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383 Sentences With "non equilibrium"

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"That's a highly non-equilibrium dissipative structure that's existed for at least 300 years, and it's quite different from the non-equilibrium dissipative structures that are existing on Earth right now that have been evolving for billions of years," she said.
Ronald Walsworth, Harvard physicist, told Gizmodo that his team works on one such non-equilibrium system, called nitrogen-vacancy centers.
Predicting the weather is hard in general—after all, it's an incredibly complex non-equilibrium thermodynamics problem, perhaps one of the most difficult kinds of physics problems there is.
" We have lots of strange materials like superconductors and superfluids, but "non equilibrium phases" like time crystals "represent a new avenue different from all the things we've studied in the past.
As the Station Q physicists discovered, these non-equilibrium Floquet systems are able to host new states of matter that wouldn't be possible in equilibrium systems, like the glass of water that turns to ice crystals.
As for the 'multiple generations of organic matter' comment, I would say that we have not yet begun to consider that this could be expected due to the non-equilibrium nature of organic chemistry in nature.
Whereas, say, equilibrium systems like liquids and gasses can spontaneously break natural spatial symmetries, by considering a non-equilibrium system, the Microsoft and UCSB researchers were able to predict spontaneously broken time-translation symmetry, aka a time crystal.
By changing up the electric field and period of the laser pulse, it is possible to change the phase of the time crystal, the non-equilibrium equivalent of a phase change in equilibrium matter, like a solid melting into a liquid.
Recent years have seen more studies of non-equilibrium quantum fluctuations.See and for academic review articles on non-equilibrium quantum fluctuations.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a growing subject, not an established edifice. In general, it is not possible to find an exactly defined entropy for non-equilibrium problems. For many non- equilibrium thermodynamical problems, an approximately defined quantity called 'time rate of entropy production' is very useful. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is mostly beyond the scope of the present article.
Understanding Non- equilibrium Thermodynamics: Foundations, Applications, Frontiers, Springer- Verlag, Berlin, e-.
It goes from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. Sometime later, various generalizations of Fick's laws were developed in the frame of thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics.S.R. De Groot, P. Mazur (1962). Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics.
Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium Statistical Mechanics, Wiley-Interscience, New York, , Section 3.2, pages 64-72. dissipative structure, and non-linear dynamical structure. One problem of interest is the thermodynamic study of non- equilibrium steady states, in which entropy production and some flows are non- zero, but there is no time variation of physical variables. One initial approach to non-equilibrium thermodynamics is sometimes called 'classical irreversible thermodynamics'.
This is part of why non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a work in progress.
The scope of present-day non- equilibrium thermodynamics does not cover all physical processes. A condition for the validity of many studies in non-equilibrium thermodynamics of matter is that they deal with what is known as local thermodynamic equilibrium.
The Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the field of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. It was established in 1976 by Jurgen Keller and its current editor-in-chief is Karl-Heinz Hoffmann (Chemnitz University of Technology).
It states that a non-equilibrium system evolves such as to maximize its entropy production.
Non-equilibrium economics understands economic processes as non-equilibrium phenomena, as opposed to standard neoclassical equilibrium economics. This approach is consistent with our understanding of life processes as non- equilibrium phenomena. It is represented by modern researchers in the fields of evolutionary-institutional economics, Post Keynesian economics, Ecological Economics, development and growth economics. The early contributions to this theory were made by Thorstein Veblen, Gunnar Myrdal, Karl William Kapp and Nicholas Kaldor.
The suitable relationship that defines non-equilibrium thermodynamic state variables is as follows. On occasions when the system happens to be in states that are sufficiently close to thermodynamic equilibrium, non-equilibrium state variables are such that they can be measured locally with sufficient accuracy by the same techniques as are used to measure thermodynamic state variables, or by corresponding time and space derivatives, including fluxes of matter and energy. In general, non-equilibrium thermodynamic systems are spatially and temporally non-uniform, but their non-uniformity still has a sufficient degree of smoothness to support the existence of suitable time and space derivatives of non-equilibrium state variables. Because of the spatial non-uniformity, non-equilibrium state variables that correspond to extensive thermodynamic state variables have to be defined as spatial densities of the corresponding extensive equilibrium state variables.
Attard, P. (2012). Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics: Foundations and Applications, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, .
Ervin Bauer formulated the principle of stable non-equilibrium state which he considered as the basic characteristics of living matter. According to Bauer, living systems function in the expense of non-equilibrium, and the external energy is used not directly to perform work but to support the stable non-equilibrium state. Bauer's principle is incorporated into non-linear thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Living systems in this framework cannot support their organization only due to the influx of external energy, i.e.
130 thus allowing for, or requiring, ordered (negentropic) relationships to arise and persist. Chaisson depicts the universe as a non-equilibrium process, in which energy flows into and through ordered systems, such as galaxies, stars, and life processes. This provides a cosmological basis for non-equilibrium thermodynamics, treated elsewhere to some extent in this encyclopedia at this time. In terms which unite non-equilibrium thermodynamics language and relational analyses language, patterns of processes arise and are evident as ordered, dynamic relational regimes.
Some systems and processes are, however, in a useful sense, near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium to allow description with useful accuracy by currently known non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Nevertheless, many natural systems and processes will always remain far beyond the scope of non-equilibrium thermodynamic methods due to the existence of non variational dynamics, where the concept of free energy is lost. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. One fundamental difference between equilibrium thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics lies in the behaviour of inhomogeneous systems, which require for their study knowledge of rates of reaction which are not considered in equilibrium thermodynamics of homogeneous systems.
There are many examples of stationary non-equilibrium systems, some very simple, like a system confined between two thermostats at different temperatures or the ordinary Couette flow, a fluid enclosed between two flat walls moving in opposite directions and defining non-equilibrium conditions at the walls. Laser action is also a non-equilibrium process, but it depends on departure from local thermodynamic equilibrium and is thus beyond the scope of classical irreversible thermodynamics; here a strong temperature difference is maintained between two molecular degrees of freedom (with molecular laser, vibrational and rotational molecular motion), the requirement for two component 'temperatures' in the one small region of space, precluding local thermodynamic equilibrium, which demands that only one temperature be needed. Damping of acoustic perturbations or shock waves are non-stationary non-equilibrium processes. Driven complex fluids, turbulent systems and glasses are other examples of non-equilibrium systems.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics, on the other hand, attempting to describe continuous time-courses, needs its state variables to have a very close connection with those of equilibrium thermodynamics.Glansdorff, P., Prigogine, I. (1971), Ch. ,§ 2. This profoundly restricts the scope of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, and places heavy demands on its conceptual framework.
A profound difference separates equilibrium from non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Equilibrium thermodynamics ignores the time- courses of physical processes. In contrast, non-equilibrium thermodynamics attempts to describe their time-courses in continuous detail. Equilibrium thermodynamics restricts its considerations to processes that have initial and final states of thermodynamic equilibrium; the time-courses of processes are deliberately ignored.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a work in progress, not an established edifice. This article is an attempt to sketch some approaches to it and some concepts important for it. Some concepts of particular importance for non-equilibrium thermodynamics include time rate of dissipation of energy (Rayleigh 1873, Onsager 1931, alsoGyarmati, I. (1967/1970).Lavenda, B.H. (1978).
Using information theory, non-equilibrium dynamics and explicit simulations computational systems theory tries to uncover the true nature of complex adaptive systems.
Their papers published in the early 1980s were pivotal to the adoption of non- equilibrium paradigms in plant ecology in New Zealand.
The photovoltaic effect. Scienzagiovane.unibo.it (2006-12-01). Retrieved on 2010-12-12.the AC PV is operated at the non- equilibrium conditions.
Segregation that occurs due to the processing history of the sample (but that would disappear at long times) is termed non- equilibrium segregation.
The details of non-equilibrium segregation are not going to be discussed here, but can be found in the review by Harries and Marwick.
Such non-equilibrium identifying state variables indicate that some non-zero flow may be occurring within the system or between system and surroundings.Eu, B.C. (2002).
He has also reported detection of non-equilibrium electron spins in Drosophila by their radiofrequency emissions, though this is described as a "work in progress".
Jou, D., Casas-Vázquez, J., Lebon, G. (1993). Extended Irreversible Thermodynamics, Springer, Berlin, , .De Groot, S.R., Mazur, P. (1962). Non- equilibrium Thermodynamics, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
A particle in cell simulation for non-Abelian (colored) particles and fields. Can be used to simulate an equilibrium or non-equilibrium quark-gluon plasma.
In non-equilibrium thermodynamics, GENERIC is an acronym for General Equation for Non-Equilibrium Reversible-Irreversible Coupling. It is the general form of dynamic equation for a system with both reversible and irreversible dynamics (generated by energy and entropy, respectively). GENERIC formalism is the theory built around the GENERIC equation, which has been proposed in its final form in 1997 by Miroslav Grmela and Hans Christian Öttinger.
Energy dissipation and entropy production extremal principles are ideas developed within non-equilibrium thermodynamics that attempt to predict the likely steady states and dynamical structures that a physical system might show. The search for extremum principles for non-equilibrium thermodynamics follows their successful use in other branches of physics.Ziegler, H., (1983). An Introduction to Thermomechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam, According to Kondepudi (2008),Kondepudi, D. (2008).
In non-equilibrium physics, the Keldysh formalism is a general framework for describing the quantum mechanical evolution of a system in a non-equilibrium state or systems subject to time varying external fields (electrical field, magnetic field etc.). Historically, it was foreshadowed by the work of Schwinger and proposed almost simultaneously by Keldysh and, separately, Kadanoff and Baym. It was further developed by later contributors such as O. V. Konstantinov and V. I. Perel. Extension to driven-dissipative open quantum systems is given in The Keldysh formalism provides a systematic way to study non-equilibrium systems, usually based on the two-point functions corresponding to excitations in the system.
Non- equilibrium thermodynamics has been successfully applied to describe biological processes such as protein folding/unfolding and transport through membranes. It is also used to give a description of the dynamics of nanoparticles, which can be out of equilibrium in systems where catalysis and electrochemical conversion is involved. Also, ideas from non-equilibrium thermodynamics and the informatic theory of entropy have been adapted to describe general economic systems.
DMFT has been employed to study non-equilibrium transport and optical excitations. Here, the reliable calculation of the AIM's Green function out of equilibrium remains a big challenge.
Self-organization in non-equilibrium systems. New York: John Wiley. such as self-assembly, pattern formation, autopoiesisMaturana, H. R., & Varela, F. (1980). Autopoiesis: the organization of the living.
After completing her undergraduate degree in 2010 she moved to Princeton University as a graduate student. Here she worked on non-equilibrium phases of matter in Floquet crystals.
There are other approaches to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, for example extended irreversible thermodynamics, and generalized thermodynamics,Eu, B.C. (2002). but they are hardly touched on in the present article.
Balescu, R. (1975). Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium Statistical Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, .Mihalas, D., Weibel-Mihalas, B. (1984). Foundations of Radiation Hydrodynamics, Oxford University Press, New York .
For example, Boyko et al. (2008) inferred the distribution of fitness effects for newly arising mutations using human polymorphism data that controlled for the effects of non-equilibrium demography.
Consequently, equilibrium thermodynamics allows processes that pass through states far from thermodynamic equilibrium, that cannot be described even by the variables admitted for non-equilibrium thermodynamics,Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (1999), p. 5. such as time rates of change of temperature and pressure.Gyarmati, I. (1967/1970), pp. 8–12. For example, in equilibrium thermodynamics, a process is allowed to include even a violent explosion that cannot be described by non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
Signe Helene Kjelstrup (born August 29, 1949) is a Norwegian professor of physical chemistry at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim, Norway. She is a principal investigator at PoreLab, a Center of Excellence at NTNU. Her main area of research is non-equilibrium thermodynamics, and in August 2019 PoreLab hosted «The International Workshop on Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics in Porous Media» on the occasion of professor Kjelstrup's 70th birthday.
The van der Waals capillarity energy is now widely used in the phase field models of multiphase flows. Such terms are also discovered in the dynamics of non-equilibrium gases.
Such minimizing of Fisher's measure leads to a Schrödinger-like equation for the probability amplitude, where the ground state describes equilibrium physics and the excited states account for non-equilibrium situations.
The size dependence allows nanoparticles to self-assemble at the interface to attain its equilibrium structure. Micrometer- size colloids, on the other hand, may be confined in a non-equilibrium state.
Yuri Ryzhov's main works are in the fields of supersonic aerodynamics, rarefied-gas dynamics, interaction of atomic scale particles with surfaces, non-equilibrium processes in gas flows, non- stationary heat transfer.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with physical systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium but can be described in terms of variables (non-equilibrium state variables) that represent an extrapolation of the variables used to specify the system in thermodynamic equilibrium. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is concerned with transport processes and with the rates of chemical reactions. It relies on what may be thought of as more or less nearness to thermodynamic equilibrium. Almost all systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium, for they are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems and to chemical reactions.
High temperatures due to a manifestation of viscous dissipation cause non-equilibrium chemical flow properties such as vibrational excitation and dissociation and ionization of molecules resulting in convective and radiative heat-flux.
This effect is known as ion beam mixing. The non-equilibrium nature of irradiation can also be used to drive materials out of thermodynamic equilibrium, and thus form new kinds of alloys.
Attard, P. (2012). Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics: Foundations and Applications, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, , p. 161. The physically defined second entropy can also be considered from an informational viewpoint.
Variational free energy is an information theoretic functional and is distinct from thermodynamic (Helmholtz) free energy.Evans, D. J. (2003). A non-equilibrium free energy theorem for deterministic systems. Molecular Physics , 101, 15551–4.
When a body of material starts from a non-equilibrium state of inhomogeneity or chemical non-equilibrium, and is then isolated, it spontaneously evolves towards its own internal state of thermodynamic equilibrium. It is not necessary that all aspects of internal thermodynamic equilibrium be reached simultaneously; some can be established before others. For example, in many cases of such evolution, internal mechanical equilibrium is established much more rapidly than the other aspects of the eventual thermodynamic equilibrium.Fitts, D.D. (1962), p. 43.
In the following discussion, the Dresselhaus effect will be neglected, for simplicity. Topological insulator band structure in equilibrium (a) and in a non equilibrium situation, when a spin-charge interconversion process occurs (b). Two possible effects could lead to the non-equilibrium situation: the injection of a charge current (i.e., a momentum unbalance) which is converted into a spin accumulation (Edelstein effect) or the injection of spins, resulting in a spin accumulation which produces a charge current (inverse Edelstein effect).
Journal of theoretical biology, 373, 40-61. . It addresses the themes considered in cybernetics, synergeticsHaken, H. (1983). Synergetics: An introduction. Non-equilibrium phase transition and self-organisation in physics, chemistry and biology (3rd ed.).
Both pyrolysis of propane and closed-system hydrous pyrolysis of organic matter generate methane of T_{18} consistent with experimental temperatures. Closed-system nonhydrous pyrolysis of coal yields non-equilibrium distribution of methane isotopologues.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.
Wojciech Hubert Zurek (; born 1951) is a Polish theoretical physicist and a leading authority on quantum theory, especially decoherence and non- equilibrium dynamics of symmetry breaking and resulting defect generation (known as the Kibble–Zurek mechanism).
In thermodynamics, a distinction between quasistatic regimes and dynamic ones is usually made in terms of equilibrium thermodynamics versus non-equilibrium thermodynamics. As in electromagnetism some intermediate situations also exist; see for instance local equilibrium thermodynamics.
The increase in density and temperature promotes favorable conditions for the formation of carbonaceous clusters. The rate of consumption exceeds the rate of evaporation by laser ablation and thus the formation is in a non-equilibrium state.
The method has been extended to study equilibrium statistical physics in 2D, and to analyze non-equilibrium phenomena in 1D. The DMRG has also been applied to the field of Quantum Chemistry to study strongly correlated systems.
Many contributions have been made to this field in recent years, such as "The Foundations of Non-Equilibrium Economics: The Principle of Circular Cumulative Causation" (2009), Routledge. Related fields of economics include Complexity economics and Evolutionary economics.
On occasions when the system is sufficiently close to thermodynamic equilibrium, intensive non- equilibrium state variables, for example temperature and pressure, correspond closely with equilibrium state variables. It is necessary that measuring probes be small enough, and rapidly enough responding, to capture relevant non-uniformity. Further, the non-equilibrium state variables are required to be mathematically functionally related to one another in ways that suitably resemble corresponding relations between equilibrium thermodynamic state variables. In reality, these requirements are very demanding, and it may be difficult or practically, or even theoretically, impossible to satisfy them.
Accordingly, the local time rate of entropy production, defined according to the local thermodynamic equilibrium hypothesis, is not an adequate variable for prediction of the time course of far-from-thermodynamic equilibrium processes. The principle of minimum entropy production is not applicable to these cases. To cover these cases, there is needed at least one further state variable, a non-equilibrium quantity, the so-called second entropy. This appears to be a step towards generalization beyond the classical second law of thermodynamics, to cover non-equilibrium states or processes.
He researches decoherence, physics of quantum and classical information, non-equilibrium dynamics of defect generation, and astrophysics. He is also the co-author, along with William Wootters and Dennis Dieks, of a proof stating that a single quantum cannot be cloned (see the no cloning theorem). He also coined the terms einselection and quantum discord. Zurek with his colleague Tom W. B. Kibble pioneered a paradigmatic framework for understanding defect generation in non-equilibrium processes, particularly, for understanding topological defects generated when a second-order phase transition point is crossed at a finite rate.
Hans Ziegler extended the Melan-Prager non-equilibrium theory of materials to the non-isothermal case.T. Inoue (2002). Metallo-Thermo- Mechanics–Application to Quenching. In G. Totten, M. Howes, and T. Inoue (eds.), Handbook of Residual Stress. pp.
The principle of maximum caliber was proposed by Edwin T. Jaynes in 1980, in an article titled The Minimum Entropy Production Principle over the context of to find a principle for to derive the non-equilibrium statistical mechanics.
When a body is not in a steady state, then the notion of temperature becomes even less safe than for a body in a steady state not in thermodynamic equilibrium. This is also a matter for study in non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
The center focuses on non-equilibrium self-assembly, molecular recognition in complex systems, and emergent materials. In addition to his position in POSTECH, he also became an adjunct professor at the Yonsei Institute of Convergence Technology in Yonsei University in 2018.
Dmitry Nikolaevich Zubarev (; November 27, 1917 – July 29, 1992) was a Russian theoretical physicist known for his contributions to statistical mechanics, non-equilibrium thermodynamics, plasma physics, theory of turbulence, and to the development of the double-time Green function's formalism.
The definition of the rate of entropy production of such a flow is not covered by the usual theory of classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics. There are many other commonly observed discontinuities of fluid flow that also lie beyond the scope of the classical theory of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, such as: bubbles in boiling liquids and in effervescent drinks; also protected towers of deep tropical convection (Riehl, Malkus 1958), also called penetrative convection (Lindzen 1977Lindzen, R.S. (1977). Some aspects of convection in meteorology, pp. 128-141 in Problems of Stellar Convection, volume 71 of Lecture Notes in Physics, Springer, Berlin, .).
It can also occur as a result of solute pile-up at a moving interface. There are two main features of non- equilibrium segregation, by which it is most easily distinguished from equilibrium segregation. In the non-equilibrium effect, the magnitude of the segregation increases with increasing temperature and the alloy can be homogenized without further quenching because its lowest energy state corresponds to a uniform solute distribution. In contrast, the equilibrium segregated state, by definition, is the lowest energy state in a system that exhibits equilibrium segregation, and the extent of the segregation effect decreases with increasing temperature.
Fluctuation spectra are commonly denoted by sets of physical phenomena such as hydrodynamic turbulence, the collective behaviour of bacteria and more generally fluctuations originating from the equilibrium state. All of these phenomena can be generalised by a few theoretical results that qualitatively describe these non-equilibrium steady states. A common example of this is the derivation of the force exerted by a non-equilibrium system on two embedded walls. It is characteristic of a narrow, unimodal spectrum for the force to be dependent on the width and peak within a fluctuation spectrum, which oscillates between repulsion and attraction.
Peter Mazur (born Vienna, Austria, 11 December 1922; died Lausanne, Switzerland, 15 August 2001) was an Austrian-born, Dutch physicist and one of the founders of the field of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. He is the father of Harvard University physics professor Eric Mazur.
Likewise, 'the entropy of the solar system' is not defined in classical thermodynamics. It has not been possible to define non-equilibrium entropy, as a simple number for a whole system, in a clearly satisfactory way.Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (2003), p. 190.
Marin Mehandjiev was nominated for the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 2004 year by Ansted University for his contribution to the Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics of Accumulation Processes and its applications, particularly the cancerogenic theory based on the proper protective mechanism of cellular tissues.
Milne, E.A. (1929). The effect of collisions on monochromatic radiative equilibrium, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 88: 493–502.Gyarmati, I. (1970). Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics. Field Theory and Variational Principles, translated by E. Gyarmati and W.F. Heinz, Springer, Berlin, pp. 63–66.
Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, New York. . It can frequently be used to assess whether a reactor or engine design is feasible, or to check the validity of experimental data. To a limited extent, quasi-equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermodynamics can describe irreversible changes.Hill, Terrell L. (1986).
The rhombohedral phase is produced at high temperatures and pressures or when using non-equilibrium growth methods. It has a space group Rc No. 167, Pearson symbol hR30, a = 0.5487 nm, b = 0.5487 nm, c = 0.57818 nm, Z = 6 and calculated density 7.31 g/cm3.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics, as a subject in physics, considers bodies of matter and energy that are not in states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, but are usually participating in processes of transfer that are slow enough to allow description in terms of quantities that are closely related to thermodynamic state variables. It is characterized by presence of flows of matter and energy. For this topic, very often the bodies considered have smooth spatial inhomogeneities, so that spatial gradients, for example a temperature gradient, are well enough defined. Thus the description of non- equilibrium thermodynamic systems is a field theory, more complicated than the theory of equilibrium thermodynamics.
As such it has given rise to various related techniques for measuring pore size distributions. (See Thermoporometry and cryoporometry.) The Gibbs–Thomson effect lowers both melting and freezing point, and also raises boiling point. However, simple cooling of an all-liquid sample usually leads to a state of non-equilibrium super cooling and only eventual non-equilibrium freezing. To obtain a measurement of the equilibrium freezing event, it is necessary to first cool enough to freeze a sample with excess liquid outside the pores, then warm the sample until the liquid in the pores is all melted, but the bulk material is still frozen.
There is no unqualified general definition of entropy for non- equilibrium states.Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (2003), p. 190. There are intermediate cases, in which the assumption of local thermodynamic equilibrium is a very good approximation,Gyarmati, I. (1967/1970), pp. 4-14.Glansdorff, P., Prigogine, I. (1971).
The main mathematical object in the Keldysh formalism is the non-equilibrium Green's function (NEGF), which is a two-point function of particle fields. In this way, it resembles the Matsubara formalism, which is based on equilibrium Green functions in imaginary-time and treats only equilibrium systems.
He has also developed an ultrafast quantum simulator that can simulate non-equilibrium dynamics of quantum many-body systems in one nanosecond, introducing a novel concept where he has combined his ultrafast coherent control with attosecond precision and ultracold atoms cooled down to temperatures close to absolute zero[5].
In 2013, Dahmen was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS), after a nomination by the APS Topical Group on Statistical & Nonlinear Physics, "for establishment and exploring the deep connections between non-equilibrium phase transitions and avalanche phenomena in diverse fields encompassing materials, geophysics and neuroscience".
The advantages of using this combustion model are as follows:- 1\. They have the advantage of showing strong coupling between chemical reactions and molecular transport. 2\. The steady laminar flamelet model is also used to predict chemical non-equilibrium due to aerodynamic straining of the flame by the turbulence.
Kirill Ilinski is a Russian born British businessman and scientist. He is the founder and Chief Investment Officer of Fusion Asset Management and the author of “Physics of Finance: Gauge Modelling in Non-Equilibrium Pricing” (Wiley & Sons, 2001) Managing Partner and Chief Investment Officer of Fusion Asset Management.
For example, tide gauge records in the North Sea show a signal that seemed to be non-equilibrium pole tide which Wunsch has suggested is due to a resonance connected with the excitation of barotropic Rossby waves, but O'Connor and colleagues suggest it is actually wind-forced instead.
This seems natural in the context of the requirement of some classical theory of non-equilibrium thermodynamics that the threshold of turbulence not be crossed. Paltridge himself nowadays tends to prefer to think in terms of the dissipation function rather than in terms of rate of entropy production.
It should be expected that an isolated system fragmented into subsystems does not necessarily come to thermodynamic equilibrium and remain in non-equilibrium steady state. Entropy will be transmitted from one subsystem to another, but its production will be zero, which does not contradict the second law of thermodynamics.
There are two kinds of defects: Equilibrium defects, and Non- Equilibrium defects. Self-assembled structures contain defects. Dislocations caused during the assembling of nanomaterials can majorly affect the final structure and in general defects are never completely avoidable. Current research on defects is focused on controlling defect density.
It follows that the maximum entropy approach will not be applicable to non- equilibrium systems until there is found a clear physical definition of entropy. This problem is related to the fact that heat may be transferred from a hotter to a colder physical system even when local thermodynamic equilibrium does not hold so that neither system has a well defined temperature. Classical entropy is defined for a system in its own internal state of thermodynamic equilibrium, which is defined by state variables, with no non-zero fluxes, so that flux variables do not appear as state variables. But for a strongly non- equilibrium system, during a process, the state variables must include non- zero flux variables.
In general, many modern Marxists nowadays think that Marx's idea of "transformation" was badly misinterpreted.Alan Freeman and Guglielmo Carchedi (eds.), Marx and Non-Equilibrium Economics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1996; Fred Moseley, Money and Totality. A Macro-Monetary Interpretation of Marx’s Logic in Capital and the End of the Transformation Problem.
There is a constant ion exchange between living cells and a fluid. Consequently, there is a difference in electric potentials between the cell interior and a fluid bulk, known as the transmembrane potential.Mitchell, P. Biol.Rev.Cambridge Philos.Soc. 41, 445 (1966) This non-equilibrium potential affects the structure of the double layer.
In systems in equilibrium, the critical point is reached only by precisely tuning a control parameter. However, in some non- equilibrium systems, the critical point is an attractor of the dynamics in a manner that is robust with respect to system parameters, a phenomenon referred to as self-organized criticality.
The chemistry is driven by ion-molecule reactions, and Klemperer's modelingE. Herbst and W. Klemperer (1973). "The Formation and Depletion of Molecules in Dense Interstellar Clouds", The Astrophysical Journal 185, 505. of those that occur in molecular clouds has led to a remarkably detailed understanding of their rich highly non-equilibrium chemistry.
This is partly, but not entirely, because all flows within and through the system are zero.Münster, A. (1970), p. 52. R. Haase's presentation of thermodynamics does not start with a restriction to thermodynamic equilibrium because he intends to allow for non- equilibrium thermodynamics. He considers an arbitrary system with time invariant properties.
N + N and N + N ? N2 (dissociation and recombination). Because of its simplicity, the Lighthill-Freeman model is a useful pedagogical tool, but is unfortunately too simple for modelling non-equilibrium air. Air is typically assumed to have a mole fraction composition of 0.7812 molecular nitrogen, 0.2095 molecular oxygen and 0.0093 argon.
035002 (2008) have presented a new direction in the theory of non-equilibrium states of two-temperature charged fluids. His paper elucidating the unusual thermal conductivity of clathrates still attracts many citations.The Thermal Conductivity of Ice Polymorphs and the Ice-Clathrates, J. Phys. Chem. 87, 4185 (1983) His contributions to surface science (e.g.
First, synthetic membranes have a lower concentration of proteins compared to biomembranes. Also, it is difficult to model membrane-cytoskeletal interactions which are present in biomembranes. Other pitfalls include lack of natural asymmetry and inability to study the membranes in non-equilibrium conditions. Despite this, fluorescence microscopy is used extensively in the field.
This remelting of the dendrites is called recalescence. Dendrites usually form under non-equilibrium conditions. An application of dendritic growth in directional solidification is gas turbine engine blades which are used at high temperatures and must handle high stresses along the major axes. At high temperatures, grain boundaries are weaker than grains.
DOI: 10.1021/ed068p320 Bromic acid and bromates are powerful oxidizing agents and are common ingredients in Belousov–Zhabotinsky reactions.The Source of the Carbon Monoxide in the Classical Belousov–Zhabotinsky Reaction. J. Phys. Chem. A., 2007, 111 (32), 7805–12 DOI: 10.1021/jp073512+ Belousov-Zhabotinsky reactions are a classic example of non- equilibrium thermodynamics.
Stolper et al. established this temperature calibration using laboratory equilibrated methane and field methane from known formation temperature, and applied this to several gas reservoirs to study natural gas formation and mixing. Wang et al. also reported strong non- equilibrium isotope effect in methane clumped isotopes from lab-cultured methanogens and field samples.
Dhar works on the theory and applications of statistical physics to study non–equilibrium problems. One of his research areas is transport phenomena. Particularly, stochastic processes such as heat transport in classical low dimensional macroscopic systems and quantum transport. He also studies active matter models, particularly through theoretical investigations of active particles.
TSS utilizes high temperature to drive reactions at extreme and non-equilibrium conditions. Additionally, the use of the ultra-high temperature can dramatically increase reaction rates for rapid material production. As a result of these characteristics, TSS is particularly applicable for the discovery of new reactions and materials and enabling rapid manufacturing.
Nobel Prize Nominations Fröhlich, who pursued theoretical research notably in the fields of superconductivity and bioelectrodynamics, proposed a theory of coherent excitations in biological systems known as Fröhlich coherence. A system that attains this coherent state is known as a Fröhlich condensate, similar to room-temperature non-equilibrium Bose–Einstein condensation of quasiparticles.
This formalism became known as Classical Irreversible Thermodynamics and Prigogine was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977 "for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures". The analysis by Prigogine showed that if a system were left to evolve under an imposed external potential, material could spontaneously organize (lower its entropy) forming what he called "dissipative structures" which would increase the dissipation of the externally imposed potential (augment the global entropy production). Non-equilibrium thermodynamics has since been successfully applied to the analysis of living systems, from the biochemical production of ATP to optimizing bacterial metabolic pathwaysUnrean, P., Srienc, F. (2011) Metabolic networks evolve towards states of maximum entropy production, Metabolic Engineering 13, 666–673. to complete ecosystems.
The heat transport equation considers conduction as well as advection with flowing water. The solute transport equations assume advective-dispersive transport in the liquid phase, and diffusion in the gaseous phase. The transport equations further include provisions for nonlinear and/or non-equilibrium reactions between the solid and liquid phases, linear equilibrium reactions between the liquid and gaseous phases, zero-order production, and two first-order degradation reactions: one which is independent of other solutes, and one which provides the coupling between solutes involved in sequential first order decay reactions. In addition, physical non-equilibrium solute transport can be accounted for by assuming a two-region, dual-porosity type formulation which partitions the liquid phase into mobile and immobile regions.
Some have also posited that Chinese statistics over grassland degradation are politicized and need reinterpretation in the light of larger ethnic, geo-political and strategic interests. In this regard, non-equilibrium range ecology posits that under conditions of high precipitation variability, the human factor becomes secondary to abiotic factors in influencing desertification and grassland degradation.
This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics is valid only for systems which are near or in equilibrium state. For non-equilibrium systems, the laws governing system's behavior are still debatable. One of the guiding principles for these systems is the principle of maximum entropy production.
This behavior was fully reversible and excluded non- equilibrium effects. Tubandt and Lorenz described other materials with a similar behavior, such as α-CuI, α-CuBr, β-CuBr, and high-temperature phases of Ag2S, Ag2Se and Ag2Te. They associated the conductivity with cations in silver and cuprous halides and with ions and electrons in silver chalcogenides.
As a small sample, it can be shown that the whole field of thermodynamics (both equilibrium and non-equilibrium) can be derived from the MFI approach. Here FIM is specialized to the particular but important case of translation families, i.e., distribution functions whose form does not change under translational transformations. In this case, Fisher measure becomes shift- invariant.
Hartmut Haug. During 1981–83, he was a postdoctoral fellow and visiting scientist at the IBM Research, San Jose/California and received habilitation in 1983 about the dynamics of equilibrium and non-equilibrium first-order phase transitions,Koch, S. W. (1983). Zur Dynamik von Gleichgewichts- und Nichtgleichgewichtsphasenübergängen erster Ordnung (Habilitation Thesis). Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main (Germany).
Jenkins's review of the physics of self-oscillators was published by Physics Reports in 2013. Jenkins has also collaborated with mathematical physicist Robert Alicki and theoretical chemist David Gelbwaser- Klimovsky on applying related ideas in order to arrive at a better understanding of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, with a particular application to the microscopic physics of solar cells.
The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods. Laws governing systems which are far from equilibrium are also debatable. One of the guiding principles for these systems is the maximum entropy production principle.
Karin Andrea Sabine Dahmen (born 1969) is a German condensed matter physicist whose research interests include non-equilibrium thermodynamics, critical phenomena, crackling noise, pattern formation, and quenched disorder, with wide applications of these topics to phenomena such as earthquakes, avalanches, variable stars, and population dynamics. She is a professor of physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.
Extended irreversible thermodynamics is a branch of non- equilibrium thermodynamics that goes outside the restriction to the local equilibrium hypothesis. The space of state variables is enlarged by including the fluxes of mass, momentum and energy and eventually higher order fluxes. The formalism is well-suited for describing high-frequency processes and small-length scales materials.
These quantities are defined in the article on Onsager reciprocal relations. Establishing the relation between such forces and flux densities is a problem in statistical mechanics. Flux densities (J_i) may be coupled. The article on Onsager reciprocal relations considers the stable near-steady thermodynamically non-equilibrium regime, which has dynamics linear in the forces and flux densities.
In 1878, Helmholtz, like Thomson also citing Carnot and Clausius, wrote about electric current in an electrolyte solution with a concentration gradient. This shows a non-equilibrium coupling, between electric effects and concentration-driven diffusion. Like Thomson (Kelvin) as noted above, Helmholtz also found a reciprocal relation, and this was another of the ideas noted by Onsager.
The physics of the earth's atmosphere includes dramatic events like lightning and the effects of volcanic eruptions, with discontinuities of motion such as noted by Helmholtz (1868). Turbulence is prominent in atmospheric convection. Other discontinuities include the formation of raindrops, hailstones, and snowflakes. The usual theory of classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics will need some extension to cover atmospheric physics.
BioSystems 90: 340–349Igamberdiev, A.U. (2014) Time rescaling and pattern formation in biological evolution. BioSystems 123: 19–26Igamberdiev, A.U. (2018) Hyper-restorative non- equilibrium state as a driving force of biological morphogenesis. BioSystems 173: 104–113 natural philosophy,Igamberdiev, A.U. (2018) Time and life in the relational universe: prolegomena to an integral paradigm of natural philosophy.
For the next four years, he served as a Visiting Distinguished Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Rice University. During his active scholarly career, Bowen's research was in the broad field of nonlinear continuum mechanics. His specialty was the non-equilibrium thermodynamics associated with the theory of mixtures. In addition, he authored or co-authored three textbooks on applied mathematics.
Extended irreversible thermodynamics is a branch of non-equilibrium thermodynamics that goes beyond the local equilibrium hypothesis of classical irreversible thermodynamics. The space of state variables is enlarged by including the fluxes of mass, momentum and energy and eventually higher order fluxes. The formalism is well-suited for describing high-frequency processes and small-length scales materials.
The applicability of a second law of thermodynamics is limited to systems near or in equilibrium state. At the same time, laws that govern systems far from equilibrium are still debatable. One of the guiding principles for such systems is the maximum entropy production principle. It claims that non-equilibrium systems evolve such as to maximize its entropy production.
Magnon behavior can be studied with a variety of scattering techniques. Magnons behave as a Bose gas with no chemical potential. Microwave pumping can be used to excite spin waves and create additional non-equilibrium magnons which thermalize into phonons. At a critical density, a condensate is formed, which appears as the emission of monochromatic microwaves.
Müller, I. (1985).Müller, I. (2003). but strictly speaking it is still an approximation, not theoretically ideal. For non- equilibrium situations in general, it may be useful to consider statistical mechanical definitions of other quantities that may be conveniently called 'entropy', but they should not be confused or conflated with thermodynamic entropy properly defined for the second law.
Some common generalisations of this theory can be applied to the Maritime Casimir Effect and through the motion of active Brownian particles within a closed system. Examples of active non-equilibrium systems can be demonstrated through many chemical, physical and biological processes; which range from turbulence, mechanical driving, chemical bonding, chemical gradients and cosmic background radiation.
Mechanical alloying (MA) is a solid-state and powder processing technique involving repeated cold welding, fracturing, and re-welding of blended powder particles in a high-energy ball mill to produce a homogeneous material. Originally developed to produce oxide-dispersion strengthened (ODS) nickel- and iron-base superalloys for applications in the aerospace industry,H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia, Practical ODS Alloys, Materials Science and Engineering A, 223 (1997)64-77 MA has now been shown to be capable of synthesizing a variety of equilibrium and non-equilibrium alloy phases starting from blended elemental or pre-alloyed powders.Suryanarayana C. Mechanical alloying and milling, Progress in Materials Science 46 (2001) 1-184 The non-equilibrium phases synthesized include supersaturated solid solutions, metastable crystalline and quasicrystalline phases, nanostructures, and amorphous alloys.
In 1993, Muntz was elected a member of US National Academy of Engineering with the citation "For technical and academic leadership in rarified-gas dynamics and non- equilibrium flow phenomena". In late 1990s and early 2000s, Muntz introduced and developed the concept of Knudsen compressor, a multi-stage vacuum pump with no moving parts or fluids. He died on August 1, 2017.
Spinor condensates are degenerate Bose gases that have degrees of freedom arising from the internal spin of the constituent particles . They are described by a multi-component (spinor) order parameter. Since their initial experimental realisation, a wealth of studies have appeared, both experimental and theoretical, focusing on the physical properties of spinor condensates, including their ground states, non-equilibrium dynamics, and vortices.
The relaxation of a large number of hot carriers leads to a high generation rate of optical phonons which exceeds the decay rate into acoustic phonons. This creates a non-equilibrium "over-population" of optical phonons and thus causes their increased reabsorption by the charge-carriers significantly suppressing any cooling. Thus, a system cools slower, the higher the carrier density is.
Since 1985 he has focused on current flow in nanoscale electronic devices and is well known for his contributions to spin electronics and molecular electronics. Datta’s most important contribution was the approach he pioneered for the description of quantum transport far from equilibrium, combining the non-equilibrium Green's function (NEGF) formalism of many-body physics with the Landauer formalism from Mesoscopic physics.
DBD for medical applicationsKuchenbecker M, Bibinov N, Kaemlimg A, Wandke D, Awakowicz P, Viöl W, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 42 (2009) 045212 (10pp) such as for the inactivation of bacteria,Laroussi, M., Richardson, J. P., and Dobbs, F. C. “ Effects of Non- Equilibrium Atmospheric Pressure Plasmas on the Heterotrophic Pathways of Bacteria and on their Cell Morphology”, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, pp.
Zwanzig, R. W. J. Chem. Phys. 1954, 22, 1420-1426. In the early 1960s he wrote some now classic works on the non-equilibrium thermodynamics and statistical mechanics of irreversible processes. He developed the projection operator formalism, which made it possible to derive irreversible transport equations (such as the Boltzmann equation and other master equations) from reversible microscopic quantum mechanical dynamic equations.
According to Glansdorff and Prigogine (1971, page 16), irreversible processes usually are not governed by global extremal principles because description of their evolution requires differential equations which are not self-adjoint, but local extremal principles can be used for local solutions. Lebon Jou and Casas-Vásquez (2008)Lebon, G., Jou, J., Casas-Vásquez (2008). Understanding Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics. Foundations, Applications, Frontiers, Springer, Berlin, .
As the name suggests, this process is a not a true equilibrium since the system is still evolving. Non-equilibrium fluid systems can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics. In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale. Chemical diffusion increases the entropy of a system, i.e.
There is no clear unique general physical definition of entropy for non-equilibrium systems, which are general physical systems considered during a process rather than thermodynamic systems in their own internal states of thermodynamic equilibrium.Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (2003). The entropy of classical thermodynamics, Chapter 8 of Greven, A., Keller, G., Warnecke (editors) (2003). Entropy, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, , page 190.
For his results in classical and quantum transport in low dimensional systems and contributions to non-equilibrium fluctuation theorems, he was awarded the ICTP prize in 2008 and Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar award for Physical Sciences in 2009. He became a fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences in 2012. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2018.
Equilibrium thermodynamic processes may involve fluxes but these must have ceased by the time a thermodynamic process or operation is complete bringing a system to its eventual thermodynamic state. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics allows its state variables to include non-zero fluxes, that describe transfers of mass or energy or entropy between a system and its surroundings.Eu, B.C. (2002). Generalized Thermodynamics.
Marx's analysis of value was dialectical, in the sense that he thought value phenomena could only be understood dynamically, holistically and relationally, but he did not spell out all the conceptual, quantitative and logical implications of his position with great exactitude. The scholarly debate about those implications continues even today.See e.g. Alan Freeman & Guglielmo Carchedi, Marx and non-equilibrium economics.
The entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. However, principles guiding systems that are far from equilibrium are still debatable. One of such principles is the maximum entropy production principle. It states that non-equilibrium systems behave such a way as to maximize its entropy production.
Changes in an amorphous polymer may involve other sub-Tg thermal transitions associated with short molecular segments, side-chains and branches. The linearity of the sf-TM curve will be changed by such transitions. Other relaxations may be due to release of internal stress arising from the non-equilibrium state of the glassy amorphous polymer. Such stress is referred to as thermal aging.
In 1971, he was elected Associate Professor in Non-Ferrous Metallurgy from the High Chemical Technological Institute in Sofia. In 1971 he obtained his Ph.D. from the High Chemical Technological Institute in Burgas. In 1989, Dr. Mehandjiev took his second Associate Professor degree in Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics of Accumulation Processes from the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
The research activity extended over areas of theoretical physics. Those areas were condensed matter theory, field theory, nuclear theory, particle theory, statistical mechanics, and nuclear and relativistic astrophysics. In 1980 it added two more academic positions for new research areas: non-equilibrium statistical physics and non-linear physics. During this period, one visiting professor position was created to invite distinguished foreign physicists.
When analyzing data from the play of actual games, particularly from laboratory experiments, particularly from experiments with the matching pennies game, Nash equilibrium can be unforgiving. Any non-equilibrium move can appear equally "wrong", but realistically should not be used to reject a theory. QRE allows every strategy to be played with non-zero probability, and so any data is possible (though not necessarily reasonable).
The free energy principle is a formal statement that explains how living and non-living systems remain in non-equilibrium steady-states by restricting themselves to a limited number of states.Ashby, W. R. (1962). Principles of the self-organizing system.in Principles of Self-Organization: Transactions of the University of Illinois Symposium, H. Von Foerster and G. W. Zopf, Jr. (eds.), Pergamon Press: London, UK, pp. 255–278.
TPS/TIS as normally implemented can be acceptable for non-equilibrium calculations provided that the interfacial fluxes are time-independent (stationary). To treat non-stationary systems in which there is time dependence in the dynamics, due either to variation of an external parameter or to evolution of the system itself, then other rare event methods may be needed, such as Stochastic Process Rare Event Sampling.
For classical non-equilibrium studies, we will consider some new locally defined intensive macroscopic variables. We can, under suitable conditions, derive these new variables by locally defining the gradients and flux densities of the basic locally defined macroscopic quantities. Such locally defined gradients of intensive macroscopic variables are called 'thermodynamic forces'. They 'drive' flux densities, perhaps misleadingly often called 'fluxes', which are dual to the forces.
Much of the theory of classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics is concerned with the spatially continuous motion of fluids, but fluids can also move with spatial discontinuities. Helmholtz (1868)Helmholtz, H. (1868). On discontinuous movements of fluids, Philosophical Magazine series 4, vol. 36: 337-346, translated by F. Guthrie from Monatsbericht der koeniglich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin April 1868, page 215 et seq.
In 1968, Ash graduated from Tulane University in New Orleans with a PhD in Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, and in 1963, he graduated from Kansas State University with a Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering. Ash's father-in-law was Lewis Webb Jr., who served as the first president of Old Dominion University. His research interests include vortical flows, non-equilibrium phenomena, space systems, and Mars resources.
The subject draws more recently on evolutionary game theoryDaniel Friedman (1998). "On Economic Applications of Evolutionary Game Theory," Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 8(1), pp. 15-43. and on the evolutionary methodology of Charles Darwin and the non-equilibrium economics principle of circular and cumulative causation. It is naturalistic in purging earlier notions of economic change as teleological or necessarily improving the human condition.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of physics that studies the dynamics of statistical ensembles of molecules via unstable states. Being "stuck" in a thermodynamic trough without being at the lowest energy state is known as having kinetic stability or being kinetically persistent. The particular motion or kinetics of the atoms involved has resulted in getting stuck, despite there being preferable (lower-energy) alternatives.
Ultrafast Electron Diffraction (UED) is a pump-probe experimental method based on the combination of optical pump-probe spectroscopy and electron diffraction. UED provides information on the dynamical changes of the structure of materials. In the UED technique, a femtosecond (fs) laser optical pulse excites (pumps) a sample into an excited, usually non-equilibrium, state. The pump pulse may induce chemical, electronic or structural transitions.
In 1972, the Institute of Semiconductors was merged with into Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute. In 1974, Aronov moved to the Konstantinov Leningrad Nuclear Physics Institute, located in Gatchina. In 1977, he received there his Doktor nauk degree for the thesis "Behavior of superconductors and polarized conductors under non-equilibrium conditions". In December, 1990 Aronov was elected to be a Corresponding Member of Russian Academy of Sciences.
At the molecular level, gas dynamics is a study of the kinetic theory of gases, often leading to the study of gas diffusion, statistical mechanics, chemical thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Gas dynamics is synonymous with aerodynamics when the gas field is air and the subject of study is flight. It is highly relevant in the design of aircraft and spacecraft and their respective propulsion systems.
This will result in an electrical double layer of positive and negative charges at the junction of the two solutions. Thus at the point of junction, a potential difference will develop because of the ionic transfer. This potential is called liquid junction potential or diffusion potential which is non-equilibrium potential. The magnitude of the potential depends on the relative speeds of the ions' movement.
His first research in Arzamas-16 was devoted to various applications of plasma theory, including analysis of stationary regimes for nuclear reactors (jointly with V. N. Klimov) and analysis of temperature jumps of plasma in magnetic field. After that he started to work in collaboration with Nikolay Bogoliubov on various problems in theoretical physics and obtained several fundamental results, including development of an asymptotic method for systems with rapidly rotating phases, development of the method of collective variables which is now widely used in theoretical physics, and development of the microscopic theory of superfluidity. He made a significant contribution to the theory of double-time temperature Green's functions in statistical mechanics, where his work became world-famous. In the period 1961—1965, he developed a method of non-equilibrium statistical operator (NSO), which is now a classical tool in the statistical theory of non-equilibrium processes.
In textbooks on elementary kinetic theory one can find results for dilute gas modeling that has widespread use. Derivation of the kinetic model for shear viscosity usually starts by considering a Couette flow where two parallel plates are separated by a gas layer. This non-equilibrium flow is superimposed on a Maxwell–Boltzmann equilibrium distribution of molecular motions. Let \sigma be the collision cross section of one molecule colliding with another.
A discrete time crystal never reaches thermal equilibrium, as it is a type of non-equilibrium matter, a form of matter proposed in 2012, and first observed in 2017. The idea of a quantized time crystal was first described by Nobel laureate Frank Wilczek in 2012. In 2014 Krzysztof Sacha predicted the behavior of discrete time crystals in a periodically-driven many-body systemSee . and in 2016, Norman Yao et al.
A disequilibrium occurs due to a non-equilibrium price giving a lack of balance between supply and demand. Excess supply is one of the two types of disequilibrium in a perfectly competitive market, excess demand being the other. When quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded, the equilibrium level does not obtain and instead the market is in disequilibrium. An excess supply prevents the economy from operating efficiently.
Carolyne Marina Van Vliet, born Karel Marinus van Vliet, (1929 – 2016) was a Dutch-American physicist notable for the theory of generation-recombination noise and for the theory of quantum transport in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, as well as for her many contributions to the foundations of Linear Response Theory. She was a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) and of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Gyarmati (1967/1970)Gyarmati, I. (1970). Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics: Field Theory and Variational Principles, Springer, Berlin; translated, by E. Gyarmati and W.F. Heinz, from the original 1967 Hungarian Nemegyensulyi Termodinamika, Muszaki Konyvkiado, Budapest. gives a systematic presentation, and extends Onsager's principle of least dissipation of energy, to give a more symmetric form known as Gyarmati's principle. Gyarmati (1967/1970) cites 11 papers or books authored or co-authored by Prigogine.
In 1945 Prigogine (see also Prigogine (1947)Prigogine, I. (1947). Étude thermodynamique des Phenomènes Irreversibles, Desoer, Liege.) proposed a “Theorem of Minimum Entropy Production” which applies only to the purely diffusive linear regime, with negligible inertial terms, near a stationary thermodynamically non-equilibrium state. Prigogine's proposal is that the rate of entropy production is locally minimum at every point. The proof offered by Prigogine is open to serious criticism.
The essential of crystal formation is letting the sample solution to reach the supersaturated state. Supersaturation is defined by McPherson et al. 2014 as “a non-equilibrium condition in which some quantity of the macromolecule in excess of the solubility limit, under specific chemical and physical conditions, is nonetheless present in solution.” The formation of solids in solution, such as aggregation and crystals, favors the re-establishment of equilibrium.
Leticia Cugliandolo Leticia Fernanda Cugliandolo (born 1965) is an Argentine condensed matter physicist known for her research on non-equilibrium thermodynamics, spin glass, and glassy systems. She works in France as a professor of physics at the Sorbonne University. The Cugliandolo–Kurchan equations, two integro-differential equations describing the behavior of spin glass, are named for her and her coauthor , another Argentine physicist, after their studies of these equations.
In 2008, she became the Goodwin Professor of Engineering and Applied Science, and in 2012, she was awarded the position of Deputy Dean for Research in the School of Engineering and Applied Science, both positions she still holds today. Stebe's research is mainly focused on directed assembly in soft matter. Another primary research interests is non-equilibrium interfaces, with applications ranging from microfluidics to nanotechnology from an engineering viewpoint.
Several KCE methods were described: non-equilibrium capillary electrophoresis of the equilibrium mixtures (NECEEM), sweeping capillary electrophoresis (SweepCE), plug-plug KCE (ppKCE). More detailed description and several applications of KCE methods (measuring equilibrium and rate constants of molecular interactions, quantitative affinity analysis of proteins, thermochemistry of protein–ligand interactions, selection of aptamers, determination of temperature inside a capillary) can be found in a PDF presentation: KCE ia a conceptual platform for kinetic homogeneous affinity methods.
She has discussed the limit on the size of electronics and impact of novel nanomaterials for the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign YouTube channel. In 2006 she demonstrated the non-equilibrium Kondo effect and in 2011 observed individual superconducting bound states in graphene-based systems. In 2014 Mason was appointed a John Bardeen Faculty Scholar in Physics at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. In 2016 she was appointed to full Professor.
Computer simulation of the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, which has non- equilibrium thermodynamics Spatialtemporal patterns are patterns that occur in a wide range of natural phenoma and are characterized by a spatial and a temporal patterning. The general rules of pattern formation hold. In contrast to "static", pure spatial patterns, the full complexity of spatiotemporal patterns can only be recognized over time. Any kind of traveling wave is a good example of a spatiotemporal pattern.
In early 70s KBKhA began development of continuous high power, gas-dynamic of CO2-lasers (GDL), operating on the transformation of the heat energy of active gaseous medium, obtained with non-equilibrium expansion in supersonic nozzle grid, into electromagnetic radiation. The family of GDL samples was created with radiation energy from 10 to 600 kW and space on-board GDL RD0600 working on gaseous propellant (the leading designers — V.P. Koshelnikov, G.I. Zavision, V.Y. Guterman).
Dorion Sagan (born 1959) is an American author, essayist, fiction writer, and theorist from Madison, Wisconsin. He has written and co-authored books on culture, evolution, and the history and philosophy of science, including Cosmic Apprentice, Cracking the Aging Code, and Lynn Margulis: The Life and Legacy of a Scientific Rebel. His book Into the Cool, co-authored with Eric D. Schneider, is about the relationship between non-equilibrium thermodynamics and life.
He contributed to neutron scattering techniques, especially inelastic scattering to investigate the dynamics of materials. Nagler also worked with high resolution and time resolved x-ray scattering methods, using both in-house and synchrotron based x-ray sources. Nagler contributed to the study of excitation (magnetic) and critical behavior (quantum) in materials science, as well as the study of non- equilibrium thermodynamics systems, quantum fluctuations, spin gap systems, and excitations in condensed matter.
While the temperature is below the threshold, the grass will not take fire. Upon reaching the threshold temperature (autoignition temperature) the combustion process begins, with the release of heat sufficient to ignite the nearest areas. The result is that the combustion front has been shaped, which spreads through the field. It can be said in such cases that autowave arose, which is one of the results of self- organization in non-equilibrium thermodynamic systems.
Particle collisions and photons with wavelengths in the range from visible to X-ray can promote the electrons to electronically excited states. Such events create a non-equilibrium between nuclei and electrons, which leads to an ultrafast response (picosecond scale) of the molecular system. During the ultrafast evolution, the nuclei may reach geometric configurations where the electronic states mix, allowing the system to transfer to another state spontaneously. These state transfers are nonadiabatic phenomena.
If free energies are very useful in equilibrium thermodynamics, it must be stressed that there is no general law defining stationary non-equilibrium properties of the energy as is the second law of thermodynamics for the entropy in equilibrium thermodynamics. That is why in such cases a more generalized Legendre transformation should be considered. This is the extended Massieu potential. By definition, the entropy (S) is a function of the collection of extensive quantities E_i.
Apparent 'fluctuations', which appear to arise when initial conditions are inexactly specified, are the drivers of the formation of non-equilibrium dynamical structures. There is no special force of nature involved in the generation of such fluctuations. Exact specification of initial conditions would require statements of the positions and velocities of all particles in the system, obviously not a remotely practical possibility for a macroscopic system. This is the nature of thermodynamic fluctuations.
Igamberdiev has published over 250 peer-reviewed journal publications and several edited books. He currently is editor-in-chief of the Elsevier journal BioSystems and a subject editor of the Journal of Plant Physiology. Abir Igamberdiev's research focuses on the organization of metabolism,Igamberdiev, A.U. (2015) Control of Rubisco function via homeostatic equilibration of CO2 supply. Front. Plant Sci. 6: 106 Igamberdiev, A.U., Kleczkowski, L.A. (2009) Metabolic systems maintain stable non-equilibrium via thermodynamic buffering.
X-ray Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (XPCS) is a novel technique that exploits a coherent X-ray synchrotron beam to measure the dynamics of a sample. By recording how coherent speckle fluctuations in time, one can measure a time correlation function, and thus measure the timescale processes of interest (diffusion, relaxation, reorganization, etc.). XPCS is used to study the slow dynamics of various equilibrium and non-equilibrium processes occurring in condensed matter systems.
Relaxation times were shown to be very fast: on the order of mean free time . In 1996 a computational approach was taken to the classical mechanics non-equilibrium problem of heat flow within a two-dimensional gas.D. Risso and P. Cordero, Two-Dimensional Gas of Disks: Thermal Conductivity, Journal of Statistical Physics, volume 82, pages 1453–1466, (1996) This simulation work showed that for N>1500, good agreement with continuous systems is obtained.
Illustration of low entropy (top) and high entropy (bottom) Because chemical diffusion is a net transport process, the system in which it takes place is not an equilibrium system (i.e. it is not at rest yet). Many results in classical thermodynamics are not easily applied to non- equilibrium systems. However, there sometimes occur so-called quasi-steady states, where the diffusion process does not change in time, where classical results may locally apply.
In theoretical physics, statistical field theory (SFT) is a theoretical framework that describes phase transitions. It does not denote a single theory but encompasses many models, including for magnetism, superconductivity, superfluidity, topological phase transition, wetting as well as non- equilibrium phase transitions. A SFT is any model in statistical mechanics where the degrees of freedom comprise a field or fields. In other words, the microstates of the system are expressed through field configurations.
Prezhdo's group focuses on theory and modeling of non-equilibrium phenomena in condensed phase systems. The research efforts comprise a coherent and unique combination of formal work and large-scale computer simulations, aiming to provide quantitative and qualitative explanations of experimental observations and puzzles and to suggest new experiments. Fundamental studies span several related areas of quantum, semiclassical and statistical mechanics. Prezhdo explored Lie algebraic structures to couple quantum and classical mechanics.
Piezoelectric direct discharge (PDD) plasma is a type of cold non-equilibrium plasma, generated by a direct gas discharge of a high voltage piezoelectric transformer. It can be ignited in air or other gases in a wide range of pressures, including atmospheric. Due to the compactness and the efficiency of the piezoelectric transformer, this method of plasma generation is particularly compact, efficient and cheap. It enables a wide spectrum of industrial, medical and consumer applications.
The polywell biggest flaw is its ability to hold a plasma negative for any significant amount of time. In practice, any significant amount of negative charge vanishes quickly. Additionally, analysis by Todd Rider in 1995 suggests that any system that has non-equilibrium plasmas will suffer from rapid losses of energy due to bremsstrahlung. Bremsstrahlung occurs when a charged particle is rapidly accelerated, causing it to radiate x-rays, and thereby lose energy.
Tungsten exists in two major crystalline forms: α and β. The former has a body-centered cubic structure and is the more stable form. The structure of the β phase is called A15 cubic; it is metastable, but can coexist with the α phase at ambient conditions owing to non-equilibrium synthesis or stabilization by impurities. Contrary to the α phase which crystallizes in isometric grains, the β form exhibits a columnar habit.
People regularly use the terms "self- organization" and "self-assembly" interchangeably. As complex system science becomes more popular though, there is a higher need to clearly distinguish the differences between the two mechanisms to understand their significance in physical and biological systems. Both processes explain how collective order develops from "dynamic small-scale interactions". Self-organization is a non- equilibrium process where self-assembly is a spontaneous process that leads toward equilibrium.
Prior to the advent of DNMR, kinetics of reactions were measured on non-equilibrium mixtures, monitoring the approach to equilibrium. Many molecular processes exhibit fluxionality that can be probed on the NMR time scale. Beyond the examples highlighted below, other classic examples include the Cope rearrangement in bullvalene and the chair inversion in cyclohexane. For processes that are too slow for traditional DNMR analysis, the technique spin saturation transfer (SST) is applicable.
Allen joined AMOLF as a Marie Curie Fellow, working on models of switching events between metastable states, which are rare. She was part of the group who developed Forward Flux Sampling, which simulates rare equilibrium and non-equilibrium systems and allows the calculation of rate constants. She joined the University of Edinburgh as a Royal Society of Edinburgh (RSE) Research Fellow in 2006. Allen is interested in organisms such as bacteria grow in complicated environments.
Four years later, he received a Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley. After serving on the chemistry faculty at Georgia Tech for 20 years, Hernandez moved to Johns Hopkins University in 2016. He has special interests in the dynamics of chemical reactions, transition state theory and non-equilibrium stochastic dynamics. Hernandez describes his area of study as "the interplay between molecular motions — such as reactions or rearrangements — and changes in their environments".
Murdoch's work in biological control has been instrumental in demonstrating that stability of parasitoid-host interactions in pest control can be achieved by non-equilibrium mechanisms. For example, his examination of the parasitoid- host relationship between Aphytis and the California red scale has elucidated that stability does not arise from metapopulation dynamics and that the regulating mechanism may, instead, lie in size-related interactions, in small- scale spatial heterogeneity, or mixtures of these mechanisms.
Virtual NanoLab contains a 3D visualization tool, the Nanoscope, where atomic geometries and computed results can be viewed and analyzed. One can for example plot Bloch functions of nanotubes and crystals, molecular orbitals, electron densities, and effective potentials. The numerical engine that carries out the actual simulations is Atomistix ToolKit, which combines density functional theory and non-equilibrium Green's functions to ab initio electronic-structure and transport calculations. Atomistix ToolKit is developed from the academic codes TranSIESTA and McDCal.
Synergetics is an interdisciplinary science explaining the formation and self- organization of patterns and structures in open systems far from thermodynamic equilibrium. It is founded by Hermann Haken, inspired by the laser theory. Haken's interpretation of the laser principles as self-organization of non- equilibrium systems paved the way at the end of the 1960s to the development of synergetics. One of his successful popular books is Erfolgsgeheimnisse der Natur, translated into English as The Science of Structure: Synergetics.
The FT is one of the few expressions in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics that is valid far from equilibrium. The FT was first proposed and tested using computer simulations, by Denis Evans, E.G.D. Cohen and Gary Morriss in 1993 in the journal Physical Review Letters. The first derivation was given by Evans and Debra Searles in 1994. Since then, much mathematical and computational work has been done to show that the FT applies to a variety of statistical ensembles.
This hyperfine splitting is the main source of the sensitivity of ESR to the chemical environment of the electron, and hence it underlies the broad applications of ESR in chemistry. Much of his work concerned the way this interaction term behaves as molecules tumble around in solution or undergo chemical reactions. He also investigated the special non-equilibrium ESR effects which are found as reactions take place. Weissman was a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences.
Streamers are used in applications such as ozone generation, air purification and plasma-assisted combustion. An important property is that the plasma they generate is strongly non-equilibrium: the electrons have much higher energies than the ions. Therefore, chemical reactions can be triggered in a gas without heating it. This is important for plasma medicine, where "plasma bullets", or guided streamersLu, X., Naidis, G., Laroussi, M., and Ostrikov, K. (2014) Guided Ionization Waves: Theory and Experiments.
Equilibrium system states are much easier to describe in a deterministic manner than non- equilibrium states. For a process to be reversible, each step in the process must be reversible. For a step in a process to be reversible, the system must be in equilibrium throughout the step. That ideal cannot be accomplished in practice because no step can be taken without perturbing the system from equilibrium, but the ideal can be approached by making changes slowly.
Mechanistic SDMs incorporate causal mechanisms and are better for extrapolation and non- equilibrium situations. However, they are more labor-intensive to create than correlational models and require the collection and validation of a lot of physiological data, which may not be readily available. The models require many assumptions and parameter estimates, and they can become very complicated. Dispersal, biotic interactions, and evolutionary processes present challenges, as they aren’t usually incorporated into either correlative or mechanistic models.
Coring happens when a heated alloy, such as a Cu-Ni system, cools in non- equilibrium conditions. The center of each grain, which is the first part to freeze, is rich in the high-melting element (e.g., nickel for this Cu–Ni system), whereas the concentration of the low-melting element increases with position from this region to the grain boundary. This is termed a 'cored structure', which gives rise to less than the optimal properties.
Helium-3 nuclei have an intrinsic nuclear spin of , and a relatively high magnetogyric ratio. Helium-3 can be hyperpolarized using non-equilibrium means such as spin-exchange optical pumping. During this process, circularly polarized infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an alkali metal, such as caesium or rubidium inside a sealed glass vessel. The angular momentum is transferred from the alkali metal electrons to the noble gas nuclei through collisions.
While many flows (e.g. flow of water through a pipe) occur at low Mach numbers, many flows of practical interest in aerodynamics or in turbomachines occur at high fractions of M=1 (transonic flows) or in excess of it (supersonic or even hypersonic flows). New phenomena occur at these regimes such as instabilities in transonic flow, shock waves for supersonic flow, or non-equilibrium chemical behaviour due to ionization in hypersonic flows. In practice, each of those flow regimes is treated separately.
Internationally revered as a father- figure of social policy, he contributed to social democratic thinking throughout the world, in collaboration with friends and colleagues in the political and academic arenas. Sweden and Britain were among the pioneers of a welfare state and books by Myrdal (Beyond the Welfare State – New Haven, 1958) and Richard Titmuss (Essays on “The Welfare State” – London, 1958) unsurprisingly explore similar themes. Myrdal's theoretical key concept "circular cumulative causation" contributed to the development of modern Non- equilibrium economics.
Overview of the Mars Sample Return Earth Entry Vehicle, NASA, accessed 29 December 2018. Modeling high-speed Mars atmospheric entry—which involves a carbon dioxide, nitrogen and argon atmosphere—is even more complex requiring a 19-species model. An important aspect of modelling non-equilibrium real gas effects is radiative heat flux. If a vehicle is entering an atmosphere at very high speed (hyperbolic trajectory, lunar return) and has a large nose radius then radiative heat flux can dominate TPS heating.
She was a stellar researcher and teacher who specialized in the areas of non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, fluctuations and stochastic processes, quantum transport in condensed matter and electron behavior in nanoscale quantum devices during her career. These topics are relevant today in exploring the development of quantum computing and its applications. She published over 200 scientific publications and several books included a graduate textbook, "Equilibrium and Non-Equilibruim Statistical Mechanics". She also supervised and graduated over 28 PhD students from 1958 to 2000.
During the years 1993–1999, Speziale taught turbulence and engineering courses in the College of Engineering at Boston University. He had taught graduate courses in turbulence and focused his research on turbulence modeling. His latest work had been published on the turbulence modelling of computing non-equilibrium turbulent flows in complex flows. Speziale had been an APS fellow in 1997, cited "For the rational analysis and modeling of turbulent flows that has enhanced our ability to compute complex flows of scientific importance".
Innovation is assumed to be exogenous; as such, the model is a pre-ITC model (it does not yet include Induced Technological Change). An extension of the model (DICE-PACE) that does include induced technological change, has strongly different outcomes: the optimal path would be to invest strongly early on in mitigation technology. In contrast to non-equilibrium models, investment in low carbon technology is assumed to crowd-out investments in other parts of the economy, leading to a loss of GDP.
Sidney Redner (born 1951) is a Canadian-born physicist, professor, and a resident faculty member at the Santa Fe Institute. He was formerly department chair of physics at Boston University. Redner has published over 200 journal articles, authored a book titled A Guide to First-Passage Processes (2001, ), and coauthored a book titled A Kinetic View of Statistical Physics (2010, ) with Pavel L. Krapivsky and Eli Ben-Naim. His research focuses mainly on non- equilibrium statistical mechanics and network structure.
On the basis of more than fifteen years of research, he analyses this nexus using the example of Guinea- Bissau. He reconstructs the overall socio-political developments, and examines the effects of development aid specifically on agrarian societies. Given the obvious failures of both theory and practice of development cooperation, based on the terminology and inspired by the work of Ilya Prigogines, Schiefer conceived the concept of "dissipative economy". In the seventies the chemist Ilya Prigogine studied the theory of non-equilibrium dynamics.
" Prigogine in his 1977 Nobel LecturePrigogine, I. (1977). Time, Structure and Fluctuations, Nobel Lecture. said: "... non-equilibrium may be a source of order. Irreversible processes may lead to a new type of dynamic states of matter which I have called “dissipative structures”." Glansdorff and Prigogine (1971) wrote on page xx: "Such 'symmetry breaking instabilities' are of special interest as they lead to a spontaneous 'self-organization' of the system both from the point of view of its space order and its function.
1\. The primary condition for a valid profile is a normal, equilibrium distribution. If the market is not in equilibrium there is no valid POC or standard deviation. A simple visual examination will often be enough to certify that the distribution is abnormal: the day may have two distributions (two peaks) or the trading may be directional, etc. Although unfit, non-equilibrium data can still be operated on as usual by a computer program, the results are likely meaningless or misleading.
This is core degradation. Nevins argued mathematically, that the fusion gain (ratio of fusion power produced to the power required to maintain the non-equilibrium ion distribution function) is limited to 0.1 assuming that the device is fueled with a mixture of deuterium and tritium. The core focus problem was also identified in fusors by Tim Thorson at the University of Wisconsin–Madison during his 1996 doctoral work. Charged ions would have some motion before they started accelerating in the center.
Furthermore, once formed, a ball of quark–gluon plasma, like any hot object, transfers heat internally by radiation. However, unlike in everyday objects, there is enough energy available so that gluons (particles mediating the strong force) collide and produce an excess of the heavy (i.e. high-energy) strange quarks. Whereas, if the QGP didn't exist and there was a pure collision, the same energy would be converted into a non-equilibrium mixture containing even heavier quarks such as charm quarks or bottom quarks.
The range of applications of EIT is not limited to situations near equilibrium but encompasses several and various domains including -memory effects (fast processes, polymers, superfluids), -non-local effects (micro- and nano-materials), -non-linear effects (high powers, shock waves). However, the discussion is not closed. Several fundamental questions as the definition of a non-equilibrium entropy and temperature, the status of the Second law of thermodynamics, a univocal choice of state variables receive only partial responses and ask for more definitive answers.
Classical physical definitions of entropy do not cover this case, especially when the fluxes are large enough to destroy local thermodynamic equilibrium. In other words, for entropy for non-equilibrium systems in general, the definition will need at least to involve specification of the process including non-zero fluxes, beyond the classical static thermodynamic state variables. The 'entropy' that is maximized needs to be defined suitably for the problem at hand. If an inappropriate 'entropy' is maximized, a wrong result is likely.
In principle, maximum entropy thermodynamics does not refer narrowly and only to classical thermodynamic entropy. It is about informational entropy applied to physics, explicitly depending on the data used to formulate the problem at hand. According to Attard, for physical problems analyzed by strongly non-equilibrium thermodynamics, several physically distinct kinds of entropy need to be considered, including what he calls second entropy. Attard writes: "Maximizing the second entropy over the microstates in the given initial macrostate gives the most likely target macrostate.".
Boltzmann subsequently generalized his distribution for the case of gases in external fields. Boltzmann is perhaps the most significant contributor to kinetic theory, as he introduced many of the fundamental concepts in the theory. Besides the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution mentioned above, he also associated the kinetic energy of particles with their degrees of freedom. The Boltzmann equation for the distribution function of a gas in non-equilibrium states is still the most effective equation for studying transport phenomena in gases and metals.
However, KMC is widely used to simulate non-equilibrium processes, in which case detailed balance need not be obeyed. The rfKMC algorithm is efficient in the sense that every iteration is guaranteed to produce a transition. However, in the form presented above it requires N operations for each transition, which is not too efficient. In many cases this can be much improved on by binning the same kinds of transitions into bins, and/or forming a tree data structure of the events.
The Kibble–Zurek mechanism (KZM) describes the non-equilibrium dynamics and the formation of topological defects in a system which is driven through a continuous phase transition at finite rate. It is named after Tom W. B. Kibble, who pioneered the study of domain structure formation in the early universe, and Wojciech H. Zurek, who related the number of defects it creates to the critical exponents of the transition and to its rate—to how quickly the critical point is traversed.
It was suggested that "Si and Ge, which also form in the diamond structure, may similarly exhibit superconductivity under the appropriate conditions", and indeed, discoveries of superconductivity in heavily boron doped Si (Si:B) and SiC:B have quickly followed. Similar to diamond, Si:B is type-II superconductor, but it has much smaller values of Tc = 0.4 K and Hc = 0.4 T. Superconductivity in Si:B was achieved by heavy doping (above 8 at.%), realized through a special non-equilibrium technique of gas immersion laser doping.
Guggenheim, E.A. (1949). Statistical basis of thermodynamics, Research: A Journal of Science and its Applications, 2, Butterworths, London, pp. 450–454. In equilibrium thermodynamics, the state of a thermodynamic system is a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, as opposed to a non- equilibrium state. According to the permeabilities of the walls of a system, transfers of energy and matter occur between it and its surroundings, which are assumed to be unchanging over time, until a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is attained.
A three-level laser energy diagram. To achieve non-equilibrium conditions, an indirect method of populating the excited state must be used. To understand how this is done, we may use a slightly more realistic model, that of a three- level laser. Again consider a group of N atoms, this time with each atom able to exist in any of three energy states, levels 1, 2 and 3, with energies E1, E2, and E3, and populations N1, N2, and N3, respectively.
The value of the electrode potential under non-equilibrium depends on the nature and composition of the contacting phases, and on the kinetics of electrode reactions at the interface (see Butler–Volmer equation). An operational assumption for determinations of the electrode potentials with the standard hydrogen electrode involves this reference electrode with hydrogen ion in an ideal solution having is "zero potential at all temperatures" equivalently to standard enthalpy of formation of hydrogen ion is also "zero at all temperatures".
Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates at which systems that are out of equilibrium change under the influence of various forces. When applied to materials science, it deals with how a material changes with time (moves from non-equilibrium to equilibrium state) due to application of a certain field. It details the rate of various processes evolving in materials including shape, size, composition and structure. Diffusion is important in the study of kinetics as this is the most common mechanism by which materials undergo change.
He has written 3 books Berge P., Pomeau Y. and Vidal C., Order within chaos: towards a deterministic approach to turbulence, Wiley-VCH, 1987 translated from the French edition: Ordre dans le chaos, Hermann, Paris 1984. The book was later translated to Russian, Chinese (Mandarin), Portuguese and Japanese. Audoly B. and Pomeau Y., Elasticity and Geometry, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010, x + 586 pages Pomeau Y. and Tran M.-B., Statistical Physics of Non Equilibrium Quantum Phenomena, Springer, 2019, and published around 400 scientific articles.
DNA nanotechnology is sometimes divided into two overlapping subfields: structural DNA nanotechnology and dynamic DNA nanotechnology. Structural DNA nanotechnology, sometimes abbreviated as SDN, focuses on synthesizing and characterizing nucleic acid complexes and materials that assemble into a static, equilibrium end state. On the other hand, dynamic DNA nanotechnology focuses on complexes with useful non- equilibrium behavior such as the ability to reconfigure based on a chemical or physical stimulus. Some complexes, such as nucleic acid nanomechanical devices, combine features of both the structural and dynamic subfields.
In chemistry, dynamic Monte Carlo (DMC) is a Monte Carlo method for modeling the dynamic behaviors of molecules by comparing the rates of individual steps with random numbers. It is essentially the same as Kinetic Monte Carlo. Unlike the Metropolis Monte Carlo method, which has been employed to study systems at equilibrium, the DMC method is used to investigate non-equilibrium systems such as a reaction, diffusion, and so-forth (Meng and Weinberg 1994). This method is mainly applied to analyze adsorbates' behavior on surfaces.
The most commonly used are Schottky diodes or p-n junctions. In the measurement process the steady-state diode reverse polarization voltage is disturbed by a voltage pulse. This voltage pulse reduces the electric field in the space charge region and allows free carriers from the semiconductor bulk to penetrate this region and recharge the defects causing their non- equilibrium charge state. After the pulse, when the voltage returns to its steady-state value, the defects start to emit trapped carriers due to the thermal emission process.
The transfer of energy between an open system and a single contiguous subsystem of its surroundings is considered also in non-equilibrium thermodynamics. The problem of definition arises also in this case. It may be allowed that the wall between the system and the subsystem is not only permeable to matter and to internal energy, but also may be movable so as to allow work to be done when the two systems have different pressures. In this case, the transfer of energy as heat is not defined.
Surajit Sen (born November 28, 1960 in Calcutta (modern name Kolkata) in India) is a physicist who works on theoretical and computational problems in non-equilibrium statistical physics and in nonlinear dynamics of many body systems. He holds a Ph.D in physics from The University of Georgia (1990) where he studied with M. Howard Lee. He is also interested in applying physics to study problems of relevance in a societal context. He is a professor of physics at the State University of New York, Buffalo.
There has been renewed interest in treating economic systems as evolutionary systems in the developing field of Complexity economics. Evolutionary economics does not take the characteristics of either the objects of choice or of the decision-maker as fixed. Rather, its focus is on the non-equilibrium processes that transform the economy from within and their implications. The processes in turn emerge from actions of diverse agents with bounded rationality who may learn from experience and interactions and whose differences contribute to the change.
Levine also conducts research in the field of dynamic games. He established with Drew Fudenberg that a long-lived player playing in opposition to short- lived players can substitute reputation for commitment. He developed with Eric Maskin the first "folk theorem" for games in which players do not directly observe each other's decisions, with applications for learning in games. They argued that while learning theories cannot provide detailed descriptions of non-equilibrium behavior, they act as a useful tool in understanding which equilibria are likely to emerge.
It has been shown that Euler equations are not a complete set of equations, but they require some additional constraints to admit a unique solution: these are the equation of state of the material considered. To be consistent with thermodynamics these equations of state should satisfy the two laws of thermodynamics. On the other hand, by definition non-equilibrium system are described by laws lying outside these laws. In the following we list some very simple equations of state and the corresponding influence on Euler equations.
She was awarded a Royal Society University Research Fellowship in 2009, studying the non-equilibrium interactions of microbes with their environments. She joined the Royal Society of Edinburgh (RSE) Young Academy of Scotland in 2012 and was promoted to Reader in 2013. She has studied how microbes are involved with the sulphur cycle, which releases significant amounts of carbon as microbes consume hydrogen from organic matter. She analyses microbial ecology and nutrient cycles using Winogradsky columns, developing models that predict long-term microbial dynamics and chemical composition.
Treatise on Thermodynamics. Dover, New York. More recently, the Massieu–Planck thermodynamic potential, known also as free entropy, has been shown to play a great role in the so-called entropic formulation of statistical mechanics,Antoni Planes, Eduard Vives, Entropic Formulation of Statistical Mechanics, Entropic variables and Massieu–Planck functions 2000-10-24 Universitat de Barcelona applied among the others in molecular biologyJohn A. Scheilman, Temperature, Stability, and the Hydrophobic Interaction, Biophysical Journal 73 (December 1997), 2960–2964, Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403 USA and thermodynamic non-equilibrium processes.Z. Hens and X. de Hemptinne, Non- equilibrium Thermodynamics approach to Transport Processes in Gas Mixtures, Department of Chemistry, Catholic University of Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 F, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium :: J = S_\max - S = -\Phi = -k \ln Z\, ::where: ::S is entropy ::J is negentropy (Gibbs "capacity for entropy") ::\Phi is the Massieu potential ::Z is the partition function ::k the Boltzmann constant In particular, mathematically the negentropy (the negative entropy function, in physics interpreted as free entropy) is the convex conjugate of LogSumExp (in physics interpreted as the free energy).
German-British medical doctor and biochemist Hans Krebs' 1957 book Energy Transformations in Living Matter (written with Hans Kornberg) was the first major publication on the thermodynamics of biochemical reactions. In addition, the appendix contained the first-ever published thermodynamic tables, written by Kenneth Burton, to contain equilibrium constants and Gibbs free energy of formations for chemical species, able to calculate biochemical reactions that had not yet occurred. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics has been applied for explaining how biological organisms can develop from disorder. Ilya Prigogine developed methods for the thermodynamic treatment of such systems.
For equilibrium thermodynamics, in a thermodynamic state of a system, its contents are in internal thermodynamic equilibrium, with zero flows of all quantities, both internal and between system and surroundings. For Planck, the primary characteristic of a thermodynamic state of a system that consists of a single phase, in the absence of an externally imposed force field, is spatial homogeneity.Planck, M., (1923/1927), p. 3. For non-equilibrium thermodynamics, a suitable set of identifying state variables includes some macroscopic variables, for example a non-zero spatial gradient of temperature, that indicate departure from thermodynamic equilibrium.
The Nonlinear and Statistical Physics group pursues extensive theoretical and experimental studies, trying to understand the behavior of complex non-equilibrium systems. The subjects are diverse and span from plasma, laser and atomic physics to physics of materials and biophysics. Specific research areas include the fundamental physics of fracture and frictional motion, elasticity of growing objects, theory of large fluctuations in systems far from equilibrium, theory and applications of autoresonance, nonequilibrium statistical physics of ultrashort laser pulse formation, and semiclassical wave packet theory of cavity/circuit quantum electrodynamics and cold atom physics.
Saturn Fact Sheet The discrepancy can be partially accounted for by taking into account non-equilibrium condensates such as tholins or phosphorus, which are responsible for the coloured clouds in the Jovian atmosphere, and are not modelled in the calculations. The temperatures for a class I planet require a cool star or a distant orbit. The former stars might be too dim for us even to know about them, and the latter orbits might be too unpronounced for notice until several observations of those orbits' "years" (cf. Kepler's third law).
Walker (1997) proposed the use of a similar term, vegetation functional types, for groups of PFTs in sets that constitute the different states of vegetation succession in non-equilibrium ecosystems. The same term was applied by Scholes et al. in a wider sense for those areas having similar ecological attributes, such as PFTs composition, structure, phenology, biomass or productivity. Several studies have applied hierarchy and patch dynamic theories for the definition of ecosystem and landscape functional types at different spatial scales, by scaling-up emergent structural and functional properties from patches to regions.
A thermodynamic system in a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium has a spatially uniform temperature. Its intensive properties, other than temperature, may be driven to spatial inhomogeneity by an unchanging long- range force field imposed on it by its surroundings. In systems that are at a state of non-equilibrium there are, by contrast, net flows of matter or energy. If such changes can be triggered to occur in a system in which they are not already occurring, the system is said to be in a meta-stable equilibrium.
Non-equilibrium air in the shock layer is then transported past the entry vehicle's leading side into a region of rapidly expanding flow that causes freezing. The frozen air can then be entrained into a trailing vortex behind the entry vehicle. Correctly modelling the flow in the wake of an entry vehicle is very difficult. Thermal protection shield (TPS) heating in the vehicle's afterbody is usually not very high, but the geometry and unsteadiness of the vehicle's wake can significantly influence aerodynamics (pitching moment) and particularly dynamic stability.
This is because only mercury is known to have a compound where its oxidation state is higher than +2, in mercury(IV) fluoride (though its existence is disputed, as later experiments trying to confirm its synthesis could not find evidence of HgF4).Elusive Hg(IV) species has been synthesized under cryogenic conditions However, this classification is based on one highly atypical compound seen at non-equilibrium conditions and is at odds to mercury's more typical chemistry, and Jensen has suggested that it would be better to regard mercury as not being a transition metal.
After moving to the United Kingdom Kirill continued his academic career at the University of Birmingham as a Physics Research Fellow. Ilinski has now published more than 40 papers focusing on the use of theoretical physics in the financial modelling. In 2001 Ilinski published his book “Physics of Finance: Gauge Modelling in Non-Equilibrium Pricing”Wiley & Sons, 2001 which summarises his research of the gauge theory application to the asset pricing. In 2000 Ilinski started his financial career joining Chase Manhattan Bank where he focused on proprietary modelling, options trading and risk management.
In principle therefore, SED allows other "quantum non-equilibrium" distributions, for which the statistical predictions of quantum theory are violated. It is controversially argued that quantum theory is merely a special case of a much wider nonlinear physics, a physics in which non-local (superluminal) signalling is possible, and in which the uncertainty principle can be violated. It has also been proposed that inertia is one such emergent law. The reported results are subject to considerable argument, with accusations that it leads to the possibility of anti-gravity, reactionless drives or free energy.
The ablation of the target material upon laser irradiation and the creation of plasma are very complex processes. The removal of atoms from the bulk material is done by vaporization of the bulk at the surface region in a state of non-equilibrium. In this the incident laser pulse penetrates into the surface of the material within the penetration depth. This dimension is dependent on the laser wavelength and the index of refraction of the target material at the applied laser wavelength and is typically in the region of 10 nm for most materials.
The Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization in Göttingen, Germany, is a research institute for investigations of complex non-equilibrium systems, particularly in physics and biology. Its founding history goes back to Ludwig Prandtl who in 1911 requested a Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to be founded for the investigation of aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. As a first step the Aeronautische Versuchsanstalt (now the DLR) was established in 1915 and then finally the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Flow Research was established in 1924. In 1948 it became part of the Max Planck Society.
On the basis of his reasoning R.A. Marcus developed a classical theory with the aim of calculating the polarization energy of the said non- equilibrium state. From thermodynamics it is well known that the energy of such a state can be determined if a reversible path to that state is found. Marcus was successful in finding such a path via two reversible charging steps for the preparation of the "transition state" from the precursor complex. Four elements are essential for the model on which the theory is based: # Marcus employs a classical, purely electrostatic model.
The former (narrow sense) generally come from condensed-matter systems in quasi-equilibrium, as discussed below. The latter (broader sense) generally correspond to a wide range of non-equilibrium driven dynamical systems. Pink noise sources include flicker noise in electronic devices. In their study of fractional Brownian motion, Mandelbrot and Van Ness proposed the name fractional noise (sometimes since called fractal noise) to describe 1/f α noises for which the exponent α is not an even integer, or that are fractional derivatives of Brownian (1/f 2) noise.
He is one of the leading theoretical chemists of India working on the applications of quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics in chemistry and chemical physics. The topics studied include molecular devices, nanotechnology and surfaces, molecular ratchets, equilibrium and non-equilibrium statistical mechanics of polymers, biophysical chemistry and chemical dynamics. Prof. Sebastian has authored more than 110 papers on various aspects of theoretical chemistry, chemical physics and polymer physics. He is also a member of the editorial boards of several reputed scientific journals published by institutions such as the Indian Academy of Sciences.
He investigated periodic and quasi-periodic solutions lying on a one-dimensional manifold, thus forming the foundation for a new method of non- linear mechanics, the method of integral manifolds. In 1946, he published in JETP two works on equilibrium and non-equilibrium statistical mechanics which became the essence of his fundamental monograph Problems of dynamical theory in statistical physics (Moscow, 1946). On 26 January 1953, Nikolay Bogolyubov became the Head of the Department of Theoretical Physics at MSU, after Anatoly Vlasov decided to leave the position on January 2, 1953.
According to Wildt (see also Essex.), current versions of non-equilibrium thermodynamics ignore radiant heat; they can do so because they refer to laboratory quantities of matter under laboratory conditions with temperatures well below those of stars. At laboratory temperatures, in laboratory quantities of matter, thermal radiation is weak and can be practically nearly ignored. But, for example, atmospheric physics is concerned with large amounts of matter, occupying cubic kilometers, that, taken as a whole, are not within the range of laboratory quantities; then thermal radiation cannot be ignored.
The terms 'classical irreversible thermodynamics' and 'local equilibrium thermodynamics' are sometimes used to refer to a version of non- equilibrium thermodynamics that demands certain simplifying assumptions, as follows. The assumptions have the effect of making each very small volume element of the system effectively homogeneous, or well-mixed, or without an effective spatial structure, and without kinetic energy of bulk flow or of diffusive flux. Even within the thought-frame of classical irreversible thermodynamics, care is needed in choosing the independent variablesPrigogine, I., Defay, R. (1950/1954). Chemical Thermodynamics, Longmans, Green & Co, London, page 1.
It is pointed out by W.T. Grandy Jr,Grandy 2004 see also . that entropy, though it may be defined for a non-equilibrium system is—when strictly considered—only a macroscopic quantity that refers to the whole system, and is not a dynamical variable and in general does not act as a local potential that describes local physical forces. Under special circumstances, however, one can metaphorically think as if the thermal variables behaved like local physical forces. The approximation that constitutes classical irreversible thermodynamics is built on this metaphoric thinking.
He received his BA in Physics in 1971 and his PhD in Physics in 1976, both from the University of California, Santa Barbara. His PhD topic was inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy, with Paul Hansma as his thesis advisor. He was then a Research Assistant Professor at the University of Pennsylvania from 1976–1978, working in the group of Donald N. Langenberg on non-equilibrium superconductivity. From 1978 to 2006 he was a Research Staff Member at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York.
Philosophies 3: 30 and dynamics of social systems. Igamberdiev, A.U. (2017) Evolutionary transition from biological to social systems via generation of reflexive models of externality. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 131: 336–347 Abir Igamberdiev has contributed to the characterization of metabolic pathways and enzymes of plant respiratory metabolism and to the discovery that plant mitochondria use nitrite as an alternative electron acceptor under anoxia (anaerobic respiration) and produce nitric oxide, which is scavenged by phytoglobin. He developed the concept of thermodynamic buffering in metabolism that supports stable non-equilibrium dynamics of living systems.
In the physics literature Taylor's law has been referred to as fluctuation scaling. Eisler et al, in a further attempt to find a general explanation for fluctuation scaling, proposed a process they called impact inhomogeneity in which frequent events are associated with larger impacts. In appendix B of the Eisler article, however, the authors noted that the equations for impact inhomogeneity yielded the same mathematical relationships as found with the Tweedie distributions. Another group of physicists, Fronczak and Fronczak, derived Taylor's power law for fluctuation scaling from principles of equilibrium and non-equilibrium statistical physics.
The interpretation of the laser principles as self-organization of non equilibrium systems paved the way at the end of the 1960s to the development of synergetics, of which Haken is recognized as the founder. Haken is the author of some 23 textbooks and monographs that cover an impressive number of topics from laser physics, atomic physics, quantum field theory, to synergetics. Although Haken's early books tend to be rather mathematical, at least one of his books LightH. Haken, Light: Waves, Photons, and Atoms (North Holland, Amsterdam, 1981).
Mazur studied physics and astronomy at Leiden University. He passed his "doctoraal examen" (equivalent to a master's degree) in 1977 and continued his graduate studies at the same institution. In 1981 he obtained his Ph.D on a thesis entitled "The structure of non-equilibrium angular momentum polarizations in polyatomic gases". Although he intended to go on to a career in industry with Philips N.V. in Eindhoven, he left Europe at the urging of his father, Peter Mazur, to pursue a postdoctoral study with recent Nobel laureate Nicolaas Bloembergen at Harvard University.
There are three important points to note. Firstly, to specify any one microstate, we need to write down an impractically long list of numbers, whereas specifying a macrostate requires only a few numbers (E, V, etc.). However, and this is the second point, the usual thermodynamic equations only describe the macrostate of a system adequately when this system is in equilibrium; non-equilibrium situations can generally not be described by a small number of variables. As a simple example, consider adding a drop of food coloring to a glass of water.
Intermolecular forces govern the particle interaction in self-assembled systems. The forces tend to be intermolecular in type rather than ionic or covalent because ionic or covalent bonds will “lock” the assembly into non-equilibrium structures. The types intermolecular forces seen in self-assembly processes are van der Waals, hydrogen bonds, and weak polar forces, just to name a few. In self-assembly, regular structural arrangements are frequently observed, therefore there must be a balance of attractive and repulsive between molecules otherwise an equilibrium distance will not exist between the particles.
Unlike de Broglie–Bohm theory, on Valentini's theory the wavefunction evolution also depends on the ontological variables. This introduces an instability, a feedback loop that pushes the hidden variables out of "sub-quantal heat death". The resulting theory becomes nonlinear and non-unitary. Valentini argues that the laws of quantum mechanics are emergent and form a "quantum equilibrium" that is analogous to thermal equilibrium in classical dynamics, such that other "quantum non-equilibrium" distributions may in principle be observed and exploited, for which the statistical predictions of quantum theory are violated.
Also included is a small catalog of unsaturated soil hydraulic properties, as well as pedotransfer functions based on neural networks. Both HYDRUS models also consider various provisions for simulating non-equilibrium flow and transport. The flow equation for the latter purpose can consider dual-porosity-type flow with a fraction of the water content being mobile, and a fraction immobile. The transport equations additionally were modified to allow consideration of kinetic attachment/detachment processes of solutes to the solid phase, and hence of solutes having a finite size.
For life to have metabolic activity, it must be able to take advantage of a thermodynamic disequilibrium in the environment. This can occur when rocks from the mantle that are rich in the mineral olivine are exposed to seawater and react with it to form serpentine minerals and magnetite. Non-equilibrium conditions are also associated with hydrothermal vents, volcanism, and geothermal activity. Other processes that might provide habitats for life include roll front development in ore bodies, subduction, methane clathrate formation and decomposition, permafrost thawing, infrared radiation and seismic activity.
Stochastic Process Rare Event Sampling (SPRES) is a Rare Event Sampling method in computer simulation, designed specifically for non-equilibrium calculations, including those for which the rare-event rates are time- dependent (non-stationary process). To treat systems in which there is time dependence in the dynamics, due either to variation of an external parameter or to evolution of the system itself, the scheme for branching paths must be devised so as to achieve sampling which is distributed evenly in time and which takes account of changing fluxes through different regions of the phase space.
This method allowed him to include non-equilibrium phenomena in the framework of statistical mechanics in a natural way following the ideas of Josiah Willard Gibbs. Using the NSO method, he constructed relativistic thermodynamics and relativistic hydrodynamics, the statistical transport theory for systems of particles with internal degrees of freedom, and the statistical thermodynamics for turbulent transport processes. Zubarev was an editorial staff member of the journal Theoretical and Mathematical Physics and a member of the International Editorial staff of the journals Physica A and Physics Letters A.
Thus, it is theorized that the Ayaks' engine can use atmospheric oxygen, even at heights above . A non-equilibrium MHD generator typically produces 1–5 MWe with such parameters (channel cross- section, magnetic field strength, pressure, degree of ionization and velocity of the working fluid) but the increased effective diameter of the air inlet by the virtual plasma funnel greatly increases the power produced to 45–100 MWe per engine. As Ayaks may use two to four of such engines, some electrical energy could be diverted to peaceful or military directed-energy devices.
Hans Ziegler was born in Winterthur, Switzerland, on 5 September 1910, and died in Estes Park, Colorado, on 5 August 1985. Hans Ziegler was a respected academic and was the author of a number of well respected textbooks on engineering and thermodynamics, which were translated into other languages, and re-issued in new editions. In non-equilibrium thermodynamics, he considered a 'principle of maximum dissipation rate'. He was also an early proponent of a 'principle of maximum rate of entropy production', which is closely related to a 'principle of maximum dissipation rate'.
He was awarded the Australasian Science Prize in 2006, a COSMOS 'Bright Sparks' award in 2007, and an ARC Professorial Fellowship in the same year. In 2012 he was the recipient of an ARC Outstanding Researcher Award, and in 2015 was elected as a Fellow of the American Physical Society. He is Deputy Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence in Future Low-Energy Electronics Technologies (FLEET), an Australian research centre developing ultra-low energy electronics based on technologies including topological materials, exciton superfluids, non- equilibrium physics, atomically-thin materials and nanodevice fabrication.
These structures can be found in parts in the aerospace and biomedical industries. It has been observed that these lattice structures mimic atomic crystal lattice, where the nodes and struts represent atoms and atomic bonds, respectively, and termed as meta-crystals. They obey the metallurgical hardening principles (grain boundary strengthening, precipitate hardening etc.) when undergoing deformation. It has been further reported that the yield strength and ductility of the struts (meta-atomic bonds) can be increased drastically by taking advantage of the non-equilibrium solidification phenomenon in Additive Manufacturing, thus increasing the performance of the bulk structures.
In places with limitations in air supply, such as submerged soils, swamps and marine sediments, reducing conditions (negative potentials) are the norm. Intermediate values are rare and usually a temporary condition found in systems moving to higher or lower pe values. In environmental situations, it is common to have complex non-equilibrium conditions between a large number of species, meaning that it is often not possible to make accurate and precise measurements of the reduction potential. However, it is usually possible to obtain an approximate value and define the conditions as being in the oxidizing or reducing regime.
In response to Wilczek and Zhang, Patrick Bruno, a theorist at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France, published several articles in 2013 claiming to show that space-time crystals were impossible. Also later Masaki Oshikawa from the University of Tokyo showed that time crystals would be impossible at their ground state; moreover, he implied that any matter cannot exist in non-equilibrium in its ground state.See and .. Subsequent work developed more precise definitions of time translation symmetry-breaking, which ultimately led to a "no-go" proof that quantum time crystals in equilibrium are not possible.See , and .
Christopher Jarzynski is an American physicist and Distinguished University Professor at University of Maryland's Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Department of Physics, and Institute for Physical Science and Technology, and fellow of the National Academy of Sciences. He is known for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, for which he was awarded the 2019 Lars Onsager Prize. In 1997, he derived the now famous Jarzynski equality, confirmation of which was cited by the Nobel Committee for Physics as an application of one of the winning inventions of the 2018 Nobel Prize in physics—optical tweezers.
Jarzynski received his A.B. (with high honors) in 1987 from Princeton University and his Ph.D. in 1994 from University of California, Berkeley, under the supervision of Władysław J. Świątecki and Robert Grayson Littlejohn. At University of California, Berkley, Jarzynski studied adiabatic invariants in chaotic classical systems. After graduating with a PhD, he spent ten years at Los Alamos National Laboratory, and since 2006 he has been faculty at the University of Maryland, College Park. His research is primarily in the area of non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, where he has contributed to an understanding of how the laws of thermodynamics apply to nanoscale systems.
The non equilibrium thermodynamics has been applied for explaining how ordered structures e.g. the biological systems, can develop from disorder. Even if Onsager's relations are utilized, the classical principles of equilibrium in thermodynamics still show that linear systems close to equilibrium always develop into states of disorder which are stable to perturbations and cannot explain the occurrence of ordered structures. Prigogine called these systems dissipative systems, because they are formed and maintained by the dissipative processes which take place because of the exchange of energy between the system and its environment and because they disappear if that exchange ceases.
A global non-equilibrium state can be stably stationary only if it is maintained by exchanges between the system and the outside. For example, a globally-stable stationary state could be maintained inside the glass of water by continuously adding finely powdered ice into it in order to compensate for the melting, and continuously draining off the meltwater. Natural transport phenomena may lead a system from local to global thermodynamic equilibrium. Going back to our example, the diffusion of heat will lead our glass of water toward global thermodynamic equilibrium, a state in which the temperature of the glass is completely homogeneous.
Epub 2008 Jan 8. Furthermore, building from the Dehaene-Changeux Model, Werner (2007b) proposed that the application of the twin concepts of scaling and universality of the theory of non-equilibrium phase transitions can serve as an informative approach for elucidating the nature of underlying neural-mechanisms, with emphasis on the dynamics of recursively reentrant activity flow in intracortical and cortico-subcortical neuronal loops. Friston (2000) also claimed that "the nonlinear nature of asynchronous coupling enables the rich, context-sensitive interactions that characterize real brain dynamics, suggesting that it plays a role in functional integration that may be as important as synchronous interactions".
The simplest real gas model for air is the five species model, which is based upon N2, O2, NO, N, and O. The five species model assumes no ionization and ignores trace species like carbon dioxide. When running a Gibbs free energy equilibrium program, the iterative process from the originally specified molecular composition to the final calculated equilibrium composition is essentially random and not time accurate. With a non-equilibrium program, the computation process is time accurate and follows a solution path dictated by chemical and reaction rate formulas. The five species model has 17 chemical formulas (34 when counting reverse formulas).
Willie Soon was born in Kangar, Malaysia, in 1966. He attended Khoon Aik Primary School in Kangar, Perlis, then Sekolah Menengah Syed Sirajudin Secondary School in Jejawi, Perlis, and Sekolah Menengah Dato Sheikh Ahmad Secondary School in Arau, Perlis. To further his education he emigrated to the United States in 1980 and attended the University of Southern California, receiving a B.Sc. in 1985, followed by a M.Sc. in 1987 and then a Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering [with distinction] in 1991.CV and publication list for Willie Soon, 2014 His doctoral thesis was titled Non-equilibrium kinetics in high-temperature gases.
Ultrafast processes operating at picosecond, femtosecond, and even attosecond scale are both driven by, and studied using, optical methods that are at the front line of modern science. The physics underpinning the observations at these short time scales is governed by non- equilibrium dynamics, and usually makes use of resonant processes. One demonstration of ultrafast processes is the switching from collinear antiferromagnetic state to spiral antiferromagnetic state in CuO under excitation by 40 fs 800 nm laser pulse. A second example shows the possibility for the direct control of spin waves with THz radiation on antiferromagnetic NiO.
Schmittmann was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) in 2004, after a nomination from the APS Topical Group on Statistical & Nonlinear Physics, for "seminal and sustained research on fundamental and applied problems in non- equilibrium statistical physics, in particular driven diffusive systems". In 2010, the Southeastern Section of the APS gave her their for research excellence. She became a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2015 for "seminal and sustained research on fundamental and applied problems in nonequilibrium statistical physics, and for contributions to administration and to increasing diversity in STEM".
Laroussi's research interests are in the Physical Electronics area, particularly in the applications of non-equilibrium gaseous discharges. Amongst these are the generation of large volume low temperature plasmas, the interaction of microwaves with plasmas, and the biomedical applications of cold plasmas, a field known as “Plasma Medicine”. In the latter, he published seminal papers on the interaction of low temperature plasmas with biological cells. In plasma medicine research, low temperature plasmas (or simply cold plasmas) are used to inactivate bacteria and proteins, assist in wound care, destroy some types of cancer cells, and play an active role in various other medical therapies.
Kopnin's primary research area was superconductivity, in particular non-equilibrium and non- stationary phenomena. One of the forces acting on quantum vortices in superfluids and superconductors is known as the "Kopnin force" after him. In 1991, by extending his theory concerning this force to chiral superfluids, he predicted the existence of fermionic bound states, quasiparticles now known as Majorana fermions and that it may be possible to observe in topological superfluids and superconductors. He contributed to the studies of anisotropic and layered superconductors and developed the microscopic theories for dissipative and non-stationary flow in Fermi superfluids.
Ion beam mixing is the atomic intermixing and alloying that can occur at the interface separating two different materials during ion irradiation.Ion-solid interactions, Cambridge Solid-State Science series, ch11, p295 It is applied as a process for adhering two multilayers, especially a substrate and deposited surface layer. The process involves bombarding layered samples with doses of ion radiation in order to promote mixing at the interface, and generally serves as a means of preparing electrical junctions, especially between non-equilibrium or metastable alloys and intermetallic compounds. Ion implantation equipment can be used to achieve ion beam mixing.
In stationary conditions, such forces and associated flux densities are by definition time invariant, as also are the system's locally defined entropy and rate of entropy production. Notably, according to Ilya Prigogine and others, when an open system is in conditions that allow it to reach a stable stationary thermodynamically non-equilibrium state, it organizes itself so as to minimize total entropy production defined locally. This is considered further below. One wants to take the analysis to the further stage of describing the behaviour of surface and volume integrals of non-stationary local quantities; these integrals are macroscopic fluxes and production rates.
Ultimately, catalytic nanomotors have practical applications in delivering chemical payloads in microfluidic chips, eliminating pollution in aquatic media, removing toxic chemicals within biological systems, and performing medical procedures. In 2013, based on the computer simulation results it has been shown that self- propelled Janus particles can be used for direct demonstration of the non- equilibrium phenomenon, ratchet effect. Ratcheting of Janus particles can be orders of magnitude stronger than for ordinary thermal potential ratchets and thus easily experimentally accessible. In particular, autonomous pumping of a large mixture of passive particles can be induced by just adding a small fraction of Janus particles.
Additionally, Hohenberg worked (with Swift) on hydrodynamic instabilities and on pattern formation in non-equilibrium systems with Michael Cross. Preceding David Mermin and Herbert Wagner he proved in 1967 the impossibility of spontaneous symmetry breaking in one and two dimensions. In collaboration with Richard Friedberg, he presented a new formulation of nonrelativistic quantum mechanics based on the consistent histories approach to the interpretation of quantum mechanics. An accomplished continuous distance swimmer, Hohenberg in the second decade of the 21st century annually contested the artist/writer Richard Kostelanetz in a one-hour race at the NYU Coles pool until the pool was closed.
Experimental evidence suggests dispersions have a structure very much different from any kind of statistical distribution (which would be characteristics for a system in thermodynamic equilibrium), but in contrast display structures similar to self-organisation, which can be described by non-equilibrium thermodynamics. This is the reason why some liquid dispersions turn to become gels or even solid at a concentration of a dispersed phase above a critical concentration (which is dependent on particle size and interfacial tension). Also, the sudden appearance of conductivity in a system of a dispersed conductive phase in an insulating matrix has been explained.
Several estimates of the carrying capacity of the earth for humans have been made with a wide range of population numbers. A 2001 UN report said that two-thirds of the estimates fall in the range of 4 billion to 16 billion with unspecified standard errors, with a median of about 10 billion. Some of these issues have been studied by computer simulation models such as World3. The application of the concept of carrying capacity for the human population, which exists in a non-equilibrium, has been criticized for not successfully being able to model the processes between humans and the environment.
A thermal plasma is in thermal equilibrium, which is to say that the temperature is relatively homogeneous throughout the heavy particles (i.e. atoms, molecules and ions) and electrons. This is so because when thermal plasmas are generated, electrical energy is given to electrons, which, due to their great mobility and large numbers, are able to disperse it rapidly and by elastic collision (without energy loss) to the heavy particles.Note that non-thermal, or non-equilibrium plasmas are not as ionized and have lower energy densities, and thus the temperature is not dispersed evenly among the particles, where some heavy ones remain "cold".
Daniel Goldman's research integrates biological physics and nonlinear dynamics at the interface of biomechanics, robotics, and granular physics. His research addresses problems in non-equilibrium systems that involve interaction of physical and biological matter with complex materials (like granular media) that can flow when stressed. For example, how do organisms like lizards, crabs, and cockroaches generate appropriate musculoskeletal dynamics to scurry rapidly over substrates like sand, bark, leaves, and grass. The study of novel biological and physical interactions with complex media can also lead to the discovery of principles that govern the physics of the media.
The analysis of the HF laser performance is complicated due to the need to simultaneously consider the fluid dynamic mixing of adjacent supersonic streams, multiple non-equilibrium chemical reactions and the interaction of the gain medium with the optical cavity. The researchers at The Aerospace Corporation developed the first exact analytic (flame sheet) solution, the first numerical computer code solution and the first simplified model describing CW HF chemical laser performance. Chemical lasers stimulated the use of wave-optics calculations for resonator analysis. This work was pioneered by E. A. Sziklas (Pratt & Whitney) and A. E. Siegman (Stanford University).
There are a variety of mathematical models to describe the dynamics of the rotations of magnetic nanoparticles. Simple models include the Langevin function and the Stoner-Wohlfarth model which describe the magnetization of a nanoparticle at equilibrium. The Debye/Rosenszweig model can be used for low amplitude or high frequency oscillations of particles, which assumes linear response of the magnetization to an oscillating magnetic field. Non-equilibrium approaches include the Langevin equation formalism and the Fokker-Planck equation formalism, and these have been developed extensively to model applications such as magnetic nanoparticle hyperthermia, magnetic nanoparticle imaging (MPI), magnetic spectroscopy and biosensing etc.
In standard molecular beam epitaxy growth, to ensure that a good structural quality is obtained, the temperature the substrate is heated to, known as the growth temperature, is normally high, typically ~600 °C. However, if a large flux of manganese is used in these conditions, instead of being incorporated, segregation occurs where the manganese accumulate on the surface and form complexes with elemental arsenic atoms. This problem was overcome using the technique of low- temperature molecular beam epitaxy. It was found, first in and then later used for , that by utilising non-equilibrium crystal growth techniques larger dopant concentrations could be successfully incorporated.
There seems to be agreement that life is a manifestation of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, both as to individual living creatures and as to aggregates of such creatures, or ecosystems. See e.g. Brooks and WylieEvolution as Entropy, Brooks and Wylie, University of Chicago press, p 103 et seq Smolin,Smolin, Ch. 11 What is Life Chaisson, Stuart KauffmanInvestigations, Stuart Kauffman, Oxford University Press 2000 and "Origins of Order", Oxford, 1993 and Ulanowicz.Ecology, the Ascendent Perspective, Robert Ulanowicz, Columbia Univ. Press 1997 This realization has proceeded from, among other sources, a seminal concept of ‘dissipative systems’ offered by Ilya Prigogine.
In the early 1950s, Kubo transformed research into the linear response properties of near- equilibrium condensed-matter systems, in particular the understanding of electron transport and conductivity, through the Kubo formalism, a Green's function approach to linear response theory for quantum systems. In 1977 Ryogo Kubo was awarded the Boltzmann Medal for his contributions to the theory of non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, and to the theory of fluctuation phenomena. He is cited particularly for his work in the establishment of the basic relations between transport coefficients and equilibrium time correlation functions: relations with which his name is generally associated.
Matjaž Perc is one of the foremost experts of the theory of cooperation on networks. He has applied Monte Carlo simulations and dynamical mean field theory to discover that stochastic perturbations resolve social dilemmas in a resonance-like manner. He has also pioneered self-organization as a way of stabilizing reward and punishment in structured populations, and he has proposed the introduction of discrete strategies in ultimatum games, which has contributed to the understanding of the fascinating complexity behind human bargaining. His research has helped to reveal the full potential of methods of non-equilibrium statistical physics in evolutionary game theory.
Today, QMC methods are often the methods of choice for high accuracy for a range of systems: small and large molecules, molecules in solution, electron gas, clusters, solid materials, vibrating molecules, and many others. Anderson has succeeded in bringing the power of modern computers to the direct simulation of reacting systems. His extension of an earlier method for rarefied gas dynamics by Graeme Bird (1963) eliminates the use of differential equations and treats reaction kinetics on a probabilistic basis collision-by-collision. It is the method of choice for many low-density systems with coupled relaxation and reaction, and with non-equilibrium distributions.
This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, corrosion engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, materials science, and economics, to name a few. This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field.
An intuitive guess of the effect of a quantum critical point being affected by noise would be that the external noise defines an effective temperature. This effective temperature would introduce a well defined energy scale in the problem and break the scale invariance of the quantum critical point. On the contrary, it was recently found that certain types of noise can induce a non-equilibrium quantum critical state. This state is out-of-equilibrium because of the continuous energy flow introduced by the noise, but it still retains the scale invariant behavior typical of critical points.
The term proofreading is used in genetics to refer to the error-correcting processes, first proposed by John Hopfield and , involved in DNA replication, immune system specificity, enzyme-substrate recognition among many other processes that require enhanced specificity. The proofreading mechanisms of Hopfield and Ninio are non-equilibrium active processes that consume ATP to enhance specificity of various biochemical reactions. In bacteria, all three DNA polymerases (I, II and III) have the ability to proofread, using 3’ → 5’ exonuclease activity. When an incorrect base pair is recognized, DNA polymerase reverses its direction by one base pair of DNA and excises the mismatched base.
The first mathematical formulation of quasispecies was deterministic; it assumed steady state mutant distributions in genetic equilibrium without perturbations derived from modifications of the environment or population size. These conditions are common in initial theoretical formulations of complex phenomena because they confer mathematical tractability. Since then, several extensions of the theory to non-equilibrium conditions with stochastic components have been developed, with the aim of finding general solutions for multi-peak fitness landscapes. These objectives approximate quasispecies to the real case of RNA viruses, which are compelled to deal with dramatic variations in population size and environment.
The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is the reference from which all standard redox potentials are determined, and has been assigned an arbitrary half cell potential of 0.0 mV. However, it is fragile and impractical for routine laboratory use. Therefore, other more stable reference electrodes such as silver chloride and saturated calomel (SCE) are commonly used because of their more reliable performance. Although measurement of the redox potential in aqueous solutions is relatively straightforward, many factors limit its interpretation, such as effects of solution temperature and pH, irreversible reactions, slow electrode kinetics, non-equilibrium, presence of multiple redox couples, electrode poisoning, small exchange currents, and inert redox couples.
C60 with isosurface of ground-state electron density as calculated with DFT In general, density functional theory finds increasingly broad application in chemistry and materials science for the interpretation and prediction of complex system behavior at an atomic scale. Specifically, DFT computational methods are applied for synthesis-related systems and processing parameters. In such systems, experimental studies are often encumbered by inconsistent results and non-equilibrium conditions. Examples of contemporary DFT applications include studying the effects of dopants on phase transformation behavior in oxides, magnetic behavior in dilute magnetic semiconductor materials, and the study of magnetic and electronic behavior in ferroelectrics and dilute magnetic semiconductors.
A system's internal state of thermodynamic equilibrium should be distinguished from a "stationary state" in which thermodynamic parameters are unchanging in time but the system is not isolated, so that there are, into and out of the system, non-zero macroscopic fluxes which are constant in time.de Groot, S.R., Mazur, P. (1962), p. 43. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems.
In his first years at Leiden University, Mazur studied the classical and quantum molecular foundations of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Significant results included the derivation of the Langevin equation with Irwin Oppenheim and the classic paper on harmonic oscillator systems by George Ford, Mark Kac, and Mazur, which was published in the Journal of Mathematical Physics (in 1965). Mazur's work in the 1950s and 1960s culminated in the publication of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics (North Holland and Interscience, 1962), written by de Groot and Mazur. This book, translated into several languages, became a classic in the field and was later republished as a series of classic monographs.
He was one of Finance Minister Ernst Wigforss' closest advisers and at that time almost the same time he was appointed the first professor of economics at Stockholm University, a position he held from 1946 to 1965. He was also expert in various state investigations in the 1930s and 40s. 1933-1935 published Lundberg, Ingvar Svennilson and Gösta Bagge, Wages in Sweden 1860-1930 I-II. In his doctoral thesis develops Lundberg the economic theory which Keynes presented in the Treatise of Money, and attempts, mainly by Knut Wicksell's work, combining it with a dynamic aspect, and launching a business cycle and a non-equilibrium theory.
His main research is in the field of non-equilibrium statistical mechanics. In particular he helped develop the theory of fractional kinetic equations for anomalous diffusion and relaxation, theory of single molecule spectroscopy, and weak ergodicity breaking. Among the physical systems he studied are blinking of quantum dots, the diffusion of cold atoms in atomic traps and the diffusion of single molecules within a live cell. Barkai has received several prizes: the Krill prize (2006, selected by the Wolf foundation), the Michael Bruno Memorial award (2009, selected by Yad Hanadiv) and the Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Research award (2011, selected by the Alexander von Humboldt foundation).
Diagram made by Antony Valentini in a lecture about the De Broglie–Bohm theory. Valentini argues quantum theory is a special equilibrium case of a wider physics and that it may be possible to observe and exploit quantum non- equilibrium Stochastic electrodynamics (SED) is an extension of the de Broglie–Bohm interpretation of quantum mechanics, with the electromagnetic zero-point field (ZPF) playing a central role as the guiding pilot-wave. The theory is a deterministic nonlocal hidden-variable theory. It is distinct from other more mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics such as QED, a stochastic electrodynamics of the Copenhagen interpretation and Everett's many-worlds interpretation.
Cartoon depiction of common oligomeric structures of lectins Many glycan binding proteins (GBPs) are oligomeric and typically contain multiple sites for glycan binding (also called carbohydrate-recognition domains). The ability to form multivalent protein-ligand interactions significantly enhances the strength of binding: while K_D values for individual CRD-glycan interactions may be in the mM range, the overall affinity of GBP towards glycans may reach nanomolar or even picomolar ranges. The overall strength of interactions is described as avidity K_D (in contrast with an affinity K_D which describes single equilibrium). Sometimes the avidity is also called an apparent K_D to emphasize the non-equilibrium nature of the interaction.
If a test with any geometries runs through a table of several shear rates or stresses, the data can be used to plot a flow curve, that is a graph of viscosity vs shear rate. If the above test is carried out slowly enough for the measured value (shear stress if rate is being controlled, or conversely) to reach a steady value at each step, the data is said to be at "equilibrium", and the graph is then an "equilibrium flow curve". This is preferable over non- equilibrium measurements, as the data can usually be replicated across multiple other instruments or with other geometries.
Self- organized criticality (SOC) is a statistical physics concept to describe a class of dynamical systems that have a critical point as an attractor. Specifically, these are non-equilibrium systems that evolve through avalanches of change and dissipations that reach up to the highest scales of the system. SOC is said to govern the dynamics behind some natural systems that have these burst-like phenomena including landscape formation, earthquakes, evolution, and the granular dynamics of rice and sand piles. Of special interest here is the Bak–Sneppen model of SOC, which is able to describe evolution via punctuated equilibrium (extinction events) – thus modelling evolution as a self-organised critical process.
The system's properties are then most conveniently described using the thermodynamic potential Helmholtz free energy (A = U - TS), a Legendre transformation of the energy. If, next to fluctuations of the energy, the macroscopic dimensions (volume) of the system are left fluctuating, we use the Gibbs free energy (G = U + PV - TS), where the system's properties are determined both by the temperature and by the pressure. Non-equilibrium systems are much more complex and they may undergo fluctuations of more extensive quantities. The boundary conditions impose on them particular intensive variables, like temperature gradients or distorted collective motions (shear motions, vortices, etc.), often called thermodynamic forces.
Methods for study of non- equilibrium processes mostly deal with spatially continuous flow systems. In this case, the open connection between system and surroundings is usually taken to fully surround the system, so that there are no separate connections impermeable to matter but permeable to heat. Except for the special case mentioned above when there is no actual transfer of matter, which can be treated as if for a closed system, in strictly defined thermodynamic terms, it follows that transfer of energy as heat is not defined. In this sense, there is no such thing as 'heat flow' for a continuous-flow open system.
During nuclear magnetic resonance observations, spin–lattice relaxation is the mechanism by which the component of the total nuclear magnetic moment vector which is parallel to the constant magnetic field relaxes from a higher energy, non-equilibrium state to thermodynamic equilibrium with its surroundings (the "lattice"). It is characterized by the spin–lattice relaxation time, a time constant known as T1. There is a different parameter, T2, the spin-spin relaxation time, which concerns the relaxation of components of the nuclear magnetization vector which are _perpendicular_ to the external magnetic field. Measuring the variation of T1 and T2 in different materials is the basis for some magnetic resonance imaging techniques.
Russian-Belgian physical chemist Ilya Prigogine, who coined the term dissipative structure, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977 for his pioneering work on these structures, which have dynamical regimes that can be regarded as thermodynamic steady states, and sometimes at least can be described by suitable extremal principles in non-equilibrium thermodynamics. In his Nobel lecture, Prigogine explains how thermodynamic systems far from equilibrium can have drastically different behavior from systems close to equilibrium. Near equilibrium, the local equilibrium hypothesis applies and typical thermodynamic quantities such as free energy and entropy can be defined locally. One can assume linear relations between the (generalized) flux and forces of the system.
The typical power of such transformers is of the order of 10 W. The efficiency of the plasma generation reaches 90%, while the remaining 10% of the power is lost due to mechanical heating of the piezoelectric transformer. Due to low electric currents, typical for the dielectric barrier and the corona discharges, the piezoelectric direct discharge produces a non-equilibrium plasma. This means that its constituent electrons, ions and the neutral gas particles have different kinetic energy distributions. Temperature of the neutral gas within the plasma volume remains lower than 50 C. At the same time, the electrons and the ions reach energies of 1 – 10 eV.
In this sense, thermodynamic equilibrium cavity radiation may be regarded as thermodynamic equilibrium black-body radiation to which Kirchhoff's law applies exactly, though no perfectly black body in Kirchhoff's sense is present. A theoretical model considered by Planck consists of a cavity with perfectly reflecting walls, initially with no material contents, into which is then put a small piece of carbon. Without the small piece of carbon, there is no way for non-equilibrium radiation initially in the cavity to drift towards thermodynamic equilibrium. When the small piece of carbon is put in, it transduces amongst radiation frequencies so that the cavity radiation comes to thermodynamic equilibrium.
As a demonstration of Loschmidt's paradox, a famous modern counter example (not to Boltzmann's original gas-related H-theorem, but to a closely related analogue) is the phenomenon of spin echo. In the spin echo effect, it is physically possible to induce time reversal in an interacting system of spins. An analogue to Boltzmann's H for the spin system can be defined in terms of the distribution of spin states in the system. In the experiment, the spin system is initially perturbed into a non-equilibrium state (high H), and, as predicted by the H theorem the quantity H soon decreases to the equilibrium value.
Often, the ionization process is sufficiently violent to leave the resulting ions with sufficient internal energy to fragment within the mass spectrometer. If the product ions persist in their non-equilibrium state for a moderate amount of time before auto-dissociation this process is called metastable fragmentation. Nozzle-skimmer fragmentation refers to the purposeful induction of in-source fragmentation by increasing the nozzle-skimmer potential on usually electrospray based instruments. Although in-source fragmentation allows for fragmentation analysis, it is not technically tandem mass spectrometry unless metastable ions are mass analyzed or selected before auto-dissociation and a second stage of analysis is performed on the resulting fragments.
Despite its small size, Phoebe is thought to have been a spherical body early in its history, with a differentiated interior, before solidifying and being battered into its current, slightly non-equilibrium shape. Material displaced from Phoebe's surface by microscopic meteor impacts may be responsible for the dark areas on the surface of Hyperion.The composition implied by spectra does not seem to support the earlier suggestion that Phoebe could be the source of the dark material deposited on Iapetus. Debris from the biggest impacts may be the origin of the other moons of Phoebe's group (the Norse group)—all of which are less than 10 km in diameter.
That is to say, the relation 'is not colder than' between general non-equilibrium physical systems is not transitive, whereas, in contrast, the relation 'has no lower a temperature than' between thermodynamic systems in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium is transitive. It follows from this that the relation 'is in thermal equilibrium with' is transitive, which is one way of stating the zeroth law. Just as temperature may be undefined for a sufficiently inhomogeneous system, so also may entropy be undefined for a system not in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium. For example, 'the temperature of the solar system' is not a defined quantity.
The atmosphere is an example of a non-equilibrium system. Atmospheric thermodynamics describes the effect of buoyant forces that cause the rise of less dense (warmer) air, the descent of more dense air, and the transformation of water from liquid to vapor (evaporation) and its condensation. Those dynamics are modified by the force of the pressure gradient and that motion is modified by the Coriolis force. The tools used include the law of energy conservation, the ideal gas law, specific heat capacities, the assumption of isentropic processes (in which entropy is a constant), and moist adiabatic processes (during which no energy is transferred as heat).
For example, a chemical reaction at constant temperature and pressure will reach equilibrium at a minimum of its components' Gibbs free energy and a maximum of their entropy. Equilibrium thermodynamics differs from non-equilibrium thermodynamics, in that, with the latter, the state of the system under investigation will typically not be uniform but will vary locally in those as energy, entropy, and temperature distributions as gradients are imposed by dissipative thermodynamic fluxes. In equilibrium thermodynamics, by contrast, the state of the system will be considered uniform throughout, defined macroscopically by such quantities as temperature, pressure, or volume. Systems are studied in terms of change from one equilibrium state to another; such a change is called a thermodynamic process.
At NCBS, Rao worked on non- equilibrium properties of membranes and martensitic transformation and is known to have made significant contributions in providing a wider understanding of chirality-induced budding and dynamics of intracellular trafficking. Molecular dynamics at cell surface, membrane dynamics , golgi and mitochondrial morphogenesis, chromatin organization, soft active matter physics and biomolecular dynamics are some of the other areas he has worked on. His studies have been documented by way of a number of articles and the online article repository of the Indian Academy of Sciences has listed 33 of them. He was also a member of the organizing committee of the Conference on Frontiers in Materials Modelling and Design held in Kalpakkam in 1996.
Vespignani received his undergraduate degree and Ph.D., both in physics and both from the University of Rome “La Sapienza”, in 1990 and 1993, respectively. Following postdoctoral research at Yale University and Leiden University, he worked at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste for five years, and briefly at the University of Paris-Sud, before moving to Indiana University in 2004, and then to Northeastern University in 2011. Vespignani has worked in a number of areas of physics, including characterization of non-equilibrium phenomena and phase transitions, computer science, network science and computational epidemiology. He has collaborated with, among others, Luciano Pietronero, Benoit Mandelbrot, Betz Halloran, Ira Longini, and David Lazer.
On the other hand, due to the high electric currents of the arc discharge, the whole arc volume thermally equilibrates with the electrons reaching temperatures of 6,000 – 12,000 °C. However, after leaving the arc volume, this gas quickly cools down to a few 100 °C before it contacts the substrate. Although it is not correct to speak of temperatures of non-equilibrium electron and ion gases, the temperature concept is illustrative of the physical conditions of the discharges, as the temperature defines the average energy of the particles. The average electron energy of 1 eV, realized typically within the plasma volume, is equal to average electron energy at temperatures of 10,000 °C.
The idea that the vacuum energy can have multiple stable energy states is a leading hypothesis for the cause of cosmic inflation. In fact, it has been argued that these early vacuum fluctuations led to the expansion of the universe and in turn have guaranteed the non-equilibrium conditions necessary to drive order from chaos, as without such expansion the universe would have reached thermal equilibrium and no complexity could have existed. With the continued accelerated expansion of the universe, the cosmos generates an energy gradient that increases the "free energy" (i.e. the available, usable or potential energy for useful work) which the universe is able to utilize to create ever more complex forms of order.
The shorter is of the order of magnitude of times taken for a single 'cell' to reach local thermodynamic equilibrium. If these two relaxation times are not well separated, then the classical non-equilibrium thermodynamical concept of local thermodynamic equilibrium loses its meaning and other approaches have to be proposed, see for instance Extended irreversible thermodynamics. For example, in the atmosphere, the speed of sound is much greater than the wind speed; this favours the idea of local thermodynamic equilibrium of matter for atmospheric heat transfer studies at altitudes below about 60 km where sound propagates, but not above 100 km, where, because of the paucity of intermolecular collisions, sound does not propagate.
Phase transition of Argon ice – transitions from solid to liquid to gas Raja Gopal has worked on various aspects of condensed matter physics especially critical point phenomena which assisted in understanding the Law of the Rectilinear Diameter and its breakdown. He studied electrical resistivity in relation to non-equilibrium critical point phenomena and elucidated its unusual behavior. His studies of the liquid systems and disordered materials with regard to their phase transitions returned precision measurements which helped in observing particle-hole asymmetry in the liquid- gas critical phenomena in binary liquid mixtures for the first time. Percolation threshold in covalently bonded chalcogenide glasses through precise measurements was another of his notable findings.
However, it has been shown that after about 3 lattice vibrations, the kinetic energy distribution of the atoms in a heat spike has the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, making the use of the concept of temperature somewhat justified. Moreover, experiments have shown that a heat spike can induce a phase transition which is known to require a very high temperature, showing that the concept of a (non-equilibrium) temperature is indeed useful in describing collision cascades. In many cases, the same irradiation condition is a combination of linear cascades and heat spikes. For example, 10 MeV Cu ions bombarding Cu would initially move in the lattice in a linear cascade regime, since the nuclear stopping power is low.
A stirred BZ reaction mixture showing changes in color over time A chemical oscillator is a complex mixture of reacting chemical compounds in which the concentration of one or more components exhibits periodic changes, They are a class of reactions that serve as an example of non-equilibrium thermodynamics with far-from-equilibrium behavior. The reactions are theoretically important in that they show that chemical reactions do not have to be dominated by equilibrium thermodynamic behavior. In cases where one of the reagents has a visible color, periodic color changes can be observed. Examples of oscillating reactions are the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction (BZ), the Briggs–Rauscher reaction, and the Bray–Liebhafsky reaction.
Equilibrium segregation is associated with the lattice disorder at interfaces, where there are sites of energy different from those within the lattice at which the solute atoms can deposit themselves. The equilibrium segregation is so termed because the solute atoms segregate themselves to the interface or surface in accordance with the statistics of thermodynamics in order to minimize the overall free energy of the system. This sort of partitioning of solute atoms between the grain boundary and the lattice was predicted by McLean in 1957. Non-equilibrium segregation, first theorized by Westbrook in 1964, occurs as a result of solutes coupling to vacancies which are moving to grain boundary sources or sinks during quenching or application of stress.
The development of non equilibrium thermodynamics and the observations of cosmological generation of ordered systems, identified above, have engendered proposed modifications in the interpretation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, as compared with the earlier interpretations on the late 19th and the 20th century. For example, Chaisson and Layzer have advanced reconciliations of the concept of entropy with the cosmological creation of order. In another approach, Schneider and D. Sagan, in Into the Cool and other publications, depict the organization of life, and some other phenomena such as benard cells, as entropy generating phenomena which facilitate the dissipation, or reduction, of gradients (without in this treatment visibly getting to the prior issue of how gradients have arisen).
Thermodynamic Models , Modeling in Ecological Economics (Ch. 18) Thermoeconomics thus adapts the theories in non-equilibrium thermodynamics, in which structure formations called dissipative structures form, and information theory, in which information entropy is a central construct, to the modeling of economic activities in which the natural flows of energy and materials function to create and allocate resources. In thermodynamic terminology, human economic activity (as well as the activity of the human life units which make it up) may be described as a dissipative system, which flourishes by consuming free energy in transformations and exchange of resources, goods, and services. The article on Complexity economics also contains concepts related to this line of thinking.
The 4 planets are still glowing red hot due to their young age and are larger than Jupiter and over time they will cool and shrink to the size of 0.8 to 1.0 Jupiter radii. The broadband photometry of planets b, c and d has shown that there may be significant clouds in their atmospheres, while the infrared spectroscopy of planets b and c pointed to non-equilibrium / chemistry. Near-infrared observations with the Project 1640 integral field spectrograph on the Palomar Observatory have shown that compositions between the four planets vary significantly. This is a surprise since the planets presumably formed in the same way from the same disk and have similar luminosities.
Veblen’s research focuses on disturbance ecology in the contexts of climate change and human impacts on temperate forest ecosystems in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. From 1975-79 he was professor of plant ecology in the Forestry School of the Austral University in Valdivia, Chile where he initiated pioneering research on the disturbance ecology and regeneration dynamics of Nothofagus forests. One of his early achievements was the unravelling of how repeated coarse-scale disturbances related mostly to tectonic events control the dynamics of forests in the Andes of southern Chile. His early work developed a conceptual framework which was seminal to the shift from equilibrium to non-equilibrium paradigms in ecology in the 1980s.
Leonid Keldysh (7 April 1931 – 11 November 2016) was a Russian physicist. Keldysh was a professor in the I.E. Tamm Theory division of the Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow and a faculty member at Texas A&M; University. He was known for developing the Keldysh formalism, a powerful quantum field theory framework designed to describe a system in a non-equilibrium state, as well as for the theory of excitonic insulators (Keldysh-Kopaev model, with Yuri Kopaev). Keldysh'awards include the 2009 Rusnanoprize, an international nanotechnology award, for his work related to molecular beam epitaxy, the 2011 Eugene Feenberg Memorial Medal, and the 2015 Lomonosov Grand Gold Medal of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Affinity capillary electrophoresis (ACE) refers to a number of techniques which rely on specific and nonspecific binding interactions to facilitate separation and detection through a formulary approach in accordance with the theory of electromigration. Using the intermolecular interactions between molecules occurring in free solution or mobilized onto a solid support, ACE allows for the separation and quantitation of analyte concentrations and binding and dissociation constants between molecules. With ACE, scientists hope to develop strong binding drug candidates, understand and measure enzymatic activity, and characterize the charges on proteins. Affinity capillary electrophoresis can be divided into three distinct techniques: non- equilibrium electrophoresis of equilibrated sample mixtures, dynamic equilibrium ACE, and affinity-based ACE.
CNN processors have been used to research a variety of mathematical concepts, such as researching non-equilibrium systems, constructing non-linear systems of arbitrary complexity using a collection of simple, well-understood dynamic systems, studying emergent chaotic dynamics, generating chaotic signals, and in general discovering new dynamic behavior. They are often used in researching systemics, a trandisiplinary, scientific field that studies natural systems. The goal of systemics researchers is to develop a conceptual and mathematical framework necessary to analyze, model, and understand systems, including, but not limited to, atomic, mechanical, molecular, chemical, biological, ecological, social and economic systems. Topics explored are emergence, collective behavior, local activity and its impact on global behavior, and quantifying the complexity of an approximately spatial and topologically invariant system .
The charge (many elementary charges) may be transferred in any portion from one body to another. # Marcus separates the fast electron polarisation Pe and the slow atom and orientation polarisation Pu of the solvent on grounds of their time constants differing several orders of magnitude. # Marcus separates the inner sphere (reactant + tightly bound solvent molecules, in complexes + ligands) and the outer sphere (free solvent ) # In this model Marcus confines himself to calculating the outer sphere energy of the non-equilibrium polarization of the "transition state". The outer sphere energy is often much larger than the inner sphere contribution because of the far reaching electrostatic forces (compare the Debye-Hückel theory of electrochemistry). Marcus’ tool is the theory of dielectric polarization in solvents.
Method development in theoretical biophysics plays an increasingly important role in the study of macromolecular complexes and has made essential contributions to many studies in the other research areas of CEF. Bridging between fundamental physics, chemistry and biology, CEF scientists studied biomolecular processes over a broad resolution range, from quantum mechanics to chemical kinetics, from atomistic descriptions of physical processes and chemical reactions in molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to highly coarse-grained models of the non-equilibrium operation of molecular machines and network descriptions of protein interactions. Their goal is to develop detailed and quantitative descriptions of key biomolecular processes, including energy conversion, molecular transport, signal transduction, and enzymatic catalysis. Within CEF, they worked in close collaboration with experimental scientists who employ a wide variety of methods.
Field theories of morphogenesis had their heyday in the 1920s, but the increasing success of genetics confined such ideas to the backwaters of biology. Gurwitsch had been ahead of his time in his interest in the emergent properties of the embryo, but more modern self-organization theories (for example, that of Ilya Prigogine), and treatments of non-equilibrium thermodynamics in living systems, would show the extent to which the vectors he described can be generated without the assumption of an over-arching field, so the search for a physical field was abandoned in favour of more neutral concepts like the paradigm of Systems Biology. The early interest in physics which inspired Gurwitsch in the end tended to render his ideas untenable.Beloussov, op.cit.
Frequency-domain techniques such as VNA-FMR, examine the magnetic response due to excitation by an RF current, the frequency of the current is swept through the GHz range and the amplitude of either the transmitted or reflected current can be measured. Modern ultrafast lasers allow femtosecond (fs) temporal resolution for time- domain techniques, such tools are now standard in laboratory environments. Based on the magneto-optic Kerr effect, TR-MOKE is a pump-probe technique where a pulsed laser source illuminates the sample with two separate laser beams. The 'pump' beam is designed to excite or perturb the sample from equilibrium, it is very intense designed to create highly non-equilibrium conditions within the sample material, exciting the electron, and thereby subsequently the phonon and the spin system.
Anderson transition-multifractal Jayannavar's research interests have been in the interdisciplinary areas of condensed matter physics, with special focus on Theoretical Condensed Matter Physics, Stochastic processes, Non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, Classical and Quantum problems in random media and physics of mesoscopic systems. High temperature superconductors, thermal ratchets and molecular motors, heat pumps at nanoscales, Anderson localization, delay times, random lasers, giant diffusion; fluctuation theorems are some of the areas he has worked on and he is reported to have made significant contributions in the elucidation of a number theoretical problems. His studies have been documented by way of a number of articles and the online article repository of the Indian Academy of Sciences has listed 168 of them. He is also a former member of the editorial boards of science journals viz.
However, in stronger bias regimes a more sophisticated treatment is required, as there is no longer a variational principle. In the elastic tunneling case (where the passing electron does not exchange energy with the system), the formalism of Rolf Landauer can be used to calculate the transmission through the system as a function of bias voltage, and hence the current. In inelastic tunneling, an elegant formalism based on the non-equilibrium Green's functions of Leo Kadanoff and Gordon Baym, and independently by Leonid Keldysh was advanced by Ned Wingreen and Yigal Meir. This Meir-Wingreen formulation has been used to great success in the molecular electronics community to examine the more difficult and interesting cases where the transient electron exchanges energy with the molecular system (for example through electron-phonon coupling or electronic excitations).
Cooper was born in 1985 in Southern New Jersey to her Korean mother and African-American father, who was a World War II veteran. Cooper received a B.A. in Physics from Hampton University in 2006, followed by a Masters and Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering with a concentration in thermal fluid sciences from Drexel University. Cooper's dissertation focused on non-equilibrium plasma sterilization of spacecraft materials, enabling her to obtain a position with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's (JPL) Planetary Protection Group in 2011. Cooper is the Lead of Planetary Protection for the Mars 2020 Mission and is involved with the InSight Mission, which involves preventing NASA satellites and probes from contaminating other planets or moons with microorganisms and technologies which are able to search for and monitor the persistence of life in extreme environments.
While for bodies in their own thermodynamic equilibrium states, the notion of temperature requires that all empirical thermometers must agree as to which of two bodies is the hotter or that they are at the same temperature, this requirement is not safe for bodies that are in steady states though not in thermodynamic equilibrium. It can then well be that different empirical thermometers disagree about which is the hotter, and if this is so, then at least one of the bodies does not have a well defined absolute thermodynamic temperature. Nevertheless, any one given body and any one suitable empirical thermometer can still support notions of empirical, non-absolute, hotness and temperature, for a suitable range of processes. This is a matter for study in non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
Various energy sources, including thermal energy, UV-radiation, irradiation with high-energy (terawatt) laser pulses, or slow protons were tested. Mimics of different formamide-based prebiotic scenarios have been reconstructed and analyzed, including space-wise solar wind irradiation of meteorites, dynamic chemical gardens, and meteorites in aqueous environments. It has been suggested that the stepwise decrease of the temperature of the prebiotic environment could induce a sequence of strongly non-equilibrium chemical events that led to the emergence of more and more complex species from formamide on the early Earth., For each studied combination of catalyst/energy source/environment, formamide condensed into a variety of different prebiotically relevant compounds, each combination giving rise to a specific set of relatively complex molecules, usually encompassing several nucleobases, amino acids, and carboxylic acids.
The principle is widely accepted as physical law, but in recent years it has been challenged for using circular reasoning and faulty assumptions, notably in Earman and Norton (1998), and subsequently in Shenker (2000)Logic and Entropy Critique by Orly Shenker (2000) and Norton (2004,Eaters of the Lotus Critique by John Norton (2004) 2011Waiting for Landauer Response by Norton (2011)), and defended by Bennett (2003), Ladyman et al. (2007),The Connection between Logical and Thermodynamic Irreversibility Defense by Ladyman et al. (2007) and by Jordan and Manikandan (2019).Some Like It Hot, Letter to the Editor in reply to Norton's article by A. Jordan and S. Manikandan (2019) On the other hand, recent advances in non-equilibrium statistical physics have established that there is no a priori relationship between logical and thermodynamic reversibility.
Speculation about higher oxidation states for mercury had existed since the 1970s, and theoretical calculations in the 1990s predicted that it should be stable in the gas phase, with a square-planar geometry consistent with a formal d8 configuration. However, experimental proof remained elusive until 2007, when HgF4 was first prepared using solid neon and argon for matrix isolation at a temperature of 4 K. The compound was detected using infrared spectroscopy. Analysis of density functional theory and coupled cluster calculations showed that the d orbitals are involved in bonding, leading to the suggestion that mercury should be considered a transition metal after all. However, that conclusion has been challenged by W. B. Jensen with the argument that HgF4 only exists under highly atypical non- equilibrium conditions and should best be considered as an exception.
Limits to arbitrage is a theory in financial economics that, due to restrictions that are placed on funds that would ordinarily be used by rational traders to arbitrage away pricing inefficiencies, prices may remain in a non-equilibrium state for protracted periods of time. The efficient- market hypothesis assumes that whenever mispricing of a publicly traded stock occurs, an opportunity for low-risk profit is created for rational traders. The low-risk profit opportunity exists through the tool of arbitrage, which, briefly, is buying and selling differently priced items of the same value, and pocketing the difference. If a stock falls away from its equilibrium price (let us say it becomes undervalued) due to irrational trading (noise traders), rational investors will (in this case) take a long position while going short a proxy security, or another stock with similar characteristics.
William Ferrel's tide-predicting machine of 1881-2, now at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History Modern scientific study of tides dates back to Isaac Newton's Principia of 1687, in which he applied the theory of gravitation to make a first approximation of the effects of the Moon and Sun on the Earth's tidal waters. The approximation developed by Newton and his successors of the next 90 years is known as the 'equilibrium theory' of tides. Beginning in the 1770s, Pierre-Simon Laplace made a fundamental advance on the equilibrium approximation by bringing into consideration non-equilibrium dynamical aspects of the motion of tidal waters that occurs in response to the tide-generating forces due to the Moon and Sun. Laplace's improvements in theory were substantial, but they still left prediction in an approximate state.
Rayleigh (1873) (and in Sections 81 and 345 of Rayleigh (1896/1926)) introduced the dissipation function for the description of dissipative processes involving viscosity. More general versions of this function have been used by many subsequent investigators of the nature of dissipative processes and dynamical structures. Rayleigh's dissipation function was conceived of from a mechanical viewpoint, and it did not refer in its definition to temperature, and it needed to be 'generalized' to make a dissipation function suitable for use in non- equilibrium thermodynamics. Studying jets of water from a nozzle, Rayleigh (1878, 1896/1926) noted that when a jet is in a state of conditionally stable dynamical structure, the mode of fluctuation most likely to grow to its full extent and lead to another state of conditionally stable dynamical structure is the one with the fastest growth rate.
The equilibrium states are each respectively fully specified by a suitable set of thermodynamic state variables, that depend only on the current state of the system, not the path taken by the processes that produce the state. In general, during the actual course of a thermodynamic process, the system passes through physical states which are not describable as thermodynamic states, because they are far from internal thermodynamic equilibrium. Such a process may therefore be admitted for non-equilibrium thermodynamics, but not be admitted for equilibrium thermodynamics, which primarily aims to describe the continuous passage along the path, at definite rates of progress. Though not so in general, it is, however, possible, that a process may take place slowly or smoothly enough to allow its description to be usefully approximated by a continuous path of equilibrium thermodynamic states.
Punit Boolchand is a materials scientist, a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computing Systems (EECS) in the College of Engineering and Applied Science (CEAS) at the University of Cincinnati (UC), where he is director of the Solid State Physics and Electronic Materials LaboratoryUniversity of Cincinnati He discovered the Intermediate Phase: an elastically percolative network glass distinguished from traditional (clustered) liquid–gas spinodals by strong non-local long-range interactions. The IP characterizes space-filling, nearly stress-free and non-aging, critically self-organized non-equilibrium glassy networks (such as window glass, ineluctably complex high-temperature superconductors, microelectronic Si/SiO2 high-k dielectric interfaces, and protein folding). His experimental data over a 25-year period (1982–2007) formed the basis for the theory of network glasses developed by James Charles Phillips and Michael Thorpe. The theory was adopted by Corning Inc.
TCP-seq is based on these capabilities of the high- throughput RNA sequencing and further uses the nucleic acid protection phenomenon. The protection is manifested as resistance to depolymerisation or modification of stretches of nucleic acids (particularly, RNA) that are tightly bound to or engulfed with other biomolecules, which thus leave their “footprints” over the nucleic acid strand. These “footprint” fragments therefore represent location on nucleic acid chain where the interaction occurs. By sequencing and mapping the fragments back to the source sequence, it is possible to precisely identify the locations and counts of these intermolecular contacts. In case of TCP-seq, ribosomes and ribosomal subunits engaged in interaction with mRNA are first fast chemically crosslinked to it with formaldehyde to preserve existing state of interactions (“snapshot” of distribution) and to block any possible non-equilibrium processes.
The basic idea underlying EIT is to upgrade to the status of independent variables the non-equilibrium internal energy, matter, momentum and electrical fluxes. The choice of the fluxes as variables finds its roots in Grad's thirteen-moment kinetic theory of gases, which therefore provides the natural basis for the development of EIT. The main consequence of the selection of fluxes as state variables is that the constitutive equations of Fourier, Fick, Newton and Ohm are replaced by first-order time evolution equations including memory and non-local effects. The selection of the fluxes as variables is not a mere arbitrary act if it is recalled that in the everyday life, fluxes may play a leading role as for instance in traffic control (flux of cars), economy (flux of money), and the World Wide Web (flux of information).
In 1931, Lars Onsager proposed that the regression of microscopic thermal fluctuations at equilibrium follows the macroscopic law of relaxation of small non-equilibrium disturbances. This is known as the Onsager regression hypothesis. As the values of microscopic variables separated by large timescales, \tau, should be uncorrelated beyond what we would expect from thermodynamic equilibrium, the evolution in time of a correlation function can be viewed from a physical standpoint as the system gradually 'forgetting' the initial conditions placed upon it via the specification of some microscopic variable. There is actually an intuitive connection between the time evolution of correlation functions and the time evolution of macroscopic systems: on average, the correlation function evolves in time in the same manner as if a system was prepared in the conditions specified by the correlation function's initial value and allowed to evolve.
Extending through the five top layers of the surface, the unit cell of the reconstruction contains 12 adatoms as well as two triangular subunits, nine dimers and a deep corner hole that extends to the fourth and fifth layers. This structure was gradually inferred from LEED and RHEED measurements as well as calculation, and was finally resolved in real space by Gerd Binnig, Heinrich Rohrer, Ch. Gerber and E. Weibel as a demonstration of the STM, which was developed by Binnig and Rohrer at IBM's Zurich Research Laboratory. The full structure with positions of all reconstructed atoms has also been confirmed by massively parallel computation. A number of similar DAS reconstructions have also been observed on Si (111) in non-equilibrium conditions in a (2n+1)×(2n+1) pattern, and include 3×3, 5×5 and 9×9 reconstructions.
Murty's Ph.D. dissertation was titled "Study of Amorphous Phase Formation by Mechanical Alloying in Ti Based Systems", in which he started one of the earliest works in Mechanical alloying in India. His research interests span over nanocrystalline metals and alloys, High entropy alloys, Bulk metallic glass, quasicrystalline alloys, grain refinement and modification of Al alloys, Al-based composites, in-situ composites, non-equilibrium processing, particulate technologies, thermodynamics and kinetics of phase transformations, transmission electron microscopy and Atom-probe tomography. He has set up a National Facility for Atom Probe Tomography at IIT Madras with a remotely operable Local Electrode Atom Probe (LEAP) (first such facility globally) that can characterize materials in 3D at the atomic scale. He has also set up Deakin-IITM Centre of Excellence on Advanced Materials and Manufacturing at IIT Madras jointly with Deakin University, Australia.
It also allows for a higher ratio of UF4 to helium, which in the terrestrial version would be kept just high enough to ensure criticality in order to increase the efficiency of direct conversion. The terrestrial version is designed for a vapor core inlet temperature of about 1,500 K and exit temperature of 2,500 K and a UF4 to helium ratio of around 20% to 60%. It is thought that the outlet temperature could be raised to that of the 8,000 K to 15,000 K range where the exhaust would be a fission-generated non-equilibrium electron gas, which would be of much more importance for a rocket design. A terrestrial version of the VCR's flow schematic can be found in reference 2 and in the summary of non-classical nuclear systems in the second external link.
The potential energy surfaces of an E ⊗ e Jahn–Teller effect Sinha's theoretical work covered various aspects of solid state physics and he has made significant contributions in the field of crystal magnetism. His early work during his doctoral and post-doctoral days was based on condensed matter theory, semiconductors, quantum well, Cold Fusion, phonons, and photon-induced effects in solids. Later, he worked on the origin of giant magnetic moments as well as exciton and electron phase transitions in solids, and developed an electronic pairing mechanism related to bosons and biexcitons for predicting the phenomenon of photon. He elucidated superconductivity at high temperatures by way of a non-equilibrium mechanism and also developed a statistical theory on the origin of ferroelectricity and structural phase transitions induced by cooperative Jahn- Teller effect; his work on the magnetism is described in one of his books.
Researchers who study cell mechanics are interested in the mechanics and dynamics of the assemblies and structures that make up the cell including membranes, cytoskeleton, organelles, and cytoplasm, and how they interact to give rise to the emergent properties of the cell as a whole. A particular focus of many cell mechanical studies has been the cytoskeleton, which (in animal cells) can be thought to consist of: # actomyosin assemblies (F-actin, myosin motors, and associated binding, nucleating, capping, stabilizing, and crosslinking proteins), # microtubules and their associated motor proteins (kinesins and dyneins), # intermediate filaments, # other assemblies such as spectrins and septins. The active non-equilibrium and non-linear rheological properties of cellular assemblies have been keen point of research in recent times. Another point of interest has been how cell cycle-related changes in cytoskeletal activity affect global cell properties, such as intracellular pressure increase during mitotic cell rounding.
Diagram made by Antony Valentini in a lecture about the De Broglie–Bohm theory. Valentini argues quantum theory is a special equilibrium case of a wider physics and that it may be possible to observe and exploit quantum non-equilibrium De Broglie and Bohm's causal interpretation of quantum mechanics was later extended by Bohm, Vigier, Hiley, Valentini and others to include stochastic properties. Bohm and other physicists, including Valentini, view the Born rule linking R to the probability density function \rho = R^2 as representing not a basic law, but a result of a system having reached quantum equilibrium during the course of the time development under the Schrödinger equation. It can be shown that, once an equilibrium has been reached, the system remains in such equilibrium over the course of its further evolution: this follows from the continuity equation associated with the Schrödinger evolution of \psi.
Josiah Willard Gibbs In statistical mechanics, the Gibbs algorithm, introduced by J. Willard Gibbs in 1902, is a criterion for choosing a probability distribution for the statistical ensemble of microstates of a thermodynamic system by minimizing the average log probability : \langle\ln p_i\rangle = \sum_i p_i \ln p_i \, subject to the probability distribution satisfying a set of constraints (usually expectation values) corresponding to the known macroscopic quantities. in 1948, Claude Shannon interpreted the negative of this quantity, which he called information entropy, as a measure of the uncertainty in a probability distribution. In 1957, E.T. Jaynes realized that this quantity could be interpreted as missing information about anything, and generalized the Gibbs algorithm to non-equilibrium systems with the principle of maximum entropy and maximum entropy thermodynamics. Physicists call the result of applying the Gibbs algorithm the Gibbs distribution for the given constraints, most notably Gibbs's grand canonical ensemble for open systems when the average energy and the average number of particles are given.
This approach of materials synthesis via non-equilibrium techniques and understanding the intricate structure-property correlations have led to the discovery of Q-carbon and Q-BN: the new densely-packed amorphous allotropes in carbon and boron nitride far from equilibrium. The doping of Boron in Q-carbon has resulted in polyamorphism and type-II high-temperature superconductivity in B-doped Q-carbon with superconducting transition temperature of 55 K Utilizing the DME epitaxial paradigm, the group integrated VO2 with Si for development of smart infrared sensors on a single computer chip. These research developments, especially in III-Nitrides were recognized by the American Institute of Physics for the Nobel Prize in Physics on blue light emitting diodes (LEDs) made from Gallium Nitride-based materials. One of the key research work was singled out by the American Institute of Physics with the focus on the development of GaN-based materials used in the Nobel Laureates’ work.
Josef Loschmidt's criticism was provoked by the H-theorem of Boltzmann, which employed kinetic theory to explain the increase of entropy in an ideal gas from a non-equilibrium state, when the molecules of the gas are allowed to collide. In 1876, Loschmidt pointed out that if there is a motion of a system from time t0 to time t1 to time t2 that leads to a steady decrease of H (increase of entropy) with time, then there is another allowed state of motion of the system at t1, found by reversing all the velocities, in which H must increase. This revealed that one of Boltzmann's key assumptions, molecular chaos, or, the Stosszahlansatz, that all particle velocities were completely uncorrelated, did not follow from Newtonian dynamics. One can assert that possible correlations are uninteresting, and therefore decide to ignore them; but if one does so, one has changed the conceptual system, injecting an element of time-asymmetry by that very action.
In his work a simple example of an anharmonic oscillator driven by a superposition of incoherent sinusoidal oscillations with continuous spectrum was used to show that depending on a specific approximation time scale the evolution of the system can be either deterministic, or a stochastic process satisfying Fokker–Planck equation, or even a process which is neither deterministic nor stochastic. In other words, he showed that depending on the choice of the time scale for the corresponding approximations the same stochastic process can be regarded as both dynamical and Markovian, and in the general case as a non-Markov process. This work was the first to introduce the notion of time hierarchy in non-equilibrium statistical physics which then became the key concept in all further development of the statistical theory of irreversible processes. In 1945, Bogolyubov proved a fundamental theorem on the existence and basic properties of a one-parameter integral manifold for a system of non-linear differential equations.
" With a temperature gradient greater than the minimum, viscosity can dissipate kinetic energy as fast as it is released by convection due to buoyancy, and a steady state with convection is stable. The steady state with convection is often a pattern of macroscopically visible hexagonal cells with convection up or down in the middle or at the 'walls' of each cell, depending on the temperature dependence of the quantities; in the atmosphere under various conditions it seems that either is possible. (Some details are discussed by Lebon, Jou, and Casas-Vásquez (2008) on pages 143–158.) With a temperature gradient less than the minimum, viscosity and heat conduction are so effective that convection cannot keep going. Glansdorff and Prigogine (1971) on page xv wrote "Dissipative structures have a quite different [from equilibrium structures] status: they are formed and maintained through the effect of exchange of energy and matter in non-equilibrium conditions.
This is part of the reason why heat is defined following Carathéodory and Born, solely as occurring other than by work or transfer of matter; temperature is advisedly and deliberately not mentioned in this now widely accepted definition. This is also the reason that the zeroth law of thermodynamics is stated explicitly. If three physical systems, A, B, and C are each not in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, it is possible that, with suitable physical connections being made between them, A can heat B and B can heat C and C can heat A. In non-equilibrium situations, cycles of flow are possible. It is the special and uniquely distinguishing characteristic of internal thermodynamic equilibrium that this possibility is not open to thermodynamic systems (as distinguished amongst physical systems) which are in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium; this is the reason why the zeroth law of thermodynamics needs explicit statement.
IIT Bombay Born on 11 July 1960, Madan Rao did his master's studies at the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay to earn an MSc in physics in 1982 and proceeded to do his doctoral studies on Hysteresis in Model Spin Systems at the Indian Institute of Science under the guidance of H. R. Krishnamurthy and Rahul Pandit, Both Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureates. After securing a PhD in 1988, he continued at IISc to do his post-doctoral work, mentored by M. Wortis, in the disciplines of membranes, soft matter and non-equilibrium statistical mechanics. Hr started his career as an associate professor at Raman Research Institute in 1989 and moved to the National Centre for Biological Sciences, a centre for advanced studies on biological research, when "Simon's Centre for the Study of Living Machines", then known as "Theory Group", was established there, where he holds the position of a senior professor. At NCBS, he works in close association with Satyajit Mayor, a biologist and a Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate.
In higher symmetry groups and in reality, the vacuum is not a calm, randomly fluctuating, largely immaterial and passive substance, but at times can be viewed as a turbulent virtual plasma that can have complex vortices (i.e. solitons vis-à-vis particles), entangled states and a rich nonlinear structure. There are many observed nonlinear physical electromagnetic phenomena such as Aharonov–Bohm (AB) and Altshuler–Aronov–Spivak (AAS) effects, Berry, Aharonov–Anandan, Pancharatnam and Chiao–Wu phase rotation effects, Josephson effect, Quantum Hall effect, the de Haas–van Alphen effect, the Sagnac effect and many other physically observable phenomena which would indicate that the electromagnetic potential field has real physical meaning rather than being a mathematical artifact and therefore an all encompassing theory would not confine electromagnetism as a local force as is currently done, but as a SU(2) gauge theory or higher geometry. Higher symmetries allow for nonlinear, aperiodic behaviour which manifest as a variety of complex non-equilibrium phenomena that do not arise in the linearised U(1) theory, such as multiple stable states, symmetry breaking, chaos and emergence.
Although the argument by Landauer and Bennett only answers the consistency between the second law of thermodynamics and the whole cyclic process of the entire system of a Szilard engine (a composite system of the engine and the demon), a recent approach based on the non-equilibrium thermodynamics for small fluctuating systems has provided deeper insight on each information process with each subsystem. From this viewpoint, the measurement process is regarded as a process where the correlation (mutual information) between the engine and the demon increases, and the feedback process is regarded as a process where the correlation decreases. If the correlation changes, thermodynamic relations as the second law of thermodynamics and the fluctuation theorem for each subsystem should be modified, and for the case of external control a second-law like inequality and a generalized fluctuation theorem with mutual information are satisfied. These relations suggest that we need extra thermodynamic cost to increase correlation (measurement case), and in contrast we can apparently violate the second law up to the consumption of correlation (feedback case).
Inspired by Ben-Jacob's observations of how bacteria can spontaneously order their motion during collective swarming, the groups of T. Vicsek and Ben-Jacob devised a simple model able to generate non-equilibrium states that violate the usual physics theorems for equilibrium states. This work has led to the creating of a new field of multi-agent swarming (swarming intelligence), proposed to explain a wide variety of phenomena ranging from collective navigation (swarming intelligence) of bacteria, amoeba and insects, to flocking of birds and schools of fish as well as to the design of autonomous vehicles capable of functional self-organization even in the absence of an overall omniscient controller. Using fratricide to fight bacteria: In 2000, Ben-Jacob's group discovered a fascinating phenomenon of competition between two sibling bacteria colonies of the P. dendritiformis when inoculated side by side. Recent studies of the phenomenon revealed that the two colonies not only inhibited each other from growing into the territory between them but induced the death of those cells close to the border.
He created and directed between 1991 and 2005 the Science Museum of the "la Caixa" Foundation in Barcelona, also leading the renewal of the same that culminated in 2004 in what is now called CosmoCaixa, with headquarters in Barcelona and Madrid. In 2005, the Generalitat de Catalunya awarded him the National Prize for Scientific Thought and Culture for his work imagining and creating the new Cosmocaixa. He remained the scientific director of the la Caixa Foundation until 2014. As a scientist, Wagensberg made contributions to the production of scientific thought, in different fields, such as: thermodynamics of non-equilibrium, thermodynamics of microbiological crops, Monte Carlo method, theoretical biology, entomology, taphonomy, philosophy of science and scientific museology in specialized journals such as Journal of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics, Physics A, American Journal of Physics, The Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids, Journal of Theoretical Biology, Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), Scandinavian Entomology, Beiträge zur Entomologie, Biology and Philosophy, Biological Theory, Computer Applications in Biosciences (CABIOS), Museum Practice or ECSITE News Letters.
Yablonsky – together with Lazman, developed the general form of steady-state kinetic description (‘kinetic polynomial’) which is a non- linear generalization of many theoretical expressions proposed previously (Langmuir – Hinshelwood and Hougen–Watson equations).M. Lazman and G.S. Yablonsky, "Overall Reaction Rate Equation of Single Route Catalytic Reaction", Advances in Chemical Engineering, 34:47–102, 2008 Yablonsky also created a theory of precise catalyst characterization for the advanced worldwide experimental technique (temporal analysis of products) developed by John T. Gleaves, Washington University in St. Louis.S.O. Shekhtman, G.S. Yablonsky, S. Chen, J.T. Gleaves, " Thin-Zone TAP-Reactor – Theory and Application ", Chemical Engineering Science, 54:4371–7378, 1999 In 2008–2011, Yablonsky – together with Constales and Marin (University of Gent, Belgium) and Alexander Gorban (University of Leicester, UK) – obtained new results on coincidences and intersections in kinetic dependences, and found a new type of symmetry relations between the observable and initial kinetic data.G. S. Yablonsky, D. Constales, G. Marin, "Coincidences in Chemical Kinetics: Surprising News about Simple Reactions", Chemical Engineering Science, 65:6065–6076, 2010G. S. Yablonsky, D. Constales, G. Marin, "Equilibrium relationships for non-equilibrium chemical dependences", Chemical Engineering Science, 66:111–114, 2011G.
Among the further results of these events, fewer local taxes are collected in a time when more social services is required and a vicious downward cumulative cycle is started and a trend towards a lower level of development will be further reinforced. A status of non-equilibrium is shaped, or as he writes: About Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions Myrdal wrote that ‘the argument moves on a general and methodological plane in the sense that the theory is discussed as a complex of broad structures of thought’ (His aim was to submit ‘broad generalisations, as a ‘theory’ is permitted to be, (in order to) grasp the social facts as they organize themselves into a pattern when viewed under a bird's-eye perspective Into this general vision, the specific characteristic. source:(Myrdal, G. 1957, Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions, London: University Paperbacks, Methuen)) Myrdal developed further the circular cumulative causation concept and stated that it makes different assumptions from that of stable equilibrium on what can be considered the most important forces guiding the evolution of social processes. These forces characterise the dynamics of these processes in two diverse ways.
The (apparent) paradox between the second law of thermodynamics and the high degree of order and complexity produced by living systems, according to Avery, has its resolution "in the information content of the Gibbs free energy that enters the biosphere from outside sources." Assuming evolution drives organisms towards higher information content, it is postulated by Gregory Chaitin that life has properties of high mutual information, and by Tamvakis that life can be quantified using mutual information density metrics, a generalisation of the concept of Biodiversity. In a study titled "Natural selection for least action" published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society A., Ville Kaila and Arto Annila of the University of Helsinki describe how the process of natural selection responsible for such local increase in order may be mathematically derived directly from the expression of the second law equation for connected non-equilibrium open systems. The second law of thermodynamics can be written as an equation of motion to describe evolution, showing how natural selection and the principle of least action can be connected by expressing natural selection in terms of chemical thermodynamics.
It follows that there is no well-founded definition of quantities of energy transferred as heat or as work associated with transfer of matter. Nevertheless, for the thermodynamical description of non-equilibrium processes, it is desired to consider the effect of a temperature gradient established by the surroundings across the system of interest when there is no physical barrier or wall between system and surroundings, that is to say, when they are open with respect to one another. The impossibility of a mechanical definition in terms of work for this circumstance does not alter the physical fact that a temperature gradient causes a diffusive flux of internal energy, a process that, in the thermodynamic view, might be proposed as a candidate concept for transfer of energy as heat. In this circumstance, it may be expected that there may also be active other drivers of diffusive flux of internal energy, such as gradient of chemical potential which drives transfer of matter, and gradient of electric potential which drives electric current and iontophoresis; such effects usually interact with diffusive flux of internal energy driven by temperature gradient, and such interactions are known as cross-effects.

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