119 Sentences With "noble metal" | Random Sentence Generator

Copper is a noble metal, which means that it does not react readily with other substances.

It would transform from being a waxy, red substance to being a noble metal, such as gold.

Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach intermediate temperatures, as covered by nickel-alloy thermocouple types E, J, K, M, N, T. Also shown are the noble-metal alloy type P and the pure noble-metal combinations gold–platinum and platinum–palladium.

However, as a noble metal, palladium is not as mobile in the environment as iodine or technetium.

Despite being considered a semi-noble metal, copper is one of the most common salt-forming transition metals, along with iron.

The diaphragm further avoids the mixing of the produced hydrogen and oxygen at the cathode and anode, respectively. Typically, Nickel based metals are used as the electrodes for alkaline water electrolysis. Considering pure metals, Ni is the most active non-noble metal. The high price of good noble metal electrocatalysts such as platinum group metals and their dissolution during the oxygen evolution is a drawback.

Depending on how the sulfide/ sulfate layer was formed, this layer may protect the underlying brass from further damage. Although copper and zinc have a large difference in electrical potential, the resulting brass alloy does not experience internalized galvanic corrosion because of the absence of a corrosive environment within the mixture. However, if brass is placed in contact with a more noble metal such as silver or gold in such an environment, the brass will corrode galvanically; conversely, if brass is in contact with a less-noble metal such as zinc or iron, the less noble metal will corrode and the brass will be protected.

It was the first description of a compound between a noble gas and a noble metal. It was first described in 2000 by Konrad Seppelt and Stefan Seidel.

A sacrificial layer of a noble metal can be used on the base metal as an oxygen barrier, preventing formation of oxides and facilitating fluxless brazing. During brazing, the noble metal layer dissolves in the filler metal. Copper or nickel plating of stainless steels performs the same function. In brazing copper, a reducing atmosphere (or even a reducing flame) may react with the oxygen residues in the metal, which are present as cuprous oxide inclusions, and cause hydrogen embrittlement.

Astley Clarke is known for their use of coloured gemstones, coloured Noble metal and diamonds. In 2013 Astley Clarke’s founder, Bec Astley Clarke, was awarded an MBE for services to the jewellery industry.

In chemistry, the term base metal is used informally to refer to a metal that is easily oxidized or corroded, such as reacting easily with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form a metal chloride and hydrogen. Examples include iron, nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is considered a base metal as it is oxidized relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl. Rhodium, a noble metal, shown here as 1 g of powder, a 1 g pressed cylinder, and a 1 g pellet The term noble metal is commonly used in opposition to base metal.

Jewelry made out of silver, a noble metal, has been common for centuries in all forms of jewelry. It has a certain luster and can also be treated to make certain areas black which gives a nice contrast.

In thermal engineering, vapor quality is used for the mass fraction of vapor in the steam. In alloys, especially those of noble metals, the term fineness is used for the mass fraction of the noble metal in the alloy.

2885-2893, 2010. or conventional heating Chen, P., Zhang, X., Miao, Z., Han, B., An, G. & Liu, Z., In-situ Synthesis of Noble Metal Nanoparticles in Alginate Solution and their Application in Catalysis, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 9(4), pp.

Calculations indicate that copernicium may show the oxidation state +4, while mercury shows it in only one compound of disputed existence and zinc and cadmium do not show it at all. It has also been predicted to be more difficult to oxidize copernicium from its neutral state than the other group 12 elements, and indeed copernicium is expected to be the most noble metal on the periodic table. Solid copernicium is expected to be bound mostly by dispersion forces, like the noble gases; predictions on its band structure are varied, ranging from a noble metal to a semiconductor or even an insulator.

Various methods can be used to detect TNT, including optical and electrochemical sensors and explosive-sniffing dogs. In 2013, researchers from the Indian Institutes of Technology using noble-metal quantum clusters could detect TNT at the sub-zeptomolar (10−18 mol/m3) level.

Being a noble metal, pure rhodium is inert. Not surprisingly then, in elemental form, the metal is harmless. However, chemical complexes of rhodium can be reactive. For rhodium chloride, the median lethal dose (LD50) for rats is 198 mg () per kilogram of body weight.

Copper has been used since antiquity in architectural constructions because it is a noble metal – one of a few that can be found naturally in the ground. This makes it a durable, weatherproof and corrosion-resistant material with an indefinite lifetime in most soils. Although copper is extracted from the ground itself and is a noble metal - and is therefore almost completely impervious to corrosion from soils found worldwide - it might still undergo some corrosion in abnormally aggressive soils. It generally requires an oxidizing environment to start corrosion, and most soils are reducing, thus they contribute electrons to the copper and protect it against corrosion.

Gold nanoparticles, P. R. Sajanlal and T. Pradeep, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia (2011). 3\. Noble metal nanoparticles, T. S. Sreeprasad and T. Pradeep, Springer Handbook of Nanomaterials, R. Vajtai (Ed.), Springer, Heidelberg, 2013. 4\. Noble metal clusters in protein templates, T. Pradeep, A. Baksi and P. L. Xavier in Functional nanometer-sized clusters of transition metals: Synthesis, properties and applications, W. Chen and S. Chen (Ed.), RSC Publishing, London, 2014. 5\. Detection and extraction of pesticides from drinking water using nanotechnologies (Second Edition), T. Pradeep, Anshup and M. S. Bootharaju, in Nanotechnology applications for clean water A. Street, R. Sustich, J. Duncan and N. Savage (Ed.), Elsevier, 2014.

Hai et al. 2012 Activated carbon and alumina have been used as catalysts for the removal of sulfur contaminants from natural gas.Kohl & Nielsen 1997, pp. 699–700 Titanium doped aluminium has been identified as a substitute for expensive noble metal catalysts used in the production of industrial chemicals.

If the film thickness is too large, which is common in real world analysis, the problem can be solved by methods such as depositing a perforated silver foil over a nickel grid onto the film surface. This yields similar results to thin films deposited directly onto a noble metal.

Rhodium is a chemical element with the symbol Rh and atomic number 45. It is an ultra-rare, silvery-white, hard, corrosion-resistant, and chemically inert transition metal. It is a noble metal and a member of the platinum group. It has only one naturally occurring isotope, 103Rh.

K.J. Patel et al., All-Solid-Thin Film Electrochromic Devices Consisting of Layers ITO / NiO / ZrO2 / WO3 / ITO, J. Nano-Electron. Phys. 5 No 2, 02023 (2013) This allows the user to tint their windows, changing the amount of heat or light passing through. 2010- AIST reports a quantum yield of 19% in photocatalytic water splitting with a caesium-enhanced tungsten oxide photocatalyst.Development of a high-performance photocatalyst that is surface- treated with cesium In 2013, highly photocatalytic active titania/tungsten (VI) oxide/noble metal (Au and Pt) composites toward oxalic acid were obtained by the means of selective noble metal photodeposition on the desired oxide's surface (either on TiO2 or on WO3).

Other noble metal-containing complexes used include ones with platinum, rhodium and iridium. Metal-free organic complexes have also been successfully employed as photosensitizers. Examples include eosin Y and rose bengal. Pyrrole rings such as porphyrins have also been used in coating nanomaterials or semiconductors for both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.

Fushun Petrochemical Company is a refining and petrochemical division of PetroChina. It is located in Fushun, Liaoning province, northeastern China. It is a manufacturer of different petrochemical products, as also catalysts for oil processing and noble metal refining. As of 2006, Fushun Petrochemicals was the world's largest producer of paraffin.

In chemistry, compounds of palladium(III) feature the noble metal palladium in the unusual +3 oxidation state (in most of its compounds, palladium has the oxidation state II). Compounds of Pd(III) occur in mononuclear and dinuclear forms. Palladium(III) is most often invoked, not observed in mechanistic organometallic chemistry.

In fact, bulk copernicium may even be an insulator with a band gap of 6.4±0.2 V, which would make it similar to the noble gases such as radon, though copernicium has previously been predicted to be a semiconductor or a noble metal instead. Copernicium oxide (CnO) is expected to be predominantly basic.

Face- centered-cubic noble metal atomic clusters are important nano-catalysts for chemical reactions. One example of this is the platinum used in automobile catalytic converters. Icosahedral twinning makes it possible to cover the entire surface of a nanoparticle with {111} facets, in cases where those particular atomic-facets show favorable catalytic activity.

It is fairly easy to "pressure weld", wherein, similarly to clay, two small pieces may be pounded together to make one larger piece. Gold is classified as a noble metal—because it does not react with most elements. It usually is found in its native form, lasting indefinitely without oxidization and tarnishing.

It is mainly available in China and Europe. A framed copper IUD called the IUB SCu300 coils when deployed and forms a three-dimensional spherical shape. It is based on a nickel titanium shape memory alloy core. In addition to copper, noble metal and progestogen IUDs; people in China can get copper IUDs with indomethacin.

14K gold barbells in front of 24K gold for color comparison. Gold is a noble metal with a long tradition for use in jewelry. When using gold for piercings, a lower purity than 14 or 18 carat (58 to 75%) is not recommended. Gold is about as soft as lead and is easily scratched.

If the substrate is not conductive, such as ABS and other plastics, one can use an activating bath containing a noble metal salt, like palladium chloride or silver nitrate, and a suitable reducing agent. Activation is done with a weak acid etch, nickel strike, or a proprietary solution, if the substrate is non-metallic.

Plasmons in semiconductor nanocrystals have potential utility for the development of optical computing. At the University of Illinois, Jain's laboratory discovered the emergence of new catalytic behavior of noble metal nanoparticles when they are excited by visible light. Under continuous light excitation, the nanoparticles become photocharged. Multiple electrons and holes can be extracted from this photocharged state.

Surface plasmon resonance can also be tuned based on the shape of the nanoparticle. The plasmon frequency can be related to the metal dielectric constant. The enhancement falls off quickly with distance from the surface and, for noble metal nanoparticles, the resonance occurs at visible wavelengths. Localized surface plasmon resonance creates brilliant colors in metal colloidal solutions.

Platinum is one of the least reactive metals. It has remarkable resistance to corrosion, even at high temperatures, and is therefore considered a noble metal. Consequently, platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum. Because it occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of various rivers, it was first used by pre-Columbian South American natives to produce artifacts.

In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode. The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a noble metal or graphite, to keep it from dissolving.

Lee is also researching ways to introduce cross- linkable guests (such as di-isocyanides or disilyltriflates) which will react with nucleophilic groups, leading to a fully covalent organic porous solid. He also hopes to develop a long range order in intermetallic phases: Examine noble metal alloys where unit cell dimensions range from just a few, to almost 104 Å.

The electrode includes a conductive disk embedded in an inert non-conductive polymer or resin that can be attached to an electric motor that has very fine control of the electrode's rotation rate. The disk, like any working electrode, is generally made of a noble metal or glassy carbon, however any conductive material can be used based on specific needs.

In physics, the definition of a noble metal is most strict. It requires that the d-bands of the electronic structure be filled. From this perspective, only copper, silver and gold are noble metals, as all d-like bands are filled and do not cross the Fermi level. However, d-hybridized bands do cross the Fermi level to a small extent.

Gaining insight from this work, Tsuji hypothesized that a similar activation could take place to form carbon- carbon bonds. In 1965, Tsuji reported work that confirmed his hypothesis. By reacting an allylpalladium chloride dimer with the sodium salt of diethyl malonate, the group was able to form a mixture of monoalkylated and dialkylated product.Organic syntheses by means of noble metal compounds XVII.

For example, an extension wire may be in a different form, such as highly flexible with stranded construction and plastic insulation, or be part of a multi-wire cable for carrying many thermocouple circuits. With expensive noble metal thermocouples, the extension wires may even be made of a completely different, cheaper material that mimics the standard type over a reduced temperature range.

In 1978 he published a paper in which he described the strange spectroscopic and electrochemical behaviour of caesium and gold solution in liquid ammonia - pale yellow instead of blue colour was observed. This confirmed the existence of the auride ion Au−, which is a rare example of a single noble metal anion. He was the sixth editor of the Journal of Chemical Education (1979–1996).

An example is the dithiol 1,4-Benzenedimethanethiol (SHCH2C6H4CH2SH)). Interest in such dithiols stems from the possibility of linking the two sulfur ends to metallic contacts, which was first used in molecular conduction measurements. Thiols are frequently used on noble metal substrates because of the strong affinity of sulfur for these metals. The sulfur gold interaction is semi-covalent and has a strength of approximately 45kcal/mol.

ODS materials are used on space crafts as a layer designed to protect the vehicle, especially during re-entry into the atmosphere. Also, noble metal alloy ODS materials, for example, platinum-based alloys, are used in glass production. When it comes to re-entry at hypersonic speeds, the properties of gases change dramatically. Shock waves that can cause serious damage on any structure are created.

In pharmacology and medicine vectorization of drugs refers to (intracellular) targeting with plastic, noble metal or silicon nanoparticles or liposomes to which pharmacologically active substances are reversibly bound or attached by adsorption. CNRS researchers have devised a way to overcome the problem of multidrug resistance using polyalkylcyanoacrylate (PACA) nanoparticles as "vectors". Drug nanocarriers are expected to play a major role in delivering multiple drugs to tumor tissues by overcoming biological barriers.

Pradeep has been advocating the use of noble metal-based nanotechnology for purifying the environment. As scientific understanding of the health effects of contaminants increases, it is likely that their allowed limits will be continuously revised. The contaminants levels are expected to reach molecular limits in the years to come. This implies that the technologies we use have to become molecule-specific and nanotechnology becomes the obvious choice.

This methodology was used to collect high quality mass spectra of diverse analytes. Besides the advantage of low internal energy of the ions, which preserves fragile species and intermediates, the methodology helps in miniaturising mass spectrometry. Ion-based chemistry is now used to synthesise structures such as metal grasslands, extending over cm2 areas. He discovered noble metal nanoparticle-based drinking water purification methods and developed the world’s first drinking water filters utilising nanochemistry.

Selective leaching, also called dealloying, demetalification, parting and selective corrosion, is a corrosion type in some solid solution alloys, when in suitable conditions a component of the alloys is preferentially leached from the material. The less noble metal is removed from the alloy by a microscopic-scale galvanic corrosion mechanism. The most susceptible alloys are the ones containing metals with high distance between each other in the galvanic series, e.g. copper and zinc in brass.

Trifluoramine oxide was first discovered in 1966 independently by two different groups. One way to produce it was by an electric discharge in a mixture of oxygen on nitrogen trifluoride. Another even less yielding method is by reacting noble metal fluorides (IrF6 or PtF6) with nitric oxide. It is separated by distillation, and can be purified by treating it with potassium hydroxide solution which reacts with the other fluorine containing molecules produced.

NuVant produces a carbon cloth called ELAT which maximizes gas transport to the PEM as well as moves water vapor away from the PEM. Imbedding ELAT with noble metal catalyst allows this carbon cloth to also act as the electrode. Many other different methods and procedures also exist for the production of MEAs which are quite similar between fuel cells and electrolyzers. Platinum is one of the most commonly used catalysts, however other platinum group metals are also used.

Galvanic corrosion is a process that degrades metals electrochemically. This corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other in the presence of an electrolyte, such as salt water, forming a galvanic cell with H2 formation on the more noble metal. The resulting electrochemical potential then develops an electric current that electrolytically dissolves the less noble material. A concentration cell can be formed if the same metal is exposed to two different concentrations of electrolyte.

All metals, apart from pure gold, will corrode naturally when exposed to certain chemicals which can be present in air. High relative humidity, moisture, and air pollutants are common causes of corrosion in metals, including silver. Silver is known in the chemistry world as a noble metal which means it is resistant to corrosion, but not completely. Whether silver plating or pure silver, the composite of the metal will tarnish when exposed to air and sulfur.

At subwavelength scales the cell's impedance becomes dependent on shape, size, material and the optical frequency illumination. The particle's orientation with the optical electric field may also help determine the impedance. Conventional silicon dielectrics have the real permittivity component εreal > 0 at optical frequencies, causing the nanoparticle to act as a capacitive impedance, a nanocapacitor. Conversely, if the material is a noble metal such as gold or silver, with εreal < 0, then it takes on inductive characteristics, becoming a nanoinductor.

The price per watt of solar energy is lower than one dollar. Research is ongoing to use nanowires and other nanostructured materials with the hope of to create cheaper and more efficient solar cells than are possible with conventional planar silicon solar cells. Another example is the use of fuel cells powered by hydrogen, potentially using a catalyst consisting of carbon supported noble metal particles with diameters of 1–5 nm. Materials with small nanosized pores may be suitable for hydrogen storage.

The advantages are the increase in activity, selectivity and stability and the cost reduction. Metals can be combined in different ways such as in the core-shell bimetallic structure: the cheapest metal forms the core and the most active one (typically a noble metal) constitutes the shell. By adopting this design, the use of rare and expensive metals can be reduced down to 20%. One of the future challenges is to find new stable materials, with good activity and especially low cost.

The nature of the ultra-high vacuum is that it ensures the sample remains constant during analysis as well as ensuring the high energy ion beam strikes the sample. Ultra-high vacuum solves many of the problems that need to be considered during sample preparation. When preparing the sample for analysis, another thing that should be considered is the thickness of the film. Typically, if a thin monolayer can be deposited onto the surface of a noble metal, analysis should be successful.

The chemistry he developed was reductive dehalogenation of halocarbons at noble metal nanoparticle surfaces which when applied to several of the common pesticides present in surface waters of India, resulted in their degradation at room temperature and extremely low concentrations, of the order of parts per billion. The process when occurs on supported nanoparticles, trace concentrations of halocarbon pesticides can be removed from a flowing water stream. Water purifiers based on this technology have been introduced in the market since 2007.

Ionic polymer-metal composites consist of a thin ionomeric membrane with noble metal electrodes plated on its surface. It also has cations to balance the charge of the anions fixed to the polymer backbone. They are very active actuators that show very high deformation at low applied voltage and show low impedance. Ionic polymer-metal composites work through electrostatic attraction between the cationic counter ions and the cathode of the applied electric field, a schematic representation is shown in Figure 3.

Alternatively the ore can be smelted in a triangular crucible, and then have lead mixed with it when it is added to the cupel. The cupel is placed in the furnace and copper is separated into the lead which forms lithage in the cupel leaving the noble metal. Gold and silver are parted using an aqua which is probably nitric acid. Agricola describes precautions for ensuring the amount of lead is correct and also describes the amalgamation of gold with mercury.

Testing for gold with acid focuses on the fact that gold is a noble metal which is resistant to change by corrosion, oxidation, or acid. The acid test for gold is to rub the gold-colored item on black stone, which will leave an easily visible mark. The mark is tested by applying aqua fortis (nitric acid), which dissolves the mark of any item that is not gold. If the mark remains, it is tested by applying aqua regia (nitric acid and hydrochloric acid).

Methanation reaction over different carried metal catalysts including Ni,K.O. Xavier, «Doping effects of cerium oxide on Ni/Al2O3 catalysts for methanation», Catalysis Today, 1999, p. 17-21 RuToshimasa Utaka, «CO removal from reformed fuels over Cu and precious metal catalysts», Applied Catalysis A: General, 2003, p. 117-124 ([10.1016/S0926-860X(03)00048-6 lire en ligne]) and RhParaskevi Panagiotopoulou, « Selective methanation of CO over supported noble metal catalysts: Effects of the nature of the metallic phase on catalytic performance», Applied Catalysis A: General, 2008, p.

Photothermal therapy most commonly uses nanoparticles made of a noble metal to convert light into heat. The nanoparticles are engineered to absorb light in the 700-1000 nm range, where the human body is optically transparent. When the particles are hit by light they heat up, disrupting or destroying the surrounding cells via hyperthermia. Because the light used does not interact with tissue directly, photothermal therapy has few long term side effects and it can be used to treat cancers deep within the body.

Orichalcum or aurichalcum is a metal mentioned in several ancient writings, including the story of Atlantis in the Critias of Plato. Within the dialogue, Critias (460–403 BC) claims that orichalcum had been considered second only to gold in value and had been found and mined in many parts of Atlantis in ancient times, but that by Critias's own time orichalcum was known only by name. Orichalcum may have been a noble metal such as platinum,Cf. Felice Vinci, The Baltic Origins of Homer's Epic Tales.

These designs have used both platinum and non-noble metal catalysts, resulting in increased efficiencies and increased cost. The EloFlux design, with its transverse flow of electrolyte, has the advantage of low-cost construction and replaceable electrolyte but so far has only been demonstrated using oxygen. The electrodes consist of a double layer structure: an active electrocatalyst layer and a hydrophobic layer. The active layer consists of an organic mixture which is ground and then rolled at room temperature to form a crosslinked self-supporting sheet.

MnO2 and RuO2 are typical materials used as electrodes for pseudocapacitors, since they have the electrochemical signature of a capacitive electrode (linear dependence on current versus voltage curve) as well as exhibiting faradaic behavior. Additionally, the charge storage originates from electron-transfer mechanisms rather than accumulation of ions in the electrochemical double layer. Pseudocapacitors were created through faradaic redox reactions that occur within the active electrode materials. More research was focused on transition-metal oxides such as MnO2 since transition-metal oxides have a lower cost compared to noble metal oxides such as RuO2.

He was awarded a patent in Germany in 1902DE Patent DE141029 (Espacenet, record not available) and in Britain in 1903,UK Patent GB190301515 GB190301515 (Espacenet) which was the beginning of what is now a worldwide industry. In the mid-1950s, the first noble metal catalytic reforming process (the Platformer process) was commercialized. At the same time, the catalytic hydrodesulfurization of the naphtha feed to such reformers was also commercialized. In the decades that followed, various proprietary catalytic hydrodesulfurization processes, such as the one depicted in the flow diagram below, have been commercialized.

See main article Galvanic corrosion Galvanic corrosion (also called bimetallic corrosion) is an electrochemical process in which one metal (more active one) corrodes preferentially when it is in electrical contact with another dissimilar metal, in the presence of an electrolyte. A similar galvanic reaction is exploited in primary cells to generate a useful electrical voltage to power portable devices - a classic example being a cell with zinc and copper electrodes. Galvanic corrosion happens when there are an active metal and a more noble metal in contact in the presence of electrolyte.

Joseph II, her successor did not mint polturas any more. Under Rákóczi, polturas were initially struck from silver, but purchasing of arms required bigger and bigger portion of the noble metal reserves. Consequently, copper 1, 10 and 20 poltura coins were stuck for the inner circulation (4 poltura coins are only known as trial strikes) to replace silver coins, these can therefore be considered as emergency money. The general design included the small coat of arms of Hungary with the Holy Crown for the obverse and Madonna with the child Christ for the reverse.

These intermetallics were shown to be among the most stable of all types of compounds, as predicted by the Engel theory. Engel had suggested a correlation between the number of conduction electrons and the crystal structure of the metals. Brewer extended this concept to include the nature of d and f electrons, and the concept of acid-base interactions. Starting investigations with undergraduate students, he tested these ideas by heating ZrC with the noble metal platinum, and found that the formation of ZrPt3 released a great deal of energy despite the great stability of ZrC.

Proper choice of plasmatic metal nano-particles is crucial for the maximum light absorption in the active layer. Front surface located nano-particles Ag and Au are the most widely used materials due to their surface plasmon resonances located in the visible range and therefore interact more strongly with the peak solar intensity. However, such noble metal nano- particles always introduce reduced light coupling into Si at the short wavelengths below the surface plasmon resonance due to the detrimental Fano effect, i.e. the destructive interference between the scattered and unscattered light.

Moreover, the noble metal nano-particles are impractical to implement for large-scale solar cell manufacture due to their high cost and scarcity in the earth's crust. Recently, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the low cost and earth abundant materials Al nano-particles to be able to outperform the widely used Ag and Au nano-particles. Al nano-particles, with their surface plasmon resonances located in the UV region below the desired solar spectrum edge at 300 nm, can avoid the reduction and introduce extra enhancement in the shorter wavelength range.

Gold is a noble metal and for this reason does not react inside our body. This means that it is not absorbed during the digestion process, so it is safe to eat. However, there are no nutritional or health benefits associated with its consumption. This type of gold must be 23-24 karats, which is different from the one used in jewelry that may contain other metals and can be toxic and dangerous if consumed because gold that sits below this carat limit contains more impurities, thus it can be dangerous for the body.

Oxidation routes of HMF into FDCAThe second class of synthesis routes include the oxidation reactions of various 2,5-disubstituted furans utilizing a variety of inorganic oxidants. Several routes to FDCA via oxidation of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) with air over different catalysts have been reported. Oxidation of HMF under strongly alkaline conditions over noble metal catalysts gives almost quantitative formation of FDCA. HMF and methoxymethylfurfural (MMF) oxidation was also studied with a series of conventional metal bromide catalysts (Co, Mn, Br) used for the oxidation of para-xylene to terephthalic acid.

Preparation of nanoparticles by Laser in Solution Laser ablation synthesis in solution (LASiS) is a commonly used method for obtaining colloidal solution of nanoparticles in a variety of solvents. In the LASiS method, nanoparticles are produced during the condensation of a plasma plume formed by the laser ablation of a bulk metal plate dipped in a liquid solution. LASiS is usually considered a top-down physical approach. In the past years, laser ablation synthesis in solution (LASiS) emerged as a reliable alternative to traditional chemical reduction methods for obtaining noble metal nanoparticles (NMNp).

The quantum interference phenomena has been observed in Cobalt islands deposited on Copper(111) substrate. This has been attributed to the fact that scattering caused by surface state electron defects, such as terrace edges, impurities or adsorbates present on a densely packed noble metal surface. Spin polarized-STM has been used to investigate the electronic structure of triangular Cobalt islands deposited on Copper(111). This study shows that the substrate and islands exhibit their individual standing wave patterns and this can be used to find the spin polarized material.

Many of the photocatalytic systems can benefit from the coupling with a noble metal; the first Fujishima-Honda cell made use of a co- catalyst plate as well. For instance, the essential design of a disperse photocatalytic reactor for water splitting is that of a water sol in which the dispersed phase is made up of semiconductor quantum dots each coupled to a metallic co-catalyst: the QD converts the incoming electromagnetic radiation into an exciton whilst the co-catalyst acts as an electron scavenger and lowers the overpotential of the electrochemical reaction.

In the United States, Rajadurai began his career at the University of Notre Dame and worked also in a number of advanced laboratories around the nation. His associates included J. J. Carberry and C.B. Alcock, with whom he collaborated and developed non-noble metal catalyst and solid oxide solutions, including one rivaling platinum for oxidation and reduction reactions. He developed organic free radicals for polymerization-initiating reactions and studied the photochemical/physical properties using single and dual LASER. Rajadurai transitioned to corporate business in 1990, with a series of senior scientist and executive positions.

High-speed photodetection at 10 Gbit/s based on graphene and 20-fold improvement on the detection efficiency through graphene/gold nanostructure were also reported. Graphene plasmonics are considered as good alternatives to the noble metal plasmons not only due to their cost-effectiveness for large- scale production but also by the higher confinement of the plasmonics at the graphene surface. The enhanced light-matter interactions could further be optimized and tuned through electrostatic gating. These advantages of graphene plasmonics paved a way to achieve single-molecule detection and single-plasmon excitation.

For example, black silicon texturing by reactive ion etching(RIE) is an effective and economic approach to increase the absorption of thin-film silicon solar cells. A textured backreflector can prevent light from escaping through the rear of the cell. In addition to surface texturing, the plasmonic light-trapping scheme attracted a lot of attention to aid photocurrent enhancement in thin film solar cells. This method makes use of collective oscillation of excited free electrons in noble metal nanoparticles, which are influenced by particle shape, size and dielectric properties of the surrounding medium.

In 1824 to reduce the impact of this destructive electrolytic action on ships hulls, their fastenings and underwater equipment, the scientist- engineer Humphry Davy developed the first and still most widely used marine electrolysis protection system. Davy installed sacrificial anodes made from a more electrically reactive (less noble) metal attached to the vessel hull and electrically connected to form a cathodic protection circuit. A less obvious example of this type of protection is the process of galvanising iron. This process coats iron structures (such as fencing) with a coating of zinc metal.

Galvanic corrosion of an aluminium plate occurred when the plate was connected to a mild steel structural support. Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or electrical contact with each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte, or when the same metal is exposed to electrolyte with different concentrations. In a galvanic couple, the more active metal (the anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more noble metal (the cathode) corrodes at a slower rate. When immersed separately, each metal corrodes at its own rate.

Exciton recombination is undesirable and higher levels lead to an inefficient photocatalyst. For this reason efforts to develop functional photocatalysts often emphasize extending exciton lifetime, improving electron- hole separation using diverse approaches that often rely on structural features such as phase hetero-junctions (e.g. anatase-rutile interfaces), noble-metal nanoparticles, silicon nanowires and substitutional cation doping. The ultimate goal of photocatalyst design is to facilitate reactions between the excited electrons with oxidants to produce reduced products, and/or reactions between the generated holes with reductants to produce oxidized products.

In order for a fuel cell to operate, particularly of the hydrogen variant, a noble-metal catalyst (usually platinum, which is very expensive) is needed to separate the electrons from the protons of the hydrogen atoms. However, catalysts of this type are extremely sensitive to carbon monoxide reactions. In order to combat this, alcohols or hydrocarbons compounds are used to lower the carbon monoxide concentration in the system. Using nanotechnology, catalysts can be designed through nanofabrication that limit incomplete combustion and thus decrease the amount of carbon monoxide, improving the efficiency of the process.

Medieval chronicler Helmold of Bosau described the Rani as the only Wendish tribe ruled by a king and describes them as subduing many others while not tolerating subordinance themselves. Common decisions of the Wendish tribes were only made with the approval by the Rani. The mightiest position however was held by the High Priest called Drvovid, who stood above the king. The oracle decided if and where campaigns were mounted, and after a victory the monetary and noble metal part of the loot was given to the temple before the rest was partitioned.

Euro coins The mint became very outdated by the beginning of the 20th century, and many called for new equipment and for the mint to be moved to Budapest. However, this did not happen until the end of World War I. As the Czech troops invaded Northern Hungary, the Károlyi government ordered to move the equipment and noble metal stock to Budapest. The Hungarian Government started to mint the first coins with the faulty machines and worn-out dies in Csepel. Even coins minted in 1922 bore the KB mint mark.

Friščić started his tenure track in 2011 at the Chemistry Department of McGill University as an Assistant Professor, received tenure and was promoted to Associate Professor in early 2016, and has been a full Professor and William Dawson Scholar since November 2019. His group's research focuses on using solvent-free Green Chemistry, including mechanochemistry, accelerated aging, reactive aging (RAging) and other related techniques like acoustic mixing for various applications, such as noble metal recycling or cellulose enzymatic depolymerization. With his former student Dr. Cristina Mottillo he founded in 2016 a startup called ACSYNAM, that makes hypergolic MOFs for rocket and space propulsion.

199 Volta's contact electricity view characterized each electrode with a number that we would now call the work function of the electrode. This view ignored the chemical reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces, which include H2 formation on the more noble metal in Volta's pile. Although Volta did not understand the operation of the battery or the galvanic cell, these discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries; Volta's cell was named an IEEE Milestone in 1999. Some forty years later, Faraday (see Faraday's laws of electrolysis) showed that the galvanic cell -- now often called a voltaic cell -- was chemical in nature.

Palladium is a noble metal and extremely inert. #Iodine-129 has the longest half-life, 15.7 million years, and due to its higher half life, lower fission fraction and decay energy it produces only about 1% the intensity of radioactivity as 99Tc. However, radioactive iodine is a disproportionate biohazard because the thyroid gland concentrates iodine. 129I has a half-life nearly a billion times as long as its more hazardous sister isotope 131I; therefore, with a shorter half-life and a higher decay energy, 131I is approximately a billion times more radioactive than the longer-lived 129I.

The process also requires very little electrical energy to operate, using no moving parts, making the ionic membranes silent in operation and very reliable over long periods of time. SPE dehumidifiers are typically used to protect sensitive electrical components, medical equipment, museum specimens, or scientific apparatus from humid environments. The SPE consists of a proton-conductive solid polymer electrolyte and porous electrodes with a catalytic layer composed of noble metal particles. When a voltage is applied to the porous electrode attached to the membrane, the moisture on the anode side (dehumidifying side) dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen.

Alchemy used the great chain as the basis for its cosmology. Since all beings were linked into a chain, so that there was a fundamental unity of all matter, transformation from one place in the chain to the next might, according to alchemical reasoning, be possible. In turn, the unit of matter enabled alchemy to make another key assumption, the philosopher's stone, which somehow gathered and concentrated the universal spirit found in all matter along the chain, and which ex hypothesi might enable the alchemical transformation of one substance to another, such as the base metal lead to the noble metal gold.

As a solid propellant oxidizer, it is typically bonded with glycidyl azide polymer (GAP), hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), or carboxy-terminated polybutadiene (CTPB) and requires preheating to 200-300 °C to decompose. When used as a monopropellant, the catalyst is a noble metal, similar to the other monopropellants that use silver, palladium, or iridium. HAN also enabled the development of solid propellants that could be controlled electrically and switched on and off. Developed by DSSP for special effects and microthrusters, these were the first HAN based propellants in space; and aboard the Naval Research Laboratory SpinSat, launched in 2014.

Acta Crystallogr., 19: 967-971. β-In2S3 has two subtypes. In the T-In2S3 subtype, the tetragonally-coordinated vacancies are in an ordered arrangement, whereas the vacancies in C-In2S3 are disordered. The disordered subtype of β-In2S3 shows activity for photocatalytic H2 production with a noble metal cocatalyst, but the ordered subtype does not.Chai, B.; Peng, T.; Zeng, P.; Mao, J. (2011.) “Synthesis of Floriated In2S3 Decorated With TiO2 Nanoparticles for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production Under Visible Light.” J. Mater. Chem., 21: 14587. . β-In2S3 is an N-type semiconductor with an optical band gap of 2.1 eV.

Test samples that have been exposed to MFG testing have ranged from bare metal surfaces, to electrical connectors, and to complete assemblies. In regards to noble metal plated connector applications, MFG testing has been widely accepted as a qualification test method to evaluate the performance of these connectors. MFG testing was primarily developed by William H. Abbott at Batelle in the 1980s. Much of the work was described in a series of “… Progress Report[s] on Studies of Natural and Laboratory Environmental Reactions on Materials and Components,” by Abbott, issued in 1981, ‘83, ‘84 and ‘86.

Halas' work in the 21st century focuses on noble metal nanoshells covering semiconducting or insulating cores. Her research was the first to experimentally show that nanoshells with different dimensions and shapes have different plasmonic resonances, and that these resonances could therefore be tuned by changing nanoparticle geometries. Controlling light-matter interaction of these plasmonic nanoparticles includes applications in chemical sensing, catalysis, and energy harvesting, as well as photodynamic therapy and other biomedical applications. In 2003, Halas and her colleague Dr. Jennifer West were awarded the Nanotechnology Now Best Discovery Award for their "their groundbreaking work to develop a cancer therapy based on metallic nanoshells".

Roentgenium oxide (Rg2O3) should be amphoteric; stable compounds in the −1, +1, and +5 valence states should also exist, exactly analogous to gold. Roentgenium is similarly expected to be a very noble metal: the standard reduction potential for the Rg3+/Rg couple is expected to be +1.9 V, more than the +1.52 V for the Au3+/Au couple. The [Rg(H2O)2]+ cation is expected to be the softest among the metal cations. Due to relativistic stabilisation of the 7s subshell, roentgenium is expected to have a full s-subshell and a partially filled d-subshell, instead of the free s-electron and full d-subshell of copper, silver, and gold.

Although fuel cells have been used since the 1960s as power supplies for satellites, recently they have received renewed attention for their potential to efficiently produce clean energy from hydrogen. Nafion was found effective as a membrane for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells by permitting hydrogen ion transport while preventing electron conduction. Solid Polymer Electrolytes, which are made by connecting or depositing electrodes (usually noble metal) to both sides of the membrane, conduct the electrons through an energy requiring process and rejoin the hydrogen ions to react with oxygen and produce water. Fuel cells are expected to find strong use in the transportation industry.

The first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger as a description of an unknown noble metal found between Darién and Mexico, "which no fire nor any Spanish artifice has yet been able to liquefy". From their first encounters with platinum, the Spanish generally saw the metal as a kind of impurity in gold, and it was treated as such. It was often simply thrown away, and there was an official decree forbidding the adulteration of gold with platinum impurities. This alchemical symbol for platinum was made by joining the symbols of silver (moon) and gold (sun).

In any given environment (one standard medium is aerated, room- temperature seawater), one metal will be either more noble or more active than others, based on how strongly its ions are bound to the surface. Two metals in electrical contact share the same electrons, so that the "tug-of-war" at each surface is analogous to competition for free electrons between the two materials. Using the electrolyte as a host for the flow of ions in the same direction, the noble metal will take electrons from the active one. The resulting mass flow or electric current can be measured to establish a hierarchy of materials in the medium of interest.

Pines and Ipatieff's discoveries about the catalysis of hydrocarbon reactions laid fundamental groundwork for the oil refining and chemical industries. These industries use various types of catalysts to unlock the saturated hydrocarbons in natural gas and raw oil. Processes involving noble-metal, liquid- and solid-acid catalysts are essential to the production of energy and of widely-used industrial chemicals in the twentieth century. The work of Pines, Ipatieff, Louis Schmerling, Herman S. Bloch, Vladimir Haensel and others at Universal Oil Products (UOP)'s Riverside Laboratory has been recognized by the presentation of a National Historic Chemical Landmark at the laboratory building in McCook, Illinois on November 15, 1995.

Preparation of TiO2/WO3 composite photocatalysts by the adjustment of the semiconductors' surface charge (2016) Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 42, pp. 66-71 Recently, some research groups have demonstrated that non-metal surface such as transition metal oxides (WO3, TiO2, Cu2O, MoO3, and ZnO etc.) could serve as a potential candidate for surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy substrates and their performance could be comparable or even higher than those of commonly used noble-metal elements. There are two basic mechanisms for this application. One is that the Raman signal enhancement was tuned by charge transfer between the dye molecules and the substrate WO3 materials.

The galvanic series (or electropotential series) determines the nobility of metals and semi-metals. When two metals are submerged in an electrolyte, while also electrically connected by some external conductor, the less noble (base) will experience galvanic corrosion. The rate of corrosion is determined by the electrolyte, the difference in nobility, and the relative areas of the anode and cathode exposed to the electrolyte. The difference can be measured as a difference in voltage potential: the less noble metal is the one with a lower (that is, more negative) electrode potential than the nobler one, and will function as the anode (electron or anion attractor) within the electrolyte device functioning as described above (a galvanic cell).

It is one of the rarest precious metals and one of the most costly (gold has since taken over the top spot of cost per ounce). Rhodium is a so-called noble metal, resistant to corrosion, found in platinum- or nickel ores together with the other members of the platinum group metals. It was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston in one such ore, and named for the rose color of one of its chlorine compounds, produced after it reacted with the powerful acid mixture aqua regia. The element's major use (about 80% of world rhodium production) is as one of the catalysts in the three-way catalytic converters of automobiles.

Borromean ring structures have been shown to be an effective way to represent the structure of certain atomically precise noble metal clusters which are shielded by a surface layer of thiolate ligands (-SR), such as Au25(SR)18 and Ag25(SR)18. A library of Borromean networks has been synthesized by design by Giuseppe Resnati and coworkers via halogen bond driven self-assembly. In order to access the molecular Borromean ring consisting of three unequal cycles a step-by-step synthesis was proposed by Jay S. Siegel and coworkers. A quantum-mechanical analog of Borromean rings is called a halo state or an Efimov state (the existence of such states was predicted by physicist Vitaly Efimov, in 1970).

Prof. El-Sayed with two students, 2008 El-Sayed and his research group have contributed to many important areas of physical and materials chemistry research. El-Sayed's research interests include the use of steady-state and ultra fast laser spectroscopy to understand relaxation, transport and conversion of energy in molecules, in solids, in photosynthetic systems, semiconductor quantum dots and metal nanostructures. The El-Sayed group has also been involved in the development of new techniques such as magnetophotonic selection, picosecond Raman spectroscopy and phosphorescence microwave double resonance spectroscopy. A major focus of his lab is currently on the optical and chemical properties of noble metal nanoparticles and their applications in nanocatalysis, nanophotonics and nanomedicine.

Schematic of Zn-Cu galvanic cell In its simplest form, a half- cell consists of a solid metal (called an electrode) that is submerged in a solution; the solution contains cations (+) of the electrode metal and anions (−) to balance the charge of the cations. The full cell consists of two half- cells, usually connected by a semi-permeable membrane or by a salt bridge that prevents the ions of the more noble metal from plating out at the other electrode. A specific example is the Daniell cell (see figure), with a zinc (Zn) half-cell containing a solution of ZnSO4 (zinc sulfate) and a copper (Cu) half-cell containing a solution of CuSO4 (copper sulfate). A salt bridge is used here to complete the electric circuit.

Al2O3 and SiO2, a moisture level > 5000 ppm is required for activity at room temperature. In the case of powder catalysts prepared by wet methods, the surface OH− groups on the support provide sufficient aid as co-catalysts, so that no additional moisture is necessary. At temperatures above 333 K (60 °C), no water is needed at all. The apparent activation energy of CO oxidation on supported gold powder catalysts prepared by wet methods is 2-3 kJ/mol above 333 K (60 °C) and 26-34 kJ/mol below 333 K. These energies are low, compared to the values displayed by other noble metal catalysts (80-120 kJ/mol). The change in activation energy at 333 K can be ascribed to a change in reaction mechanism.

While SERS can be performed in colloidal solutions, today the most common method for performing SERS measurements is by depositing a liquid sample onto a silicon or glass surface with a nanostructured noble metal surface. While the first experiments were performed on electrochemically roughened silver, now surfaces are often prepared using a distribution of metal nanoparticles on the surface as well as using lithography or porous silicon as a support. Two dimensional silicon nanopillars decorated with silver have also been used to create SERS active substrates. The most common metals used for plasmonic surfaces are silver and gold; however, aluminium has recently been explored as an alternative plasmonic material, because its plasmon band is in the UV region, contrary to silver and gold.

He framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt, which he held to be fruitless."What one does not in the least doubt one should not pretend to doubt; but a man should train himself to doubt," said Peirce in a brief intellectual autobiography; see Ketner, Kenneth Laine (2009) "Charles Sanders Peirce: Interdisciplinary Scientist" in The Logic of Interdisciplinarity). Peirce held that actual, genuine doubt originates externally, usually in surprise, but also that it is to be sought and cultivated, "provided only that it be the weighty and noble metal itself, and no counterfeit nor paper substitute"; in "Issues of Pragmaticism", The Monist, v. XV, n.

The SPR of platinum nanoparticles is found in the ultraviolet range (215 nm), unlike the other noble metal nanoparticles which display SPR in the visible range Experiments were done and the spectra obtained are similar for most platinum particles regardless of size. However, there is an exception. Platinum NPs synthesized via citrate reduction do not have a surface plasmon resonance peak around 215 nm. Through experimentation, the resonance peak only showed slight variations with the change of size and synthetic method (while maintaining the same shape), with the exception of those nanoparticles synthesized by citrate reduction, which did not exhibit and SPR peak in this region..Stepanov, A.L.; Golubev, A.N. and Nikitin, S.I. (2013) Synthesis and Applications of Platinum Nanoparticles: A Review in Nanotechnology Vol.

His responsibility included North American manufacturing of the ultra thinwall substrate catalytic converter working with Corning Inc. and NGK. He received Tenneco Innovation Award by recognizing product & process innovation for the development of low noble metal catalytic converter in 1998, Tenneco Automotive General Manager’s Leadership Award in 1998 to honor of stellar performance in leadership role and exceptional teamwork, Tenneco Automotive Vision Award in the year 2000 for pioneering global ideas for Cleaner, Quieter and Safer transportation. He was elected as Board of Director of the World's leading Manufacturers of Emission Control Association (MECA), Board of Director of US Fuel Cell Council to develop a clean energy solutions for future, Board of Director of Walker Exhaust India Private Limited in 2001.

Chaudret synthesized the first bis(dihydrogen) complex and demonstrated its high reactivity, particularly for the activation of C-H, Si-H and more generally of poorly reactive bonds. He has also been interested in the spectroscopic properties of these species, in particular the quantum exchange of protons in the coordination sphere of transition metals. Chaudret developed a method for synthesizing large aggregates (from 50 metal atoms to several tens of thousands of atoms). The method has enabled the synthesis of nanoparticles of controlled size, shape, surface and assembly of a wide variety of elements, alloys and semiconductor compounds.K. Philippot, B. Chaudret, « Organometallic Approach to the Synthesis and Surface Reactivity of Noble Metal Nanoparticles », Compte-Rendus Acad Sciences, 2003, 6, p.

Common RTD sensing elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel have a repeatable resistance versus temperature relationship (R vs T) and operating temperature range. The R vs T relationship is defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of temperature change. The relative change in resistance (temperature coefficient of resistance) varies only slightly over the useful range of the sensor. Platinum was proposed by Sir William Siemens as an element for a resistance temperature detector at the Bakerian lecture in 1871: it is a noble metal and has the most stable resistance–temperature relationship over the largest temperature range. Nickel elements have a limited temperature range because the amount of change in resistance per degree of change in temperature becomes very non-linear at temperatures over 300 °C (572 °F).

The Tsuji–Trost reaction (also called the Trost allylic alkylation or allylic alkylation) is a palladium-catalysed substitution reaction involving a substrate that contains a leaving group in an allylic position. The palladium catalyst first coordinates with the allyl group and then undergoes oxidative addition, forming the -allyl complex. This allyl complex can then be attacked by a nucleophile, resulting in the substituted product.Strategic Applications of Named Reactions in Organic Synthesis (Paperback) by Laszlo Kurti, Barbara Czako Tsuji–Trost allylation This work was first pioneered by Jiro Tsuji in 1965Organic syntheses by means of noble metal compounds XVII. Reaction of -allylpalladium chloride with nucleophiles Tetrahedron Letters, Volume 6, Issue 49, 1965, Pages 4387-4388 Jiro Tsuji, Hidetaka Takahashi, Masanobu Morikawa and, later, adapted by Barry Trost in 1973 with the introduction of phosphine ligands.

The refinery HDS feedstocks (naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and heavier oils) contain a wide range of organic sulfur compounds, including thiols, thiophenes, organic sulfides and disulfides, and many others. These organic sulfur compounds are products of the degradation of sulfur containing biological components, present during the natural formation of the fossil fuel, petroleum crude oil. When the HDS process is used to desulfurize a refinery naphtha, it is necessary to remove the total sulfur down to the parts per million range or lower in order to prevent poisoning the noble metal catalysts in the subsequent catalytic reforming of the naphthas. When the process is used for desulfurizing diesel oils, the latest environmental regulations in the United States and Europe, requiring what is referred to as ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD), in turn requires that very deep hydrodesulfurization is needed.

The 1940s-1950s era and still most common PUREX separation process for uranium and plutonium from spent nuclear fuel.Greenwood, pp. 1255, 1261 Variations of the process has and continues to find applications in many facilities such as La Hague in the manufacture of MOX reactor fuel, were reactor-grade plutonium is reused as fuel and likewise in the extraction of weapons grade plutonium, in the legacy B205 facility in Britain and the Mayak facility in Russia. While the release of the gaseous noble gas element Krypton-85 is routine during nuclear reprocessing, the noble metal Ruthenium, which is generated in a fission product yield rate of from 0.39% to 3.103% of every fission of a nucleus of uranium or plutonium respectively, is by contrast generally in metallic form, with a high boiling point of in spent fuel.

Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) is a catalytic chemical process widely used to remove sulfur (S) from natural gas and from refined petroleum products, such as gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel fuel, and fuel oils. The purpose of removing the sulfur, and creating products such as ultra-low-sulfur diesel, is to reduce the sulfur dioxide () emissions that result from using those fuels in automotive vehicles, aircraft, railroad locomotives, ships, gas or oil burning power plants, residential and industrial furnaces, and other forms of fuel combustion. Another important reason for removing sulfur from the naphtha streams within a petroleum refinery is that sulfur, even in extremely low concentrations, poisons the noble metal catalysts (platinum and rhenium) in the catalytic reforming units that are subsequently used to upgrade the octane rating of the naphtha streams. The industrial hydrodesulfurization processes include facilities for the capture and removal of the resulting hydrogen sulfide () gas.

B. Chaudret Polyhydrides and Nanoparticles: A 35 year Trip in Organometallic Chemistry Histoire de la Recherche Contemporaine (la Revue pour l'Histoire du CNRS), Tome I, N°2, 2012, pp. 118–125 S. Sabo- Etienne, B. Chaudret, " Chemistry of bis(dihydrogen) ruthenium complexes and of their derivatives ", Coord. Chem. Rev. 1998, 178-180, 381-407 S. Sabo- Etienne, B. Chaudret, "Quantum Mechanical Exchange Coupling in polyhydride and dihydrogen complexes", Chem. Rev.1998, 98, 2077-2091. K. Philippot, B. Chaudret, " Organometallic Approach to the Synthesis and Surface Reactivity of Noble Metal Nanoparticles", Compte-Rendus Acad Sciences 2003, 6, 1019. DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2003.07.010 B. Chaudret, "Synthesis and Surface Reactivity of Organometallic Nanoparticles", Surface and Interfacial Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis in Series: Topics in Organometallic Chemistry, Vol. 16 Coperet, Christope; Chaudret, Bruno (Eds.) 2005, pages 233-260. B. Chaudret, "Organometallic approach to nanoparticles synthesis and self-organization", C.R. Physique 2005, 6, 117.

Furthermore, the mass prototypes produced by ion deposition techniques would have been nothing like the freestanding platinum- iridium prototypes currently in use; they would have been deposited onto—and become part of—an electrode imbedded into one pan of a special balance integrated into the device. Moreover, the ion-deposited mass wouldn't have had a hard, highly polished surface that can be vigorously cleaned like those of current prototypes. Gold, while dense and a noble metal (resistant to oxidation and the formation of other compounds), is extremely soft so an internal gold prototype would have to be kept well isolated and scrupulously clean to avoid contamination and the potential of wear from having to remove the contamination. Bismuth, which is an inexpensive metal used in low- temperature solders, slowly oxidises when exposed to room-temperature air and forms other chemical compounds and so would not have produced stable reference masses unless it was continually maintained in a vacuum or inert atmosphere.

William Hyde Wollaston William Hyde Wollaston noted the discovery of a new noble metal in July 1802 in his lab book and named it palladium in August of the same year. Wollaston purified a quantity of the material and offered it, without naming the discoverer, in a small shop in Soho in April 1803. After harsh criticism from Richard Chenevix that palladium is an alloy of platinum and mercury, Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of £20 for 20 grains of synthetic palladium alloy. Chenevix received the Copley Medal in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium. Wollaston published the discovery of rhodium in 1804 and mentions some of his work on palladium. He disclosed that he was the discoverer of palladium in a publication in 1805. It was named by Wollaston in 1802 after the asteroid 2 Pallas, which had been discovered two months earlier. Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from South America by dissolving the ore in aqua regia, neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide, and precipitating platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate with ammonium chloride.