marbles, emulsions, colloids and ensembles of cold atoms, particles bump into one another but otherwise do not exert mutual forces; external forces must be applied to the systems to drive them to a hyperuniform state.

"Mauro and Edgar Zanotto from the Federal University of São Carlo in Brazil propose a simple, official definition as follows: "Glass is a nonequilibrium, non-crystalline state of matter that appears solid on a short time scale but continuously relaxes towards the liquid state.

In 2006, Eric Smith and the late Harold Morowitz at the Santa Fe Institute argued that the thermodynamics of nonequilibrium systems makes the emergence of organized, complex systems much more likely on a prebiotic Earth far from equilibrium than it would be if the raw chemical ingredients were just sitting in a "warm little pond" (as Charles Darwin put it) stewing gently.

Denis James Evans , (born 19 April 1951, Sydney) is an Australian scientist who is an Emeritus Professor at the Australian National University and Honorary Professor at The University of Queensland. He is widely recognised for his contributions to nonequilibrium thermodynamics and nonequilibrium statistical mechanics and the simulation of nonequilibrium fluids.

Bernhardt's research interests are in the study of liquids under equilibrium and nonequilibrium conditions, development of the theory of nonequilibrium fluids and use of simulations to assist in understanding experimental results. Current research projects include: the study of nonequilibrium liquids via statistical mechanics; nonequilibrium molecular dynamics; dynamical systems theory; chaos theory; the fluctuation theorem; the study of fluids in confined spaces; the development of algorithms for molecular dynamics simulations; and the calculation of liquid properties. Bernhardt has made significant contributions to theoretical computational chemistry, including combining quantum chemistry and molecular simulation, as well as the calculation of transport properties of materials.

It states that nonequilibrium systems behave in such a way to maximize its entropy production.

She was the author or co-author of more than 130 publications and the editor for multiple books. The best-known book that she edited was published in 1995 entitled Spatio-temporal patterns in nonequilibrium complex systems.Cladis, Patricia E., and P. Palffy-Muhoray. Spatio-temporal patterns in nonequilibrium complex systems.

His 2001 monograph Theory of Nonequilibrium Superconductivity has been widely cited. He published more than 150 articles in international journals.

Photoinduced phase transition is a process to the nonequilibrium phases generated from an equilibrium by shining on high energy photons, and the nonequilibrium phase is a macroscopic excited domain that has new structural and electronic orders quite different from the starting ground state (equilibrium phase).Nasu, K. (2004). Photoinduced Phase Transitions. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

Other work by Snoke has included nonequilibrium dynamics of electron plasma and the Mott transition from exciton gas to electron-hole plasma.

John Wiley & Sons. . #Zubarev D. N., Morozov V., Ropke G. (1997): Statistical Mechanics of Nonequilibrium Processes: Relaxation and Hydrodynamic Processes. John Wiley & Sons. .

From 1989 to 2016 Evans was Professor of Chemistry and Leader of the Liquid State Chemical Physics group in the Research School of Chemistry at The Australian National University. He is now Emeritus Professor in the Department of Applied Mathematics at the ANU Research at the School Physics and Engineering, and a member of the ANU Energy Change Institute. Evans is best known for his contributions to the statistical mechanics of nonequilibrium systems including the derivation and experimental validation of the Fluctuation theorem which is an extension of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, and his development of algorithms for nonequilibrium molecular dynamics simulations. Evans has over 350 publications on nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, dynamical systems theory as applied to bulk systems, irreversible thermodynamics, computer simulation algorithms for nonequilibrium systems, the relation of the intermolecular potential function to macroscopic fluid properties and molecular rheology.

After retiring in 1988, Mazur remained active. In 1991, he derived, with Bedeaux, the Langevin equation for a Brownian particle using only causality and time reversal invariance. From 1994 to 2000, Mazur, together with J. Miguel Rubi, used the method of internal degrees of freedom to describe fluctuations in the context of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. In 2001, he and Bedeaux developed nonequilibrium thermodynamics for quantum systems.

"Social science applications of nonequilibrium thermodynamics: Science or poetry? Procedures for the precise measurement of energy in social systems." In G. A. Barnett and L. Thayer (Ed.s), Organization <\-->Communication.

Rapid cooling can substantially decrease the nonequilibrium freezing point, and hence the thermal hysteresis value. Consequently, organisms cannot necessarily adapt to their subzero environment if the temperature drops abruptly.

Millonas as well as Mahato extended the same notion to correlation ratchets driven by mean-zero (unbiased) nonequilibrium noise with a nonvanishing correlation function of odd order greater than one.

Paul Clavin is a French scientist at Aix-Marseille University, working in the field of combustion and statistical mechanics. He is the founder of Institute for Research on Nonequilibrium Phenomena (IRPHE).

Repeat the above N times. This tries to approximate how the spins change over time. The fancy term is that it is part of nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, which roughly studies the time-dependent behavior of statistical mechanics.

Zhong Lin Wang at the Georgia Institute of Technology in 2017. The AC PV effect is the generation of alternating current (AC) in the nonequilibrium states when the light periodically shines at the junction or interface of material. The AC PV effect is based on the capacitive model that the current strongly depends on the frequency of the chopper. The AC PV effect is suggested to be a result of the relative shift and realignment between the quasi-Fermi levels of the semiconductors adjacent to the junction/interface under the nonequilibrium conditions.

According to L. Tisza: "... in the discussion of phenomena near absolute zero. The absolute predictions of the classical theory become particularly vague because the occurrence of frozen-in nonequilibrium states is very common."Tisza, L. (1966), p. 119.

"Complex Dynamics of Glass-Forming Liquids: A Mode- Coupling Theory." No direct experimental evidence supports the existence of these transitions. The gelation transition of colloidal particles has been shown to be a second-order phase transition under nonequilibrium conditions.

Polland, H.; Rühle, W.; Kuhl, J.; Ploog, K.; Fujiwara, K.; Nakayama, T. (1987). "Nonequilibrium cooling of thermalized electrons and holes in GaAs/Al_{x}Ga_{1-x}As quantum wells". Physical Review B 35 (15): 8273–8276. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.35.8273.

Zubarev D. N.,(1974). Nonequilibrium Statistical Thermodynamics, translated from the Russian by P.J. Shepherd, New York, Consultants Bureau. ; . The longer relaxation time is of the order of magnitude of times taken for the macroscopic dynamical structure of the system to change.

The foundation of collective phenomena originates from the idea that collective systems can be understood from a set of techniques. For example, Nicolis and Prigogine (1977)Nicolis, G. & Prigogine, I. 1977. Self-organization in nonequilibrium systems . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Thus it came as a surprise when in 1967 Carl Wunsch published the tide heights for two constituents in the tropical Pacific with distinctly nonequilibrium tides. More recently there has been confirmation from satellite sea level measurements of the nonequilibrium nature of the lunar fortnightly tide (GARY D. EGBERT and RICHARD D. RAY, 2003: Deviation of Long-Period Tides from Equilibrium: Kinematics and Geostrophy, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 33, 822-839), for example in the tropical Atlantic. Similar calculations for the lunar monthly tide show that this lower frequency constituent is closer to equilibrium than the fortnightly.

In 2006, the group of Benoit Deveaud and coauthors reported the first widely accepted claim of nonequilibrium Bose–Einstein condensation of polaritons based on measurement of the momentum distribution of the polaritons. Although the system was not in equilibrium, a clear peak in the ground state of the system was seen, a canonical prediction of BEC. Both of these experiments created a polariton gas in an uncontrolled free expansion. In 2007, the experimental group of David Snoke demonstrated nonequilibrium Bose–Einstein condensation of polaritons in a trap, similar to the way atoms are confined in traps for Bose–Einstein condensation experiments.

Another idea was that long period Kelvin Waves could be excited. More recently Egbert and Ray present numerical modeling results suggesting that the nonequilibrium tidal elevation of the lunar fortnightly is more closely connected to the exchange of mass between the ocean basins.

Skinner is recognized for his contributions to the fields of theoretical chemistry, nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, linear and nonlinear spectroscopy of liquids, amorphous and crystalline solids, surfaces, proteins, and supercritical fluids. Skinner is the co-author of over 230 peer-reviewed research articles.

In 1997, it was released under a GNU General Public License (GPL). The latest release of Orac may be run in parallel using the standard Message Passing Interface (MPI) libraries, allowing replica exchange simulations, multiple walkers metadynamics simulations and multiple steered molecular dynamics nonequilibrium trajectories.

Early in his career, Cohen predicted the possibility of an incomplete phase separation in liquid helium mixtures at very low temperatures that was later discovered experimentally, leading to the design of the helium dilution refrigerator, one of the basic low-temperature instruments available. For most of Cohen's career he has focused on nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. Together with J. Robert Dorfman in the 1960s he proved that a power series expansion of transport coefficients in the density (analogous to the virial expansion of the pressure in terms of the density), is in fact divergent. This discovery effectively closed off one entire line of research in nonequilibrium statistical mechanics.

Later with Denis Evans and Gary Morriss in 1990 he proved that for certain classes of thermostatted nonequilibrium steady states the relevant transport coefficient has a simple relation to the sum of the largest and smallest Lyapunov exponents describing the trajectory of the N-particle steady state system in phase space. This relation is called the Conjugate Pairing Rule. This was the first practical relationship between chaotic measures and thermophysical properties. In 1993 Denis Evans, Cohen and Gary Morriss announced the first steady state Fluctuation Theorem describing asymptotic fluctuations of time averaged fluctuations of what has since become known as dissipation, in nonequilibrium steady states.

The Nonequilibrium Gas and Plasma Dynamics Laboratory (NGPDL) at the Aerospace Engineering Department of the University of Colorado Boulder is headed by Professor Iain D. Boyd and performs research of nonequilibrium gases and plasmas involving the development of physical models for various gas systems of interest, numerical algorithms on the latest supercomputers, and the application of challenging flows for several exciting projects. The lab places a great deal of emphasis on comparison of simulation with external experimental and theoretical results, having ongoing collaborative studies with colleagues at the University of Michigan such as the Plasmadynamics and Electric Propulsion Laboratory, other universities, and government laboratories such as NASA, United States Air Force Research Laboratory, and the United States Department of Defense. Current research areas of the NGPDL include electric propulsion, hypersonic aerothermodynamics, flows involving very small length scales (MEMS devices), and materials processing (jets used in deposition thin films for advanced materials). Due to nonequilibrium effects, these flows cannot always be computed accurately with the macroscopic equations of gas dynamics and plasma physics.

Important examples of irreversible processes are: # Heat flow through a thermal resistance # Fluid flow through a flow resistance # Diffusion (mixing) # Chemical reactionsGlansdorff, P., Prigogine, I. (1971). Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability, and Fluctuations, Wiley-Interscience, London, 1971, , p. 61.Eu, B.C. (1998). Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics: Ensemble Method, Kluwer Academic Publications, Dordrecht, , p.

In the circumnuclear region there is also dust with irregular distribution, indicating nonequilibrium motions. The galaxy is characterised as low-power radio loud, with gigahertz-peaked spectrum, and has two symmetrical radio jets. In a 3.5 year observation period, the galaxy showed little variability. The galaxy also has weak X-ray emission.

For example, when an electron has been transferred from a source electrode to a molecule, the molecule gets charged up, which makes it far harder for the next electron to transfer (see also Coulomb blockade). The significant amount of energy due to charging must be accounted for when making calculations about the electronic properties of the setup, and is highly sensitive to distances to conducting surfaces nearby. The theory of single- molecule devices is especially interesting since the system under consideration is an open quantum system in nonequilibrium (driven by voltage). In the low bias voltage regime, the nonequilibrium nature of the molecular junction can be ignored, and the current-voltage traits of the device can be calculated using the equilibrium electronic structure of the system.

Paraglacial means unstable conditionsRenwick, W.H. 1992: Equilibrium, disequilibrium, and nonequilibrium landforms in the landscape. Geomorphology 5, 265-76 caused by a significant relaxation time in processes and geomorphic patterns following glacial climates.Church, Michael and June M Ryder, Paraglacial Sedimentation: A Consideration of Fluvial Processes Conditioned by Glaciation, GSA Bulletin; October 1972; v. 83; no.

Classical fluidsR. Balescu, Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics, (John Wiley, 1975) are systems of particles which retain a definite volume, and are at sufficiently high temperatures (compared to their Fermi energy) that quantum effects can be neglected. A system of hard spheres, interacting only by hard collisions (e.g., billiards, marbles), is a model classical fluid.

A considerable number of recent studies support the hypothesis.K. Rohde: Nonequilibrium Ecology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005b, 223 pp. . Thus, diversity of marine benthos, interrupted by some collapses and plateaus, has risen from the Cambrian to the Recent, and there is no evidence that saturation has been reached.D.Jablonski: The future of the fossil record, Science 284, 2114-2116, 1999.

The equation derived above is typically difficult to solve due to the convolution term. Since we are typically interested in slow macroscopic variables changing timescales much larger than the microscopic noise. Expanding the equation to second order in iLA(t), we obtainRobert Zwanzig Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, New York, 2001, S.165 ff.

He became an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1995's election. He is a member of the Expert Committee of Nonlinear Science, Major State Basic Research. He made great contributions to the development of nuclear weapons in China. He has been long working on inertial confinement fusion ICF model, nonequilibrium statistical physics, and nonlinear plasma physics.

He did significant work on transition path sampling as well as nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. He briefly left science to work for an internet startup doughtnet.com, but he later returned to theoretical chemistry, accepting a postdoctoral fellowship with the Computational Genomics Research Group led by Steven Brenner.Steven Brenner Crooks is now a senior research scientist at Rigetti Computing.

This type of surface can be seen at the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland.Goehring, L. (2013) Evolving fracture patterns: columnar joints, mud cracks and polygonal terrain. Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences. vol. 371, no. 20120353. 18 pp.Goehring, L., L. Mahadevan, and S.W. Morris (2009) Nonequilibrium scale selection mechanism for columnar jointing.

He has developed nonequilibrium simulation methods including the SLLOD algorithm for the study of shear flow, the Evans' method for heat flow, the color conductivity method for the determination of self diffusion. He is also well known for the development of links between the theory of chaos and properties of fluids including the development of the Conjugate Pairing Rule.

Padinhateeri is known to be involved in studies in the field of biological physics, focusing on cellular processes applying nonequilibrium approaches. His approach also involves employment of tools from physics such as polymer physics and soft- matter theory. He has published a number of articles; ResearchGate, an online repository of scientific articles has listed 34 of them.

Whereas a stationary gas can be described by three variables (pressure, temperature, adiabatic index), and a moving gas by four (flow velocity), a hot gas in chemical equilibrium also requires state equations for the chemical components of the gas, and a gas in nonequilibrium solves those state equations using time as an extra variable. This means that for a nonequilibrium flow, something between 10 and 100 variables may be required to describe the state of the gas at any given time. Additionally, rarefied hypersonic flows (usually defined as those with a Knudsen number above 0.1) do not follow the Navier–Stokes equations. Hypersonic flows are typically categorized by their total energy, expressed as total enthalpy (MJ/kg), total pressure (kPa-MPa), stagnation pressure (kPa-MPa), stagnation temperature (K), or flow velocity (km/s).

In 1997, he derived an equality, now known as the Jarzynski equality, that relates nonequilibrium fluctuations to equilibrium free energy differences, a result that has been verified in numerous experiments and has found applications in biophysics and computational chemistry. His current interests also include the thermodynamics of information processing, as well as shortcuts to adiabaticity in quantum, classical and stochastic systems.

This shows the fundamental importance of the fluctuation theorem (FT) in nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. The FT gives a generalisation of the second law of thermodynamics. It is then easy to prove the second law inequality and the Kawasaki identity. When combined with the central limit theorem, the FT also implies the Green–Kubo relations for linear transport coefficients close to equilibrium.

The formalism does not allow to determine what the relevant variables are, these can typiclly be obtained from the properties of the system. The observables describing the system form a Hilbert space. The projection operator then projects the dynamics onto the subspace spanned by the relevant variables..Robert Zwanzig Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, New York, 2001, S.144 ff.

Macroscopic viscous flow fields can direct self-assembly of a random solution of particles into ordered crystals. However, the assembled particles tend to disassemble when the flow is stopped or removed. Shear flows are useful for jammed suspensions or random close packing. As these systems begin in nonequilibrium, flow fields are useful in that they help the system relax towards ordered equilibrium.

IDH is a nonequilibrium model used to describe the relationship between disturbance and species diversity. IDH is based on the following premises: First, ecological disturbances have major effects on species richness within the area of disturbance. Second, interspecific competition results from one species driving a competitor to extinction and becoming dominant in the ecosystem. Third, moderate ecological scale disturbances prevent interspecific competition.

In 1976, Mazur, with Bedeaux and Alfonso Albano, gave the first systematic formulation of nonequilibrium thermodynamics for surfaces. This formulation opened a new field, which is still in active development. And Mazur, Wim van Saarloos, and Carlo Beenakker developed an algebraic method around 1982 to successfully describe hydrodynamic interactions between arbitrary numbers of particles using induced forces. This was a breakthrough in the field.

Valentin Afraimovich (, 2 April 1945, Kirov, Kirov Oblast, USSR – 21 February 2018, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia) was a Soviet, Russian and Mexican mathematician. He made contributions to dynamical systems theory, qualitative theory of ordinary differential equations, bifurcation theory, concept of attractor, strange attractors, space-time chaos, mathematical models of nonequilibrium media and biological systems, traveling waves in lattices, complexity of orbits and dimension-like characteristics in dynamical systems.

Josephson junctions are being studied in order to expose and optimize the conditions that allow for long-lived macroscopic quantum coherence, and to clarify the processes that lead to noise and decoherence. Electron glasses are being studied in order to understand the underlying mechanisms that lead to their peculiar properties, specifically the interplay of interactions, disorder and nonequilibrium, as well as how these are manifested in transport properties.

But many recent studies, some empirical, some theoretical, have provided support for the alternate view that nonequilibrium conditions are widespread (see above and the recent review in Rohde 2005b). In the German literature, an alternate term for vacant niches has found some acceptance - that of freie ökologische Lizens (free ecological license) (Sudhaus und Rehfeld 1992).Sudhaus, W. und Rehfeld, K. Einführung in die Phylogenetik und Systematik. Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena.

There is also an asymptotic result for systems which are in a nonequilibrium steady state at all times. There is a crucial point in the fluctuation theorem, that differs from how Loschmidt framed the paradox. Loschmidt considered the probability of observing a single trajectory, which is analogous to enquiring about the probability of observing a single point in phase space. In both of these cases the probability is always zero.

Arunava Gupta from the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society, after he was nominated by the Division of Materials Physics in 1998, for contributions to the development of pulsed laser deposition techniques, the use of this technique for the production of materials with novel physical properties, and for original contributions to the understanding of nonequilibrium film-growth mechanisms.

"Nonequilibrium theory of the optical Stark effect and spectral hole burning in semiconductors". Physical Review B 37 (2): 941–955. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.37.941 which are able to theoretically describe coherent semiconductor optics on the basis of a fully microscopic many-body quantum theory are introduced. Then, a few prominent examples for coherent effects in semiconductor optics are described all of which can be understood theoretically on the basis of the SBEs.

Kim and his research group are interested in both Theoretical/Computational Chemistry/Physics and Experimental Nanosciences. Specifically, the fields of research that they delve into include investigation of ab initio theory, Molecular dynamics simulation, Nonequilibrium thermodynamics and entanglement perturbation to provide understanding of intermolecular interactions, clusters, molecular recognition, drug design and nanomaterials. Furthermore, his team is developing functional molecules/materials for molecular sensing and engineering, nanodevices, green chemistry, DNA sequencing and energy storage.

Crooks received his B.Sc. in Chemistry from the University of East Anglia in 1992 and his M.Sc. in Biocolloid Chemistry from the same university in 1993. His master's advisor was R. H. Robinson, and his thesis was entitled "Characterization of Lipases in Water-in-Oil Microemulsions". He earned his Ph.D. at the University of California, Berkeley under David Chandler in 1999. During this time, he explored both equilibrium and nonequilibrium statistical mechanics.

His areas of research range from condensed-matter physics to nuclear physics and astrophysics, as well as the history of physics. In 1962 he and Leo Kadanoff collaborated on Quantum Statistical Mechanics: Green's Function Methods in Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Problems. In 1969 he published Lectures on Quantum Mechanics, a widely used graduate textbook that, unconventionally, begins with photon polarization. In 1991 he and Chris Pethick published the monograph Landau Fermi-Liquid Theory: Concepts and Applications.

Interfacial polymerization has proven difficult to model accurately due to its nature as a nonequilibrium process. These models provide either analytical or numerical solutions. The wide range of variables involved in interfacial polymerization has led to several different approaches and several different models. One of the more general models of interfacial polymerization, summarized by Berezkin and co-workers, involves treating interfacial polymerization as a heterogenous mass transfer combined with a second-order chemical reaction.

The temperature and δ18O of the corresponding water from which the tufa formed can be calculated using these Δ47-valuesKim, S.T., O'Neil, J.R., 1997. Equilibrium and nonequilibrium oxygen isotope effects in synthetic carbonates. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61, 3461-3475. From these values, it is calculated that Mono Lake tufa formed at a temperature of ~15 °C in water. For δ18O, the calcite-H2O fractionation is given by: ε = 18.03(1000/T)-32.42Kim, S. T., & ONeil, J. R. (1997).

Hans J. van Ommeren Dekker (born January 18, 1947, in Amsterdam, Netherlands) is a Dutch theoretical physicist in the line of Dirk Polder, Ralph Kronig, and Nico van Kampen. His scientific work inter alia involves laser theory, path integrals in curved spaces, nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, dissipation in quantum mechanics, and hydrodynamic turbulence. He is director of the Private Institute for Advanced Study and professor emeritus at the Institute for Theoretical Physics of the University of Amsterdam.

Wyld diagrams are bookkeeping graphs that correspond to the Navier–Stokes equations via a perturbation expansion of the fundamental continuum mechanics. Similar to the Feynman diagrams in quantum field theory, these diagrams are an extension of Keldysh's technique for nonequilibrium processes in fluid dynamics. In other words, these diagrams assign graphs to the (often) turbulent phenomena in turbulent fluids by allowing correlated and interacting fluid particles to obey stochastic processes associated to pseudo- random functions in probability distributions.

Ecological succession was formerly seen as having a stable end-stage called the climax, sometimes referred to as the 'potential vegetation' of a site, and shaped primarily by the local climate. This idea has been largely abandoned by modern ecologists in favor of nonequilibrium ideas of ecosystems dynamics. Most natural ecosystems experience disturbance at a rate that makes a "climax" community unattainable. Climate change often occurs at a rate and frequency sufficient to prevent arrival at a climax state.

The importance of the effect is that it provides information on the angular dependence of the intermolecular potential. The theory to extract that information from transport measurements is based on the Waldmann–Snider equation (a quantum mechanical version of the Boltzmann equation for gases with rotating molecules). The entire field is reviewed in a two-volume monograph.Frederick R. W. McCourt, Jan J. M. Beenakker, Walter E. Köhler, and Ivan Kuščer, Nonequilibrium Phenomena in Polyatomic Gases (Oxford University Press, 1991).

The classical thermodynamics description assumes a state of equilibrium although more recent attempts have been made to develop useful definitions of entropy in nonequilibrium systems as well. The statistical definition of entropy and other thermodynamic properties were developed later. In this viewpoint, thermodynamic properties are defined in terms of the statistics of the motions of the microscopic constituents of a system – modeled at first classically, e.g. Newtonian particles constituting a gas, and later quantum-mechanically (photons, phonons, spins, etc.).

Haken, H. (1977/1983). Synergetics: Nonequilibrium phase transitions and self- organization in physics, chemistry and biology. Berlin, Springer At that time, the dominant understanding of animated movement was that behavior is determined by a "central program", a prearranged set of instructions that prescribe how a set of biomechanical components should behave. In contrast, Kelso showed experimentally that behavior can also emerge in a self-organizing way, as a result of highly nonlinear interactions among many interconnected elements.

Methyl azide can be prepared by the methylation of sodium azide, for instance with dimethyl sulfate in alkaline solution, followed by passing through a tube of anhydrous calcium chloride or sodium hydroxide to remove contaminating hydrazoic acid. The first synthesis was reported in 1905. It decomposes in a first-order reaction: :CH3N3 → CH3N + N2 Methyl azide might be a potential precursor in the synthesis of prebiotic molecules via nonequilibrium reactions on interstellar ices initiated by energetic galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and photons.

Stephan W. Koch has worked on multiple topics in the general field of semiconductor optics. Before the year 1988, the state-of-the-art description of semiconductor optics and lasers was mainly based on simplified rate-equation approaches which cannot describe the nonequilibrium quantum kinetics of Coulomb-coupled electrons and holes (electronic vacancies in valence band). To go beyond this approach, he was one of the key players to develop the semiconductor Bloch equations (abbreviated as SBEs). Lindberg, M.; Koch, S. W. (1988).

Collision of two solitons. The core areas of Puri's work are in statistical physics and nonlinear dynamics with special focus on pattern formation in nonequilibrium systems. His research is reported to have studied the effects of confined geometries and the role of defects in phase separation dynamics and the work is known to have assisted in a wider understanding of kinetics of phase ordering. Study of granular materials, especially freely-evolving granular gases, was another focal point of his work.

Goldstein's research focuses on understanding nonequilibrium phenomena in the natural world, with particular emphasis on biophysics and has been funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and the European Union 7th Framework Programme on Research & Innovation (FP7). His research has been published in leading peer reviewed scientific journals including Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Physical Review Letters, and the Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics, Wiley, New York, , pp. 148–154. Plots of pressure vs temperature for three different gas samples extrapolated to absolute zero The ideal gas law is based on observed empirical relationships between pressure (p), volume (V), and temperature (T), and was recognized long before the kinetic theory of gases was developed (see Boyle's and Charles's laws). The ideal gas law states:Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., Sands, M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison–Wesley, Reading MA, volume 1, pp.

In 1993, in collaboration with Alain Connes, Rovelli proposed a solution to this problem called the thermal time hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, time emerges only in a thermodynamic or statistical context. If this is correct, the flow of time is an illusion, one deriving from the incompleteness of knowledge. Similar conclusions had been reached earlier in the context of nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, in particular in the work of Robert Zwanzig, and in Caldeira-Leggett models used in quantum dissipation.

The problem of deriving irreversible thermodynamics from time-symmetric fundamental laws is referred to as Loschmidt's paradox. The mathematical derivation of the Fluctuation Theorem and in particular the Second Law Inequality shows that, for a nonequilibrium process, the ensemble averaged value for the dissipation function will be greater than zero - see The Fluctuation Theorem from Advances in Physics 51: 1529. This result requires causality, i.e. that cause (the initial conditions) precede effect (the value taken on by the dissipation function).

Theory of heat. London: Longmans, Green & Co. Boltzmann modeled gas molecules as colliding billiard balls in a box, noting that with each collision nonequilibrium velocity distributions (groups of molecules moving at the same speed and in the same direction) would become increasingly disordered leading to a final state of macroscopic uniformity and maximum microscopic disorder or the state of maximum entropy (where the macroscopic uniformity corresponds to the obliteration of all field potentials or gradients).Boltzmann, L. (1974). The second law of thermodynamics.

Polariton condensates are an example, and the most well studied example, of Bose-Einstein condensation of quasiparticles. Because most of the experimental work on polariton condensates used structures with very short polariton lifetime, a large body of theory has addressed the properties of nonequilibrium condensation and superfluidity. In particular, Jonathan Keeling and Iacopo Carusotto and C. Ciuti have shown that although a condensate with dissipation is not a “true” superfluid, it still has a critical velocity for onset of superfluid effects.

There were developed methods for the calculation of transonic vibrationally nonequilibrium gas flows in nozzles La-Val and methods for the calculation of turbulent wakes and jets. Scientists obtained some significant results in modeling gas discharge lasers, optical systems and the divergence of the laser radiation. Thanks to efforts of the Unit new for KSU scientific direction – physical gas dynamics – was created in a short time. Laboratory of mechanics of envelopes (LME) was founded in 1960 for study the mechanical behavior of thin-walled constructions.

He was also a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1987–88, 1991–92, and 2003, and was a Distinguished Visiting Professor in 2013–14. According to William C. Kirby, dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Harvard, "Professor Yau is a leader in the fields of mathematical physics, ... who has introduced important tools and concepts to study probability, stochastic processes, nonequilibrium statistical physics, and quantum dynamics."Harvard University Gazette April 14, 2005 Yau is a 2000 MacArthur Fellow.

Materials physics is the use of physics to describe the physical properties of materials. It is a synthesis of physical sciences such as chemistry, solid mechanics, solid state physics, and materials science. Materials physics is considered a subset of condensed matter physics and applies fundamental condensed matter concepts to complex multiphase media, including materials of technological interest. Current fields that materials physicists work in include electronic, optical, and magnetic materials, novel materials and structures, quantum phenomena in materials, nonequilibrium physics, and soft condensed matter physics.

At Princeton University, where he worked with Elliott Lieb, Nachtergaele was from 1991 to 1993 an instructor and from 1993 to 1996 an assistant professor of physics. At the University of California, Davis he was from 1996 to 2000 an associate professor and is since 2000 a full professor of mathematics. From 2007 to 2010 he was the chair of the Mathematics Department of the University of California, Davis. His research concerns the mathematical physics of equilibrium and nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, quantum spin systems, and quantum information.

The Nonlinear and Statistical Physics group pursues extensive theoretical and experimental studies, trying to understand the behavior of complex non-equilibrium systems. The subjects are diverse and span from plasma, laser and atomic physics to physics of materials and biophysics. Specific research areas include the fundamental physics of fracture and frictional motion, elasticity of growing objects, theory of large fluctuations in systems far from equilibrium, theory and applications of autoresonance, nonequilibrium statistical physics of ultrashort laser pulse formation, and semiclassical wave packet theory of cavity/circuit quantum electrodynamics and cold atom physics.

Streater co-authored a classic text on mathematical quantum field theory, reprinted as : PCT, Spin and Statistics and All That (written jointly with Wightman, A. S.), 2000, Princeton University Press, Landmarks in Mathematics and Physics ( paperback); first published in 1964 by W. A. Benjamin. The title is an homage to 1066 and All That. He has also become interested in the dynamics of quantum systems that are not in a pure state, but are large. This is expressed in : Statistical Dynamics: A Stochastic Approach to Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics, 1995, Imperial College Press ( hardback, paperback).

He was a scientist at the Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, at the Institute of Thermal Physics (1960-1968) and the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (1968-1997). He was also employed as a professor of Physics and Mathematics at Novosibirsk State University (1974-1992). In 1992, he became a materials research scientist/professor at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. His work on nonequilibrium critical phenomena was supported by research grants from NASA and his studies of polymeric materials were supported by Dow Chemical Company.

The effect is however influenced e. g. by nonequilibrium electron excitation and generally it manifests in a more complicated way.Kadlec, F., Kuzel, P., Coutaz, J. L., "Study of terahertz radiation generated by optical rectification on thin gold films," Optics Letters, 30, 1402 (2005), Similar to other nonlinear optical processes, optical rectification is also reported to become enhanced when surface plasmons are excited on a metal surface.G. Ramakrishnan, N. Kumar, P. C. M. Planken, D. Tanaka, and K. Kajikawa, "Surface plasmon-enhanced terahertz emission from a hemicyanine self-assembled monolayer," Opt.

The theory of polariton BEC was first proposed by Atac Imamoglu and coauthors including Yoshihisa Yamamoto. These authors claimed observation of this effect in a subsequent paper, but this was eventually shown to be standard lasing. In later work in collaboration with the research group of Jacqueline Bloch, the structure was redesigned to include several quantum wells inside the cavity to prevent saturation of the exciton resonance, and in 2002 evidence for nonequilibrium condensation was reported which included photon-photon correlations consistent with spontaneous coherence. Later experimental groups have used essentially the same design.

Bernard H. Lavenda was born in New York City. After completing secondary school in North Adams, Massachusetts, he attended Clark University where he graduated cum laude in 1966 with a B.Sc in chemistry. Having passed the entrance examination for the doctoral program at the Weizmann Institute of Science, he began experimental work on enzymes under the direction of Ephraim Katzir, who was later to become the President of Israel. Realizing that he was not made out for experimental work, he came under the influence of Ephraim's brother, Aaron, after reading his book Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics in Biophysics, coauthored with Peter Curran.

A question has been raised about who gave the earliest statement of the Jarzynski equality. For example, in 1977 the Russian physicists G.N. Bochkov and Yu. E. Kuzovlev (see Bibliography) proposed a generalized version of the Fluctuation-dissipation theorem which holds in the presence of arbitrary external time-dependent forces. Despite its close similarity to the JE, the Bochkov-Kuzovlev result does not relate free energy differences to work measurements, as discussed by Jarzynski himself in 2007. Another similar statement to the Jarzynski equality is the nonequilibrium partition identity, which can be traced back to Yamada and Kawasaki.

Valerii Vinokur (also spelled as Vinokour, or Valery Vinokour, born 26 April 1949) is a condensed matter physicist who works on superconductivity, the physics of vortices, disordered media and glasses, nonequilibrium physics of dissipative systems, quantum phase transitions, quantum thermodynamics, and topological quantum matter. He is a Senior Scientist and Argonne Distinguished Fellow at Argonne National Laboratory and a Senior Scientist at the Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, Office of Research and National Laboratories, The University of Chicago. He is a Foreign Member of the National Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters and a Fellow of the American Physical Society.

In other words, the device functions as a miniature heat engine, in compliance with the second law of thermodynamics. Conversely, if T_2 is greater than T_1, the device will rotate in the opposite direction. The Feynman ratchet model led to the similar concept of Brownian motors, nanomachines which can extract useful work not from thermal noise but from chemical potentials and other microscopic nonequilibrium sources, in compliance with the laws of thermodynamics. Diodes are an electrical analog of the ratchet and pawl, and for the same reason cannot produce useful work by rectifying Johnson noise in a circuit at uniform temperature.

Schmittmann was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) in 2004, after a nomination from the APS Topical Group on Statistical & Nonlinear Physics, for "seminal and sustained research on fundamental and applied problems in non- equilibrium statistical physics, in particular driven diffusive systems". In 2010, the Southeastern Section of the APS gave her their for research excellence. She became a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2015 for "seminal and sustained research on fundamental and applied problems in nonequilibrium statistical physics, and for contributions to administration and to increasing diversity in STEM".

Such factors include variation in recombination rate, nonequilibrium demography, small sample sizes, and in comparisons involving more recently diverged species. All of these factors have the ability to influence the ability of the McDonald-Kreitman test to detect positive selection, as well as the level of positive selection acting on a species. This inability to correctly determine the level of positive selection acting on a species often leads to a false positive, and the incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis. While performing the McDonald–Kreitman test, scientists also have to avoid making too numerous type II errors.

In 1962 and 1963, Patashinski, Valery Pokrovsky and Isaak Khalatnikov solved the problem of quasi-classical scattering in three dimensions . In 1963-1965, together with Valery Pokrovsky, Patashinski developed the fluctuating theory of phase transitions. This theory was then applied to a wide range of phase transition problems, including critical slowdown of chemical reactions, brownian motion, electric conductivity near the magnetic ordering point, nucleation in near-critical systems. Other contributions of Patashinski include the theory of gravitational collapse in non-spherically- symmetric systems, the collective tube model for hadron-nucleus collisions at high-energies, nonequilibrium critical phenomena.

The hypothesis of effective evolutionary time assumes that diversity is determined by the evolutionary time under which ecosystems have existed under relatively unchanged conditions, and by evolutionary speed directly determined by effects of environmental energy (temperature) on mutation rates, generation times, and speed of selection (Rohde 1992). It differs from most other hypotheses in not postulating an upper limit to species richness set by various abiotic and biotic factors, i.e., it is a nonequilibrium hypothesis assuming a largely non-saturated niche space. It does accept that many other factors may play a role in causing latitudinal gradients in species richness as well.

Photographs taken off the coast of Norway on natural jelly-falls also revealed caridean shrimp feeding on jelly carcasses. With increased populations and blooms becoming more common, with favorable conditions and a lack of other filter feeders in the area to consume plankton, environments with jellies present will have carbon pumps be more primarily supplied with jelly-falls. This could lead to issues of habitats with established biological pumps succumbing to nonequilibrium as the presence of jellies would change the food web as well as changes to the amount of carbon deposited into the sediment. Finally, decomposition is aided by the microbial community.

His early research work was undertaken in the Lancaster Nonlinear Group and focused on the development of the theory of nonequilibrium dynamical systems and, in particular, on stochastic resonance. Stocks moved to the University of Warwick in 1993 where he joined the Fluid Dynamics Research Centre and undertook studies on transition to turbulence. In 1996 he was awarded a TMR EU Fellowship and worked with Riccardo Mannella at Pisa University before subsequently returning to Warwick as a University of Warwick Research Fellow. He was promoted to Senior Lecturer in 2002, Reader in 2005, and full Professor in 2007.

The evolution of many complex systems, including the World Wide Web, business, and citation networks, is encoded in the dynamic web describing the interactions between the system’s constituents. The evolution of these networks is captured by the Bianconi-Barabási model, which includes two main characteristics of growing networks: their constant growth by the addition of new nodes and links and the heterogeneous ability of each node to acquire new links described by the node fitness. Therefore the model is also known as fitness model. Despite their irreversible and nonequilibrium nature, these networks follow the Bose statistics and can be mapped to a Bose gas.

For thermodynamics and for the application of Kirchhoff's law, it is necessary that the total absorption be expressed as the algebraic sum of two components, described respectively by B_{12} and B_{21}, which may be regarded as positive and negative absorption, which are, respectively, the direct photon absorption, and what is commonly called stimulated or induced emission.Baltes, H. P. (1976). On the validity of Kirchhoff's law of heat radiation for a body in a nonequilibrium environment, Chapter 1, pages 1–25 of Progress in Optics XIII, edited by E. Wolf, North-Holland, . The above equations have ignored the influence of the spectroscopic line shape.

His body of work can be segregated into highly nonequilibrium laser processing of novel nanomaterials, including Q-carbon, Q-BN, diamond and c-BN related materials. These research articles have received over 31,000 Google Citations with h-index >85. Narayan and his students discovered Q-carbon as the new allotrope, thereby finding a new route to fabricate diamond and related materials in ambient conditions, resulting in properties and applications ranging from high-temperature superconductivity in Boron-doped Q-carbon to hardness than diamond in Q-carbon to enhanced field-emission in Q-carbon to Nitrogen-doped nanodiamonds for quantum computing, nanosensing and solid-state devices.

In his first years at Leiden University, Mazur studied the classical and quantum molecular foundations of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Significant results included the derivation of the Langevin equation with Irwin Oppenheim and the classic paper on harmonic oscillator systems by George Ford, Mark Kac, and Mazur, which was published in the Journal of Mathematical Physics (in 1965). Mazur's work in the 1950s and 1960s culminated in the publication of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics (North Holland and Interscience, 1962), written by de Groot and Mazur. This book, translated into several languages, became a classic in the field and was later republished as a series of classic monographs.

Gregory Lawrence Eyink is an American mathematical physicist at Johns Hopkins University. He received his bachelor’s degree in mathematics and philosophy (1981) and Doctor of Philosophy (1987) from Ohio State University. He now holds joint appointments in the departments of Physics and Astronomy, Mathematics, and Mechanical Engineering at Johns Hopkins. He was awarded the status of Fellow of the American Physical Society , after being nominated by their Topical Group on Statistical and Nonlinear Physics in 2003, for his work in nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, in particular on the foundation of transport laws in chaotic dynamical systems, on field-theoretic methods in statistical hydrodynamics and on singularities and dissipative anomalies in fluid turbulence.

The observation of polariton condensation in a trap was significant because the polaritons were displaced from the laser excitation spot, so that the effect could not be attributed to a simple nonlinear effect of the laser light. Jaqueline Bloch and coworkers observed polariton condensation in 2009, after which many other experimentalists reproduced the effect (for reviews see the bibliography). Evidence for polariton superfluidity was reported in by Alberto Amo and coworkers, based on the suppressed scattering of the polaritons during their motion. This effect has been seen more recently at room temperature, which is the first evidence of room temperature superfluidity, albeit in a highly nonequilibrium system.

Ramaswamy is a theoretician whose research investigates nonequilibrium statistical physics, soft matter, condensed matter physics and biological physics. His research helped found the field of active matter, which studies the motility and related collective behaviour of objects that convert local energy input into autonomous motion. He is widely known for formulating the hydrodynamic equations governing the alignment, flow, mechanics and statistical properties of suspensions of self-propelled creatures, on scales from a cell to the ocean. Key predictions—that macroscopically aligned flocks of swimming bacteria are impossible, and that the addition of swimmers to a fluid can make the viscosity arbitrarily small—have been confirmed in recent experiments.

In this mapping, each node is mapped to an energy state determined by its fitness and each new link attached to a given node is mapped to a Bose particle occupying the corresponding energy state. This mapping predicts that the Bianconi–Barabási model can undergo a topological phase transition in correspondence to the Bose–Einstein condensation of the Bose gas. This phase transition is therefore called Bose-Einstein condensation in complex networks. Consequently addressing the dynamical properties of these nonequilibrium systems within the framework of equilibrium quantum gases predicts that the “first-mover-advantage,” “fit-get-rich (FGR),” and “winner-takes-all” phenomena observed in a competitive systems are thermodynamically distinct phases of the underlying evolving networks.

Condensed Matter Physics at the Racah Institute contains both a strong theoretical and an experimental effort. Most investigations are performed within the expansive field of many-body physics, with particular emphasis on nonequilibrium phenomena, the effects of decoherence and dissipation, the study of low-dimensional systems, and glassy systems, to name but a few subjects. Another direction of research includes statistical physics applied, for example, to reaction diffusion systems, especially in cases where fluctuations have an important effect. Within the realm of theory, the methods being employed range from various field theoretic methods, both exact and perturbative, to numerical methods and exact methods based on the theory of both classical and quantum integrability.

Instead, the lab has adopted a microscopic approach in which the atoms/molecules in a gas and the ions/electrons in a plasma are simulated on computationally using a large number of model particles within sophisticated Monte Carlo methods. The lab has developed a general 2D/axi-symmetric/3D code, MONACO, for simulating nonequilibrium neutral flows that can run either on scalar workstations or in a parallel computing environment. The lab also has developed a general 2D/axi- symmetric/3D code, LeMANS, to numerically solve the Navier-Stokes equations using computational fluid dynamics when the Knudsen number is sufficiently small. This allows lab members to explore flows that would otherwise be too computationally expensive with a particle method.

Oscar Kaibyshev was involved in the research in the field of strength and plasticity of structural metallic materials. He and his colleagues made a unique contribution to the technology of shaping of aluminum, titanium and nickel alloys. They established the universality of the phenomenon of superplasticity for any industrial alloy, including intermetallic materials and ceramics, and developed a physical theory of superplasticity based on the effects of the interaction of dislocations and vacancies with grain boundaries, which allows to explain a number of experimental phenomena. Kaibyshev is the author of the discovery of USSR "The phenomenon of formation of nonequilibrium grain boundaries in polycrystals when they absorb lattice dislocations" (in co-authorship with Ruslan Valiev, 1985).

The difference between dynamic and static wetting angles is proportional to the capillary number, Ca, When a contact line advances, covering more of the surface with liquid, the contact angle is increased and is generally related to the velocity of the contact line. If the velocity of a contact line is increased without bound, the contact angle increases, and as it approaches 180°, the gas phase will become entrained in a thin layer between the liquid and solid. This is a kinetic nonequilibrium effect which results from the contact line moving at such a high speed that complete wetting cannot occur. A well-known departure from ideal conditions is when the surface of interest has a rough texture.

Nonequilibrium electrophoresis of equilibrated sample mixtures is generally used in the separation and study of binding interactions of large proteins and involves combining both the analyte and its receptor molecule in a premixed sample. These receptor molecules often take the form of affinity probes consisting of fluorophore-labeled molecules that will bind to target molecules that are mixed with the sample being tested. This mixture, and its subsequent complexes, are then separated through capillary electrophoresis. Because the original mixture of analyte and receptor molecule were bound together in an equilibrium, the slow dissociation of these two bound molecules during the electrophoretic experiment will result in their separation and a subsequent shift in equilibrium towards further dissociation.

Jantsch's Gauthier Lectures in System Science given in May 1979 at the University of California in Berkeley became the basis for his book The Self- Organizing Universe: Scientific and Human Implications of the Emerging Paradigm of Evolution, published by Pergamon Press in 1980 as part of the System Science and World Order Library edited by Ervin László. The book deals with self-organization as a unifying evolutionary paradigm that incorporates cosmology, biology, sociology, psychology, and consciousness. Jantsch is inspired by and draws on the work of Ilya Prigogine concerning dissipative structures and nonequilibrium states. Now out of print for many years, The Self-organizing Universe has been influential in the interdisciplinary fields of biomimicry, holism, co-evolution, and self-organization.

It has been shown that in some cases phonon- boundary scattering effects dominate the thermal conduction processes, reducing thermal conductivity. Depending on the nanostructure size, the phonon mean free path values (Λ) may be comparable or larger than the object size, L. When L is larger than the phonon mean free path, Umklapp scattering process limits thermal conductivity (regime of diffusive thermal conductivity). When L is comparable to or smaller than the mean free path (which is of the order 1 µm for carbon nanostructures ), the continuous energy model used for bulk materials no longer applies and nonlocal and nonequilibrium aspects to heat transfer also need to be considered. In this case phonons in defectless structure could propagate without scattering and thermal conductivity becomes ballistic (similar to ballistic conductivity).

Scientists at NCTS work on the following major research subjects and research topics: High Energy Phenomenology, String and Gravity: dark matter, dark energy, nature of electroweak symmetry breaking, neutrino physics, collider physics, holographic and quantum informatic property of gravity, scattering amplitudes, inflationary cosmology, quantum geometry and branes, exact results in QFT. Condensed Matter Physics: first principle calculations of new quantum materials, topological materials, spintronics, strongly correlated system, DMRG and tensor network, emergent symmetry, quantum transport. Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics: many-body dynamics of ultracold atoms, long-range effects, light-atom interaction and quantum control, quantum steering and quantum information. Soft Matters, Bio-Physics and Complex Systems: complex and biological network, complex dynamics and chaos, nonequilibrium statistical physics of driven/active soft matter, interplay of proliferation, utilization and feedback regulations in complex interacting system.

But Evgeny Velikhov first discovered theoretically in 1962 and experimentally in 1963 that an ionization instability, later called the Velikhov instability or electrothermal instability, quickly arises in any MHD converter using magnetized nonthermal plasmas with hot electrons, when a critical Hall parameter is reached, hence depending on the degree of ionization and the magnetic field. Such an instability greatly degrades the performance of nonequilibrium MHD generators. The prospects about this technology, which initially predicted awesome efficiencies, crippled MHD programs all over the world as no solution to mitigate the instability was found at that time. Consequently, without implementing solutions to master the electrothermal instability, practical MHD generators had to limit the Hall parameter or use moderately heated thermal plasmas instead of cold plasmas with hot electrons, which severely lowers efficiency.

Grima, R. (2010) "An effective rate equation approach to reaction kinetics in small volumes: Theory and application to biochemical reactions in nonequilibrium steady-state conditions", The Journal of Chemical Physics, 132:035101 Terms of higher order have also been used to obtain corrections to the variances and covariances estimates of the linear noise approximation.Grima, R. and Thomas, P. and Straube, A.V. (2011), "How accurate are the nonlinear chemical Fokker-Planck and chemical Langevin equations?", The Journal of Chemical Physics, 135:084103Grima, R. (2012), "A study of the accuracy of moment-closure approximations for stochastic chemical kinetics", The Journal of Chemical Physics, 136: 154105 The linear noise approximation and corrections to it can be computed using the open source software intrinsic Noise Analyzer. The corrections have been shown to be particularly considerable for allosteric and non-allosteric enzyme-mediated reactions in intracellular compartments.

Although she found that numerous small biologically important compounds can appear with no special nonequilibrium mechanism to explain their presence, there were compounds necessary to life that were scarce in the equilibrium model (such as ribose, adenine, and cytosine). Dayhoff also taught physiology and biophysics at Georgetown University Medical Center for 13 years, served as a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and was elected councillor of the International Society for the Study of the Origins of Life in 1980 after 8 years of membership. Dayhoff also served on the editorial boards of three journals: DNA, Journal of Molecular Evolution and Computers in Biology and Medicine. An example of a computer generated phylogeny for MAPK In 1966, Dayhoff pioneered the use of computers in comparing protein sequences and reconstructing their evolutionary histories from sequence alignments.

The temperature dependence of the soil hydraulic properties was included by considering the effects of temperature on surface tension, dynamic viscosity and the density of water. The heat transport equation in CHAIN_2D considered transport due to conduction and advection with flowing water. The solute transport equations considered advective-dispersive transport in the liquid phase, as well as diffusion in the gaseous phase. The transport equations also included provisions for nonlinear nonequilibrium reactions between the solid and liquid phases, linear equilibrium reactions between the liquid and gaseous phase, zero-order production and two first- order degradation reactions: one which was independent of other solutes, and one which provided the coupling between solutes involved in the sequential first-order decay reactions. The SWMS_2D and CHAIN_2D models formed the bases of versions 1.0 (for 16-bit Windows 3.1) and 2.0 (for 32-bit Windows 95) of HYDRUS-2D (Šimůnek et al.

The notion of self-organizing systems is tied with work in nonequilibrium thermodynamics, including that pioneered by chemist and Nobel laureate Ilya Prigogine in his study of dissipative structures. Even older is the work by Hartree-Fock on the quantum chemistry equations and later calculations of the structure of molecules which can be regarded as one of the earliest examples of emergence and emergent wholes in science. One complex system containing humans is the classical political economy of the Scottish Enlightenment, later developed by the Austrian school of economics, which argues that order in market systems is spontaneous (or emergent) in that it is the result of human action, but not the execution of any human design.Friedrich Hayek, "The Results of Human Action but Not of Human Design" in New Studies in Philosophy, Politics, Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978, pp. 96–105.

There are many systems throughout the physical world that can be modeled as anharmonic oscillators in addition to the nonlinear mass-spring system. For example, an atom, which consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a negatively charged electronic cloud, experiences a displacement between the center of mass of the nucleus and the electronic cloud when an electric field is present. The amount of that displacement, called the electric dipole moment, is related linearly to the applied field for small fields, but as the magnitude of the field is increased, the field-dipole moment relationship becomes nonlinear, just as in the mechanical system. Further examples of anharmonic oscillators include the large-angle pendulum; nonequilibrium semiconductors that possess a large hot carrier population, which exhibit nonlinear behaviors of various types related to the effective mass of the carriers; and ionospheric plasmas, which also exhibit nonlinear behavior based on the anharmonicity of the plasma.

This would mean that any person who traveled back in time would necessarily enter a different parallel universe that would have a different history from the point of the time travel forward. Another paradox associated with the causality and the one-way nature of time is Loschmidt's paradox which poses the question how can microprocesses that are time-reversible produce a time-irreversible increase in entropy. A partial resolution to this paradox is rigorously provided for by the fluctuation theorem which relies on carefully keeping track of time averaged quantities to show that from a statistical mechanics point of view, entropy is far more likely to increase than to decrease. However, if no assumptions about initial boundary conditions are made, the fluctuation theorem should apply equally well in reverse, predicting that a system currently in a low-entropy state is more likely to have been at a higher- entropy state in the past, in contradiction with what would usually be seen in a reversed film of a nonequilibrium state going to equilibrium.

He created and directed between 1991 and 2005 the Science Museum of the "la Caixa" Foundation in Barcelona, also leading the renewal of the same that culminated in 2004 in what is now called CosmoCaixa, with headquarters in Barcelona and Madrid. In 2005, the Generalitat de Catalunya awarded him the National Prize for Scientific Thought and Culture for his work imagining and creating the new Cosmocaixa. He remained the scientific director of the la Caixa Foundation until 2014. As a scientist, Wagensberg made contributions to the production of scientific thought, in different fields, such as: thermodynamics of non-equilibrium, thermodynamics of microbiological crops, Monte Carlo method, theoretical biology, entomology, taphonomy, philosophy of science and scientific museology in specialized journals such as Journal of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics, Physics A, American Journal of Physics, The Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids, Journal of Theoretical Biology, Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), Scandinavian Entomology, Beiträge zur Entomologie, Biology and Philosophy, Biological Theory, Computer Applications in Biosciences (CABIOS), Museum Practice or ECSITE News Letters.

Here k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature of the system in the equilibrium state A or, equivalently, the temperature of the heat reservoir with which the system was thermalized before the process took place. The over-line indicates an average over all possible realizations of an external process that takes the system from the equilibrium state A to a new, generally nonequilibrium state under the same external conditions as that of the equilibrium state B. (For example, in the textbook case of a gas compressed by a piston, the gas is equilibrated at piston position A and compressed to piston position B; in the Jarzynski equality, the final state of the gas does not need to be equilibrated at this new piston position). In the limit of an infinitely slow process, the work W performed on the system in each realization is numerically the same, so the average becomes irrelevant and the Jarzynski equality reduces to the thermodynamic equality \Delta F = W (see above). In general, however, W depends upon the specific initial microstate of the system, though its average can still be related to \Delta F through an application of Jensen's inequality in the JE, viz.