862 Sentences With "mycelium" | Random Sentence Generator

Essentially, they mix agricultural farm waste with mycelium, or mushroom roots.

Mycelium, as it's called, is basically the root structure of mushrooms.

Their second product, MycoFlex, is a foamy structure of pure mycelium.

She constructed it out of mycelium, the white matter of a mushroom.

To provide "food" for the mycelium, Ecovative collects crop waste from farmers.

No rain means dried-up mycelium networks, which directly affects mushroom growth.

They're covered with mycelium, another fungus-derived material that's leathery and flexible.

And so I'd known that mycelium could be really tenacious and strong.

On the outside, the stitching mimics the dendritic patterns of mushroom mycelium.

Mycelium packaging is entirely biodegradable, or "bio-compatible," as Bayer likes to say.

Ecovative is working on a lower-density mycelium foam to address the issue.

The new packaging is made from mycelium, better thought of as mushroom roots.

On the business side, it was easy for Carpio to integrate Mycelium into her businesses' existing web architecture and as far as the consumer side of things, there are very few Bitcoin wallets that are simpler or more intuitive than Mycelium.

Eight strangers, connected like a mushroom's mycelium, could access each other's emotions and psyches.

Her most recent endeavor is MushLume, a line of lamps grown from mushroom mycelium.

The material is made from mycelium, which is basically the root structure of mushrooms.

Mycelium is unique because it's easy to both grow and shape into different forms.

Printed mycelium, a fungus, trills up hemp drapery; E. coli appears to wriggle across bathroom tiles.

Ecovative has partnered with companies like Dell, which uses its special mycelium foam for packaging and more.

Mycelium has this amazing property to be able to bind together all kinds of organic material, including agricultural byproducts.

After two weeks, Dr. Kasson will bisect the subjects to search for signs of growth, like mycelium or spores.

On top of packing material, mycelium is also being used to make protein-rich meat substitutes and vegan leather.

Stamets as Bill Murray Anthony Rapp seems to have found the middle ground between Mean Stamets and Mycelium-High Stamets.

You can also use a Safe-T mini to secure a third-party wallet, such as a Mycelium or Mycrypto wallet.

Ecovative Design is also using biological organisms, including mycelium fungus, to make packaging materials, such as food containers and packing sheets.

So Laufer and his collaborators began injecting books with mycelium, which feed upon the pages and grow out of the book.

Fungi into mycelium into hyphae into mycorrhizal networks into positive-feedback loops into this tree still standing despite the terrible damage.

And mycelium, the rootlike fiber of mushrooms, is being processed as a leather substitute by MycoWorks, a San Francisco start-up.

Black feminist and queer texts (Thomas Glave's Among the Bloodpeople: Politics and Flesh), rhythm and blues from the 1990s, and mycelium.

The designer packs custom-made molds with a mixture of agricultural byproducts and mushroom mycelium, which result in lightweight, biodegradable lamp shades.

Mycelium, of course, can't spare a forest from being clear-cut, and in B.C., this type of logging has a long history.

What remains is substrate which is inoculated with mycelium and sent to incubation rooms where the mixture will sit for two weeks.

The mixture is placed in what Ecovative calls vertical farms — growth chambers that mimic the conditions of the soil, tricking the mycelium.

Mushrooms, it turns out, are just the visible part of an awesome organism known as mycelium, most of which lies below ground.

For example, a mobile Bitcoin wallet called Mycelium offers several possibilities for Bitcoin transaction fees: low-priority, economic, normal priority and high priority.

Agricultural waste products like wood chips, corn husks, or hemp are mixed with mycelium in a mold, watered, and incubated for nine days.

Mycelium is introduced into a mixture of chopped up corn stalks and seed husks, and begins to spread its white fibers and digest it.

Paul is well-known for his research, inventions, speaking, and writing about fungi and mycelium and the incredible roles they play in our lives.

Four years ago, the Columbia University architecture professor created a 40-foot tower of mycelium "bricks" for the courtyard of MoMA PS1 in Queens.

Oil-and-gas infrastructure is so much a part of the land that it's everywhere, like strands of mushroom mycelium symbiotically wound among tree roots.

People can then unpack the supplies, and the paper airplane will disappear after time due to its mycelium frame, which is a flexible, cellulose-based material.

The mycelium grows quickly into a dense material, and it can be grown in a mold to easily produce different shapes of packaging for different items.

Hanna said they transferred bitcoin directly using the Mycelium app, and he created a separate wallet just for the law firm, whose partners are his parents.

The process for growing mushroom leather or alternative meat products is a bit different because here, the mycelium grows up and out of the agricultural waste.

The lampshades are made of mushroom mycelium—the fleshy, vegetative part of the fungus that is an organic building materialstronger than concrete bricks and can withstand extreme temperatures.

Once it's served its useful life as a packaging material, mycelium can be left out in a yard, where it will degrade over the course of a month.

She gained notoriety a few years ago for a biodegradable drone (also made from mycelium) that she and her colleagues had developed as a tool for exploring Mars.

For example, it takes over 575 gallons of water to produce one pound of pork, but only 1.25 gallons of water to grow 1 pound of mycelium bacon.

The Philippine mahogany table, now carved with a mycelium-inspired runner down the center, was hewed from 1920s-era church pews that a congregation in Santa Monica, Calif.

The mushroom mycelium material was originally thought up by Ecovative, a biomaterials company that sells its products to large companies, like Dell, as a sustainable alternative to styrofoam packaging.

Under the logs and throughout the farm is a network of naturally occurring fungal mycelium, which links the roots of different plants to help them access water and nutrients.

Interestingly enough, there's a lot out there about fungi and their networks—it's called mycelium—and the way it works is really similar to the network of the Internet.

For instance, we did a Hy-Fi project at MoMA PS1, and we used mycelium, which is the rootlike structure of mushrooms, to grow a new type of architectural brick.

Their first product, a packaging material made from mycelium and agricultural waste, is a lot like Styrofoam, and can be used to package anything from a computer to a candle.

" He talked about fungi and mycelium for a minute ("Don't get me started—there's a whole theory called panspermia"), and concluded with "I'd like to live in a mushroom house.

The worm uses a needle on its head to puncture the mushroom's hyphae — the stringy filaments that make up its mycelium, or vegetative body — and suck out its cellular content.

Rothschild imagines a scenario in which future Martians overlay a skeleton structure with a double-layered plastic bag which is used to grow mycelium—kind of like pitching a mushroom tent.

Gavin also states that her own interest is in blurring the relationships between organic things like mushrooms and technological realms — the branching hyphae of mycelium akin to an internet for mushrooms.

Right now, Mycelium is offering me 339 satoshi/byte as an economic transaction fee price, which is still a little expensive, but better than the "normal" price of 419 satoshi/byte.

Mr. Berliner supports a growing way of thinking that views vines not as isolated stalks but as a collective society that communicates needs through root systems and fungal colonies of mycelium.

Both of these biological approaches to construction are pretty wild, but they don't hold a candle mycotecture, a way of building houses out of the root-like structure of mushrooms called mycelium.

The mycelium buttresses and living fungal structures of the Reconciliation Wing are now in high demand, but it took Mangakāhia's persistence and the algorithm's faith in her design to reach this plateau.

"Mycelium increases the uptake and retention of water and nutrients, which is a major benefit in desert conditions," Peter McCoy, founder of Radical Mycology, an organization dedicated to educating people about fungi, says.

In September, Ninela Ivanova, a British designer, and Sebastian Cox, a British furniture maker, exhibited hanging lamps and stools made of willow wood and mushrooms (or more technically, mycelium, the root network of fungi).

Think of mycelium, the weblike network of vegetable matter that connects mushroom colonies, which is now being used by the technology company Dell, in partnership with the biomaterials company Ecovative, for some of its packaging.

After trying a number of different wallets and Bitcoin payment systems, Carpio eventually settled on Mycelium, a Bitcoin wallet that has been in development by a group of self-described anarchist hardware engineers since 2008.

While still in its infancy, there is a movement to use materials like resin, cornstalks, mycelium (mushroom fiber), sheetstock and even biological tissue to protect your waist trainers and Gillette razors, instead of plastic and cardboard.

Same if you can understand why the spore drive is no longer instantaneous, which is the entire point of the thing, or why the Terran's bad faith use of the mycelium network would effect other universes.

Mycelium offers a number of advantages for those in the cannabis industry including a high degree of anonymity and easy peer-to-peer transactions, but for Carpio, the decision ultimately came down to the user experience.

When the mushrooms have sucked the nutrients out of the coffee grounds, they leave a block of used grounds, which is degraded and full of fungus mycelium, which contains protein and calcium—and crickets love it.

Once coated in mycelium, the mixture is broken up into particles, which can easily be packed into molds (like Trofe's lamp shades), and left to grow for a few days until it forms a completely solid structure.

After a chemical analysis in the eighteen-forties found no nitrous traces in the pigment, some argued that the dye probably originated in a plant such as the Mycelium tinctorium , which is notorious for its pissy odor.

Their idea to develop mycelium into an alternative to Styrofoam was inspired by Eben's childhood on a farm in Vermont, where one of his chores was to shovel wood chips into a furnace to boil maple syrup.

Each of the organic lampshades in her collection is made from a rapidly renewable resource — a combination of corn stalk, seed husk and hemp held together with liquid mushroom mycelium that grows and solidifies — and is completely biodegradable.

So we took the waste product of architecture — in this case, chopped corn husks and stalks — and put some microscopic bits of mycelium, and in about five days, with no energy required, this will grow into a solid object.

Geico into Gecko into Autotomy into Regeneration into Morphallaxis into Hydra into Immortality into Clonal Colonies into Mycelium into Hypha into Robert Hartig into hopefully getting back to sleep before 6 A.M. In the darkness before the dawn—the dawn.

Nevertheless, projects like Lee's suit seeded with mushroom mycelium are a reminder that there are other choices aside from the standard wooden coffin, embalming, and burial vault-lined plot that have been dominant in American cemeteries over the past decades.

While we're all familiar with the mushrooms that spring out of the ground, the real heroes are the mycelium—an underground network of tiny white threads that look much like spiderwebs branching out through the soil, unlocking nutrients and defeating pathogens.

The smell of decay is thick in the air, as ancient networks of mushroom mycelium break down coarse woody debris, turning it into healthy soils and transporting nutrients, even data, from tree to tree, all throughout the forest floor–like Earth's organic Internet.

And if the Martians really wanted to get fancy, they could genetically engineer the mycelium using colored proteins that are attached to genetic markers so that the cell changes color when that gene with the attached protein is activated (a common lab technique called reporting).

The use of cardboard means the whole shell will be gone in a few months, but the team at Otherlab wants this stuff to go away even quicker – it's working on using a material created using mushrooms called "mycelium" that will biodegrade completely in just a few days.

Ikea isn't the first company to incorporate mycelium packaging—Dell's been using it for servers for a few years—but given the amount of flat-pack furniture I buy alone, this move should help put a dent in polystyrene consumption, and lead the way for more eco-friendly packaging. [Telegraph]

The list of participants and participating groups are: Ruangsak Anuwatwimon; Martha Atienza; Au Sow-Yee; Ursula Biemann; Alexey Buldakov; Huai-Wen Chang+Mas Micro Architecture Studio; Ting-Tong Chang; Jui-Kuang Chao+Tainan Community University; Julian Charrière; Chen Chu-Yin+Solar Insects Vivarium Workshop; Lucy Davis; [email protected]; Laila Chin-Hui Fan; Futurefarmers; Tue Greenfort; Ingo Günther; Henrik Håkansson; Helen Mayer Harrison & Newton Harrison; Jeffrey Hou & Dorothy Tang; Hsiao Sheng-Chien; Huang Hsin-Yao; Indigenous Transitional Justice Class, Taiwan; KE Chin-Yuan + "Our Island"; Khvay Samnang; Kuroshio Ocean Education Foundation; Candice Lin; Zo Lin—Weed Day; Duane Linklater; Nicholas Mangan; Jumana Manna; Museum of Nonhumanity; Mycelium Network Society; Open Green; Allan Sekula; Rachel Sussman; Vivian Suter; Keelong River Watch Union; The Thousand Miles Trail Association; Wu Ming-Yi; Robert Zhao Renhui and Zheng Bo. (In alphabetical order.) Visit taipeibiennial.

Participants include (in alphabetical order): Ruangsak ANUWATWIMON , Martha ATIENZA , AU Sow-Yee, Ursula BIEMANN, Alexey BULDAKOV, Huai-Wen CHANG+MAS (Micro Architecture Studio) , Ting-Tong CHANG, Jui-Kuang CHAO+Tainan Community University, Julian CHARRIÈRE , CHEN Chu-Yin+Solar Insects Vivarium Workshop, Paris 8 University, Lucy DAVIS (The Migrant Ecologies Project) , [email protected] , Laila Chin-Hui FAN, Futurefarmers, Tue GREENFORT, Ingo GÜNTHER, GUSTAFSSON & HAAPOJA, Henrik HÅKANSSON, Helen Mayer HARRISON & Newton HARRISON, Jeffrey HOU & Dorothy TANG, HSIAO Sheng-Chien, HUANG Hsin-Yao, Indigenous Justice Classroom, KE Chin-Yuan + "Our Island" , Keelong River Watch Union, KHVAY Samnang, Kuroshio Ocean Education Foundation, Candice LIN, Zo LIN—Weed Day, Duane LINKLATER, LU Ji-Ying, Nicholas MANGAN, Jumana MANNA, Mycelium Network Society (Franz XAVER + Taro + Martin HOWSE + Shu Lea CHEANG + global network nodes) , Open Green, Allan SEKULA, Rachel SUSSMAN, Vivian SUTER, Taiwan Thousand Miles Trail Association, WU Ming-Yi, Robert ZHAO Renhui, ZHENG Bo. Taipei Biennial 2018 Events As curator Francesco Manacorda explains, conversations between practitioners of different fields and discursive investigations are at the very center of this year Biennial's structure and methodology.

Fungal mycelium Microscopic view of a mycelium. This image covers a one- millimeter square. Another microscopic view of a mycelium. Numbered ticks are 230 µm apart.

Lingzhi is also used to create mycelium bricks, mycelium furniture, and leather-like products.

One of the examples of the structure of a mycelium based composites. Mycelium composites are products that uses mycelium, which is one of the main components of a fungus. Fungus depends on mycelium to get nutrients from the environment. There are several uses of mycelium composites in the industry because it is economically and environmentally sustainable.

The pearl oyster mushroom is also used to create mycelium bricks, mycelium furniture, and leather-like products.

Schematic showing a basidiomycete mushroom, gill structure, and spore-bearing basidia on the gill margins. A basidium (pl., basidia) is a microscopic sporangium (or spore-producing structure) found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi which are also called tertiary mycelium, developed from secondary mycelium. Tertiary mycelium is highly coiled secondary mycelium, a dikaryon.

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) growing fast on coffee grounds Mycelium as seen under a log Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus or fungus-like bacterial colony, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a monokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two compatible monokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms.

Mold produce mycelium which growth pattern resembles cobwebs. Mycelium allows the mold to obtain food and nutrients through the host. Inevitably, the mycelium produces spore sacs and release new spores into the air . Eventually the spores land on new material, and the reproductive cycle begins again.

Mycelium based composites are usually compact, porous, lightweight and a good insulator. The main property of these composites is that they are entirely natural, therefore sustainable. Other advantage of mycelium based composites is that this substance acts as an insulator, is fireproof, nontoxic, water resistance, rapidly growing, and has an ability to bond with neighboring mycelium products. Mycelium based foams (MBFs) and sandwich components are two common type of the composites.

The sporidia give rise to mycelium, and once winter comes, the fungus is dormant. The disease overwinters as mycelium in the canes, crown and roots of the plants.

Mycelium is an important food source for many soil invertebrates. "Mycelium", like "fungus", can be considered a mass noun, a word that can be either singular or plural. The term "mycelia", though, like "fungi", is often used as the preferred plural form. Sclerotia are compact or hard masses of mycelium.

The mycelium is coenocytic or irregularly septate. The nuclei are small. During interphase, condense chromatin is absent, but a central nucleolus can be observed. The mycelium can become disjointed.

Streptomyces species produce differentiated, branch-like structures known as hyphae, which collectively make up the organism's mycelium (plural mycelia). For Streptomyces antibioticus, as with other Streptomyces species, mycelia can be divided into two types: aerial and substrate. The substrate mycelium is formed for vegetative growth, whereas the aerial mycelium is formed for the purpose of spore production. Aerial hyphae branch out from the substrate mycelium and subsequently differentiate into chains of spores.

In Mexico, they have been found with oak. The fungus is well-adapted to live in cold climates, as its mycelium has a relatively high tolerance to low temperatures, although repeated freezing/thawing cycles tend to slow the growth of mycelium. The lethal temperature required for 50% of the mycelium to die is .

Its turnip-shaped or spherical conidia are borne in the aerial mycelium, whereas those of F. poae are produced on straight monophialides mostly in the aerial mycelium. It does not produce sporodochial conidia.

Neurospora crassa life cycle. The haploid mycelium reproduces asexually by two processes: (1) simple proliferation of existing mycelium, and (2) formation of conidia (macro- and micro-) which can be dispersed and then germinate to produce new mycelium. In the sexual cycle, mating can only occur between individual strains of different mating type, ‘A’ and ‘a’. Fertilization occurs by the passage of nuclei of conidia or mycelium of one mating type into the protoperithecia of the opposite mating type through the trichogyne.

In 2013, another company (MycoWorks) started producing mycelium furniture, mycelium bricks and mycelium leather. Bolt Threads is another company that uses mycelium to create a fake "leather", dubbed "Mylo", which has been incorporated into designs by Stella McCartney. Fungi are essential for converting biomass into compost, as they decompose feedstock components such as lignin, which many other composting microorganisms cannot. Turning a backyard compost pile will commonly expose visible networks of mycelia that have formed on the decaying organic material within.

Neurospora crassa life cycle. The haploid mycelium reproduces asexually by two processes: (1) simple proliferation of existing mycelium, and (2) formation of conidia (macro- and micro-) which can be dispersed and then germinate to produce new mycelium. In the sexual cycle, mating can only occur between individual strains of different mating type, A and a. Fertilization occurs by the passage of nuclei of conidia or mycelium of one mating type into the protoperithecia of the opposite mating type through the trichogyne.

The notable cherry-red vegetative mycelium is produced on most of the media used in the experiment. Other members of Actinoplanes, when grown on the same media, produced a yellow and orange vegetative mycelium.

Xerocomus ferrugineus is found under conifers and also has yellow mycelium.

Soil with the mycelium becomes more podzolized than the surrounding soil.

This fungus produces secondary conidia within the same season; this furthers the disease cycle and allows the fungus to infect more plants. Mycelium rapidly develops. Under near perfect conditions, mycelium can develop within twelve hours of infection. The mycelium protects the next generation of conidia and ensures survival through the winter via conidiophores, and the cycle starts again the next season.

During fabrication process, it is essential to have sterilized environment, a controlled environment condition of light, temperature (25-35°C) and humidity around 60-65% for the best results. One way to synthesize a mycelium based composite is by mixing different composition ratio of fibers, water and mycelium together and putting in a PVC molds in layers while compressing each layer and letting it incubate for couple of days. Mycelium based composites can be processed in foam, laminate and mycelium sheet by using processing techniques such as laster cutting, cold and heat compression, etc.. Mycelium composites tend to absorb water when they are newly fabricated, therefore this property can be changed by oven drying the product.

Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds. ; Stamets P. 2005. Mycelium Running. ; Kuo M. 2007.

Plant waste is a common organic substrate that is used in mycelium based composites. Fungal mycelium is incubated with a plants waste product to produce sustainable alternatives mostly for petroleum based materials. The mycelium and organic substrate needed to incubate properly and this time is crucial as it is the period that these particles interact together and bind into one to form a dense network and hence form a composite. During this incubation period, mycelium uses the essential nutrients such as carbon, minerals, and water from the waste plant product.

Fusarium sterilihyphosum is a plant pathogen. It infects mango trees. Its aerial mycelium is almost white; conidiophores on aerial mycelium are erect, occasionally prostrate, and sympodially branched bearing mono- and polyphialides. Phialides on aerial conidiophores mono and polyphialidic.

Deacon, p. 31. Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium.

The mycelium of Botryosphaeria rhodina MAMB-05 is a rich source of β-glucans.

Neurospora crassa life cycle. The haploid mycelium reproduces asexually by two processes: (1) simple proliferation of existing mycelium, and (2) formation of conidia (macro- and micro-) which can be dispersed and then germinate to produce new mycelium. In the sexual cycle, mating can only occur between individual strains of different mating type, A and a. Fertilization occurs by the passage of nuclei of conidia or mycelium of one mating type into the protoperithecia of the opposite mating type through the trichogyne. Fusion of the nuclei of opposite mating types occurs within the protoperithecium to form a zygote (2N) nucleus.

The Pasteuriaceae are a family of nonmotile Gram-positive bacteria. They are moderately to strongly resistant to heat. Species in this family produce a septate mycelium with one refractile endospore. The mycelium grows bigger on one end to form sporangia and sometimes endospores.

Fusarium mangiferae is a fungal plant pathogen that infects mango trees. Its aerial mycelium is white and floccose. Conidiophores on aerial mycelium originating erect and prostrate from substrate; they are sympodially branched bearing mono and polyphialides. Polyphialides have 2–5 conidiogenous openings.

While this pathogen enters through the leaf, the disease is caused by root rot that causes symptoms of foliar blight. The mycelium gives rise to chlamydospores and oospores. Oospores produce mycelium that produce sporangia. Oospores are the survival structure of P. cactorum.

The tops narrow to 3-4 µm. Alternatively, conidiophores can grow laterally from ascending mycelium (i.e., the mycelium is not immersed in the agar) or hyphal ropes. On average these conidiophores are smaller than the ones that grow from hypha immersed in agar.

Elliptical to obovate to obpyriform chlamydospores formed in vegetative mycelium, and are abundant in cultures.

Mycelium may survive unfavorable conditions in dormant buds that can lead to future infection cycles.

Lentinan is a polysaccharide isolated from the fruit body of shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes mycelium).

The substance was first isolated from the mycelium of liquid fermentation cultures of Penicillium species FR11.

Gymnoconia interstitialis is a fungus – specifically a basidiomycete. The mycelium lives from year to year in the affected plant. You can find the mycelium in the roots of the plant between the cells of the cortex (near the cambium). The parenchyma inside of the leaves becomes infected.

Chlamydospores produce mycelium that continues to infect the plant. Pythium ultimum P. ultimum requires moist conditions to germinate. When conditions are favorable, surviving oospores in the soil produce a sporangia and zoospores which facilitate infection via germ tube. From there, mycelium will grow throughout all plant tissues.

There are also other several commonly used products such as lamps, kitchen utensils, ceiling panels, decorative items, fashion items, chair, etc made out of mycelium. In architecture, mycelium based composites are widely used because they have better insulation performance and fire resistance than currently used products. Mycelium is being used more in industry to replace common plastic materials that are harming the environment. These products are manufactured using low energy, natural manufacturing process and are biodegradable.

Myceligenerans is a Gram-positive, spore-forming and mycelium-forming bacterial genus from the family of Promicromonosporaceae.

In the family Sphaeropsidaceae, species of the genus Darluca are hyperparasitic on rusts while species of Cicinnobolus are hyperparasites of powdery mildew. Their mycelium is grown longitudinally in the mycelium of their hosts. Members of this order can produce bisnaphthyl pigments, such as Sphaerolone and dihydrosphaerolone, or 2-hydroxyjuglone.

These monomers are then absorbed into the mycelium by facilitated diffusion and active transport. Mycelia are vital in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems for their role in the decomposition of plant material. They contribute to the organic fraction of soil, and their growth releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere (see carbon cycle). Ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium, as well as the mycelium of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi increase the efficiency of water and nutrient absorption of most plants and confers resistance to some plant pathogens.

Mycelium, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on a substrate—usually sterilized grains such as rye or millet—and induced to grow into those grains. This is called inoculation. Inoculated grains (or plugs) are referred to as spawn. Spores are another inoculation option, but are less developed than established mycelium.

This is characterized by small spotted sporangia structures, mycelium growth on the ear, and eventual ear and grain rot.

It is also possible for oospores and mycelium to overwinter in the seeds of maize. The mycelium infects the scutellum of the seed. The oospores and mycelium that are present in the seed often lose their viability when the seeds are dried, but under the right circumstances, it is possible for these infected seeds to become a source of inoculum, infecting the maize plant as it grows. Infection of the seed itself often occurs with the plant that produced the seed had been infected later in development.

Within a few hours the nutrients from these are available to the mycelium of the fungus. Unlike some other species of nematophagous fungi which create sticky nets, A. dactyloides is able to form constricting ring- traps immediately after emerging from the conidia. These are known as conidial traps and may constitute a survival mechanism under adverse conditions. Under normal conditions, a hypha is formed on germination of the conidia; this grows and branches to form a mycelium, and loop traps form on the hyphae in the mycelium.

The medullary mycelium then grow back towards the cuticle in a manner that makes the origin of the mycelium undetectable after 5–6 days of infection. The cortex is the third, and last region of the hair to be attacked by A. fulvescens. Appressoria penetrate through to the cortex to produce cells of various sizes, giving the cortex a swollen morphology. This swollen mass of cells can proliferate in all directions to give rise to a large mass of mycelium that protrudes backwards out of the hair.

Presence of a fruit body may indicate that the mycelium has penetrated and weakened the root crown of the tree.

Inside the mycelium, hexose is converted to trehalose and glycogen. Trehalose and glycogen are carbon storage forms that can be rapidly synthesized and degraded and may buffer the intracellular sugar concentrations. The intraradical hexose enters the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, which produces pentose for nucleic acids. Lipid biosynthesis also occurs in the intraradical mycelium.

The mycelium of a fungus growing in the ground absorbs nutrients by secretion of enzymes from the tips of the hyphae (threads making up the mycelium). This breaks down larger molecules in the soil into smaller molecules that are then absorbed through the walls of the hyphae near their growing tips. The mycelium will move outward from the center, and when the nutrients in the center are exhausted, the center dies, thereby forming a living ring, from which the fairy ring arises. There are two theories regarding the process involved in creating fairy rings.

When spread on logging roads, mycelium can act as a binder, holding new soil in place and preventing washouts until woody plants can be established. Since 2007, a company called Ecovative Design has been developing alternatives to polystyrene and plastic packaging by growing mycelium in agricultural waste. The two ingredients are mixed together and placed into a mold for 3–5 days to grow into a durable material. Depending on the strain of mycelium used, they make many different varieties of the material including water absorbent, flame retardant, and dielectric.

At 4 °C, the chlamydospores and spores could germinate after 3 days and the mycelium was not abundant, yielding this as the minimum temperature at which M. polycephala could grow. At 15 °C germination was the best for M. polycephala: it took 2 days and the mycelium was abundant, but not too crowded. From 22-27 °C mycelium generation started to occur too fast and too crowded; and at 32 °C conditions started to get unhealthy for germination. Finally at 45 °C and higher temperatures, the spores died and germination was not possible.

Dried colony of Phialophora fastigiata UAMH 1420 on cellophane Macroscopically, P. fastigiata colonies reach 2.3 - 2.5 cm in diameter after being grown at 20 °C on malt extract agar for 10 days. They exhibit an olive-brown or reddish-brown velvety appearance, and grow with a border of hyaline (glassy) mycelium. Aerial mycelium form a floccose (fluffy) greyish-brown turf 1.0-6.5mm high, and produce rope-like strands towards the centre of the colony. Although isolates usually grow uniformly, slight differences in colour, numbers of conidiophores and numbers of aerial mycelium have been observed.

Conidial heads primarily arise from the substrate, but also produce some from aerial mycelium. The fungus radiates when young and becomes columnar shaped with a diameter of 80 to 90 μm. Conidial heads arising from aerial mycelium are smaller and become columnar quicker. Conidiophores arise from surface or aerial hyphae with the stipe's length ranging from 150-300 μm.

Actinomycetes are Gram-positive bacteria that resemble fungi in structure with a complex branched network of cells called a mycelium. Isolates of Streptomyces lavendulae from different soils around the world vary morphologically and physiologically, with some strains producing straight aerial mycelium, while other isolates form spiral mycelium.Waksman SA, Harris D, Lechevalier M. 1951. Studies on Streptomyces Lavendulae.

It is a cone-shaped cave which houses a rare species of poisonous mushroom named Medusoid Mycelium. They wax and wane, but are deadly when waxing. The grotto is remote enough that it can quarantine the Medusoid Mycelium from the outside world. Fiona suspects there may be an antidote to the poisonous effects of the fungus.

One of the most common use of mycelium based composites is for the alternatives for petroleum and polystyrene based materials. These synthetic foams are usually used for sustainable design and architecture products. The use of mycelium based composites are based on their properties. There are several bio-sustainable companies such as Ecovative Design LLC, MycoWorks, MyCoPlast, etc.

Mycena tintinnabulum is a European species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The mycelium, but not the fruit body, is bioluminescent.

The disease overwinters as pseudothecia and mycelium in the stubble. In spring the pseudothecia release their ascospores and the cycle repeats itself.

Mycelium, and sometimes conidiophores and conidia were observed in the galleries as well. No sexual stage of the fungus has currently been found.

This was probably due to binding of the metal to the extramatricial mycelium of the fungus, without affecting the exchange of beneficial substances.

Streptomyces albus is a bacterial species from which the pseudodisaccharide aminoglycoside salbostatin was isolated. S. albus is known to produce white aerial mycelium.

Micromonosporaceae is a family of bacteria of the class Actinobacteria. They are gram-positive, spore-forming soil organisms that form a true mycelium.

One intracellular metabolite secreted by Aspergillus wentii is toxic to mice as well as chicken embryos. Aspergillus wentii chloroform extracts of mycelium, moldy corn, and moldy rice all produce varying levels of toxicity when introduced to chicken embryos on yeast-extract sucrose (YES) medium. While moldy corn with Aspergillus wentii was unable to kill mice in one study, YES extracts of corn and mycelium were shown to be deadly to mice, with YES mycelium extract being the most potent to both chicken and mice. One Aspergillus wentii strain, Ras101, is known for its ability to produce biodiesel from the transesterification of lipids.

They are usually carried to the alternative host by wind. Once basidiospores arrive on a leaf of the alternative host, they germinate to produce a haploid mycelium that directly penetrates the epidermis and colonises the leaf. Once inside the leaf the mycelium produces specialised infection structures called pycnia. The pycnia produce two types of haploid gametes, the pycniospores and the receptive hyphae.

M. nivale begins by oversummering (surviving the summer) in thatch or soil as haploid mycelium or spores. When cool, wet weather arrives in the fall or winter the mycelium grows from thatch or soil and infects leaves. These environmental conditions also favor the development of asexual spores called conidia on conidiophores. These conidia infect leaf sheaths and blades near the soil.

Belonging to the Stenella genus, this species is a Cercospora-like fungus with a superficial secondary mycelium, solitary conidiophores, conidiogenous cells with thickened and darkened conidiogenous loci and catenate or single conidia with dark, slightly thickened hila. This species is characterised by the absence of stromata, its long conidiophores developing from the external mycelium and conidia mostly with 1 to 2 septa.

This feature becomes less visually prominent as the hymenium matures and neighboring basidia expand and become crowded. The mycelium of the fungus is bioluminescent.

The holotype of Mycetophagites consists of mycelium in a lone, partly decomposed fruiting body without any associated structures. The fungi are preserved in a rectangular piece of yellow amber approximately by by . The pileus is in diameter and possess a convex shape with the flesh a bluish gray color and hairy. The mycelium is composed of thick, septate, hyphae 4–6 μm in diameter.

A mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or may grow to span thousands of acres as in Armillaria. Through the mycelium, a fungus absorbs nutrients from its environment. It does this in a two-stage process. First, the hyphae secrete enzymes onto or into the food source, which break down biological polymers into smaller units such as monomers.

The majority of the underground biomass of the fungus is concentrated near the surface, most likely as "mycelial mats"—dense clusters of ectomycorrhizae and mycelium. The mycelium is also known to extend far beyond the site of the fruit bodies, as far as away. Molecular techniques have been developed to help with conservation efforts of stipitate hydnoid fungi, including H. peckii. While the distribution of the fungus has traditionally been determined by counting the fruit bodies, this method has a major drawback in that fruit bodies are not produced consistently every year, and the absence of fruit bodies is not an indication of the absence of its mycelium in the soil.

Dermatophytes are seen to behave in a similar manner, however, instead of a bulging mass, the mycelium grows in a more organized fashion, as a single collapsed column. Growth of the cortical mycelium can be at any angle to the hair in an attack from A. fulvescens, while true dermatophytes have the characteristic of growing along the hair in parallel. A. fulvescens can attack at any point along the hair and often causes a marked swelling upon entry sites. The mycelium penetrates the hair by exerting a high amount of pressure on the hair cells and is always closely pressed to the cavity walls.

There are several ways to fabricate and synthesize mycelium composites which can alter the properties to produce different types of materials for different types of uses.

Gerronema viridilucens is a species of agaric fungus in the family Marasmiaceae. Found in South America, the mycelium and fruit bodies of the fungus are bioluminescent.

The fungus grows parasitically on the mycelium of wood-rotting corticioid fungi in the genus Peniophora. Occasionally, T. mesenterica and its host fungus are found fruiting together.

Sunlight has a chromogenic effect on the mycelium, with intense coloration. Cereal mashes and sprouted rye are suitable substrates for growth of the fungus in the laboratory.

The dense, coarse mycelium at the base of the stem is black. The flesh is thin and blackish- gray. Edibility has not been determined for this species.

The aeciospores are able to germinate on the cereal host but not on the alternative host (they are produced on the alternative host, which is usually barberry). They are carried by wind to the cereal host where they germinate and the germ tubes penetrate into the plant. The fungus grows inside the plant as a dikaryotic mycelium. Within 1–2 weeks the mycelium produces uredinia and the cycle is complete.

The fungus grows on wood from coniferous trees, such as pine wood, under damp conditions, with a wood moisture content of 40 to 50 percent. In humid atmospheres, the white cotton-like mycelium can grow on wood surfaces and cross inert materials. In newly grown mycelium, fine drops of clear liquid may be present. The optimal temperature for growth is ;The temperature as growth factors for the dry rot.

P. ostretus, Pleurotus sp., T. versicolor, Trametes sp., etc. A dense network is formed when the mycelium of the microbe of fungi degrades and colonizes the organic substance.

Signs of laminated root rot include the setal hyphae (tiny hairlike hyphae) between sheets of decomposing wood and also buff-colored mycelium on the outside of the roots.

The stem is solid (that is, not hollow), and its flesh pale purplish at the top, but yellowish below. Mycelium at the base of the stem is also yellow.

As for visible signs of the fungus, if the bark is peeled back at the center of the canker, a mat of white mycelium (fungal tissue) will be revealed.

When in a young plant, hyphae may be found in any of the tissues. In the affected organs of the plant, the mycelium develops haustoria, which appear as side branching from the mycelium. The haustoria penetrate through cell walls to extract nutrients, while the fungus follows the growing-tip of the plant. As discussed in the "Hosts and Symptoms" section, black bodies appear on the upper surface of the leaves during the spring.

Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle.

Microconidia are the spore types most often produced by this fungus under all conditions, as well as the spores produced in the xylem. The macroconidia are found on dead plant tissue surfaces as well as in groups that look like sporodochia. The chlamydospores are round, resting spores, produced on older mycelium or in macroconidia. Mycelium enters the roots and travels into the vascular xylem where it starts to produce microconidia, eventually clogging the xylem.

Mucronella is a genus of fungi in the family Clavariaceae. Species in the genus resemble awl-shaped teeth that grow in groups without a common subiculum (supporting layer of mycelium).

Mycena manipularis is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. Found in Australasia, Malaysia, and the Pacific islands, the mycelium and fruit bodies of the fungus are bioluminescent.

The growth of H. acremonioides on rice is colored brown, and when growing the species on potato mush agar at 20 °C, firmly growth of mycelium was obtained producing megaspores.

A whitish mycelium present at the base of the stem helps anchor the fruit body in the substrate. The flesh is mustard yellow, and stains pinkish-brown when cut or bruised.

In a proposed fungal computer using Basidiomycetes, information is represented by spikes of electrical activity, a computation is implemented in a mycelium network, and an interface is realized via fruit bodies.

Armillaria gemina is a species of mushroom in the family Physalacriaceae. In North America, this rare species is found from the Appalachian Mountains eastwards. The mycelium of the fungus is bioluminescent.

The mycelium is abundant and persistent or sometimes inconspicuous, and occurs on either side or both sides of the infected leaves. The perithecia are abundant, scattered or somewhat aggregated, small, usually about 75 µm long, but varying from 60–100 µm. The texture is soft, surface uneven, reticulations very large and irregular, 20-30 µm. The appendages are long, stout, usually colored throughout; but sometimes colorless, flexuous, somewhat uneven in width, and more or less interwoven with the mycelium.

The archetypal Oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus, cannot be imported into New Zealand due to perceived risks to their forestry industry. The cultivation of Pleurotus pulmonarius is very similar to how one would cultivate other types of Pleurotus species like P. ostreatus by transferring mycelium from a petri plate onto grain and then transferring the grain spawn after the mycelium colonizes it to substrates of straw, wood chips, sawdust, cardboard, coffee grounds, and other cellulose-based substrates.

Many fungi, especially gilled mushroomes and boletes, have an extensive mycelium that lives in association with the roots of woody plants. This association, which is beneficial to both the fungus and host plant, is termed a mycorrhiza. When the environmental conditions are favorable and the mycelium is at the proper stage of development, one or more fruit bodies are produced by the fungus. The actual conditions necessary for fruit body formation and spore production are not clearly understood.

To increase the tensile strength, the composite can go through heat pressing. A mycelium composite made out of 75 wt% rice hulls have density of 193 kg/m3, while 75 wt% wheat grains has 359 kg/m3, which shows how different mycelium substance has effect on its property. One the methods to increase the density of the composite would be by deleting a hydrophobin gene. These composites also have the ability of self fusion which increases their strength.

The lesions are usually inflammatory, impetiginous, and sometimes bullous with rapid development and resolution; this is accompanied by scarring and permanent patches alopecia. The greatest intensity of inflammation is at the advancing margin of the ring. Direct examination with KOH of skin, reveal mycelium and masses of arthroconidia in some chains; KOH examination of hair produces distinctive large macroconidia in chain or irregular masses of hair. Mycelium was also discovered to run parallel to its length.

Purpureocillium lilacinum forms a dense mycelium which gives rise to conidiophores. These bear phialides from the ends of which spores are formed in long chains. Spores germinate when suitable moisture and nutrients are available. Colonies on malt agar grow rather fast, attaining a diameter of 5–7 cm within 14 days at , consisting of a basal felt with a floccose overgrowth of aerial mycelium; at first white, but when sporulating changing to various shades of vinaceous.

Covered in fine scales, the stipe is yellow-brown fading to pale yellow at the top, measuring tall by wide. It also stains pale blue on bruising. The mycelium is pale yellow.

Although the toxin concentration in the mycelium is only about 10% of that in fruiting bodies, the authors suggest that is possible to increase the amatoxin production by optimizing the growth conditions.

When grown in liquid culture, the mycelium of Lactarius deliciosus produces a mixture of fatty acids and various compounds such as chroman-4-one, anofinic acid, 3-hydroxyacetylindole, ergosterol, and cyclic dipeptides.

No mycelium present. This species is very similar to C. albidus with the notable exception of not being able to ferment sucrose.Menna M. (1954) Cryptococcus terreus n.sp., from Soil in New Zealand.

Several authors have suggested that the purpose of fungal bioluminescence is to attract arthropods to the fruit body to help disseminate spores. However, there has been no direct observation of this phenomenon. In many species, the mycelium is luminescent, but the fruit body is not, which argues against this hypothesis. Mycelial bioluminence may also function to attract animals that can potentially carry fungal spores in well-hydrated areas, as light emission from the mycelium is higher when it is hydrated.

This would presumably increase the chance that spores would be deposited in an environment that is already optimal for growth. Basidiomycete mushrooms are known to be dependent on an adequate moisture supply for proper development. In species with a luminous mycelium, the mycelium would therefore have a dual function in performing the fungal translocation that permits transport of substances from the further environment back to the fruiting body, and in attracting disseminating vectors towards environments favorable for development of the species.

To process the materials to be used as a feedstock to grow the structure, the feedstock material is cleaned, "cooked", cooled and pasteurized. As part of the process the material is also continuously inoculated with mycelium (by spores or myclial division). This processed and inoculated material is then placed in molds that conform to the shape and size of the final product. As the mycelium grows, it consumes the feedstock and creates a chitinous polymer matrix that forms the lightweight, non-compressible structure.

As the spores germinate and form a mycelium, the wasp's eggs will hatch, and the newly-born larvae eat the mycelium. The wasp species Tremex columba requires C. unicolor to grow, as without the interaction, the larvae will die. However, after these eggs are laid, the parasitic wasp genus Megarhyssa will lay its own eggs within the eggs of the Tremex wasp. The larvae of Megarhyssa, when hatched, proceeds to eat the larvae of Tremex, helping control the population of Tremex.

Aerial mycelium is generally absent (with exceptions). Frequently both mycelium and yeast-like cells are present. The genome of A. melanogenum (as well as other closely related species) contains unusually high numbers of genes for extracellular enzymes for carbohydrate degradation (CAZy) and proteases, MFS membrane sugar transporters, and alkali metal cation transporters (or ion transporters). Genes presumably involved in the synthesis of the biotechnologically important polysaccharide pullulan and siderophores were found, but the gene for antibiotic Aureobasidin A could not be identified.

Coprinopsis cinerea can be transformed with exogenous DNA by transformation when the fungus is a protoplast. It was found that disrupting (knockout or RNAi silencing) ku70 homologue can increase gene targeting via increased homologous recombination. Either protoplasts derived from oidia or vegetative mycelium can be used, however, gene targeting was found to be higher by 2% (based on phenotyping) when using vegetative mycelium. Otherwise, insertion of integrative vectors ectopically and with small homologous regions can be used, likely with low transformation efficiency.

Cortinarius lewisii has a dry yellow cap, a dry cream-colored stem with a white basal mycelium, and a dense white yellow partial veil, and flesh that has a musky to radish musky odor.

Chlamydospores are sparsely produced, being intercalary, single, and the same colour as the conidial terminal cell. The vegetative mycelium often carry swollen, monilioid hyphae that are 1 to 2μm wide, septate, and show thickened walls.

Its appearance was pale grey-brown. Additionally, a culture of A. carneus derived from estuarine sediment in Tasmania was characterized by a brown mycelium, indicating that morphological strain divergence may have occurred in marine environments.

Estimation of the biomass and seasonal growth of external mycelium of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the field. New Phytologist, 151: 753-760. but no current evidence that they promote aggregate formation or stability in field soils.

The texture of the colony when grown on CZ is velutinous to floccose, which means that conidiophores can either arise like short velvet with little aerial mycelium or from a mass of tangled aerial hyphae.

The combination of poor yield and difficulty may explain why P. cyanescens is grown less frequently than some other psilocybin containing mushrooms. Psilocybe cyanescens mycelium is much easier to grow than actual fruits are, can be grown indoors, and is robust enough that it can be transplanted in order to start new patches. Mycelium can also be propagated via stem butt transplantation. Many of the cultivation techniques used with other members of the genus Psilocybe can be used to grow P. cyanescens as well.

Eukaryotic Cell, 2:1-8 Heterokaryosis is also common upon mating, as in Dikarya (Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes). Mating requires the encounter of two haploid nuclei of compatible mating types. These nuclei do not immediately fuse, and remain haploid in a n+n state until the very onset of meiosis: this phenomenon is called delayed karyogamy. Heterokaryosis can lead to individuals that have different nuclei in different parts of their mycelium, although in ascomycetes, particularly in "Neurospora", nuclei have been shown to flow and mix throughout the mycelium.

P. megakarya is an oomycete that has a polycyclic disease cycle, producing three asexual spore types: sporangia, zoospores, and chlamydospores. Although it is rare, P. megakarya can also produce sexual oospores through heterothallic mating which requires two different mating types; so far none have been observed. Mycelium plays an important role in the infection of the cocoa trees; mycelium found in the soil and in cankers on the bark develops into sporangia, which can then germinate. Zoospores are produced from these sporangia as secondary inoculum.

It survives in the soil debris as a mycelium and all spore types, but is most commonly recovered from the soil as chlamydospores. This pathogen spreads in two basic ways: it spreads short distances by water splash, and by planting equipment, and long distances by infected transplants and seeds. F. oxysporum infects a healthy plant by means of mycelia or by germinating spores penetrating the plant's root tips, root wounds, or lateral roots. The mycelium advances intracellularly through the root cortex and into the xylem.

A potato infected by common scab Streptomyces scabies is a streptomycete bacteria which means it forms a mycelium made of hyphae, a growth form more usually associated with fungi. The hyphae of Streptomyces, are much smaller than those of fungi (0.5–2.0 μm) and form a heavily branched mycelium. They are Gram-positive and have a high proportion of the DNA bases guanine and cytosine (71%) in their genome. The genome of strain 87.22 has been sequenced and it is 10.1 Mbp, encoding 9,107 provisional genes.

The field(s) and its (their) gradient(s) are used to inform the algorithm that calculates the likelihood of branching, the angle of branching and the growth direction of each hyphal tip in the simulated mycelium. The growth vector is being informed of its surroundings so, effectively, the virtual hyphal tip is sensing the neighbouring mycelium. This is why we call it the Neighbour-Sensing model. Cross-walls in living hyphae are formed only at right angles to the long axis of the hypha.

Monokaryotic (adj.) is a term used to refer to multinucleate cells where all nuclei are genetically identical. In multinucleate cells, nuclei share one common cytoplasm, as is found in hyphal cells or mycelium of filamentous fungi.

In culture, mycelium is gray to olivaceous and is often sterile. Conidia may be formed when infected barley pieces as placed on water agar and incubated under diurnal light conditions followed by a period of chilling.

Belonging to the Stenella genus, this species is a Cercospora-like fungus with a superficial secondary mycelium, solitary conidiophores, conidiogenous cells with thickened and darkened conidiogenous loci and catenate or single conidia with dark, slightly thickened hila.

The host plant appears to be functioning according to signals from the fungus and the complex appears to be under the control of the invader.Mycology - Structure and Function - Haustoria The haustorium may be mycelium or root-shaped.

Belonging to the Stenella genus, this species is a Cercospora-like fungus with a superficial secondary mycelium, solitary conidiophores, conidiogenous cells with thickened and darkened conidiogenous loci and catenate or single conidia with dark, slightly thickened hila.

Belonging to the genus Stenella, this species is a Cercospora-like fungus with a superficial secondary mycelium, solitary conidiophores, conidiogenous cells with thickened and darkened conidiogenous loci and catenate or single conidia with dark, slightly thickened hila.

The narrow stipe lacks a ring, and may reach tall with a diameter of . It is reddish and scaled overall, fading to yellow under the cap. The spore print is a dark brown. The mycelium is white.

Mycena noctilucens is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The species was first described scientifically by E.J.H. Corner in 1954. Found in Malaysia and the Pacific islands, the mycelium of the fungus is bioluminescent.

MycoWorks produces its products through a process which involves steam cooking bags of sawdust (or cornhusks) for several hours in airtight bags (to sterilise the growing medium), after which the sawdust or cornhusks are moved into a mold (which has the shape of the final product, ie furniture, ...). In the mold, mushroom tissue (mycelium) is introduced which feeds on the growing medium. The mycelium then grows (into the shape of the mold). Lastly the fungi is killed by putting the whole into an oven, hence stopping additional growth.

The disease cycle starts when the pathogen overwinters as mycelium or fruiting structures in leaf debris and spores are spread by rain splash infecting new leaves as they emerge in the spring when conditions are favorable. Disease development is most successful in cool daytime temperatures and cold nighttime temperatures, high relative humidity, and wet conditions. Common spot on strawberry is a polycyclic disease, and under favorable conditions it will continue to reinfect the host and surrounding plants. The fungus overwinters as mycelium, sclerotia, and perithecia in infected leaf tissues.

Like other members of the family Gomphidiaceae, Gomphidius roseus has been thought to be ectomycorrhizal, forming symbiotic relationship with their host trees. However, it is found exclusively with the related Jersey cow mushroom (Suillus bovinus), and is now thought to be parasitic upon its mycelium. This is evidenced by microscopic examination, which shows that G. roseus inserts haustoria in plant root cells and does not produce significant mycelium itself. Furthermore, G. roseus is never found growing in isolation, only with S. bovinus though the latter species is found without the former.

The scales inside the bulb become progressively translucent and watery and a mycelium develops between them. A mass of grey conidiophores and conidia develop on the mycelium and blackish sclerotia form at the site of the initial infection. In onion crops grown for the production of seed, Botrytis allii can cause spotting and girdling of the stipe (stem) and develop on the sheath that protects the inflorescence and on the flowers themselves. Concentric grey rings may form as the fungus sporulates and the crop may lodge (become flattened).

Amanita jacksonii buttons emerging from their universal veils gills of Lactarius indigo, a milk-cap mushroom A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a "button". The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body.

From this point, you see more white powdery signs of powdery mildew, and these structures produce secondary inoculum to reinfect the host with mycelium and conidia, or use the mycelium to produce primary inoculum to another plant. For germination to occur using a chasmothecium, the chasmothecium must be exposed to the right environmental conditions to rupture the structure to thereby release spores in hope that they'll germinate. Germination of conidia occurs at temperatures between 7 and 31 °C and is inhibited above 33 °C. Germination is greatest at 30-100% relative humidity.

There are two types of the Phellinus; one that causes laminated root rot in Douglas fir, Grand fir, and Hemlocks and the other that causes butt rot in Western red cedar. The mycelium of this fungus doesn’t grow in the soil and also its spores are not spread by wind like most fungal pathogens. Infection occurs when roots of healthy trees grow in contact with infected roots. After initial contact with a living root, the mycelium grows on the bark, extending only a few millimeters into the surrounding soil.

Rhizomucor pusillus is a species of Rhizomucor. It can cause disease in humans. R. pusillus is a grey mycelium fungi most commonly found in compost piles. Yellow-brown spores grow on a stalk to reproduce more fungal cells.

Verticillium alfalfae is a fungus. It causes verticillium wilt in some plant species, particularly alfalfa. It produces yellow-pigmented hyphae and microsclerotia, while producing resting mycelium. It is most closely related to V. albo-atrum and V. nonalfalfae.

The Drechslera poae pathogen is characterized by hyaline to buff-colored mycelium. The conidia are olive-brown to dark-brown and the conidiophores are light yellow-brown.Beard, James Beards encyclopedia of turfgrass. East Lansing, MI: MSU PRESS, 2005. Print.

Overall, the fruit body appears bushy, and is medium-sized, up to . The stipe is single or branching from the base; with white mycelium and rhizomorphs radiating from the base. The odor is of anise. The taste is bitter.

The gills have an adnexed attachment to the stipe. The stipe is up to long and 2 mm thick. It is either hollow, or stuffed with a pith-like mycelium. The spores measure 7.5–9 by 4–5 µm.

A syncytium is the normal cell structure for many fungi. Most fungi of Basidiomycota exist as a dikaryon in which thread-like cells of the mycelium are partially partitioned into segments each containing two differing nuclei, called a heterokaryon.

A germosporangium forms, containing haploid spores, which are released into the environment to initiate the growth of a new mycelium. Cunninghamella betholletiae is not used widely in industry, but it is applied in industrial bioconversion to produce polyunsaturated acids.

Armillaria sinapina is a species of mushroom in the family Physalacriaceae. A plant pathogenic fungus, it causes Armillaria root disease, and has been found on a variety of tree hosts in Alaska. The mycelium of the fungus is bioluminescent.

As the plant enters the boot stage, the mycelium grows rapidly into the floral tissue which is converted to masses of black teliospores. Teliospores are disseminated by wind or during combining. The teliospores may remain viable for several spores.

Mycena minirubra is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. Found only in New Zealand, the fungus produces tiny crimson fruit bodies with caps up to in diameter, atop that stems that arise from a basal disk of mycelium.

The fungus can infect and survive in barley seed. It exists as mycelium in the pericarp and hull of infected seeds. Infection of the coleoptile occurs as it emerges from the embryo. Optimal infections occur at soil temperatures of 16C.

Bacteria in the gabbroic layer of the ocean's crust can degrade hydrocarbons; but the extreme environment makes research difficult. Other bacteria such as Lutibacterium anuloederans can also degrade hydrocarbons. Mycoremediation or breaking down of hydrocarbon by mycelium and mushrooms is possible.

They use their fungal relationship to gather this mold, by collecting the mycelium from the fungus grown on the plant. This mold will continue to grow in between the trichomes and around the holes to fill out and reinforce the structure.

Young leaves are more susceptible to infection than older leaves. Sporulation continues during the winter and into the spring. The pathogen goes dormant during the hot, dry summer and survives as mycelium. The mycelia go dormant inside lesions on living leaves.

The cylindrical stem measures long by thick, and is often tapered toward the base. The stem is firm and solid (i.e., not hollow), and yellow, with yellow mycelium at the base. It frequently has longitudinal grooves extending down from the gills.

Single phialides are not associated with conidiophores but may arise on vegetative aerial hyphae. Globe to ellipsoid chlamydospores 3.5 μm in diameter may be produced submerged in the growth medium beneath the mycelium. No sexual state is known. Colonies are odorless.

This pathogen is also common in greenhouses where cucumbers are grown [2]. In vitro, D. bryoniae does not form pycnidia without UV-light but if cultured in the presence of UV light and darkness, conidia/pycnidiospores produce mycelium rapidly [6].

Its conidiomata are stromatic and pycnidial; mycelium is uniloculate, up to in diameter, non- papillate and with a central ostiole. Its paraphyses are hyaline, cylindrical and thin-walled. Conidiophores are absent in this species. Conidiogenous cells are holoblastic and also hyaline.

Kutzneria are non-motile, aerobic, mesophilic, thermotolerant, Gram positive, chemo-organotrophs. They have stable, branched, cottony aerial mycelium. Their cell walls contain N-acetylated muramic acid and meso-diaminopimelic acid. They produce spores which are either cocci, bacilli or oval.

Like some other Chytridiales, Synchytrium endobioticum develops no mycelium. The fungus produces a thick walled structure known as a winter sporangium. It is 25-75 µm in diameter and contains 200-300 spores. Sporangia are clustered into thin- walled soruses.

The stipe turns dark blue when handled or touched because of the violet universal veil. The mycelium is pale violet. The very warty oval spores are 10.5–14 μm long by 6.5–9 μm wide. The mushroom has no strong aroma.

Experimental work in 1986 showed that Suillus bovinus could metabolise proteins and peptides directly, causing a drop in nitrogen in growth media, which suggested the species has some saprophytic activity. The related rosy spike-cap (Gomphidius roseus) is found exclusively with this species, and is now thought to be parasitic upon the mycelium of Suillus bovinus. This is evidenced by microscopic examination, which shows that G. roseus inserts haustoria in plant root cells and does not produce significant mycelium itself. Furthermore, G. roseus is never found growing in isolation, only with S. bovinus though the latter species is found without the former.

The infection of the host plant begins with the sexual ascospores, or the asexual conidia germinating on the surface of the plants leaf or stem, resulting in septate mycelium of uninucleate cells. In most powdery mildews only the epidermal cells are attacked. The external mycelium gives rise to short, erect conidiophores, each of which bearing a single row of barrel- shaped spores, the youngest being at the base (the affected parts become thus covered with a forest of conidiophores assuming a white powdery appearance). The ripe spores become detached and are readily dispersed by the wind, causing fresh infection.

N. sphaerica colonies grow rapidly and appear hairy or woolly. The conidiophores are short and clustered surfacing from mycelium. They appear translucent in colour and have an average range of 8-11μm in diameter. The conidiophores are often straight stalks or slightly curved.

The fungus forms a "thin tough felt," sporulating in dark yellow-greenish shades. It can also grow as mycelium and have green color. Reverse is uncolored to greenish brown or dark green, with color emphasized at colony center. There is slight odor.

The fruiting body of the sporocarp is 1.5–3.5 cm broad, attached to the substrate by a tuft of mycelium, and spherical to slightly compressed.Smith, A.H. (1951). Puffballs and Their Allies in Michigan. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, MI. 131 p.

Mycena alcalina is saprotrophic, meaning it derives nutrients from the breakdown of organic materials through use of extracellular enzymes. This particular species is found most often growing on the wood of coniferous trees.Stamets P. 2005. Mycelium running: how mushrooms can save the world.

Psilocybin levels in this species were found to vary between 0.11% up to 1.34% by dry weight.Gartz J, Müller GK. (1989). Analysis and cultivation of fruit bodies and mycelium of Psilocybe bohemica. Biochemie und Physiologie der Pflanzen (BPP) 184(3-4): 337-341.

Its conidiomata are stromatic and pycnidial; its mycelium being uniloculate and non-papillate, with a central ostiole. Paraphyses are hyaline and cylindrical. Conidiophores are absent in this species. Its conidiogenous cells are holoblastic and also hyaline, while its conidia are aseptate and ellipsoid.

Syspastospora parasitica is a mycoparasitic fungus. It attacks other fungi, particularly species of Beauveria and Isaria (molds that belong to the family Clavicipitaceae). It parasitizes the mycelium of its host by means of specialized contact cells, and produces dark brown, long-necked perithecia.

The first signs of infection are small irregular patches of brown/yellowing grass. Upon closer inspection, either the tiny red needles or the pink fluffy mycelium will be visible. As the infection spreads, the small patches will join to form large brown areas.

These spores penetrate the plant cuticle directly, germinating and developing into an intracellular mycelium. The fungus produces new acervuli after infection. This allows repeated infections all season long, making the disease polycyclic. The sexual spores, ascospores, are produced in sacs called asci.

The fungus overwinters in infected leaves and malformed inflorescences in the form of dormant mycelium, conidiophores or conidia. This fungus is ectophytic, existing primarily on the surface of plant tissues. It draws nutrients from the plant via haustoria that penetrate the epidermal layer.

Hypomyces lithuanicus is a parasitic ascomycete in the Hypocreales order. The fungus produces a cream-ochre to cinnamon-colored granular or velvety growth of mycelium on the surfaces of the gills of agaric fungi like Lactarius torminosus, causing them to be deformed.

The gardens are laid out in special chambers using excrement pills containing spores. The mycelium grows through the substrate (the accumulations of feces), and after a few weeks the fungus begins to form vegetative nodules that serve as food for the termites.

Actinopolyspora righensis is a halophilic actinomycete first isolated from Saharan soil in Algeria. Its aerial mycelium produce long, straight or flexuous spore chains with non-motile, smooth-surfaced and rod-shaped spores. Its type strain is H23T (=DSM 45501T = CCUG 63368T = MTCC 11562T).

Academic Press: London. AM fungi take up the products of the plant host's photosynthesis as hexoses. Carbon transfer from plant to fungi may occur through the arbuscules or intraradical hyphae. Secondary synthesis from the hexoses by AM occurs in the intraradical mycelium.

Cano J. Guarro J, Figueras M. (March 1991). "Study of the invasion of human hair in vitro by Aphanoascus spp." Mycoses. 34(3):145–152. This attack resembles that of true dermatophytes in that some lateral hyphae give rise to fronded mycelium.

Its basal cell meaures 2.5–4.5 by 2.0–3.0μm. Chlamydospores are sparsely produced, being intercalary, single, and the same colour as the conidial terminal cell. The vegetative mycelium often carry swollen, monilioid hyphae that are 1.5 to 3μm wide, septate, and show thickened walls.

Fungal mycelia are typically haploid. When mycelia of different mating types meet, they produce two multinucleate ball-shaped cells, which join via a "mating bridge". Nuclei move from one mycelium into the other, forming a heterokaryon (meaning "different nuclei"). This process is called plasmogamy.

Concentrates of borate-based treatments can be used to prevent slime, mycelium, and algae growth, even in marine environments. Boric acid is added to salt in the curing of cattle hides, calfskins, and sheepskins. This helps to control bacterial development, and helps to control insects.

Aphidicolin is a mycotoxin originally known to be produced by the fungus, Cephalosporium aphidicola. This antiviral compound was isolated in mycelium culture filtrate of N. sphaerica. Epoxyexserophilone is a metabolite similar to the phytotoxin, exserohilone. Fermentation of N. sphaerica led to the production of epoxyexserophilone.

Peronosporaceae are a family of water moulds that contains 21 genera, comprising more than 600 species. Most of them are called downy mildews. Peronosporaceae are obligate biotrophic plant pathogens. They parasitise their host plants as an intercellular mycelium using haustoria to penetrate the host cells.

Spilocaea oleagina is a Deuteromycete because it has no known sexual stage. If the sexual stage exists and is discovered, it will belong to the genus Venturia. The mycelium typically develops on the leaf tissue. Lesions can be seen on the upper surface of leaves.

Armillaria cepistipes is a species of mushroom in the family Physalacriaceae. This is a weakly plant pathogenic species that is typically found growing at the base of deciduous trees that have previously been stressed by another pathogen. The mycelium of the fungus is bioluminescent.

In the summertime, basidiospores, the primary infective propagules, are released. These basidiospores are carried long distances by wind currents. They infect trees (usually conifers) through damage such as freshly cut stumps. Once on the stump the fungus colonizes and moves into the root via mycelium.

Verticillium nonalfalfae is a soilborne fungus in the order Hypocreales. It causes verticillium wilt in some plant species, particularly Ailanthus altissima. The fungus produces a resting mycelium characterized by brown- pigmented hyphae. It is most closely related to V. albo-atrum and V. alfalfae.

Verticillium zaregamsianum is a fungus often found in lettuce in Japan. It can causes verticillium wilt in some plant species. It produces yellow-pigmented hyphae and microsclerotia, while producing few chlamydospores and with sparse resting mycelium. It is most closely related to V. tricorpus.

Homothallic refers to the possession, within a single organism, of the resources to reproduce sexually; i.e., having male and female reproductive structures on the same thallus. The opposite sexual functions are performed by different cells of a single mycelium. It can be contrasted to heterothallic.

Downy mildew on hops has a polycyclic disease cycle. The pathogen overwinters as mycelium in hop crowns. The pathogen infects crown buds, resulting in the emergence of infected shoots and primary basal spikes in the spring under correct conditions. This initiates the disease cycle.

The perithecium contain asci while the pycnidium releases conidia. Spores will germinate and penetrate through primarily immature or wounded tissue. Spores need at least 24 hours of free moisture to cause infection. The spores can then spread into mycelium and form perithecia and pycnidia.

Infection of seedling occurs between germination and emergence. Infection can occur from seed-borne teliospores or by teliospores residing in the soil. Relatively dry soil at temperatures of 15–21 °C, are most favorable for infection. The invading mycelium becomes established within the growing point.

Novelist Brian Herbert, Frank Herbert's son and biographer, said of his father's creation of the Bene Gesserit: In Mycelium Running, mycologist Paul Stamets argues that Herbert was influenced by tales of María Sabina and the sacred mushroom cults of Mexico in creating the Bene Gesserit.

The disease is mono-cyclic and seed-borne usually by mycelium in the pericarp. Perithecia are uncommon, but over-wintering sclerotia on crop debris have been reported from Russia. Secondary infection by conidia is apparently important only for floral infection and subsequent seed contamination.

In Mycelium Running, mycologist Paul Stamets argues without sources that Herbert's creation of melange was related in part to his own personal experiences with psilocybin mushrooms. Carol Hart analyzes the concept of the drug in the essay "Melange" in The Science of Dune (2008).

Cenococcum Fr. A monographic study. Kongelige Veterinaer-og Landbohoiskoles Aarsskrift, 332-382. Hatch identified hyphae that formed ectomycorrhizas with “jet-black” mantles calling it Mycelium radicus-nigrostrigosum Hatch. Finally, Linhell linked the fungi forming the ectomycorrhizas to the fungus producing the sclerotia earlier described.

2013,Ekblad et al. 2013. The production and turnover of extrametrical mycelium of ectomycorrhizal fungi in forest soils: role in carbon cycling. Plant and Soil, 366: 1-27. respectively, and the 2019 paper "Climatic controls of decomposition drive the global biogeography of forest-tree symbioses".

The turfgrass will begin to develop patches that fade to a light brown or gray color. With high humidity in early morning or throughout the day, diseased leaves may be covered with the white, cobwebby, mold like growth of the causal fungus, known as mycelium.

Softwood should not be used to cultivate shiitake mushrooms as the resin of softwoods will oftentimes inhibit the growth of the shiitake mushroom making it impractical as a growing substrate. In order to produce shiitake mushrooms, 1 metre (3-foot) hardwood logs with a diameter ranging between are inoculated with the mycelium of the shiitake fungus. Inoculation is completed by drilling holes in hardwood logs, filling the holes with cultured shiitake mycelium or inoculum, and then sealing the filled holes with hot wax. After inoculation, the logs are placed under the closed canopy of a coniferous stand and are left to incubate for 12 to 15 months.

Some of the organic substrate components include cotton, wheat grain, rice husk, sorghum fiber, agricultural waste, sawdust, bread particles, banana peel, coffee residue, etc. The composites are synthesized and fabricated using different techniques such as adding carbohydrates, altering fermentation conditions, using different fabrication technology, altering post- processing stages, and modifying genetics or biochemicals to form products with certain properties. Fabrication of most of the mycelium composites are by using plastic molds, so the mycelium can be grown directly into the desired shape. Other fabrication methods include laminate skin mold, vacuum skin mold, glass mold, plywood mold, wooden mold, petri dish mold, tile mold, etc.

He determined that the fungus can cause the death of four-year-old seedlings of several conifers, including European silver fir (Abies alba), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), European larch (Larix decidua), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii, and sweet chestnut (Castanea vesca). Later research determined that the fungus also attacks conifers between 15 and 60 years old. The roots of seedling attacked by R. undulata are matted together with a white mycelium that penetrates all parts of the cortical and bast tissues. Hartig grew the fungus in culture, and was able to follow the growth of the mycelium using light microscopy.

The pycniospores are produced in a sticky honeydew that attracts insects. The insects carry pycniospores from one leaf to another. Splashing raindrops can also spread pycniospores. A pycniospore can fertilise a receptive hypha of the opposite mating type, leading to the production of a dikaryotic mycelium.

The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stem, and are distantly spaced. They are shallow, apricot in color, and occasionally forked. The edges of the gills are covered with crimson vesicles. The stem is by , crimson, smooth, with a white disc of mycelium at the base.

Its surface is smooth, and there may be a whitish mycelium at the base. The flesh is thin and pale yellow. The taste and odor of the fruit bodies have been described as either "pleasant", or indistinct. The mushroom is not edible and may be poisonous.

This method keeps and will promote the functioning of the native ecosystem, and native biodiversity. It is assumed in a functioning forest ecosystem an underground mycelial network persists even if no fruiting bodies are visible.Frankland, Juliet C. All you ever wanted to know about Mycelium. NWFG Newsletter.

Appresoria are able to attach and penetrate the host. Mycelium grow out from the roots and can spread to a neighboring plant which creates the row of disease. Even small amounts of sclerotia can cause disease and be difficult to control. Sclerotia infect the host and spread.

Armillaria calvescens is a species of mushroom in the family Physalacriaceae. Similar in appearance to Armillaria gallica, this species is often found on maple in Canada and New England, as well as other hardwoods in the western United States. The mycelium of the fungus is bioluminescent.

Its conidiomata are stromatic and pycnidial; mycelium uniloculate, up to 950μm in size, being non-papillate with a central ostiole. Its paraphyses are hyaline and cylindrical. Conidiophores are absent in this species. Its conidiogenous cells are holoblastic and smooth, while its conidia are aseptate and cylindrical.

Its conidiomata are stromatic and pycnidial; its mycelium are uniloculate, up to 980μm in size, being non-papillate with a central ostiole. Its paraphyses are cylindrical and thin-walled, while conidiophores are absent. Its conidiogenous cells are holoblastic and smooth, while the conidia are aseptate and subglobose.

Verticillium isaacii is a fungus inhabiting artichoke, spinach and lettuce, without necessarily being pathogenic. It causes verticillium wilt in some plant species. It produces yellow-pigmented hyphae and microsclerotia, while producing abundant chlamydospores and resting mycelium. It is most closely related to V. tricorpus and V. klebahnii.

The name Acrocarpospora derives from: Greek adjective akros, uttermost, topmost, highest, at the top, end; Greek noun karpos, fruit; Greek feminine gender noun spora, a seed, and in biology a spore; New Latin feminine gender noun Acrocarpospora, an organism forming spores like fruits on the terminal mycelium.

The optimum temperature range for P. fragariae is between . The effect of pH is more difficult to understand; oospores germinate best in soils with a higher pH. In contrast, soils with a lower pH are better suited for the mycelium and more mature parts of the oomycete.

This species' mycelium is a dark brown colour, and is quite sparse. Its stromatal morphology is similar to O. Camponoti-rufipedis. Its fertile area is also a dark brown colour, measuring up to 1.0mm. Its ascomata are semi- erumpent and flask-shaped, with a prominent neck.

Colonies grow rapidly on potato dextrose agar. The aerial mycelium is whitish to yellow, tan or pale orange, but becomes brown to dark brown to red-brown with age. Under alternating conditions of light and temperature, rings of spore masses may be formed by some isolates.

When infection happens several weeks after flowering, ears may be asymptomatic, with a possible brown discoloration, or seldom show mycelium between kernels. Some isolates may cause premature germination of the corn kernels. In stalk infections, injury to the vascular system disrupts translocation and, thus, reduces grain size.

Agcdc3Δ, Agcdc10Δ and Agcdc12Δ deletion mutants display aberrant morphology and are defective for actin-ring formation, chitin-ring formation, and sporulation. Due to the lack of septa, septin deletion mutants are highly sensitive, and damage of a single hypha can result in complete lysis of a young mycelium.

The peridioles are attached to the inner wall of the peridium by a thin, elastic cord of mycelium, a funiculus, which can be extended at length when moist. Crucibulum laeve has spores that are elliptical, hyaline (translucent), and smooth, with dimensions of 7–10 by 4–6 µm.

Actinoplanes italicus is distinguished by the cherry-red color of its vegetative mycelium, and by the production of soluble pigments. It is also known to produce sporangia when cultured on starch or skim milk agar. Very few strains have been found and cultured, thus A. italicus is relatively uncharacterized.

An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.

They are crowded together closely, and interspersed with 3–4 tiers of lamellulae (short gills). The edges of the gills are finely fringed. The hollow, cylindrical stem measures by thick, with a thicker base. The stem surface is whitish and fibrillose; the stem base arises from a white mycelium.

Conversely, the haploid mycelia are called monokaryons. Often, the dikaryotic mycelium is more vigorous than the individual monokaryotic mycelia, and proceeds to take over the substrate in which they are growing. The dikaryons can be long-lived, lasting years, decades, or centuries. The monokaryons are neither male nor female.

Verticillium klebahnii (or V. klebahnii) is a fungus often pathogenically inhabiting lettuce. It causes verticillium wilt (a disease state) in some plant species. It produces yellow-pigmented hyphae and microsclerotia, while producing abundant chlamydospores and resting mycelium. It is most closely related to V. tricorpus and V. isaacii.

Fusarium langsethiae is a species of fungus in the family Nectriaceae. It is a suspected plant pathogen. This species was isolated from oats, wheat and barley kernels in several European countries. It resembles Fusarium poae, from which it differs by slower growth, less aerial mycelium and absence of odour.

A living building material (LBM) is a material used in construction or industrial design that behaves in a way resembling a living organism. Examples include: self-mending biocement, self-replicating concrete replacement, and mycelium-based composites for construction and packaging. Artistic projects include building components and household items.

Streptomyces is the largest antibiotic-producing genus, producing antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic drugs, and also a wide range of other bioactive compounds, such as immunosuppressants. Almost all of the bioactive compounds produced by Streptomyces are initiated during the time coinciding with the aerial hyphal formation from the substrate mycelium.

Often, only one tree becomes infested, while other neighbouring trees are unaffected. The mycelium of the fungus populates the host tree and produces numerous fruit bodies in autumn. Those are at first fruitless and sporulates only in the following spring, after enduring winter. The fruit bodies are annual.

It is not unusual to find Cenococcum geophilum mycelium and ectomycorrhizas in high relative frequency in soil where ectomycorrhizal tree hosts are present. Unlike many ectomycorrhizal fungi, Cenococcum geophilum readily colonizes the fine roots of most ectomycorrhizal hosts. It may be found in all forest successional stages.Visser, S. (1995).

In young mushrooms, the gills exude drops of clear fluid. The dry, white to pale grey stipe measures long by thick. It has a bulbous base, a white to grey, membranous volva at the stipe base, and white mycelium at the base. The stipe has a white ring.

O. ophiodiicola Isolates from Nerodia clarkii Cultures of O. ophiodiicola are powdery with whitish mycelium that becomes light yellowish with age. The cultures emit a pungent, skunk like odour. Optimal growth for O. ophiodiicola occurs at a temperature of 25 °C. Most isolates fail to grow at 35 °C.

The process occurs intracellularly and extracellularly with respect to the fungus. The intracellular process involves the vegetative growth of the mycelium. The extracellular activity occurs through the reaction between the calcium in the environment and oxalic acid secreted by the fungus, leading to the production of biomineral species.

Oral mycangia in ambrosia beetle Ambrosiodmus Mycangia of bark and ambrosia beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae and Platypodinae) are often complex cuticular invaginations for transport of symbiotic fungi. Phloem- feeding bark beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae) have usually numerous small pits on the surface of their body, while ambrosia beetles (many Scolytinae and all Platypodinae), which are completely dependent on their fungal symbiont, have deep and complicated pouches. These mycangia are often equipped with glands secreting substances to support fungal spores and perhaps to nourish mycelium during transport. In many cases, the entrance to a mycangium is surrounded by tufts of setae, aiding in scraping mycelium and spores from walls of the tunnels and directing the spores into the mycangium.

The stipe, which is roughly the same color as the cap, measures long by thick. Mycelium at the base of the stipe envelops and grows around forest litter. The flesh smells mealy (similar to freshly ground flour). The edibility of the fruitbody was previously unknown, but Roger Phillips calls it "poor".

It is light beige and wrinkled, with a small, short, thin mycelium cord up to 5 mm long. The spores are cylindrical to ellipsoid in shape, hyaline (translucent), and measure 5.4–7.5 by 3.6–4.3 µm. They are covered in small spiny protrusions and have a single oil droplet within.

Some filamentous fungi (Such as Glomeromycota, Chytridiomycota and Neocalligomastigomycota) may contain multiple nuclei in a coenocytic mycelium. A coenocyte functions as a single coordinated unit composed of multiple cells linked structurally and functionally, i.e. through gap junctions. Fungal mycelia in which hyphae lack septa are known as "aseptate" or "coenocytic".

Streptomyces isolates have yielded the majority of human, animal, and agricultural antibiotics, as well as a number of fundamental chemotherapy medicines. Streptomyces is the largest antibiotic-producing genus of actinobacteria, producing chemotherapy, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic drugs, and immunosuppressants. Streptomyces isolates are typically initiated with the aerial hyphal formation from the mycelium.

The larvae of Bolitophila are mycetophagous and live in decaying wood or other organic debris overgrown by fungal plant substrates. Pupation takes place inside the fungal mycelium in soil or litter. Adults prefer shady and humid environments and can be found in the undergrowth of mixed forests, often near watercourses.

MycoBond is a completely biodegradable product that will not harm or poison the natural environment with petroleum byproducts such as benzene (a known carcinogen). Additionally, MycoBond can be produced locally in virtually any region of the world. The inventors have cultivated strains of mycelium that can use locally regionally sourced feedstocks.

Alternaria dianthi reproduces asexually, forming row-like spores off of hyphae. Spores are formed on blisters on the host as well as within the mycelium. The thin, globular spores are spread through water. Spore production and infection decreases over winter, and has been observed to be highest in rainy summer months.

Later, the fungus will produce mycelial mats of stroma and mycelial pegs. Stroma mats will produce uni- or multilocular pycnidia. Inside the pycnidia are branched and unbranched conidiophores with two-celled pycniospores, which later are ejected from the pycnidial ostiole. Additionally, the stroma will produce a peg of interwoven mycelium.

When the mass of hyphae grows large enough in size to be seen without use of a microscope, it can be called a mycelium. Colonies are generally white in color, though they may turn grey under the precesence of bacteria or other debris which has become caught in the fibrous mass.

The young workers only stay in the nest. They receive the plant material and ingest it along with the Termitomyces spores. Later, young workers defecate this blended plant material, along with fungal spores, somewhere in the colony nest. It forms a "comb", where the fungal mycelium establishes a dense network.

Microcycles like the one used by C. beticola are very effective at producing many conidia. Because these conidia are effective at penetrating the host, mycelium is not necessary, and conidia produce their own conidia at each new infection (microcycle). There have been no direct observations of sexual spores in C. beticola.

Inonotus obliquus (chaga mushroom) is a sclerotium growing mostly on birch trees in northern climates. It has been used as a tonic and a remedy for thousands of years in Canada, Russia, Japan, etc. The tree sclerotium develops over the years as the mycelium sucks the energy of the living tree.

Water before the cold period is also necessary. Favorable temperatures for stroma production are in the range of 10-25 °C. Favorable temperatures for mycelial growth are in the range of 20-30 °C with an optimum at 25 °C. Sunlight has a chromogenic effect on the mycelium with intense coloration.

Cochliobolus carbonum survives as mycelium and resistant chlamydospores on maize debris in the field and on infected seed. Conidia serve as a primary source of inoculum dispersed by wind and rain-splash. Damp weather and moderate temperature greatly favor sporulation and produce additional inoculum for secondary spread.Smith, I.M., et al.

The species tolerates up to 10% of NaCl and grows between 10 °C and 30 °C. Colonies on malt extract agar on average grow to 25 mm in 7 days (at 25 °C), appearing smooth and shiny due to the leathery structure. The reverse is apricot. Aerial mycelium is absent.

Mycena olivaceomarginata is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. Originally described as Agaricus olivaceomarginata by English mycologist George Edward Massee in 1890, he transferred it to Mycena in 1893. Found in Europe and North America, the mycelium of the fungus is bioluminescent. It was described from Great Britain.

The disease is primarily a root rot that causes symptoms of foliar blight. Sporangia are produced on the mycelium and can produce zoospores for asexual reproduction or an oogonium and antheridium for sexual reproduction. Once the oogonium is fertilized, the oospore either infects via germ tube or produces sporangia and zoospores.

The species tolerates up to 10% of NaCl and grows between 4 °C and 25 °C. Colonies on malt extract agar on average grow to 20 mm in 7 days (at 25 °C), appearing smooth and matt pinkish due to abundant sporulation. The reverse is pale orange. Aerial mycelium is absent.

Psilocybe pseudoaztecorum is a species of mushroom in the family Strophariaceae.A Worldwide Geographic Distribution of the Neurotropic Fungi It was described from the state of Tamil Nadu in India. This species produces viable amounts of psilocybin in the mycelium phase and is used by mushroom growers for the myceliated grain technique.

The flesh is thick and white, measuring 2–2.5 mm thick. There is white mycelium at the base of the stipe. Its spores measure 16–21 by 8–10 µm. The Japanese species Porphyrellus fusisporus is similar in appearance but can be distinguished by its shorter, warted spores that measure 13.5–18.5 µm.

R. solani infection on cucumber R. solani does not produce spores, hence is identified only from mycelial characteristics or DNA analysis. Its hyphal cells are multinucleated. It produces white to deep brown mycelium when grown on an artificial medium. The hyphae are 4–15 μm wide and tend to branch at right angles.

Some are synanthropic. Some species feed on bracket and other fungi and mycelium or on living plants (sometimes as leaf miners). Some are predators or parasites of earthworms, snails, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, and insect eggs, larvae, and pupae. The adults feed on nectar, honeydew, and the juices exuding from fresh carrion and dung.

Ectomycorrhizal communities can be affected by increased CO2 and the consequent effects of climate change. In some studies, elevated CO2 levels increased fungal mycelium growth and increased EcM root colonization. Other EcM associations showed little response to elevated CO2. Increased temperatures also give a range of responses, some negative, and others positive.

The stolons provide an aerial structure for the growth of the mycelium and the occupation of large areas. They can climb vertically as well as horizontally. Sporangiophores of R. stolonifer can be up to 2.5 mm long and about 20 μm in diameter. The spores are shaped differently depending on the available nutrients.

The colonies of Aspergillus ochraceus grow rapidly (45 to 55 mm in 7 days). The optimum temperature for their growth is 25 °C. In an agar plate the vegetative mycelium is mostly submerged in the agar, while the conidial heads are typically arranged in zones. The characteristic colour of the colony is yellow.

Bovista plumbea, also referred to as the paltry puffball,Bovista plumbea is a small puffball mushroom commonly found in Western Europe and California,Species: Bovista plumbea Pers. 1795 white when young and greyish in age. Easily confused with immature Bovista dermoxantha, it is attached to the substrate by a tuft of mycelium.

The mycelium of immature specimens is fibrous, and originates from all parts of the surface. The peridium is roughly spherical, and made of two distinct tissue layers. The outer layer, the exoperidium, is thick, leathery, and initially inseparable from the inner layer (endoperidium). At maturity, the exoperidium bursts open into several pointed "rays".

The stem is off-white with reddish-brown fibers and has dimensions, when mature, of up to tall by thick. There is no ring on the stem. At the base of the stem there is typically a dense, white mycelium that may form a mat. The flesh is firm, and also is white.

Chemical control is often necessary to conserve yield, although it can come at a very high price. Chemical control targets the initial inoculum, reducing the amount of mycelium and sporangia present. In west Africa chemicals are applied using spray tanks. Fungicides such as copper oxychloride, Mancozeb, and Metalaxyl+Mancozeb are typically used.

Structural characterization of the cell wall (mycelium) of Botryosphaeria rhodina MAMB-05 revealed the presence of three different D-glucans; a linear (1→6)-β-glucan, a branched (1→3)(1→6)-β-glucan with single glucose repeat branches (frequency of 18%), and a glycogen-like (1→4)(1→6)-α-glucan.

A heterokaryon is a multinucleate cell that contains genetically different nuclei. Heterokaryotic and heterokaryosis are derived terms. This is a special type of syncytium. This can occur naturally, such as in the mycelium of fungi during sexual reproduction, or artificially as formed by the experimental fusion of two genetically different cells, as e.g.

Infection is seed-borne within the seed, the fungus penetrating the endosperm while the grain is being formed. Infected seeds give rise to systemically infected plants. The mycelium advances through the host tissue and becomes established behind the growing point. The spores are not readily blown or washed away by wind or rain.

The name Cryptosporangium derives from: Gr . adj . kruptos, hidden; New Latin noun sporangium [from Greek noun spora (σπορά), a seed (and in biology a spore), and Greek noun angeion (Latin transliteration angium), vessel], sporangium; New Latin neuter gender noun Cryptosporangium, an organism with sporangia (spore containing vessels) covered or hidden by mycelium.

De Bary published his first work on fungi in 1861, and then spent more than 15 years studying Peronosporeae, particularly Phytophthora infestans (formerly Peronospora infestans) and Cystopus (Albugo), parasites of potato. In his published work in 1863 entitled "Recherches sur le developpement de quelques champignons parasites", he reported having inoculated spores of P. infestans on healthy potato leaves and observed the penetration of the leaf and the subsequent growth of the mycelium that affected the tissue, the formation of conidia, and the appearance of the characteristic black spots of the potato blight. He also did similar experiments on potato stalks and tubers. He watched conidia in the soil and their infection of the tubers, observing that mycelium could survive the cold winter in the tubers.

After the snow has melted, gray to grayish white patches of mycelium, six to twelve inches in diameter, can be found. Within the patches, diseased grass blades often reveal either rusty or reddish brown colored sclerotia up to five millimeters in diameter. Gray snow mold can cause thinning and possibly death of the infected host.

The stipe measures long by thick, and is roughly the same width throughout its length, or narrower at the base. There is a yellow mycelium at the stipe base. The smell is mild and sweet, but has occasionally been described as foul in old specimens. The edibility of B. lignicola is not known with certainty.

In older specimens, the pores on the pileus can bulge out, while around the stipe they dent in strongly. The pore covering is easy to remove from the skin of the pileus. The stipe is long and wide, slim, with white and dark to black flakes, and tapers upward. The basic mycelium is white.

Every 8 to 16 days, the colony characteristics were observed on starch agar Petri dishes. Using A Dictionary of Color by Maerz and Paul, color was determined and assigned to the varying pigments produced. Carbon sources were investigated. The media containing carbon sources were inoculated with mycelium, washed twice, and suspended in distilled water.

Picked honey fungus. Ukraine Trees become infected by Armillaria mellea when rhizomorphs growing through the soil encounter uninfected roots. Alternatively, when infected roots come into contact with uninfected ones the fungal mycelium may grow across. The rhizomorphs invade the trunk, growing between the bark and the wood and causing wood decay, growth reduction and mortality.

Still, "Phycomycetes" can be used to refer to all the above-mentioned classes as a whole. The members of this group are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction by zoospore or by aplanospore.

The Mythicomycetaceae is a family of dark-spored agarics that have palely pigmented spores. The two genera are monotypic and share features such as horn-like dark stems, pigmented mycelium at their bases, and are small brown mushrooms in north temperate forests. Their basidiospores lack germ pores. The family is closely related to the Psathyrellaceae.

This mycelial growth can be seen at the base of the stem when foliage is yellowing and the foliar symptoms are first appearing. Black globular sclerotia, that resemble poppy seeds can also appear on the mycelium. These survival structures (sclerotia) can detach and persist for years in a dormant state, waiting for a susceptible host.

These small black globular structures are resistant to adverse temperatures and can remain dormant in the soil for years even without a host. Sclerotia germinate in response to root exudates. Weather is also a factor of germination and hyphae growth. Mycelium grow through the soil and form an appresoria once a host root is available.

Baudoinia compniacensis can be identified by its black, effused mycelium that can be velvety or crust-like. It features hyphae which are vegetative, dark brown, thick-walled, and often moniliform; although it lacks distinctive conidiophores. Conidiogenous cells can be found integrated within vegetative hyphae. Its conidia are dry, nonseptate or uniseptate, at the median.

There are short gills (lamellulae) interspersed between some, but not all, of the long gills. The smooth stipe measures long by 1 mm wide, and has a beet red to dull brown colour. There is buff-coloured cottony mycelium at the stipe base. Spores of Marasmius tageticolor measure 17–19 by 3.5–4 μm.

This order currently contains 1 family, 4 genera, and 27 species. Not much is known about this order, other than readily noticeable characteristics. They produce subterranean sporocarps, which are ingested by small mammals attracted by the fetid odor they produce. Cultured specimens have shown that they produce coenocytic mycelium, and can be saprotrophic or mycorrhizal.

More experienced growers may not use PF Tek due to its low yield, and high labor input required when compared to other methods, like Monotubs. The use of a spore syringe also has its drawbacks. Because spores are a mix of genotypes, it is impossible to select mycelium that colonizes fast and produces high yield.

Conversely, where mycelium (and vegetative structures like rhizomorphs and sclerotia) are the bioluminescent tissues, the argument has been made that light emission could deter grazing. The following list of bioluminescent mushrooms is based on a 2008 literature survey by Dennis Desjardin and colleagues, in addition to accounts of several new species published since then.

The phialide ( ; , diminutive of phiale, a broad, flat vessel) is a flask- shaped projection from the vesicle (dilated part of the top of conidiophore) of certain fungi. It projects from the mycelium without increasing in length unless a subsequent increase in the formation of conidia occurs. It is the end cell of a phialosphore.

Thermomonosporaceae represents a Family of bacteria that share similar genotypic and phenotypic characteristics. The Family Thermomonosporaceae includes aerobic, Gram-positive, non-acid-fast, chemo-organotrophic actinobacteria. They produce a branched substrate mycelium bearing aerial hyphae that undergo differentiation into single or short chains of arthrospores. Thermomonosporaceae contains four genera, Thermomonospora, Actinomadura, Actinocorallia and Spirillospora.

The smooth stem measures long by 1–2 mm thick. Yellowish to pale orange near the top and dark reddish brown below, it has tawny mycelium at the base. In maturity the stem turns black from the base upward. In 1907, Morgan noted the stipe to be remarkably similar to that of Marasmius cohaerens.

It has some systemic activity as it moves through the xylem towards the tips of stems, but does not get transported to the roots. It affects the motility of zoospores, the germination of cysts, the growth of the mycelium and sporulation. Bayer CropScience developed the compound and it was first released as a commercial product in 2006.

P. triticina has an asexual and sexual life cycle. In order to complete its sexual life cycle P. triticina requires a second host Thalictrum spp. on which it will overwinter. In places where Thalictrum does not grow, such as Australia, the pathogen will only undergo its asexual life cycle and will overwinter as mycelium or uredinia.

N. sinuspersici have been shown to grow optimally on yeast extract agar and less optimally on agar containing oatmeal and inorganic starches. N. sinuspersici possess several unique phenotypic traits not seen in other members of Nocardiopsis. N. sisnusci possess small amounts of light yellow mycelium and "zig-zag" hyphea. Over time these hyphae form red spores.

Aleurioconidia are sometimes found as single-celled, with a terminal cell directly attached to the hypha, and with no basal cell. Chlamydospores are sparsely produced, being intercalary, single, and the same colour as the conidial terminal cell. The vegetative mycelium often carry swollen, monilioid hyphae that are 1.5 to 2μm wide, septate, and show thickened walls.

Purdue Extension, Purdue University Pink snow mold patches usually follow drainage patterns since conidia spores are readily dislodged and transported by rainfall and water flowage. Latin, R. (2007) Pink snow mold and Microdochium patch. Turfgrass Disease Profiles. Purdue Extension, Purdue University Under prolonged cool and wet conditions, white-pink mycelium can be observed along the circumference of diseased patches.

The base of the stem is either strigose (covered with sharp, straight, stiff white hairs) or surrounded with a matted white mycelium. Above the base, the stem is smooth, and pruinose toward the apex. When moist it is translucent with slight ripples running transversely, and white to pale yellow in color. Mycena flavoalba is considered inedible.

Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk. Nowadays there are cultivars that are resistant to the ink disease.

Typhula blight is most notably found in the turf industry, affecting a wide range of turfgrasses. Upon the snow melt, gray circular patches of mycelium are found. These mycelia produce a survival structure called a sclerotia that survives the warm summer months. Typhula blight is commonly controlled with fungicide applications in the late fall and by other cultural practices.

No sexual stage is known. The mycelium is hyaline to light gray and develops sparsely as a compact stroma under the cuticle of the host plant. Condia (2-4 x 12-20 μm) are borne sessilely on cells of the fertile stroma. They are hyaline, 1-septate, and cylindric to ovate, mostly with a short apical beak.

Though initially parasitic, F. fomentarius continues to grow upon fallen trees. Fomes fomentarius is a stem decay plant pathogen. The species' mycelium penetrates the wood of trees through damaged bark or broken branches, causing rot in the host. It can grow on the bark wound, or even directly onto the bark of older or dead trees.

Actinomycetales are generally gram- positive and anaerobic and have mycelium in a filamentous and branching growth pattern. Some actinobacteria can form rod- or coccoid-shaped forms, while others can form spores on aerial hyphae. Actinomycetales bacteria can be infected by bacteriophages, which are called actinophages. Actinomycetales can range from harmless bacteria to pathogens with resistance to antibiotics.

The rhizomorphs spread through far greater distances through the ground than the mycelium. The rhizomorphs are black in this species. The fungal body is not bioluminescent but its mycelia and rhizomorphs are luminous when in active growth. A. mellea producing rhizomorphs is parasitic on woody plants of many species, including especially shrubs, hardwood and evergreen trees.

Altast Foods Co. is using solid state fermentation in order to grow mushroom tissue on mycelium scaffolds. They then harvest this tissue and use it to create bacon analogs. Nanomaterials are materials which exhibit unique properties at the nanoscale. Biomimetic Solutions — a London based scaffold currently involved in the SoSV incubator — is leveraging nanomaterials in order to create scaffolds.

Colonies of Lomentospora prolificans are grey to brownish, spreading, with scant, cobweb- like aerial mycelium recalling a moth-eaten woolen garment. This species is sensitive to cycloheximide. As this species may be slow to emerge from clinical materials, specimens in which this agent is suspected often require an extended period of culture incubation (e.g., up to 4 weeks).

When a Cordyceps fungus attacks a host, the mycelium invades and eventually replaces the host tissue, while the elongated fruit body (ascocarp) may be cylindrical, branched, or of complex shape. The ascocarp bears many small, flask-shaped perithecia containing asci. These, in turn, contain thread-like ascospores, which usually break into fragments and are presumably infective.

The leaves become distorted and discolored and the mycelium can spread through the soil between plants. Some weeds can harbour this fungus and it is more prevalent in wet, acid conditions. Erysiphe heraclei causes a powdery mildew that can cause significant crop loss. Infestation by this causes results in yellowing of the leaf and loss of foliage.

Figure 2: P. Omnivera disease cycle The disease overwinters as sclerotia or as mycelium on dead plant tissue. Once spring to early summer arrives, germination phase with hyphae growth continues. Following this, root colonization occurs. In Mid and late summer you begin to see the disease at its infectious stage, which is when you start to observe associated symptoms.

Sexual recombination is rare and occurs when mycelium of two compatible strains come in contact. Progametangia from each strain grow towards each other and fuse into gametangia, forming a thick-walled zygospore. Zygospores germinate to form sporangiophores bearing a single sporangium. R. stolonifer is incapable of breaching the intact root periderm and requires a wound to initiate infection.

No differences were detected between the second and the first generation. The influence of space conditions on the development of fungi was also found. Growing up in a weightless state, they created a very thin and extremely bent leg and a more massive mycelium than on Earth. Kosmos 605 also tested means of protection against ionizing radiation.

However, symptoms of infection show distinct manifestations in different plant parts: whole plant - seedling blight affects the whole plant, leaf discoloration and mycelial growth, black fungal spores and lesions appear on inflorescences and glumes, and grain covered with very dark brown to black mycelium which gives a characteristic charcoal appearance due to the production of conidia.

This biological degradation is a process known as bioremediation. Mycelial mats have been suggested (see Paul Stamets) as having potential as biological filters, removing chemicals and microorganisms from soil and water. The use of fungal mycelium to accomplish this has been termed mycofiltration. Knowledge of the relationship between mycorrhizal fungi and plants suggests new ways to improve crop yields.

A fungal mycelium containing abundant clamp connections was found that dated to the Pennsylvanian era (298.9–323.2 Mya). This fossil, classified in the form genus Palaeancistrus, has hyphae that compare with extant saprophytic basidiomycetes. The oldest known clamp connections exist in hyphae present in the fossil fern Botryopteris antiqua, which predate Palaeancistrus by about 25 Ma.

Nuclear fallout from the Chernobyl disaster is an important issue concerning mushroom picking in Europe. Due to the wide spread of their mycelium, mushrooms tend to accumulate more radioactive caesium-137 than surrounding soil and other organisms. State agencies (e.g. Bellesrad in Belarus) monitor and analyze the degree of radionuclide accumulation in various wild species of plants and animals.

The stipe, or stalk, is tall, and thick. Due to its swollen, bulbous nature, the base of the stipe can sometimes be as wide as . The stipe is a similar colour to the cap, and covered in wool- like fibrils; purple mycelium can be present at the base. Younger specimens feature a veil, but this vanishes quickly.

Airborne ascospores infect only the flowers of Narcissus. If the fungus cannot reproduce sexually, it will form conidia instead of ascospores. The conidia are considered to be the secondary inoculum and are responsible for foliar infections. Conidia infect leaf tissue and results in mycelium production which leads to the formation of leaf spots associated with Narcissus Fire.

The mycelium of B. sorokiniana is usually deep olive-brown. New cultures produce abundant simple conidiophores, which may be single or clustered and measure 6–10 x 110–220 μm with septations. Conidia develop laterally from pores beneath each conidiophore septum. Conidia are olive-brown and ovate to oblong, with rounded ends and a prominent basal scar.

The sporangiospores are asexual mitospores (formed via mitosis), produced inside sporangia (thousands of spores) or sporangioles (single or few spores). They are released when mature by the disintegration of the sporangium wall, or as a whole sporangiole that separates from the sporangiophore. The sporangiospores germinate to form the haploid hyphae of a new mycelium. Asexual reproduction often occurs continuously.

After the seventh stage, they usually reach their maximum size. While penetrating further, they normally turn either up or down, but they turn back if they meet a foreign borehole, encounter bubbles of resin, or dry out. The larvae only live off the fungal mycelium, which they digest through a secretion. They pupate several centimetres under the bark.

B. siricidicola causes infertility in female wasps, but does not impair the fertility of males. Inside the host tree, the nematodes primarily feed on fungal mycelium. If they get near the wasp larvae, they infect females, which then couple with males and finally infest the wasp larvae. These eventually exit the tree carrying the nematodes with them.

The stipe is thickly tomentose or smooth, typically the same color as the cap or darker. In P. niger, the outer covering of the stipe is a thick felty layer of mycelium that absorbs water like a sponge. The hymenophore (the fertile, spore-bearing surface) is on the underside of the cap. The spines become grey at maturity.

Toxic effects of C. herbarum on warm-blood animals have been reported when they were fed with heavily infected wheat. It can produce a toxin causing mucosal damage in horses, and mycelium extracts are shown to have low-level toxicity in chicken embryos. C. herbarum is also fungal plant pathogen. Its hosts include Bryum, Buxbaumia, Gyroweissia, Tortula, and Dicranella.

Large colonies can amalgamate into amorphous structures that optimizes the absorption of volatile compounds from the air, moving away from a more circular shapes and creating sheets of mycelium, especially under very humid conditions. In vitro, Z. cellare is characterized as being morphologically similar to Stenella araguata, which both reside in the order Capnodiales and family Mycosphaerellaceae.

The partial veil is slimy on the outer layer, and forms a band-like ring on the stem with a flaring lower edge. The mycelium at the base of the stem is salmon-colored. Suillus cothurnatus produces a brown spore print. Spores are roughly elliptical to oblong to somewhat cylindrical, smooth, and measure 8–10 by 2.5–3.5 μm.

Some literature suggests that the species, or one similar, may be present in Asia, Australia, and North America. Neither species of Glutinoglossum has been formally assessed for conservation purposes. New Zealand Glutinoglossum species have been parasitized by the fungus Hypomyces papulasporae, which appears as a white, cottony mycelium that extends to the base of the stipe.

The stipe is central, equal, flexuous, and cylindric; it is 3–12 cm long and 3–7 mm thick. It is reddish brown fading to grey-yellow and finally dark, ornamented with a floccose mycelium, especially with the bottom half. The upper part of the stipe bruises blue-green. The partial veil is white and arachnoid, disappearing in age.

The total genome size of Dactylellina haptotyla is estimated as 40.4Mb with 271 genes/Mb and 3.3 exons/gene. Based on a cDNA microarray study, 23.3% of the studied gene pool are differentially expressed in mycelium and knobs. Some of those genes are responsible for cell polarity regulation. For example, profilin and cofilin are downregulated in knobs.

It has a ring, and whitish patches of cottony mycelium on its surface below the ring. The ring develops from a dense, white and cottony partial veil that becomes ragged as the cap grows, and sometimes persists as a temporary cortina. Rhizomorphs, if present, are black, branched, and 1–2 mm thick. The spore print is white.

When the submarine arrives at the Grotto, Fiona, Klaus, Violet, and Sunny are sent in. After floating to a sandy beach scattered with many items that have washed ashore, they find a narrow room with three lamps, of which two are lit. Whilst they search the beach for the sugar bowl, the Medusoid Mycelium suddenly wax, springing up from the beach and the tiled floor and walls - and the children retreat to the narrow room where the spore does not appear. While they are waiting for the Medusoid Mycelium to wane, the children occupy themselves by continuing to investigate the knick-knacks lying around the cave, some of which seem to be connected to the V.F.D. including a newspaper article, a book of poetry, and a personal letter.

The model was proposed by Audrius Meškauskas and David Moore in 2004 and developed using the supercomputing facilities of the University of Manchester. The key idea of this model is that all parts of the fungal mycelium have identical field generation systems, field sensing mechanisms and growth direction altering algorithms. Under properly chosen model parameters it is possible to observe the transformation of the initial unordered mycelium structure into various forms, some of them being very like natural fungal fruit bodies and other complex structures. In one of the simplest examples, it is assumed that the hyphal tips try to keep a 45 degree orientation with relation to the Earth’s gravity vector field, and also generate some kind of scalar field that the growing tips try to avoid.

Spinosad is an insecticide based on chemical compounds found in the bacterial species Saccharopolyspora spinosa. The genus Saccharopolyspora was discovered in 1985 in isolates from crushed sugarcane. The bacteria produce yellowish- pink aerial hyphae, with bead-like chains of spores enclosed in a characteristic hairy sheath. This genus is defined as aerobic, Gram-positive, nonacid-fast actinomycetes with fragmenting substrate mycelium.

MycoWorks is a San Francisco-based startup which produces sustainable products and apparels from fungi. The company was founded in 2013 and produces weatherproof materials using the fungi "Ganoderma lucidum" and "Pleurotus ostreatus".Advanced Materials From Fungal Mycelium: Fabrication and Tuning of Physical Properties They use the production method (which is similar to casting) to make furniture, bricks, footwear, and leather.

Clavibacter, also known as Ring Rot, is an unusual genus of phytopathogenic bacteria in that it is gram-positive and does not have a type three secretion system. All Clavibacter species and subspecies have a type B2γ cell wall crosslinked at a diaminobutyrate residue. Clavibacter is an aerobic bacterium with a coryneform morphology. There is no mycelium and no spores are produced.

The damaged wall with fruit bodies Wooden beam with mycelia Serpula lacrymans is one of the fungi that cause damage to timber referred to as dry rot. It is a basidiomycete in the order Boletales. The Serpula lacrymans has the ability to rapidly colonise sites through unique and highly specialised mycelium which also leads to greater degradation rates of wood cellulose.

Phylogenetically Aphroditeola is classified in the Agaricales near the Hygrophoraceae. Little is known about its biology except that the type species can be grown in culture from basidiospores and it produces pinkish to reddish-orange mycelium. In other literature and web sites the type species is called by synonymous names Hygrophoropsis morganii or Hygrophoropsis olida or incorrectly labelled Hygrophoropsis rufescens, a misapplied name.

The cap cuticle comprises filamentous, gelatinized hyphae with a diameter of 2.6–5.0 μm. The mycelium has a pink tinge. The distinctive colour of the cap and pores make it hard to confuse with other species. Often found in similar habitats is S. variegatus, though this species has a granular cap and dark olive pores, which are smaller and not decurrent.

E. floccosum can remain viable for long periods of time by producing arthroconidia in skin scales. Arthroconidia are thick-walled spores with higher resistance to drying and heat conditions than mycelium. Arthroconidia formation allows E. floccosum to survive for years in showers, baths, swimming pools, towels, blankets, sheets, shoes and other clothings. The fungus commonly spreads by contact in showers and gym facilities.

The vegetative mycelium is composed of thin and twisted hyphae. The sporangia produced on starch and skim milk agar have wrinkled surfaces and vary in shapes from spherical to oval and piriform. The shape of the sporangia takes on a more regular shape immediately before rupturing. The spores released are highly motile, taking on varying shapes of spherical and oval.

Actinoplanes belongs to the family Actinoplanaceae. Some characteristics of this genus include able to form motile spores, as well as aerial mycelia and spherica. They are useful in that they can produce ramoplanin, teichoplanin, and valienamine, all of which are critical for the pharmaceutical companies. They generally produce a yellow or orange vegetative mycelium and ordinarily do not produce soluble pigments.

The mycelium can cover the plant surface almost completely, especially the upper sides of leaves. Ascocarp is dark brown, globose with filamentous appendages, asci oblong. Ascospores hyaline, ellipsoid, 20–30 x 10–13 µm in size. Anamorph produces on hyaline conidiophores catenate conidia of oblong to cylindrical shape, not including fibrosin bodies, 32–44 x 12–15 µm in size.

They are discrete, dry and have a felty, fuzzy and velvety appearance. Diagram depicting formation of corona cell in Torula herbarum The mycelium can be superficial or immersed and hyaline branched, relative to the rest of the structure. They are unbranched and usually colourless or a mid-brown colour. They appear to be smooth and 2-6 µm in diameter.

Phylloporus rhodoxanthus produces an olivaecous yellow-brown spore print. Spores are elliptical to spindle-shaped, smooth, and measure 9–14 by 3.5–5 um. Relatively similar in appearance to Phylloporus rhodoxanthus is P. leucomycelinus, and these two are frequently confused, especially since their distributions overlap. The latter species can be distinguished by the presence of white mycelium at the base of its stem.

Broad dead areas known as cankers form on the main stem, branches, young twigs, and exposed roots. Most cankers are covered with bark cracks. The fungus forms a dark mat of branching mycelium below the bark, from which arise peg-like hypha that lift and rupture the bark. In the later stages of infection, the bark above the canker is shredded.

Small, fruiting bodies (pycnidia) are produced on the stem, these structures are spore bearing and can be observed with a magnifying or other hand lens. Phoma black stem can be distinguished from other diseases due to its black lesions and lack of lodging. The fungus also produces colonies that are gray-white in color and have a white mycelium that may resemble cotton.

These will be easily dispersed by the wind. Favorable nutritive soil and weather conditions around 23-30 °C allows for germination of the teliospores in the soil. Generation of a four-celled basidium occurs, leading to haploid basidiospores that create sporidia. These sporidia fuse due to a compatibility or likeness that induces the formation of dikaryotic mycelium, which is infectious and parasitic.

The spore print is pinkish brown, and the oval spores measure 8.5 by 4.9 μm. The mycelium is white. Similar species include the introduced poisonpie (Hebeloma crustuliniforme), which has been recorded in pine plantations, the native western Australian poisonpie (H. westraliense), which does not grow near carcasses, and the Australian white webcap (Cortinarius austroalbidus), which is paler and smells of curry.

It causes butt rots in living trees as well. Plants at both the seedling and adult stages are susceptible. Infection happens on the roots of the host plant. The hyphae, mycelium, and rhizomorphs of A. novae-zelandiae can survive on infected tissues in soil for a long time, and in spring when plants start growing, the pathogen can infect new growing tissue.

In the wild, the species is seriously threatened by a root disease caused by the introduced oomycete pathogen, Phytophthora lateralis. This disease is also a problem for horticultural plantings in some parts of North America. The tree is sometimes killed, though less often, by other species of Phytophthora. Phytophthora lateralis infection begins when mycelium, from a germinated spore, invade the roots.

Beauveria bassiana is a parasite to the caterpillar and pupae of the codling moth. The spores of this snowy white fungus are dispersed in locations where the caterpillars pass by or where they pupate. The mycelium of B. bassiana grows radially out from the body of the caterpillar, turning the caterpillar soft and mushy. It has a killing rate of 13.1% in caterpillars.

The Phialophora gregata fungus is a deuteromycete with a monocyclic life cycle. There are two strains of Phialophora gregata, referred to as genotype A and genotype B. Genotype A causes both foliar and stem symptoms, while genotype B causes only stem symptoms. The Phialophora gregata fungus produces no survival structures, but can overwinter as mycelium Pedersen, Palle. “Brown Stem Rot.” 2006.

The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies from species to species, but also from mushroom to mushroom within a given species, subspecies or variety. The same holds true for different parts of the same mushroom. In the species Psilocybe samuiensis, the dried cap of the mushroom contains the most psilocybin at about 0.23%–0.90%. The mycelium contains about 0.24%–0.32%.

The stem is initially centrally placed, but as it ages becomes eccentric to almost laterally attached. It is cylindrical, more or less equal in width through its length, and pruinose (with a fine whitish powder on its surface), measuring 1–2 mm long by 0.1–0.2 mm thick. The base of the stem has a small disk of cream-colored mycelium.

The stem is dry, often curved, light brown to greyish in color, and the base is insititious (attached squarely to the substrate without any evidence of basal mycelium). The fruit bodies have no distinctive taste or odor. In deposit, the spores are white. The spores are spherical or nearly so, hyaline (translucent), thin-walled, and typically measure 9–10.2 by 8–9 μm.

Mycelium at the base of the stipe is white or stained blue. All parts of the fruitbody stain blue if bruised or handled. Young specimens have a white partial veil that later disappears, or remains as a zone on the stipe that can be colored purplish brown by spores. The odor and taste of the mushroom is farinaceous—similar to freshly ground flour.

Its mycelium is a chocolate brown colour, and is especially dense around its feet, forming distinctive pads. Its stromatal morphology is the same as O. camponotirufipedis. Its fertile region is brown, its ascomata being semi- erumpent and crowded. The asci are 8-spored, hyaline and cylindrical, with a prominent apical cap, while the ascospores are hyaline, thin-walled, and 5–10-septate.

Previously considered a family of Mucorales, it was suggested as its own order in 1998. At the time it only contained 2 genera, one of which remains. What is known is that species in this order can be parasitic or saprotrophic in nature. Cultured specimens show that they produce a fine mycelium, with branched sporangia, and produce a garlic-like odor.

The disease cycle of Ustilago nigra is similar to that of U. hordei, the cause of covered smut of barley. The teliospores survive on the surface or in the soil. In some cases, the teliospores that are deposited under the hull, may germinate immediately. The mycelium then grows into the lower layers of the seed and then remains dormant until seed germination.

Once the Koa tree dies, the fungus invades all tissues and, upon reaching the dead plant surface, sporulates profusely producing macroconidia and chlamydospores. The fungus can survive saprophytically in the soil, as either mycelium or as any of its three spore types mentioned. The chlamydospores, as the resting spores, survive the longest in the soils, usually under cold conditions.Agrios, George 2005.

Fusarium circinatum infects the twigs and branches of pine trees, causing a bark canker. Most infection is by macroconidia or microconidia. The macroconidia are 3-septate, with slightly curved walls and the microconidia are single- celled, ovoid, and borne in false heads on aerial polyphialides. The aerial mycelium is white or pale violet colour and slightly twisted below the proliferation of microconidiophores.

Mycelium- Based Composites are usually synthesized by using different kinds of fungus, especially mushroom. An individual microbe of fungi is introduced to different types of organic substances to form a composite. The selection of fungal species is important for creating a product with specific properties. Some of the fungal species that are used to make composites are G. lucidum, Ganoderma sp.

The mycelium is an unusual yellow colour. Variety queletiformis can be distinguished from the main form by the reddish discolouration of the stem base that occurs both on the exterior surface and in the flesh. Variety rubriceps has a deep crimson red cap, while var. lupiniformis has a pale yellow or dirty ochre cap and pores, sometimes with pink tones throughout.

Once in the xylem, the mycelium remains exclusively in the xylem vessels and produces microconidia (asexual spores). The microconidia are able to enter into the sap stream and are transported upward. Where the flow of the sap stops the microconidia germinate. Eventually the spores and the mycelia clog the vascular vessels, which prevents the plant from up-taking and translocating nutrients.

The ability to form sclerotia (compact masses of hardened fungal mycelium) has been documented for H. aurantiaca in laboratory studies. These structures contain glycogen and protein that may be used as food reserves during spore germination. The soft, thin flesh ranges from white to yellowish to golden- orange. It has an odour and taste described variously as indistinct, or unpleasant and earthy.

Muscodor roseus is an anamorphic fungus in the family Xylariaceae. It is an endophyte that colonizes the inner bark, sapwood and outer xylem of the plants Grevillea pteridifolia and Erythrophleum chlorostachys, found in the Northern Territory of Australia. It grows as a pinkish, felt-like mycelium on several media, and produces a mixture of volatile antibiotics. Cultures tend to have a musty odour.

Upon germination, a new haploid mycelium or sporangium is formed. Some species are homothallic. The original report of sex in fungi, occurred two centuries ago, based on observations of the fungus Syzygites megalocarpus (Mucoromycotina) (reviewed by Idnurm). This species, was subsequently used in 1904, to represent self-fertile species when the concept of two major mating strategies were developed for the fungi.

This saprobic mushroom grows in clusters on humus and litter in beech woods or other broad-leaved woods. The conspicuous white mycelium can bind leaf litter together in sheets. This mushroom is widespread from August to January in Europe, and has been reported from Algeria, Morocco, and Texas, but not from other regions. It is common in western temperate Europe, especially under beech.

Once in a tunnel, the spores will germinate to produce mycelium. During the late winter months and early spring, mycelia spread rapidly. At the same time, the fungus secretes enzymes that break down the cell walls of the tree and allow the mycelia to grow into the xylem tissue. Here, it will release millions of conidia that travel with the xylem sap.

In young cultures, newly-formed spores show growth by budding into a large, multi-branched mycelium. It has an optimal growth temperature between and , with a maximum growth temperature between and . It has been shown to grow at temperatures as low as , and ; allowing it to grow actively (albeit slowly) on frozen materials. Cladosporium herbarum can also grow in dry environments (xerophile).

Lipids are then stored or exported to extraradical hyphae where they may be stored or metabolized. The breakdown of lipids into hexoses, known as gluconeogenesis, occurs in the extraradical mycelium. Approximately 25% of the carbon translocated from the plant to the fungi is stored in the extraradical hyphae. Up to 20% of the host plant's carbon may be transferred to the AM fungi.

In its taxonomic history, the species has also been placed in Geophila by Lucien Quélet in 1886, and Psilocybe by Petter Karsten in 1879. Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán excluded the taxon from the latter genus in his 1983 monograph, based on its roughened spores that lacked a germ pore, pale spore print, stem texture, and the tawny basal mycelium. Guzmán, who examined Smith's US collections, suggested that the material might be more appropriately considered a Galerina, but Redhead and Smith noted that several features of Mythicomyces corneipes are inconsistent with placement in Galerina, including spore print color, presence of metuloids, stem texture, and tawny basal mycelium. Redhead and Smith placed the genus in the Strophariaceae, as the biology of the fruit bodies and spore print color fit the broad concept of that family envisaged by Robert Kühner in 1984.

Hohenbuehelia is a pleurotoid genus of agaric fungi characterized by gelatinous-sheathed bowling-pin-shaped cystidia, on conidia, basidiospore germ tubes, and mycelium that adhere to and capture nematodes. The fruitbodies bear thick-walled cystidia (metuloids) in the hymenium along the gill sides and that differentiate the genus from Pleurotus in the Pleurotaceae family. The genus has a widespread distribution and contains about 50 species.

Plant Pathology Journal, 27(3), 232-241 The white-pink mycelium on infected leaf blades is a distinguishing characteristic of the Microdochium nivale pathogen. Latin, R. (2007) Pink snow mold and Microdochium patch. Turfgrass Disease Profiles. Purdue Extension, Purdue University Fusarium patch is considered economically important in the turf grass industry because of its tendency to cause significant injury to golf greens, thereby decreasing putting surface quality.

Apical germ pore is mushroom spore which has a pore at one end. Some spores have a hole in the cell wall where the first strand of germinating mycelium emerges. If the cell wall is divided from one end to the other, this is called a germ slit. Commonly the germ pore is at one end of the mushroom spore and is called an apical pore.

Compatible hyphae may also fuse to form dikaryotic mycelium, that produce asci-bearing pseudothecia. These can also overwinter in infected plant debris and release their ascospores in the spring to infect new hosts as primary inoculum via wind. The presence of two mating types contributes to genetic variation via recombination. This has helped the pathogen to create outbreaks in previously resistant varieties of plants.

It belongs to the Family Gymnoascaceae, the colonies usually have a yellowish-white or pale grey colour, and grows slowly. In the aerial mycelium, arthroconidia are formed and the shape of cells will turn from cylindrical to round. Arthroconidia are usually single celled or two celled, range from 4-17 μm in length. Studies suggest its originated from soil because the infected patients are mostly farmers.

The slime mould Physarum polycephalum is able to solve the Traveling Salesman Problem, a combinatorial test with exponentially increasing complexity, in linear time. Fungi such as Basidiomycetes can also be used to build logical circuits. In a proposed fungal computer, information is represented by spikes of electrical activity, a computation is implemented in a mycelium network, and an interface is realized via fruit bodies..

It is presumed to decompose wood by white rot. The mycelium can be grown on YMG agar at room temperature (4 g/L d-glucose, 4 g/L yeast extract, 10 g/L malt extract, 18 g/L agar). The culture can be obtained at the Jena Microbial Resource Collection registration number SF:011241. When the mycelia is wounded by scalpel damage, a yellow pigment appears.

Mycena purpureofusca has been investigated for its potential to decolorize industrial dyes. These dyes, used in textile dyeing and printing processes, are difficult to degrade due to their highly structured organic compounds and pose a major environmental threat. The fungus mycelium produces high levels of laccase, an oxidoreductase enzyme. Laccases are widely used in biotechnology and industry due to their ability to break down various recalcitrant compounds.

Protostropharia, is a coprophilous agaric fungal genus that produces glutinous, mostly yellowish to yellow brown fruit bodies. Characteristically most form chrysocystidia and rather large, smooth, violaceous basidiospores each with a prominent germ pore (as Stropharia subg. Stercophila). It is differentiated from Stropharia by production of astrocystidia on its mycelium rather than by acanthocytes that Stropharia produces. Phylogenetically, Protostropharia is distinct from Stropharia, Pholiota, and Leratiomyces.

An overwintered specimen. The airborne spores released from the whitish 'bloom' on the fruit are thought settle in the hosts bark and bud scales, growing at first without causing obvious signs, but in the spring the fungus invades the plant tissues, causing swollen and deformed shoots. The fungus remains in these as a mycelium. The gall inducing fungus then grows into the flowers and the developing fruit.

Micromonospora is a genus of bacteria of the family Micromonosporaceae. They are gram-positive, spore-forming, generally aerobic, and form a branched mycelium; they occur as saprotrophic forms in soil and water. Various species are sources of aminoglycoside antibiotics with spellings that end with -micin, such as gentamicin, unlike most other aminoglycoside names that end with -mycin (e.g. neomycin and streptomycin and are produced by Streptomyces spp.).

Acremonium strictum grows readily at 30 °C on glucose peptone agar, showing mycelium of approximately 50mm in size in 7 days. Colonies are flat, with smooth, wet, velvety or floccose texture, sometimes resembling thin cottony mounds. The colour of mycelia ranges widely from light pink to orange, and sometimes yellow, white or green. A. strictum filaments are sometimes bound together into ropes several cells in diameter.

The pathogen induces excessive gibberellin production in the plant, resulting in the rapid growth of the hosts. The amount of Gibberellin is important in determining the extent of the disease. Another interaction between the plant and pathogen is the sporulation of mycelium at the lower levels of the plant - white fungal masses can be observed. Conidia, the secondary inoculum, are the end result of these spore masses.

Trichothecenes have been found to cause growth retardation, wilting, chlorosis, and necrosis in some plants. It can work in poor conditions, even where there is very little or no moisture. Diacetylverrucarol is undergoing study for its successful effects at reducing or killing the kudzu weed. It is prepared through liquid fermentation of Myrothecium verrucaria mycelium after which it can be used as a pesticide.

Rhizopus oryzae is involved in steroid transformations and it produces 4-desmethyl steroids which has been useful in the fermentation industry. The carbon sources does influence the ratio of polar and neutral lipids. The mycelium found in R. oryzae contains lipids and the highest lipid content occurs when grown on fructose. The highest unsaturated fatty acid content is observed at 30 °C and lowest at 15 °C.

The stem is long and thick, enlarged at the base, and sometimes bulbous. The surface is slightly reticulate at the top, and smooth lower of the stem. Its color is buff to light brown, often with darker brown bruises or stains, and it has whitish mycelium at the base. The flesh of the stem is white, and it does not change color when cut or bruised.

There are several conditions that favor disease development and spread. Heart rot fungi, including P. pini, enter trees as mycelium or basidiospores through branch stubs, tree stumps, damaged roots, dead branches, and wounds in general and go on to infect the heartwood of the tree. Fire and cutting operations cause the most common points of entry for the fungus. Moist environments also facilitate fungal growth.

The rare European species Xerocomus silwoodensis, described as new to science in 2007, is similar in appearance to X. subtomentosus. It can be distinguished from the latter in the field by the darker reddish-brown tones of the cap and its preference for associating with Populus trees. It has white flesh that becomes yellow-tinged on exposure to air. Xerocomus chrysonemus has bright yellow flesh and mycelium.

The synnemata (reproductive structures made of compact groups of erect conidiophores) produced by T. racemosa always grow on the stem of Dendrocollybia racemosa. The anamorph has an unusually low optimum growth temperature, between , within a larger growth range of . It is thought this is an adaptation that allows the mycelium to grow quickly and enhance its chances of fruiting on agaric mushrooms, which are generally short-lived.

The mycorrhizal fungus sometimes fruits singly, but more often in scattered or groups on the ground under pines and other conifers. Fruiting usually occurs in the cooler weather of later summer and autumn. In coastal California, however, fruiting occurs in winter. It is often found near Suillus luteus and Suillus brevipes, and is known to parasitize the mycelium of both those and the truffle-like Rhizopogon species.

The genus Geosmithia (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) are generally saprophytic fungi affecting hardwoods. As of its identification in 2010, the species G. morbida is the first documented as a plant pathogen. The walnut twig beetle (Pityophthorus juglandis) carries the mycelium and conidia of the fungus as it burrows into the tree. The beetle is currently only found in warmer climates, allowing for transmission of the fungus throughout the year.

Peronospora manshurica commonly begins its disease cycle in the spring, with overwintering oospores mainly serving as the primary inoculum. This primarily occurs by the use of oospore encrusted seeds for planting. Oospores, and sometimes even mycelium, surviving on plant material can also serve as the primary inoculum. After the first infection by the oospores, the secondary dispersal of infection is accomplished by conidia originating from conidiophores.

At first, fish develop red spots on the skin. These lesions expand to form ulcers and extensive erosions filled with necrotic tissue and mycelium. This is followed by the development of granulomas on the internal organs and death. A provisional diagnosis can be made by using squash preparations of the skeletal muscle from beneath an ulcer to identify the septate hyphae of the water mould.

Secondary infection occurs when pycnidia produce more conidia during the growing season that are again dispersed by rainsplash and spread to new leaves for infection. The fungus overwinters as mycelium and pycnidia in host debris. Perithecia have also been observed in lesions and have been demonstrated to produce ascospores in later summer. Air-borne ascospores disperse in the fall and may cause primary infections the following season.

White rust is an obligate parasite. This means it needs a living host to grow and reproduce. The Albuginaceae reproduce by producing both sexual spores (called oospores) and asexual spores (called sporangia) in a many-stage (polycyclic) disease cycle. The thick-walled oospores are the main overwintering structures, but the mycelium can also survive in conditions where all the plant material is not destroyed during the winter.

The gall will enlarge for 2 years and sporulate on the third. Spermogonia ooze from infected bark in early spring, but they are non-functional since they do not form aecia (vestigial). Dikaryotization of the haploid mycelium that produce the teliospores takes place in the outer cortex, just beneath the first periderm. They are surrounded by a membrane called a peridium that bursts, releasing the spores.

Microscopically, the flyspeck-like spots and sooty blemishes are fungal mycelium adhering to fruit. The fungi live as saprophytes on the wax layer surface of apples and do not invade the peel. The hyphae, fruiting bodies, and survival structures of these fungi become melanized over time. SBFS fungi also grow on the surfaces of stems, twigs, leaves, and fruit of a wide range of wild plants.

The genus Endogone in Endogonales, contains species that grow in sand dunes, aiding the plants that grow in the nutrient-poor soils. The mycelium that is formed also plays a role in soil stabilization, preventing erosion. Other species produce fruiting bodies that are included in the diets of various small rodent species. Species found in Mortierella of Mortierellales have roles in decomposition of organic matter.

The stipe, measuring up to long, is roughly the same color as the cap. On the underside of the caps are grey spines, up to 4 mm long. The outer covering of the stipe is a thick felty layer of mycelium that absorbs water like a sponge. In conditions of high humidity, P. niger can form striking drops of black liquid on the actively growing caps.

The pathogen persists as mycelium systemically infecting onion bulbs, but is not known to be transmitted in onion seed. The pathogen can persist in the soil for several years as oospores. Systemically infected plants are dwarfed and pale green. Under moist conditions, the pathogen sporulates on the affected tissues and spreads to other plants, on the leaves and stalks of which it forms greyish-violet local lesions.

Atheliaceae consists of strictly corticioid fungi which resemble thin crusts with soft basidiocarps that are loosely attached to the substrate. Basidiocarps are thin with well- developed subiculum (wool- or crust-like growth of mycelium underneath the basidiocarp). The hymenal surface is smooth when dry, without any warts or papillae and may appear wrinkled when fresh. The colour is mostly whitish, sometimes greenish-bluish and rarely brownish.

In culture, E. jeanselmei produces slow growing colonies that are green black in color. Cultures manifest a combination of mycelial and yeast-like growth forms, however the yeast-like typically predominates. Black aerial mycelium develops on the colony surface that consists of hyphae with swellings at regular intervals. Conidia are variable in size and are often formed in clusters at the tip of annellidic conidiogenous cells.

As the spots expand, mycelial growth expands into parenchyma cells, further killing cells within the head. Later stages of disease have external masses of mycelium among clumps of black sporangia, dispersing spores abiotically, and by birds. The diseased heads can completely rot in 3 to 7 days. Rhizopus microsporus has been found to be the species involved in Rhizopus Ear Rot of maize as well.

When it gets dry, it becomes pale cream and its texture gets ashy and brittle. It is oxidase negative and the hyphae containing numerous clamps are oil-rich, contributing to its coarse granular appearance. The mycelium of this fungus can cultivate on trama of Trametes hirsuta fruit bodies, as well as on wood-inhabiting basidiomycetes, with the help of a technique called "moisture gradient technique".

In Alberta, 75% of trap logs (Mallett and Hiratsuka 1985) inserted into the soil between planted spruce became infected with the distinctive white mycelium of Armillaria within one year. Of the infestations, 12% were A. ostoyae, and 88% were A. sinapina (Blenis et al. 1995).Blenis, P.; Titus, S.; Mallet, K. 1995. Impact of Armillaria root rot in intensively managed white spruce/asspen stands. Nat. Resour. Can.

Young, small porcini are most appreciated by gourmets, as the large ones often harbour maggots (insect larvae), and become slimy, soft and less tasty with age. Fruit bodies are collected by holding the stipe near the base and twisting gently. Cutting the stipe with a knife may risk the part left behind rotting and the mycelium being destroyed. Peeling and washing are not recommended.

The disease cycle for Botrytis elliptica begins with infection of plants in spring. This may be derived from mycelium in overwintering sclerotia, which produce conidiophores to create conidia, the asexual spores of this fungus. The conidia germinate, often penetrating the young leaf tissue of the lily, although the flowers, buds, or stem may also suffer from infection. This infects cells, which collapse, disintegrate, and rot the tissue.

Brown ascomatal hairs grow mainly from the apical disc, usually appearing as helically coiled in the apical region with little branching. The hairs are either verrucose or warty, which are about 4.5 to 6.5 μm thick with occasionally coiled branches. Lateral seta-like hairs are often also present and have tapered or clavate terminal ends with septate. These hairs break away at maturity with no aerial mycelium.

The conidiophores are long, straight, slightly tapering phialides, arising as side-branches on hyphae. At the end of the phialides are accumulated balls of slimy conidia with an ellipsoidall shape measuring 3-6 x 1.5 mm. Colonies that are grown on sabouraud dextrose agar have a white coloration that later becomes pink during further incubation. Microscopically, the growth mostly has fasciculate mycelium giving rise to slender phialides.

The colonies of B. piluliferum are fast-growing. They can spread from 2.0-4.3 cm in diameter in one week when grown at . The colonies start off as white aerial mycelium which can become a yellowish-beige colour by the subsequent production of brown, rough-walled sterile setae. These brown setae are about 250 x 2-5 μm and bumpy or encrusted near their base.

Several bioactive secondary metabolites have been isolated and identified from Volvariella bombycina fruit bodies, mycelium, or pure culture. The compounds ergosta-4,6,8(14),22-tetraene-3-one, ergosterol peroxide, indole-3-carboxaldehyde, and indazole were found in liquid culture. In 2009, the novel compound isodeoxyhelicobasidin was identified from culture broth; this compound inhibits the enzyme human elastase. The fungus also produces compounds that have antioxidative activity.

A thermal insulation panel ready for installation, 'Mushroom materials' are a novel class of renewable biomaterial grown from fungal mycelium and low-value non-food agricultural materials using a patented process developed by Ecovative Design. After being left to grow in a former in a dark place for about five days during which time the fungal mycelial network binds the mixture, the resulting light robust organic compostable material can be used within many products, including building materials, thermal insulation panels and protective packaging. The process uses an agricultural waste product such as cotton hulls, cleaning the material, heating it up, inoculating it to create growth of the fungal mycelium, growing the material for period of about five days, and finally heating it to make the fungus inert. During growth, the material's shape can be molded into various products including protective packaging, building products, apparel, car bumpers, or surfboards.

Under these conditions, spores germinate and penetrate the plant in 6 hours. The fungus overwinters in the corn debris as mycelium and spores, waiting once again for these favorable spring conditions. The generation time for new inoculum is only 51 hours. University of Missouri "Learning from Past and Current Epidemics" As previously mentioned, Bipolaris maydis also has a sexual stage with ascospores, but this has only been observed in laboratory culture.

Fruiting begins about six weeks after the initial inoculation on the agar plate, but only when portions of fruit bodies (spines or stem sections) are used as the inoculum to initiate growth; the use of mycelium as the inoculum precludes subsequent fruiting. Mature fruit bodies grow very close to the initial site of inoculation—within 3 mm—and take about 60 days to mature after they first start to form.

Its conidiogenous hyphae are hyaline, measuring approximately 1–2.5μm wide, often found in fascicles in aerial mycelium. These are reduced to a single denticle that is 0.5–1.0μm long and 1.0–2.0μm wide. Conidia are two-celled, either solitary or distributed side by side in clusters. Its terminal cell is 4.5–5.5 by 4.0–5.5μm, being globose to subglobose, transitioning to a dark brown colour; its conidial walls are slightly thick.

Filipin is a mixture of chemical compounds first isolated by chemists at the Upjohn company in 1955 from the mycelium and culture filtrates of a previously unknown actinomycete, Streptomyces filipinensis. It was discovered in a soil sample collected in the Philippine Islands, hence the name filipin. The isolate possessed potent antifungal activity. It was identified as a polyene macrolide based on its characteristic UV-Vis and IR spectra.

In the United Kingdom, it appears from September through to December. Soil analysis of soil containing mycelium from a wood blewit fairy ring under Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) in southeast Sweden yielded fourteen halogenated low molecular weight organic compounds, three of which were brominated and the others chlorinated. It is unclear whether these were metabolites or pollutants. Brominated compounds are unknown as metabolites from terrestrial fungi.

The fruit bodies (basidiocarps) are pale, with a smooth greyish-brown top surface, while the creamy white underside has hundreds of pores that contain the spores. The fruit body has a rubbery texture, becoming corky with age. Wood decayed by the fungus, and cultures of its mycelium, often smell distinctly of green apples. The spores are cylindrical to ellipsoidal in shape, and measure 3–6 by 1.5–2 μm.

F. solani can be found in soils worldwide, where its chlamydospores overwinter on plant tissue/seed or as mycelium in the soil . The pathogen enters hosts through developing roots, where it can infect the host. After infection, F. solani produces asexual macro and microconidia which are dispersed through wind and rain . The pathogen can persist in the soil for a decade, and if left unchecked can cause complete crop loss.

Its conidiogenous hyphae are hyaline, measuring approximately 1–2μm wide, often found in fascicles in aerial mycelium. These are reduced to a single denticle that is 0.5–1.5μm long and 1.0–3.5μm wide. Conidia are two-celled, either solitary or distributed side by side in clusters. Its terminal cell is 4.5–6.0 by 4.0–5.5μm, being globose to subglobose, transitioning to a dark brown colour; its conidial walls are slightly thick.

This breakdown of the cell walls and colonization of the pathogen within the host forms the sclerotia. New inoculum is produced on or within the host tissue, and a new cycle is repeated when new plants become available. The disease cycle begins as such: # Sclerotia/mycelium overwinter in plant debris, soil, or host plants. # The young hyphae and fruiting basidia (rare) emerge and produce mycelia and rarely basidiospores.

However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce sexually during underground growth, and asexually through spores. Either of these can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop. Mycelium, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on growth substrate to seed or introduce mushrooms to grow on a substrate.

The combined distinguishable characters of Mycetophagites were not enough for Poinar and Buckley to place the genus further than Hypocreales incertae sedis. Where the hyphae of Mycetophagites penetrate into the Palaeoagaracites cap, distinct areas of cell lysis appear to be present. The necrotrophic nature of the interaction is similar to the modern genus Sepedonium. However the details of the condia and mycelium are distinct from those found in Sepedonium.

The pink volva is what remains of the tough outer covering of the immature egg. The immature fruiting bodies of P. hadriani in the egg stage have dimensions of by , and are colored rosy-pink to violet. They typically have rhizomorphs (aggregations of mycelium that resemble plant roots) at the base. The eggs are enclosed in a tough covering and a gelatinous layer that breaks down as the stinkhorn emerges.

Bisected "egg" form Immature (unopened) specimens of Phallus rubicundus are spherical to egg-shaped, whitish, and measure long by wide. They occur singly or in groups of two to six eggs that are formed from a common mycelium. They are attached to the substrate by a cordlike rhizomorph. After expanding, the fruit bodies are up to tall, and consist of a hollow cylindrical stalk supporting a conical to bell-shaped cap.

The medulla is white, well defined, and often peppered with calcium oxalate crystals. Ascomata are not well defined, being cushions of soft white mycelium immersed in the medullary tissue, hence the name from the Greek “krypto” = “to conceal” and “theke” = “a container or sheath”. There are about 45 described species in the genus according to one source, and 75 species according to another. The genus is in the family Arthoniaceae.

Panellus stipticus uses a heterothallic, tetrapolar mating system: each basidiospore develops into a self-sterile mycelium which, when grown alone, remains homokaryotic (i.e., with all cells genetically identical) indefinitely. Researchers have paired collections of P. stipticus from Japan and Eastern North America, and later, collections from New Zealand and Russia. Although the separated allopatric populations differ in bioluminescence and taste, the results revealed a universal intercompatibility group over these geographical regions.

In contrast to the sexual cycle, in the parasexual cycle recombination takes place during mitosis followed by haploidization (but without meiosis). The recombined haploid nuclei appear among vegetative cells, which differ genetically from those of the parent mycelium. Both heterokaryosis and the parasexual cycle are very important for those fungi that have no sexual reproduction. Those cycles provide for somatic variation in the vegetative phase of their life cycles.

Fonsecaea pedrosoi is one of several main causative agents of human chromoblastomycosis, a chronic fungal infection localized to skin and subcutaneous tissue. The disease was first described by Alexandrino Pedroso in 1911. The fungus infects the host through the traumatic implantation of sexual spores known as conidia or hyphal fragments. Once introduced in the subcutaneous tissues, the propagules germinate to establish an invasive mycelium associated with sclerotic cells.

The mycelium of the fungus grows in the double-layered epidermis of the leaf of the host plant, and penetrates the mesophyll tissue in the center of the colony. Perithecia are up to 400 µm in diameter and are the same thickness as the leaf. The asci (spore-bearing cells) are up to 180 µm long and 15 µm wide. Ascospores are hyaline (translucent), and measure 20–25 by 10 µm.

The airborne spores released from the whitish 'bloom' on the fruit are thought to settle in the host's bark and bud scales, growing at first without causing obvious signs, but in the spring the fungus invades the plant tissues, causing swollen and deformed shoots. The fungus remains in these as a mycelium. The gall inducing fungus then grows into the flowers and the developing fruit. The cycle then repeats itself.

It is characterized by colorless growth with lavender colored aerial mycelium, though white mutants have been observed . The order Actinomycetales is composed of organisms well known for their ability to make a wide range of biologically active metabolites.Ikea H, Ishikawa J, Hanamoto A, Shinose M, Kikuchi H, Shiba T, Sakaki Y, Hattori M, Omura S. 2003. Complete genome sequence and comparative analysis of the industrial microorganism Streptomyces avermitilis.

Cheb relief intarsia with green wood Microscopic images of a veneer of spalted poplar (Populus nigra) used in a tall case clock in the mid 1700s. (a) Tangential plane of veneer poplar showing mycelium expanding in ray cells (arrows), (b) Radial plane shows higher concentration of xylindein in rays than in fibers and vessels (arrows). This species contains a quinone pigment called xylindein,Schmidt O. (1994). Holz- und Baumpilze.

Similarly in tempeh making, there is an initial bacterial fermentation in legumes when they are soaked for a while before being cooked. Fermentation incubation lasts for 48 hours at 33 °C. After incubation, mycelium can be observed between the legumes creating a larger, uniform product. Overall, fruits, grains, nuts, and legumes mold-fermentation with R. oryzae produces sensory changes in foods such as creating acidity, sweetness and bitterness.

Fecal samples from these organisms were found to contain viable spores of P. palmivora. It was reported that beetle of family Nitidulidae is the most common vector for black pod as it was found 50 to 60% of black pod occurrences. These invertebrates consume the outer layer of the infected pods and incidentally ingest the mycelium and spores of the pathogen, thus spread the pathogen to other healthy pods.

Rabbits crop grass very short in open areas and produce nitrogen-rich droppings. Mushrooms need more soil nitrogen than grass does. A ring can start from only a few spores from which the mycelium develops; the fruiting bodies of the mushrooms only appearing later, when sufficient mycelial mass has been generated to support them. Subsequent generations of fungi grow only outwards, because the parent generations have depleted their local nitrogen levels.

When conditions become unfavorable, the fungus overwinters in sclerotia inside the dead host plant tissue, or within the soil. The sclerotia can be dispersed through soil by rain and water irrigation. Moist, humid conditions, and high nitrogen fertilization are favorable conditions for the sclerotia, which germinate in wet areas of the leaf or sheath. Once the sclerotia germinate, the mycelium infects the plant through wounds or natural openings in the plant.

After infection at 24 °C, rapid growth ensues with active infection taking place within 48 hours and initial symptom onset occurring within 3 days. As temperature at time of infection decreases, the delay of initial symptom onset increases. Initial symptoms include a moist depression on the surface which expands as white mycelium colonizes much of its surface. The centre of the mycelial mass eventually turns olive as conidial production begins.

Huang (2016) describes that early symptoms of this pathogen include yellowish-brown water-soaked lesions on the cortex of the host plant at the root collar. The cortex rots gradually and the phloem tissues begin to flake off and the xylem rots. There is chlorosis of the leaves as well. As the disease progresses, more visible signs of the pathogen become apparent as the mycelium invades the infected tissues.

Adult walnut twig beetles carry spores of the Geosmithia morbida fungus, which grows profusely around the pupal chamber of the beetles. Following emergence from trees the beetles subsequently tunnel into branches and trunks of walnut for production of egg galleries or overwintering shelters. The fungus is introduced into the tree during this wounding where it subsequently germinates and grows. The fungal mycelium initially colonize tissue immediately surrounding the beetle galleries.

Although DET is a synthetic compound with no known natural sources, it has been used in conjunction with the mycelium of Psilocybe cubensis to produce the synthetic chemicals 4-PO-DET (Ethocybin) and 4-HO-DET (Ethocin), as opposed to the naturally occurring 4-PO-DMT (Psilocybin) and 4-HO-DMT (Psilocin). Isolation of the alkaloids resulted in 3.3% 4-HO-DET and 0.01-0.8% 4-PO-DET.

In favorable conditions, sclerotia germinate to form fruiting bodies (Basidiomycetes) or mycelium with conidia (in imperfect fungi). Sclerotia sizes can range from a fraction of a millimeter to a few tens of centimeters as, for example Laccocephalum mylittae, which has sclerotia with diameters up to 30 cmSclerotia and Stromata (bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au) and weighing up to 20 kg. Sclerotia resemble cleistothecia in both their morphology and the genetic control of their development.

Many fungi (notably the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) exhibit heterokaryosis. The haploid nuclei within a mycelium may differ from one another not merely by accumulating mutations, but by the non-sexual fusion of genetically distinct fungal hyphae, although a self / non-self recognition system exists in Fungi and usually prevents fusions with non-self.Glass, N. L. and I. Kaneko. 2003. Fatal attraction: Nonself recognition and heterokaryon incompatibility in filamentous fungi.

These sporangia and sporangiophores always appear on the lower surface of the foliage. As for tuber blight, the white mycelium often shows on the tubers' surface. Under ideal conditions, the life cycle can be completed on potato or tomato foliage in about five days. Sporangia develop on the leaves, spreading through the crop when temperatures are above and humidity is over 75–80% for 2 days or more.

Penicillium sp. under bright field microscopy (10 × 100 magnification) with lactophenol cotton blue stain The thallus (mycelium) consists of highly branched networks of multinucleated,usually colourless hyphae, with each pair of cells separated by a septum. Conidiophores are at the end of each branch accompanied by green spherical constricted units called conidia. These propagules lay a significant role in reproduction; conidia are the main dispersal strategy of these fungi.

Gray mold favors moist, humid, and warm environmental conditions between 18.3-23-9℃ (65-75℉). Temperature, relative humidity, and wetness duration produce a conducive environment that is favorable for inoculation of mycelium or conidia. Controlled environments, such as crop production greenhouses, provide the moisture and high temperatures that favor the spreading and development of the pathogen Botrytis cinerea. Standing water on plant leaf surfaces provides a place for spores to germinate.

Mucoromycotina is a subphylum of uncertain placement in Fungi. It was considered part of the phylum Zygomycota, but recent phylogenetic studies have shown that it was polyphyletic and thus split into several groups, it is now thought to be a paraphyletic grouping. Mucoromycotina is currently composed of 3 orders, 61 genera, and 325 species. Some common characteristics seen throughout the species include: development of coenocytic mycelium, saprotrophic lifestyles, and filamentous.

Conidiation is a biological process in which filamentous fungi reproduce asexually from spores. Rhythmic conidiation is the most obvious output of fungal circadian rhythms. Neurospora species are most often used to study this rhythmic conidiation. Physical stimuli, such as light exposure and mechanical injury to the mycelium trigger conidiation; however, conidiogenesis itself is a holistic response determined by the cell's metabolic state, as influenced by the environment and endogenous biological rhythms.

As a result of this, the actual fungus can be isolated from the leaf spots because the spots are made up of conidia and mycelium. Both ascospores and conidia are airborne inoculum and are most often transmitted from plant to plant via wind. Apothecial production, and therefore flower infection, generally peaks from mid-March to early April and conidial production, and therefore foliar infection, generally peaks in late April.

Some toxins produced by Pseudeurotium ovale have been found to have antimicrobial effects, and can act ton the immune response, dampening it in some cases. Ovalicin is a secondary metabolite, produced by the mycelium. Its main component is β-trans- begamotene, a volatile organic compound, otherwise known as a sesquiterpene. Environmental stressors, such as competition with other fungi or nutrient depravation, can trigger P. ovale to produce ovalicin as a response.

The genus Streptomyces includes aerobic, Gram-positive, filamentous bacteria that produce well-developed vegetative hyphae (between 0.5-2.0 µm in diameter) with branches. They form a complex substrate mycelium that aids in scavenging organic compounds from their substrates. Although the mycelia and the aerial hyphae that arise from them are amotile, mobility is achieved by dispersion of spores. Spore surfaces may be hairy, rugose, smooth, spiny or warty.

Described as very tasty by some authors, king stropharia is easily cultivated on a medium similar to that on which it grows naturally. Antonio Carluccio recommends sautéeing them in butter or grilling them. In Paul Stamets' book Mycelium Running, a study done by Christiane Pischl showed that the king stropharia makes an excellent garden companion to corn. The fungus also has a European history of being grown with corn.

Mycotypha microspora is a filamentous fungus whose genus name is derived from the cattail-like appearance of its fructifications and tiny spores. It has a dense granular protoplasm and is composed of several hyphae and vacuoles. The structure is highly branched, with mycelium of varying diameters. It consists of two kinds of unispored sporangia: an inner layer containing globose spores and an outer layer with obovoid or cylindrical spores.

In the light of climate change there is growing interest in understanding carbon sequestration in mycorrhizal fungal tissues. There is considerable evidence suggesting that C. geophilum mycelium, ectomycorrhizas and sclerotia are highly resistant to decay and have potential to sequester a great deal of carbon in their tissues. Fernandez et al. (2013) found that C. geophilum ectomycorrhizas persisted considerably longer in the soil than those of other ectomycorrhizal fungi.

From late October to mid-December, the A. sexdens colonies produce winged virgin queens and males. Before the nuptial flight, young queens visit the colony's fungal gardens and place a small piece of fungal mycelium in their infrabuccal cavities. During their nuptial flights, the queens mate with several males, which die shortly after. The queen retains the sperm in a special organ for the rest of her life.

Chlamydospores are usually formed singly or in pairs, but can sometimes be found in clusters or in short chains. They are round thick walled spores produced within or terminally on an older mycelium or in macroconidia. Chlamydospores unlike the other spores can survive in the soil for a long period of time. F. oxysporum is a common soil pathogen and saprophyte that feeds on dead and decaying organic matter.

The stalk is variable in length and solid, dark outside, white within. The stalks originate from a sclerotium, a compact mass of hardened mycelium. The sclerotium has an almost gelatinous consistency with irregularly shaped lobes and internal chambers, and may reach a diameter of . The sclerotium's function is thought to supply moisture and nutrients, or to serve as a resistant structure capable of sustaining the fungus through times of stress.

As well as genes that produce toxins, other genes have been identified which help S. scabies to infect plants. A tomatinase enzyme, encoded by tomA which can degrade the antimicrobial saponin α–tomatine. The aerial growth of mutants lacking the gene is inhibited, but the mycelium is able to continue to grow. Nec1 is another protein that is required for virulence, which is secreted out of the bacteria.

The parameters under which the model operates can be changed during its execution. This allows a greater variety of structures to be formed (including mushroom - like shapes) and may be supposed to simulate cases where the growth strategy depends on an internal biological clock. The Neighbour-Sensing model explains how various fungal structures may arise because of the ‘crowd behaviour’ of the community of hyphal tips that make up the mycelium.

Although the larvae hatch at 30 °C (86 °F) two to three days earlier, they are 20% more likely to die. Such extreme temperatures result in slower development, and below 6.2 °C (43 °F), the larvae die. A sufficient interspersion of the wood with the mycelium of the woodwasp is crucial for its hatching, as the fungus prevents the wood from drying out. Without these prerequisites, hatching is not possible.

UAMH 10614 Neoscytalidium dimidiatum on CER agar incubated at 35 C for 29 days. This filamentous fungus produces sinuous and irregular hyphae and is characterized by rapidly growing colonies that are deeply tufted with dense, darkly coloured, ropy aerial mycelium. Cultures are rapidly growing, initially light in colour and becoming dark brown and then black with age. Both arthroconidia and pycnidia may be produced in the same culture.

The growth of M. mycetomatis is very slow and can be broken down into three stages. Initially the colony is dome shaped white-yellow or olivaceous brown in color. The mycelium is covered in grey down, giving it a woolly texture. Following the initial stage, brownish aerial mycelia (1 to 5 µm) form and the colony starts producing a diffusible pigment called pyomelanin, and becomes smooth in texture.

Subdivision of the genus Penicillium into subgenera and sections has traditionally been based on the branching pattern of the conidiophore. The conidiophores of P. spinulosum do not branch and is described as monoverticillate. However, modern phylogenetic studies of the genus Penicillium have revealed that these morphological patterns can arise independently, and thus do not reliably predict evolutionary relationships. Growing colonies of P. spinulosum have broad white edges consist of white mycelium.

Colour ranges from nearly white to yellowish brown with the darker shades developing with age. The central pore ruptures at late maturity to allow the wind and rain to disperse the spores. The base is attached to the wood by means of rhizomorphs (thick, cord-like strands of mycelium). The gleba, or inner spore mass, is white when young, but it becomes greenish-yellow to dark olive-brown with age.

The gleba consists of mycelium, and basidia and may also contain capillitium threads. Gleba found on the fruit body of species in the family Phallaceae is typically gelatinous, often fetid-smelling, and deliquescent (becoming liquid from the absorption of water). It is formed on the exterior face of the cap or the upper part of the fruit body. The foul smell helps to attract insects that help disperse the spores.

In comparison, Stamets indicates that the commonly cultivated species P. cubensis contains 0.63% and 0.60% (psilocybin and psilocin), while the widespread P. semilanceata has 0.98% and 0.02%.Stamets (1996), p. 39. Chemical analysis of P. hoogshagenii specimens from Brazil yielded up to 0.3% psilocybin and 0.3% psilocin. This species is used by mushroom growers for the myceliated grain technique, because it produces viable amounts of psilocybin in the mycelium phase.

This is the sexual stage of the life cycle and cross-fertilisation provides an important source of genetic recombination. This dikaryotic mycelium then forms structures called aecia, which produce a type of dikaryotic spores called aeciospores. These have a worty appearance and are formed in chains – unlike the urediniospores that are spiny and are produced on individual stalks. The chains of aeciospores are surrounded by a bell-like enclosure of fungal cells.

The Corallorhiza maculata side petals are reddish, and the lip petal is bright clean white with deep red spots. Corallorhiza maculata is a myco-heterotroph; it lacks chlorophyll and obtains energy by parasitizing the mycelium of fungi in the family Russulaceae. The rhizome and lower stem are often knotted into branched coral shapes. The stem is usually red or brown in color, but occasionally comes in a light yellow or cream color.

Pseudonocardia parietis is a bacterium from the genus of Pseudonocardia which has been isolated from a wall which was colonized with mould in Stuttgart in Germany. It is a bacterium that is Gram-positive, rod-shaped, spore-negative and is also a mycelium forming actinobacterium. It was found to have a 16s rRNA gene sequence and was shown to belong to the Pseudonocardiaceae family. It is most closely related to Pseudonocardia antarctica and Pseudonocardia alni.

These hyphae are homokaryotic, containing a single nucleus in each compartment; they increase in length by adding cell- wall material to a growing tip. As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points, a network called the mycelium develops. Mycelial growth occurs by mitosis and the synthesis of hyphal biomass. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another, they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy.

These hyphae are homokaryotic, containing a single nucleus in each compartment; they increase in length by adding cell-wall material to a growing tip. As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points, a network called the mycelium develops. Mycelial growth occurs by mitosis and the synthesis of hyphal biomass. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another, they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy.

Iprodion is used on crops affected by Botrytis bunch rot, Brown rot, Sclerotinia and other fungal diseases in plants. It is currently applied in a variety of crops: fruit, vegetables, ornamental trees and scrubs and on lawns. It is a contact fungicide that inhibits the germination of fungal spores and it blocks the growth of the fungal mycelium. It has been marketed under the brand name "Rovral" and "Chipco green" (both brands of Bayer CropScience).

Nematodes are considered beneficial because they will help compost and provide nutrients for the soil the plants are growing in. Insects and arachnids help the growing process because they prey on non beneficial organisms that consume plants for food. Fungi help the growing process by using long threads of mycelium that can reach very long distances away from the tree or plant and bring water and nutrients back to the tree or plant roots.

Its surface is dry, and either smooth to pruinose (covered with a very fine whitish powder on the surface). The color ranges from pale light pink to yellowish-tinged or slightly pinkish-orange to orange-white, sometimes spotted. The interior of the stem is firm, beige white, and filled with a soft pith, but it eventually becomes hollow. Occasionally, white mycelium is visible at the base of the stem where it meets the ground.

These hyphae are homokaryotic, containing a single nucleus in each compartment; they increase in length by adding cell-wall material to a growing tip. As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points, a network called the mycelium develops. Mycelial growth occurs by mitosis and the synthesis of hyphal biomass. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another, they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy.

This species mycelium is a chocolate brown colour, and forms aggregations around the insects' joints, especially on legs and antennae. Its stromatal morphology is similar to O. camponoti-rufipedis, but its fertile region is dark brown when mature. Its ascomata are semi-erumpent and flask- shaped, measuring up to , and possessing a pronounced neck. Its asci are 8-spored, hyaline and cylindrical, while its ascospores are multiserriate, thin-walled and rounded at their base.

Young fruit bodies usually have droplets of golden yellow liquid on the pore surface (sometimes abundantly so), although this is rarely observed in older specimens. The stem is long, thick, and roughly equal in width throughout. Its surface is sticky and glutinous when fresh, somewhat scurfy near the apex (covered with loose scales) but smooth below. It is pale yellow to yellow down to the base, which is sheathed with a cottony white mycelium.

These are myco-heterotrophs and feed parasitically off of one or more of the local mycelia. Because of this parasitic action, the viability of the non-photosynthetic pyrola relies on the survival of the supporting mycelium. The pyrola group is one of a select few that can live both photosynthetically or not. This differentiation is not understood and if deciphered could explain how other obligate non- photosynthetic forest dwelling plants have crossed that evolutionary threshold.

The mushrooms are edible but some people may be intolerant to them. This species is capable of producing light via bioluminescence in its mycelium. Armillaria mellea is widely distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The fruit body or mushroom, commonly known as stump mushroom, stumpie, honey mushroom, pipinky or pinky, grows typically on hardwoods but may be found around and on other living and dead wood or in open areas.

Members of the family Loramycetaceae lack stromata, the compact mass of mycelium (with or without host tissue) that supports fruit bodies or in which fruiting bodies are produced. The ascomata, which are formed within a gelatinous matrix, are deeply cup-shaped, almost like a perithecium. The outer tissue layer of the ascomata is thin-walled and translucent. The ascospores are 2-septate, translucent, and have a long basal cellular appendage with a gelatinous sheath.

Mature specimens develop longitudinal grooves in maturity. Numerous white rhizoids are present at the base of the stem; these root-like outgrowths of fungal mycelium help the mushroom attach to its substrate. The apex of the stem extends into the gleba to form a columella that reaches the top of the cap. The internal gills are free from attachment to the stem, but are attached full-length to the inside of the cap.

Since then, Neurospora has become a model organism for studying circadian clocks and rhythms. WC-1 was first discovered from a wc-1 mutant that inhibited carotenoid biosynthesis in mycelia but not in conidia. Conidia produce carotenoid constitutively and don't require regulation by light, unlike mycelia which require light-induction. This mutant created a phenotype in which these strains of Neurospora developed conidia with pigmentation, but with no pigmentation in the mycelium.

Internal progression of the fungus in root tissues lags well behind the front of epiphytic growth of the mycelium on the root. In this respect, the mode of development of R. lignosus is characteristic of an ectotrophic growth habit. After rhizomorphs infect the roots, the fungus preferentially penetrates the taproot, deep in the soil. First, however, the rhizomorphs must change morphogenetically into infectious hyphae, characterized by degrading extracellular enzymes able to decay the wood.

Wallemia sebi has transparent hyphae, that are usually 1.5–2.5 µm wide, forming a compact mycelium. Conidiphores, the specialized stalks for asexual reproduction, are arranged in a parallel fashion and are usually unbranched. The conidiogenous cells are cylindrical and produce arthrospore-like conidia in packages of four. Conidia are cylindrical initially and soon become spherical in shape, approximately 2–2.5 µm in diameter, and form long bending chains up to 1 mm long.

The conidiospores commonly contain one nucleus and are products of mitotic cell divisions and thus are sometimes call mitospores, which are genetically identical to the mycelium from which they originate. They are typically formed at the ends of specialized hyphae, the conidiophores. Depending on the species they may be dispersed by wind or water, or by animals. Conidiophores may simply branch off from the mycelia or they may be formed in fruiting bodies.

The gametangia then fuse into a zygosporangium. In other fungi, cells from two hyphae with opposing mating types fuse, but only the cytoplasm is fused (plasmogamy). The two nuclei do not fuse, leading to the formation of a dikaryon cell that gives rise to a mycelium consisting of dikaryons. Karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) then eventually occurs in sporangia, and leads to the formation of diploid cells (zygotes) that immediately undergo meiosis to form spores.

Asexual reproduction is the dominant form of propagation in the Ascomycota, and is responsible for the rapid spread of these fungi into new areas. It occurs through vegetative reproductive spores, the conidia. The conidiospores commonly contain one nucleus and are products of mitotic cell divisions and thus are sometimes called mitospores, which are genetically identical to the mycelium from which they originate. They are typically formed at the ends of specialized hyphae, the conidiophores.

The pathogen hyphae will either infect the host root or form mycelium with a differentiated rind. Upon contact with host roots, P. omnivore forms a mycelial mantle on the root's surface. This leads to necrosis of epidermis and underlying cortical tissue, leading to root lesions. As the disease progresses, the roots are covered by the characteristic cinnamon-colored mycelial strands covered with acircular sterile hyphae, a diagnostic sign of Texas Root Rot.

Production and transmission of Alternaria dauci is heightened during moderate to warm temperatures and extended periods of leaf wetness due to rainfall, dew, or sprinkler irrigation. Infection can occur between temperatures of 57 - 95 degrees Fahrenheit, with 82 degrees Fahrenheit being optimal. Mycelium and spores are spread through splashing rain, tools for cultivation or contaminated soils. Alternaria diseases, in general, tend to infect older, senescing tissues, and on plants developing under stress.

Brown spores can be seen on the surface of this fruit body. The fruit bodies start their development underground or buried in leaf debris, linked to a strand of mycelium at the base. As they mature, the exoperidium (the outer tissue layer of the peridium) splits open into 7 to 14 rays which curve backward; this pushes the fruit body above the substrate. Fully opened specimens can reach dimensions of from ray tip to tip.

The hyphae are generally transparent, so the mycelium appears like very fine, fluffy white threads over the surface. Cross-walls (septa) may delimit connected compartments along the hyphae, each containing one or multiple, genetically identical nuclei. The dusty texture of many molds is caused by profuse production of asexual spores (conidia) formed by differentiation at the ends of hyphae. The mode of formation and shape of these spores is traditionally used to classify molds.

A mold () or mould () is a fungus that grows in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae. In contrast, fungi that can adopt a single-celled growth habit are called yeasts. Molds are a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungal species in which the growth of hyphae results in discoloration and a fuzzy appearance, especially on food. The network of these tubular branching hyphae, called a mycelium, is considered a single organism.

Due to the presence of pheromones as well as the dispersal of male gametes, two or more female gametes may be attracted to one conidium, or male gamete. The presence of karyogamy further supports the possibility of female-female competition. Within N. crassa, the haploid mycelium undergoes growth as vegetative tissue prior to entering the mating cycle. This vegetative tissue can be used as a source of fertilization and can fuse with the trichogyne.

Among the endophytic fungi associated with cacao are many species of Trichoderma. Several species of Trichoderma have been isolated from cacao and is one of the most often used biofungicides. One of the isolates, T. stromaticum parasitizes the saprotrophic mycelium and basidiocarps of M. perniciosa, which reduces the formation of basidiocarps by 99% when brooms are in contact with soil and 56% in brooms remaining on trees. It can reduce pod infection by 31%.

The fertile area (the region that produces spores) is often irregularly wrinkled and sometimes notched at apex, and is up to wide; it tapers down the length of either side of the stem (i.e., decurrently) from a half to a third of the total stem length. The division between the head and the stem is sharply defined. The stem is hollow, smooth (glabrous), and has a white to yellowish mycelium at its base.

Worldwide, 40% of commercially produced mushrooms are A. bisporus. When infecting A. bisporus, dry bubble is unable to infect the vegetative mycelium and can only infect the fruit bodies. This means infection must take place in the casing layer, a layer of material, usually mulch put on top of the mushroom. In general, dry bubble symptoms are dependent on the time point of infection, affecting both the type and severity of the disease symptoms.

The slanted shape of the taro leaf encourages sporangia and zoospores to spread to other hosts via splash from rain. The pathogen can also be transmitted across fields by infected plant material or contaminated tools. The pathogen can survive as mycelium for a few days in dead and dying plant tissues as well as in infected corms. On the other hand, encysted zoospores of P. colocasiae can survive for several months without a host.

Like all mushrooms, the fruit body of Geastrum triplex is the visible part of a larger organism. Hidden from sight are masses of nearly invisible fungal threads called mycelium, which form the active feeding and growing structures of the fungus. The fruit body—created when environmental conditions such as temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability are optimal—is designed to produce and disseminate spores. Geastrum triplex has the largest fruit body of the earthstar mushrooms.

Dark dotting, winding lines and thin streaks of red, brown and black are known as zone lines. This type of spalting does not occur due to any specific type of fungus, but is instead an interaction zone in which different fungi have erected barriers to protect their resources. They can also be caused by a single fungus delineating itself. The lines are often clumps of hard, dark mycelium, referred to as pseudosclerotial plate formation.

The development of living building materials began with research of methods for mineralizing concrete, that were inspired by coral mineralization. The use of microbiologically induced calcite precipitation (MICP) in concrete was pioneered by Adolphe et al. in 1990, as a method of applying a protective coating to building facades. In 2007, "Greensulate", a mycelium-based building insulation material was introduced by Ecovative Design, a spin off of research conducted at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

The species has a whitish spreading mycelium of branched, hyaline hyphae (thread-like filaments) some 2 to 4 μm wide. The conidia (non-motile spores) are borne on specialized stalks called conidiophores which are hyaline, erect and 200 to 550 μm long. These taper upwards and expand into a knob-like tip which is a distinguishing feature of this species. The conidia are hyaline, tapering towards the base and 20 to 52 μm long.

The spores are released during periods of high humidity and generally have a night-time or pre-dawn peak concentration in the atmosphere. When basidiospores encounter a favorable substrate, they may germinate, typically by forming hyphae. These hyphae grow outward from the original spore, forming an expanding circle of mycelium. The circular shape of a fungal colony explains the formation of fairy rings, and also the circular lesions of skin-infecting fungi that cause ringworm.

The inaugural competition was won by Ondřej Michálek, a graduate of the Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design in Prague. The victory earned Ondřej Michálek an internship with the London-based studio of Eva Jiřičná. His winning design was inspired by the growth of mycelium and other living organisms. Subsequently, he examined the territorial implications of applying their rules of growth at a specific moment and in a certain location as the “Pavilion of Growth”.

Colonies of C. bostrychodes can grow 2.5 to 3.5 mm daily, usually without developing aerial mycelium. It can sometimes grow with pale green exudates and a green or uncoloured reverse. When young, C. bostrychodes appears as colourless and dextrinoid, but upon maturity, turns pale bluish grey or olivaceous with an apical germ pore . C. bostrychodes often are darkened around the 25 to 35 μm wide ostiolar pore, giving the genus its name of Collariella.

The stipe measures long by wide, and is either equal in width throughout, or tapers on either end. Initially stuffed with a cottony mycelium when young, it hollows in maturity. Colored similar to the cap, the stipe surface ranges from smooth to canescent (covered with a whitish-grey bloom) when wet, to fibrillose-striate when dry. The stipe base features a dense mass of whitish rhizomorphs embedded with needles and other forest debris.

When these caterpillars die, their luminosity may attract predators to the dead insect thus assisting in the dispersal of both bacteria and nematodes. A similar reason may account for the many species of fungi that emit light. Species in the genera Armillaria, Mycena, Omphalotus, Panellus, Pleurotus and others do this, emitting usually greenish light from the mycelium, cap and gills. This may attract night-flying insects and aid in spore dispersal, but other functions may also be involved.

Chaetomium cupreum is known only as a sexually reproducing species and no asexual form has been reported. Ames originally reported C. cupreum to possess a homothallic mating system but this was later contradicted by Tveit in 1955 who determined the species to be heterothallic. Sexual reproduction in C. cupreum involves the formation of ascogonia arising as lateral outgrowths of the vegetative mycelium. In early developmental stages, the ascogonia are coiled and coenocytic with septa forming as the ascogonia mature.

Asteritea is a genus of fungi in the Microthyriaceae family; according to the 2007 Outline of Ascomycota, the placement in this family is uncertain. This is a monotypic genus, containing the single species Asteritea roureae. Asteritea is a parasitic or saprobic fungus that appears as black spots on the underside of leaves. Wu, Hyde, and Chen describe Asteritea as having "flattened ascomata with a star-like opening and superficial mycelium with hyphopodia" and suggest placement in the Asterinaceae family.

Phytophthora plurivora is a very aggressive soil-borne plant pathogen, with worldwide distribution and a wide variety of hosts. It belongs to the class of oomycetes and is often described as a ‘fungal-like’ organism since they form a heterotrophic mycelium as the ‘true fungi’, but in contrast, their cell wall lacks chitin and is composed only of cellulose and glucans. Its name derives from Greek Phytophthora (), “plant” and (), “destruction”; “the plant- destroyer” and from Latin ( = many, - = feeding).

UK Beetles Larvae feed only on the mycelium of Erysiphales (mainly Podosphaera on trees (in particular Quercus robur and Fraxinus excelsior)Iablokoff-Khnzorian, S.M., A Review of the Family Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) of the Fauna of the USSR., Zoologicheskii Sbornik Instituta Zoologii Armyanskoi SSR. Yerevan 19, 94–161 (1983) Also on these fungi on Poaceae, Astragalus and some species of the families Fabaceae and Boraginaceae) Burakowski, B., Mroczkowski, M., and Stefańska, J., Katalog Fauny Polski. Szęść XXIII, Chrząszcze– Coleoptera.

Accurately managing the synthesis of the desired metabolites requires regulating temperature, soluble oxygen, ionic strength and pH and control nutrients. Applying this growing technique to filamentous fungi leads to difficulties. The fungus develops in its vegetative form, generating hyphae or multicellular ramous filaments, while a septum separates the cells. As this mycelium develops in a liquid environment, it generates abundant viscosity in the growing medium, reducing oxygen solubility, while stirring disrupts the cell network increasing cell mortality.

Individual pores are angular, measuring about 0.5–2 mm wide, while the tubes are 3–10 mm deep. Slender for a bolete, the stipe measures long by thick, and is either roughly the same width throughout its length, or slightly thicker near the base. The colour of the stem is similar to the cap, or lighter, and there is yellow mycelium at the base. The flesh is yellow, sometimes with reddish tones, maturing to purplish brown.

Sclerocitrin, a pigment compound originally isolated from the common earthball (Scleroderma citrinum), is the major contributor to the yellow colour of the mycelium and the stipe base of C. piperatus fruit bodies. Other compounds that have been isolated from this species include norbadione A, chalciporone, xerocomic acid, variegatic acid, variegatorubin, and another yellow pigment, chalcitrin. Chalciporone is responsible for the bitter taste of the fruit bodies. The pigments sclerocitrin, chalcitrin, and norbadione A are derived biosynthetically from xerocomic acid.

The mycelium – a group of hyphae\- is then able to grow within the brain, controlling the behavioural aspects of the fly. The infection of the fly’s brain allows the pathogen to gain control over the fly’s movements. The pathogen commonly forces the host to locate itself on a high point of a surface, straighten out its back legs and open its wings. This allows for the hyphae to maximise growth within the body of the host causing death.

Spores will begin to develop filaments called hyphae; these are root like structures of the fungi as they branch out into the environment absorbing any available water and other nutrients required for survival. Groups of hyphae will interconnect, forming the main fungal body, the mycelium. The fungi will soon develop a sporangiophore, this is the stalk/stem of the fungus. The sporangiophore is an elongated structure that provides support to the body of the fungus and creates spores.

At 71% relative humidity, such as dry areas in homes, A. penicillioides showed greatest response and form many spores. The formation of new spores indicate that life cycle of A. penicillioides is progressed to completion, and propagation of these new spores can lead to contamination. A biosensor has also been used to detect volatile organic compounds, such as formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is detected in air based on fungal growth inhibition, reflected by suppressed mycelium growth and absorbance.

Colonies grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar reach about 7–8 mm after one week. Colonies on CYA are flat, floccose in texture, produce brown or olive brown from conidia, and range in diameter from 30-79 mmn in one week. Colonies on malt extract agar reach 70 mm diameter or more, otherwise very similar in appearance to those on CYA. Colonies on G25N media reach 8–16 mm diameter, similar to on CYA but with predominantly white mycelium.

While Verticillium spp. are very diverse, the basic life cycle of the pathogen is similar across species, except in their survival structures. The survival structures vary by species with V. albo-atrum forming mycelium, V. dahliae forming microsclerotia, V. nigrescens and V. nubilum forming chlamydospores, and V. tricorpus forming all three. While resting, many factors such as soil chemistry, temperature, hydration, micro fauna, and non-host crops all have an effect on the viability of the resting structure.

Because mycelia are quite sensitive to dehydration and adverse temperatures, preserving tempeh for extended periods of time can be challenging. When the soybeans are bound together by the white mycelium, the fungus releases enzymes that can digest protein. Tempeh-like foods (black oncom) can also be created from cereal grains such as wheat and rice. Many times, a good inoculum for this new fermentation actually comes from tiny pieces of old tempeh that have already been fermented.

The life cycle of Pilobolus begins with a black sporangium that has been discharged onto a plant substrate such as grass. A herbivorous animal such as a horse then eats the substrate, unknowingly consuming the sporangium as well. The Pilobolus sporangium survives the passage through the gastrointestinal tract without germinating, and emerges with the excrement. Once outside its host, spores within the sporangium germinate and grow as a mycelium within the excrement, where it is a primary colonizer.

Dry mycelium of four R. oryzae strains proved effective for catalysing the synthesis of different flavor esters. For example, the pineapple flavour or butyl acetate esters was produced by the esterification reactions between acetic acid and butanol by R. oryzae. This flavor compound can be used in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Within the biodiesel industry, biodiesel fuel as fatty acid methyl ester is produced by the esterification of plant oil or animal fat with methanol.

H. capsulatum grows in soil and material contaminated with bird or bat droppings (guano). The fungus has been found in poultry-house litter, caves, areas harboring bats, and bird roosts (particularly those of starlings). The fungus is thermally dimorphic; in the environment, it grows as a brownish mycelium, and at body temperature (37°C in humans), it morphs into a yeast. Histoplasmosis is not contagious, but is contracted by inhalation of the spores from disturbed soil or guano.

In the heterothallic species Neurospora crassa, interaction of haploid strains of opposite mating type is necessary for the occurrence of sexual reproduction and the production of ascospores by meiosis. Ascospores then restore haploid individuals of either mating type. The life cycle phase is thus predominantly haploid, however, upon mating, the nuclei do not immediately fuse: karyogamy is delayed until the very onset of meiosis. The resulting mycelium is called a heterokaryon, and is neither diploid, nor haploid.

The stem bears a whitish, membranous or fibrillose ring on its upper half that can be moved up and down. The lower surface of the ring is densely covered with fluffy whitish to light brown scales. The stem color is light brown to reddish-brown below the level of the ring, and it has small pyramidal scales scattered about its surface; above the ring, the stem is whitish. There is white mycelium at the base of the stem.

The beetle tunnels into the wood and into large chambers in which they lay their eggs. Spores released from the mycetangia germinate into hyphae, which can break down the wood. The beetle larvae then feed on the fungal mycelium, and, on reaching maturity, carry new spores with them to renew the cycle of infection. A well-known example of this is Dutch elm disease, caused by Ophiostoma ulmi, which is carried by the European elm bark beetle, Scolytus multistriatus.

If they are not present in the planting, then they must infect the wounds or natural openings on harvested pineapple. When the chlamydospores first infect the plant, they give rise to the mycelium, or hyphae network, which then lead to further spore infection. This gives rise to the black rot that is seen. If the infection is seen out in the field, the chlamydospores will over winter in the dead debris of the plants or in the soil.

Sterile cells called cystidia are numerous on the edges on the gills; they measure 33–60 µm (sometimes up to 80) by 9–12 µm. Cystidia that are present on the stipe (caulocystidia) appear in clusters, and clublike to irregular in shape, measuring 20–55 by 3.5–12.5 µm. The gill tissue contains numerous lactifers, cells that produce the latex that is secreted when it is cut. The surface mycelium of M. haematopus is whitish and fluffy.

The effect is thus to improve the plant's mineral absorption capabilities. Unaided plant roots may be unable to take up nutrients that are chemically or physically immobilised; examples include phosphate ions and micronutrients such as iron. One form of such immobilization occurs in soil with high clay content, or soils with a strongly basic pH. The mycelium of the mycorrhizal fungus can, however, access many such nutrient sources, and make them available to the plants they colonize.

Hypomyces completus is a parasitic ascomycete in the order Hypocreales. The fungus grows on boletes, typically Suillus spraguei in North America, although the type collection was found on growing on Boletinus oxydabilis in Siberia. The color of its subiculum (a crust-like growth of mycelium) ranges from white initially to yellow-brown to greenish-brown to brown to black; the fruitbodies (perithecia) range from pale brown to dark brown to black. Spores measure 35–40 by 4–6 μm.

"Armillaria Root Rot" Signs of this pathogen are white fans of hyphae that grow between the bark and wood of infected trees as well as the black mycelial cord or rhizomorph of the fungi growing in a net around the root system."Armillaria Root Rot". www.missouribotanicalgarden.org. Retrieved 2019-11-12. The mycelium of A. fuscipes are bioluminescent and the rhizomorph is used to transfer nutrients over large distances to create fruiting bodies as well as infect other trees.

The family Apodanthaceae comprises about 10 species of endoparasitic herbs. They live in the branches or stems of their hosts (as filaments similar to a fungal mycelium), emerging only to flower and fruit. The plants produce no green parts and do not carry out any photosynthesis (that is, they are holoparasitic).Apodanthaceae: Family Description, Parasitic Plant Connection website, accessed 2009-12-31 There are two genera: Pilostyles and Apodanthes.Albert Blarer, Daniel L. Nickrent, and Peter K. Endress. 2004.

Septoria lycopersici prefers warm, wet, and humid conditions. Disease development occurs within a wide range of temperatures however, the optimal temperatures lie between 20 and 25 degrees Celsius. High humidity and leaf wetness are also ideal for disease development. The initial source of inoculum for S. lycopersici results from overwintered resting structures such as mycelium and conidia within pycnidia which can be found on and in infected seed and within infected tomato debris left in the field.

Hyphae may be modified in many different ways to serve specific functions. Some parasitic fungi form haustoria that function in absorption within the host cells. The arbuscules of mutualistic mycorrhizal fungi serve a similar function in nutrient exchange, so are important in assisting nutrient and water absorption by plants. Ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium greatly increases the soil area available for exploitation by plant hosts by funneling water and nutrients to ectomycorrhizas, complex fungal organs on the tips of plant roots.

Shortly after, on the radar, the mysterious question mark-shaped object reappears on the radar; Olaf, who clearly recognizes the object, orders everyone to battle stations to prepare for flight. Fiona, knowing she has made the wrong decision, allows the Baudelaires to escape in the Queequeg. Olaf grabs the quarantined helmet full of Medusoid Mycelium. Sunny fixes the huge hole that Olaf created on the submarine using an enormous ball of gum and they escape Olaf's submarine.

The individual hyphae that compose the mycelium absorb nutrients and water from the substratum in which they are growing. When the nutrient supply is adequate and environmental conditions are favorable, some fungi may grow in the same location for several years. Fungi cannot make their own food, namely carbohydrates, as can green plants. Some species are saprobic, obtaining nutrients from dead organic material, whereas others are parasitic on living plants or animals or even on other fungi.

Brown-rot fungi are prevalent on conifer hosts and open, sun- exposed habitats. The fungal community in any single trunk may include both white-rot and brown-rot species, complementing each other's wood degradation strategies. Polypores and other decomposer fungi are the first step in food chains that feed on decomposed plant material. A rich fauna of insects, mites and other invertebrates feed on polypore mycelium and fruiting bodies, further providing food for birds and other larger animals.

The whitish to greyish-brown fruitbodies of Disciseda bovista are roughly spherical, measuring in diameter and tall. The base of mature fruitbodies is cushioned by a thick pad of mycelium encrusted with soil and plant debris. There is an irregularly shaped (and often torn) opening (ostiole) at the top of the fruitbody, usually 1–2 mm in diameter. The inside of the fruitbody contains the brown gleba, which is initially cottony before becoming powdery after the spores mature.

In sterilized soil and peat, however, spores readily germinate, and after 7 days, extensive mycelium and sporulation is visible. The phenomenon that germination and growth of fungal propagules is inhibited by active soil microorganisms is typical for most soils and is known as soil fungistasis. Germination of L. fungicola spores requires an external nutrient source. Even though spores of the pathogen can germinate in sterile water, germination and germ tube growth are greatly stimulated by the addition of nutrients.

In order to sporulate under laboratory conditions, Arachniotus ruber is most commonly grown on freezing agar, which is a medium prepared using potatoes, agar, glucose, yeast extract, and activated carbon. As A. ruber grows on this medium, it will initially form white hyphae that will turn orange red and the colonies are pasty with occasional concentric rings of mycelium. The species has been observed to grow at 30 °C and show no further signs of growth at 37 °C.

The mycelium of A. nigricans consisted of hyaline cylindrical hyphae that do not produce conidia and spermatia. Apothecium, the cup-shaped fruit body of A. nigricans, could be alone or gregarious and its small size make this species difficult to be collected frequently from the natural environment. However, the structure of apothecium would be observed clearly when it grows on artificial media. It consists of exposed hymenium which contains several unprotected asci surrounding with abundant unbranched paraphyses.

This 2,400-acre (9.7 km2) site in > eastern Oregon had a contiguous growth of mycelium before logging roads cut > through it. Estimated at 1,665 football fields in size and 2,200 years old, > this one fungus has killed the forest above it several times over, and in so > doing has built deeper soil layers that allow the growth of ever-larger > stands of trees. Mushroom-forming forest fungi are unique in that their > mycelial mats can achieve such massive proportions.

The mycelium, which grows in the host tree, is heterothallic and tetrapolar. Lenzites warnieri has a trimitic trama, meaning a tissue comprising generative hyphae, binding hyphae, and skeletal hyphae. While the generative hyphae are responsible for growth, the hardened skeletal hyphae and the thick-walled binding hyphae maintain the stability of the fruit body and provide its corky consistency. The generative hyphae are thin-walled, hyaline, measure 2–3 µm in diameter and have a clamp connection.

Bintje potatoes The Bintje Potato is derived from a cross between Munstersen and Fransen potato varieties. It was created in the Netherlands and now is mainly cultivated in the North of France and Belgium. The oomycete Phytophthora infestans is responsible for the potato blight, in particular during the European famine in 1840. Zoospores (mobile spores, characteristics of oomycetes) are liberated by zoosporangia provided from a mycelium and brought by rain or wind before infecting tubers and leaves.

The fruit bodies (technically called apothecia) are thick, firm, tough and become almost leathery after drying. Standing erect, the ear-shaped apothecia are several- to many-clustered on a common stalk that arises from a sclerotium, a hardened mass of mycelium buried in the earth. The paraphyses (sterile cells interspersed amongst the asci) are cylindrical, simple or branched. The spore- producing structures, the asci, are cylindrical, and taper to an elongated base that penetrate to underneath the hymenium.

Hyphae are thin-walled and wide, measuring 1.7-2.5 µm in width. Ascoma maturation can be observed in 20-23 days. Acomata are encased in round, dark-brown aerial mycelium measuring 500-1050 µm in diameter. Additionally, the fungus can be isolated using hair-baiting technique and followed by incubation on Sabouraud’s dextrose agar (SDA). Isolation using Sabouraud’s dextrose agar supplemented with (50mg/L) chloramphenicol and cycloheximide (500 mg/L), requires 5-10 day, room temperature incubation.

Conidia are borne in continuous, chain- like structure, but branching at the base has also been observed. Although conidia can be spread by rain, the most common means of spread is through the air. The fungus grows on epidermal leaf wax of plants, particularly those in the Brassicaceae, and prefers an environment with high humidity and temperature range of . Macroscopically, the mycelium exhibits a range of colour: unpigmented when young, to olive-grey, grey-black at maturity.

Infection begins when conidia from nearby infected plants or those carried by the wind enter through the stomata by landing and developing a germ tube or hypha. The conidia germinate optimally in the early morning and with a high relative humidity. The haustoria extend from the hyphae of the mycelium and systemically invade the rest of the plant, draining nutrients. Eventually, from the stomata, hyphae extend out and elongate, branching into sterigmata or conidiophores (spore-bearing structures).

A. fulvescens cannot digest keratin from a distance, as seen in dermatophytes, but rather seems to require direct contact with the keratin-rich substrate. The digestion of keratin by A. fulvescens happens in two stages, the first of which involves the denaturation of keratin. The second stage involves the actual digestion of keratin by A. fulvescens, which then grows into the remaining space. An infected hair is completely replaced by the mycelium of A. fulvescens within 6–8 weeks.

Brodie reported discovering a slender-stemmed "twinned" form, with two fruiting bodies originating from the same stalk. As has been shown in laboratory-grown specimens, the development and form of the fruiting bodies is at least partially dependent on the intensity of light it receives during development. For example, exposure of the heterokaryotic mycelium to light is required for fruiting to occur, and furthermore, this light needs to be at a wavelength of less than 530 nm.Garnett E. (1958).

The fruitbodies of the fungus are small, dull black, and spherical, measuring 114–251 by 114–251 μm, with thick walls (up to 24 μm); They occur singly or in dense groups. Underlying the fruitbodies is a small, thin-walled mat of mycelium. The club-shaped asci (spore-bearing cells) measure 85 by 25 μm. The ascospores are black and spiny, measuring 21–25 by 12–20 μm (with the spines 2–5 μm); they contain a single septum.

Auriscalpium vulgare can be grown in pure culture on agar- containing plates supplemented with nutrients. The colonies that grow are white to pale cream, and cover the agar surface within six weeks from the initial inoculation. The mycelium is made of bent-over hyphae, without any aerial hyphae (hyphae that extend above the surface of the agar). Typically, two indistinct zones develop at about 6 mm and 15 mm from the initial inoculum spot, with each zone roughly 4 mm wide.

The primary plant tissues targeted by C. parasitica are the inner bark, an area containing the conductive tissue, and the cambium, a layer of actively dividing cells that give rise to secondary vascular tissues. In these tissues, the pathogen forms diffuse cankers in which the mycelium overwinters. In the following spring, two types of fruiting bodies will form: pycnidia, usually first, and perithecia. Following rainfall, the pycnidia ooze orange tendrils of conidia, the asexual spores, while perithecia forcibly eject ascospores, the sexual spores.

All members of the class produce basidiocarps which range in size from tiny cups a few millimeters across to a giant polypore (Phellinus ellipsoideus) greater than several meters across and weigh up to . The group also includes what are arguably the largest and oldest individual organisms on earth: the mycelium of one individual Armillaria gallica has been estimated to extend over 150,000 square metres (37 acres) with a mass of 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) and an age of 1,500 years.

Geasteroides texensis has a fruit body that splits open in maturity in a star-like fashion to reveal a spherical inner spore sac (gleba). The ochre to whitish outer layer of skin, the exoperidium, is thick and leathery and often has a thin layer of adhering cobweb-like mycelium and debris that peels away as the fungus matures. The exoperidium splits open into four to seven rays that are curved backward overall, with tips curved inward. Expanded fruit bodies are in diameter.

In the Ascomycota this attribute is most often found in the ascogenous hyphae and ascocarp while the bulk of the mycelium remains monokaryotic. In the Basidiomycota this is the dominant phase, with most Basidiomycota monokaryons weakly growing and short-lived. The formation of a dikaryon is a plesiomorphic character for the subkingdom Dikarya, which consists of the Basidiomycota and the Ascomycota. The formation of croziers in the Ascomycota and of clamp connections in the Basidiomycota facilitates maintenance of the dikaryons.

The life cycle of Streptomyces scabies or common scab in potato starts out as the pathogen overwinters in tubers left behind in the soil. As spring comes around, some of the hyphal like growths from mycelium develop cross walls that break into asexual spores and disperse through wind, rain, or movement of soil. The spores infect developing roots/tubers through natural openings or wounds. Mycelia grow through the external cell layers and allow the pathogen to feed on plant tissue.

In nature, filamentous fungi grow on the ground, decomposing vegetal compounds under naturally ventilated conditions. Therefore, solid state fermentation enables the optimal development of filamentous fungi, allowing the mycelium to spread on the surface of solid compounds among which air can flow. Solid state fermentation uses culture substrates with low water levels (reduced water activity), which is particularly appropriate for mould. The methods used to grow filamentous fungi using solid state fermentation allow the best reproduction of their natural environment.

The fungus overwinters as mycelium and chlamydospores in twig or leaf lesions and continues to produce asexual structures. The fungus primarily infect young plants, therefore inoculum availability declines as fruits mature and the significance of infection during the maturation period is unknown. It takes an incubation period about 45 days and up to 77 days until primary symptoms appear on peach trees. Due to long the long incubation period, secondary cycle of fungus does not have significant effect on further infection.

The stipe is long by thick, and is similar in colour to the cap but paler, and sometimes with a rose-coloured tinge. Its surface has faint longitudinal ridges, a fine powdering, and fine reticulations (a net-like pattern of ridges) at the apex. It often has a whitish region at the base and the top, and white mycelium at the base. Unlike the bulbous stipe of many other boletes, the stipe of B. badius remains relatively slim and cylindrical.

Mycelium have been observed remaining viable for at least 4 years,Luck, J.V. (1954) Studies on the Verticillium wilt of Mentha piperita L. with special emphasis on the causal organism, Verticillium albo-atrum R. &B.; Dissertation Abstracts 14, 916-917. while microsclerotia have been observed in fields planted with non-host crops for over 10 years Wilhelm, S. (1955) Longevity of the Verticillium wilt fungus in the laboratory and field. Phytopathology 455, 180-181. and even 15 years has been reported.

In summer 2018 Laughlin wrote and presented her own show for BBC Four entitled "The Secret Story of Stuff: Materials for the Modern Age", blending "bonhomie, excitement and expertise in perfect proportions". In the programme she performed a number of demonstrations to reveal the wonderous properties of materials, including a test of the thermally insulative equalities of mycelium using a high-powered blow touch and ice-cream . The show was first broadcast in the autumn of 2018 and has subsequently been repeated.

The fruits of P. cyanescens have been shown to contain many different indole alkaloids including psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin. It has also been shown that P. cyanescens mycelium will contain detectable levels of psilocin and psilocybin, but only after the formation of primordia. Indole content has been shown to be higher in North American specimens of P. cyanescens than in European ones. This was, however, caused by the fact that Gartz did not analyze the genuine P. cyanescens but P. serbica.

Some such enzymes include cutinase, proteases, pectin and pectate lyases. One enzyme, endopolygalacturonase, is a highly specialized cell wall-degrading enzyme which is critical for the growth of the mycelium. Endopolygalacturonase is normally produced by fruiting plants and induces ripening of fruit by degrading polygalacturonan present in the cell walls. C. lindemuthianum releases large amounts of this enzyme, which not only weakens the cell wall by removing the polygalacturonan, ng the area available for cell-wall degradation by other enzymes.

Geastrum subiculosum is an inedible species of fungus belonging to the genus Geastrum, or earthstar fungi. The fungus was first described scientifically by Cooke and Massee in 1887 (as Geaster subiculosus; Geaster is an older name for the genus Geastrum), based on material found near Trinity Bay, Australia. The fungus grows on decaying wood, and the fruit bodies are characterized by an extensive velvet-like subiculum (a crust-like growth of mycelium). The spores are roughly spherical and measure 3.6–4.2 μm.

Leaves, twigs and branches may also be damaged by the disease. The spores spread with the help of wind, raindrops and insects, and thrive in shady, humid and wet conditions. An important post- harvest disease affecting mangosteen especially in Thailand is called Diplodia fruit rot (Diplodia theobromae) which, as a secondary pathogen, enters the host plant through wounds. Phellinus noxius living on the roots and trunk bases causes brown root disease, a name derived from the appearance of the mycelium-binding soil particles.

The disease cycle of Verticillium nonalfalfae is similar to that of other members of the genus. V. nonalfalfae overwinters by forming a resting mycelium in the soil. However, unlike V. dahliae, for example, it does not produce microsclerotia. Verticillium nonalfalfae infects in the spring via conidia in the soil; conidia are borne on conidiophores. It has been found that intraspecific grafting enhances V. nonalfalfae’s dispersal of conidia, that is, conidia from diseased roots can be transported to healthy root tissues.

Ergot sclerotia developing on wheat spikes A sclerotium (), plural sclerotia (), is a compact mass of hardened fungal mycelium containing food reserves. One role of sclerotia is to survive environmental extremes. In some higher fungi such as ergot, sclerotia become detached and remain dormant until favorable growth conditions return. Sclerotia initially were mistaken for individual organisms and described as separate species until Louis René Tulasne proved in 1853 that sclerotia are only a stage in the life cycle of some fungi.

A mold colony does not consist of discrete organisms but is an interconnected network of hyphae called a mycelium. All growth occurs at hyphal tips, with cytoplasm and organelles flowing forwards as the hyphae advance over or through new food sources. Nutrients are absorbed at the hyphal tip. In artificial environments such as buildings, humidity and temperature are often stable enough to foster the growth of mold colonies, commonly seen as a downy or furry coating growing on food or other surfaces.

The flesh has a woody or cork-like texture, and a strong, "disagreeable" odor and taste. The spines on the underside of the caps are up to 3 mm long with a color ranging from initially grayish violet blue to wine- blue with brownish tints, to dull grayish-green. The stipe measures long by thick, and tends to root into the ground. Its color is deep bluish-black (with similarly colored flesh within) with a whitish mycelium at the base.

They "mushroom" to full size. Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruiting bodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. For example, Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now critically endangered. Yellow flower pot mushrooms (Leucocoprinus birnbaumii) at various states of development Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive.

They may infect the plant either directly or indirectly depending on the availability of water. A direct infection by the zoospore results in the production of more mycelia, which may develop into sporangia capable of releasing more inoculum or chlamydospores. Chlamydospores serve as survival structures for P. megakarya, in some instances surviving as long as 18 months. An indirect infection results in the formation of encysted spores in the absence of water; mycelium production occurs after germination of these spores.

The mushroom is considered edible, but not highly regarded. An ectomycorrhizal species, S. pungens forms an intimate mutualistic relationship between its underground mycelium and the young roots of the associated host tree. The fungus—limited in distribution to California—fruits almost exclusively with Monterey and bishop pine, two trees with small and scattered natural ranges concentrated in the West Coast of the United States. Several studies have investigated the role of S. pungens in the coastal Californian forest ecosystem it occupies.

One of the advantages about using mycelium based composites is that properties can be altered depending on fabrication process and the use of different fungus. Properties depend on type of fungus used and where they are grown. Additionally, fungi has an ability to degrade the cellulose component of the plant to make composites in a preferable manner. Some important mechanical properties such as compressive strength, morphology, tensile strength, hydrophobicity, and flexural strength can be modified as well for different use of the composite.

In The Grim Grotto, Kit Snicket was mentioned to have helped Captain Widdershins in constructing the Queequg. She also warned Gregor Anwhistle about the use of the Medusoid Mycelium. By the end of the book, she meets the Baudelaires at Briny Beach and takes them away in her taxicab. In The Penultimate Peril, Kit Snicket brings the Baudelaires to Hotel Denouement where she provides them with concierge disguises, mentions that she is pregnant and informs them about Frank and Ernest Denouement.

The hosts of L. warnieri are usually willow (Salix spp.), elm (Ulmus spp.), cottonwood (Populus spp.), alder (Alnus spp.) and other species found in warm, moist sites. The fungus prefers wet areas, like riparian forests and fens. Its mycelium only grows at warm temperatures, with optimal growth at . The fungus is relatively winter-hardy, but it is sensitive to drops of temperature during summer, which likely explains why it is often found only on the sunny side of tree trunks.

The thin yellowish-white gills are up to broad, free from attachment to the stipe, and distantly spaced—there are typically 23–28 gills present. The stipe measures long by 1–1.25 mm thick, and is straight or curved, shiny, and hollow. It is dark brown except for a pink region near the top, and it has a tuft of cotton- like white mycelium at the base. The odor and taste of the mushroom are weakly farinaceous (similar to freshly-ground flour).

Nitrogen transport is an equally important and influential process that often occurs through mycorrhizal associations. Nitrogen is significantly easier to obtain than phosphorus and far more abundant, but mycorrhizal interactions still provide a significant benefit in the allocation of nitrogen. Bioavailable nitrogen as nitrate and ammonium are absorbed from the soil media into the extraradical mycelium of the mycorrhizal fungi and assimilated into amino acids. In some cases amino acids and other nitrogenous organic compounds may be present in the surrounding soil.

Ferroverdin refers to three different coordination compounds that were first isolated in 1955 by Chain, Tonolo, and Carilli. It consists of three p-vinylphenyl-3-nitroso-4-hydroxybenzoate ligands complexed with a ferrous ion. Ferroverdin is a green pigment produced in the mycelium of species of Streptomyces. It is claimed to be the “first stable ferrous compound to be found in nature.” There are three types of ferroverdin: A, B, and C. In ferroverdin A, both R groups are hydrogens.

Cunninghamella echinulata is a member of the family, Cunninghamellaceae (phylum Mucoromycota). This species is closely related to C. elegans, and both species share highly similar characteristics of growth and morphology. Colonies tend to be rapidly growing on most growth media producing a dense, white or greyish aerial mycelium. Cunninghamella echinulata reproduces asexually and solely via yellow-brown, spiny, single-spored sporangioles that, due to the nature of the sporangiospore being retained within the sporangium, appear to have a two- layered outer wall.

The spores can reside on the external seed coat of infected seeds, but the mycelium can also penetrate under the seed coat, where it has the ability to remain viable for several years. Occasionally, it can even penetrate the embryo tissue. The primary mode of transmission is through contaminated seed. Also, the infection is not limited to specific areas of the host plant; it can spread all over and even cause damping off of the seedlings at a relatively early stage.

Colonies of Madurella grisea are slow growing, dark, leathery, and folded with radial grooves and with a light brown to greyish surface mycelium. With age, colonies become dark- to reddish-brown and acquire a brownish-black reverse. Microscopically, cultures are sterile, although hyphae of two widths have been described: thin at 1 to 3 um in width, and broad at 3 to 5 um in width. The optimum temperature of growth for M. grisea is 30C, it does not grow at 37C.

Colonies are white to cinnamon buff (peanut butter colour ) and possess either smooth or rough walls. The mycelium is either smooth-walled or rough-walled, white to olivaceous (the green colour of the mould on blue cheese) or pink. Conidiophores are arise from mycelia immersed in the agar. They are light brown, with a smooth or verrucose(i.e., bumpy) surface and grow to a maximum of 1000 µm long and reach a maximum of 10 µm in width at the base.

Colonies of A. ustus appear dull brown sometimes with a purplish to grey brown or dark brown with a yellow to brown reverse side; colonies are flat to furrowed often with a cental bump. Microscopically, the fungus is characterized by elongated conidial heads with bent Hülle cells scattered throughout the pigmented mycelium. The conidia are rough-walled and spherical, ranging in color from green to yellow-brown. The vesicles range from 7–15 μm in diameter and are hemispherical to almost round.

Conidia have been found to disintegrate both in the air and on impact with an agar plate. Condiophores and conidia grow from hyphae sprouted outside of a trapped dead nematode, and condiophores have been found to change and grow into part of the adhesive net. Under ideal conditions, a colony can reach 65 mm in diameter after 7 days incubation, with colourless, pale pink or yellow mycelium. The optimal growth temperature for the fungus in nematode-free and nematode-infested environments is and , respectively.

T. viride is a mold which produces spores asexually, by mitosis. It is the anamorph of Hypocrea rufa, its teleomorph, which is the sexual reproductive stage of the fungus and produces a typical fungal fruiting body. The mycelium of T. viride can produce a variety of enzymes, including cellulases and chitinases which can degrade cellulose and chitin respectively. The mould can grow directly on wood, which is mostly composed of cellulose, and on fungi, the cell walls of which are mainly composed of chitin.

Volvariella speciosa, that has white basidiocarps, and therefore would use the name Volvariella speciosa var. gloiocephala to refer to this taxon. Boekhout & Enderle showed that white and dark basidiocarps can arise from the same mycelium, and that the epithets "gloiocephalus" proposed by De Candolle in 1815 and "speciosa" proposed by Fries in 1818 should be considered to represent the same species with the former having nomenclatural priority. In 1996 Boekhout and Enderle designated a neotype to serve as a representative example of the species.

The production process chosen was one consisting of liquid fermentation followed by a solid substrate phase. During the liquid phase, the fungus biomass is bulked up in a solution of sugar and yeast and may produce submerged conidia.Jenkins, N.E., Prior, C., 1993, Growth and formation of true conidia by Metarhizium flavoviride in a simple liquid medium, Mycological Research, 97(12), 1489–1494 Subsequently, the resulting broth is used to inoculate partially boiled and sterilised rice. The fungal mycelium invades the rice and then starts to sporulate.

Phoma medicaginis overwinters as mycelium in old stems and fallen leaves, where small pimple- like structures form, called pycnidia, the asexual fruiting body. In spring, many pycnidiospores are released and dispersed by the presence of free water. The small distance dispersal occurs by water splash and dew, while it is spread further distances by wind, insects, infected seed from the host, and human activities. Spores germinate about 24 hours after their deposition on susceptible alfalfa leaves if the proper environmental cues are present, a cool, wet environment.

Mycelial cord made up of a collection of hyphae; an essential part in the process of saprotrophic nutrition, it is used for the intake of organic matter through its cell wall. The network of hyphae is referred to as a mycelium, which is fundamental to fungal nutrition. Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi (for example Mucor) and soil bacteria.

Others have more complex organization, for example the central hyphae may be larger in diameter than other hyphae, or the hyphae may grow continuously at the tip, penetrating into new areas in a way that superficially resembles meristematic activity. This part of the ectomycorrhiza, which is called the extraradical or extramatrical mycelium, functions largely as a transport structure. They often spread considerable distances, maintaining a large contact area with the soil. Some studies have shown a relationship between nutrient transport rates and the degree of rhizomorph organization.

Apothecia grow on bark-free wood, especially oak, part of which at least is stained greenish by the mycelium. The abundant paraphyses, which may be entwined, are 55–95 by 1.5–2 µm, filiform, and septate with an unswollen, unbent apex that often extends beyond the level of the asci tips. The species is distinguished from the closely related C. aeruginosum by having smaller spores. Although some authors have in the past failed to recognize any appreciable differences between the two species,Dennis RWG. (1956).

The gills are attached to slightly decurrent, crowded, seldom forked, whitish to pale yellow with pinkish tinges, slowly staining brownish ochraceous when bruised. The stem is long, thick, nearly equal or tapered downward, silky, becoming hollow with age, whitish when young, becoming ochraceous from the base up when older, apex usually tinged pinkish, often with a white basal mycelium. The flesh is firm, white; odor faintly like geraniums or sometimes pungent, taste acrid. The latex is white upon exposure, unchanging, not staining tissues, taste acrid.

At room temperature (25–30 °C), colonies of B. ranarum show very rapid growth and are able to reach a diameter of 75–80 mm in a week on suitable growth media. The favored carbohydrate source of this fungus is glucose that can stimulate the growth of its mycelium. Generally, asexual reproduction is favored by glucose and sexual reproduction is favored by acid amines. Primary asexual spores are singly formed on the apices of unbranched hyphae and will then be discharged to form ballistic spores.

Tylopilus plumbeoviolaceus (formerly Boletus plumbeoviolaceus), commonly known as the violet-grey bolete, is a fungus of the bolete family. First described in 1936, the mushroom has a disjunct distribution, and is distributed in eastern North America and Korea. The fruit bodies of the fungus are violet when young, but fade into a chocolate brown color when mature. They are solid and relatively large—cap diameter up to , with a white pore surface that later turns pink, and a white mycelium at the base of the stem.

Erinacine A, isolated from the cultured mycelia of Hericium erinaceum, the main representative of this compounds group, has an enhancing effect on nerve growth factor synthesis in vitro. It also increases catecholamine in the central nervous system of rats. Hericenones and erinacines were isolated from the fruiting body and mycelium of H. erinaceus, respectively, and most of the compounds promote NGF biosynthesis in rodent cultured astrocytes. Among its active compounds, only erinacine A has confirmed pharmacological actions in the central nervous system in rats.

As other Polypores, basidiospores are produced on the underside of the conks and are spread by wind. These wind-blown spores are the initial inoculums of the red ring rot. Once they land on a suitable small wound or twig stub, the spores may germinate and the mycelia grow into the inner wood and cause infection. P. pini produces only one type of spores, basidiospores, which is also a type of sexual spores and the fungus overwinters as mycelium in diseased trees or dead trees.

Typically, basidiospores infect host one, also known as the alternate or sexual host, and the mycelium forms pycnidia, which are miniature, flask-shaped, hollow, submicroscopic bodies embedded in the host tissue (such as a leaf). This stage, numbered "0", produces single-celled spores that ooze out in a sweet liquid and that act as nonmotile spermatia, and also protruding receptive hyphae. Insects and probably other vectors such as rain carry the spermatia from spermagonium to spermagonium, cross inoculating the mating types. Neither thallus is male or female.

Although it is infrequently observed, the fungus is more abundant than fruit body appearance indicates. Using genetic markers to detect the fungus mycelium in hosts, researchers found that B. nobilissimus was present at low to moderate levels and widespread in forest stands containing at least a single visible fruit body. It was detected in trees of all sizes, and in species not previously thought to harbor the fungus. B. nobilissimus may require decades of mycelial growth in its host before fruit body production is initiated.

Their diameter and height are usually about 1 to 2 mm. In general, hyphae are spread on the surface of a host fruit body and buried in the mycelium to form a large number of fruiting bodies. These can be yellow, white, olive, tan, pink or red, and present within the host or in the hypha mat. Within the individual Ascomycete fungi, spore sacs known as asci are formed. Asci have an elongated cylindrical shape, and has a dome-shaped structure called a “cap” at the tip.

P. gregata does not produce survival structures, but has the ability to overwinter as mycelium in decaying soybean residue. Two strains of the fungus exist;Grau, C. "Brown Stemrot of Soybeans." genotype A causes both foliar and stem symptoms, while genotype B causes only stem symptoms. Common leaf symptoms are browning, chlorosis, and necrosis Foliar symptoms which are often seen with genotype A are chlorosis, defoliation, and wilting. Brown Stem Rot of soybeans is a common fungal disease in soybeans grown in the upper Midwest and Canada.

The main mechanisms of its pathogenesis are xylem vessel blockage and toxin production. When the fungus propagates within a host plant, the mycelium blocks the xylem vessels, impairing the transport of water and nutrients in the host. The forces of transpiration and respiration in leaves combined with blocked xylem transport cause water imbalances in leaves that result in leaf yellowing and wilting, contributing to plant death. In addition, Verticillium produces mycotoxins within the plant that can cause necrosis in leaves and impair metabolism in the plant body.

Hyphae of Penicillium Fungal Hyphae Cells 1- Hyphal wall 2- Septum 3- Mitochondrion 4- Vacuole 5- Ergosterol crystal 6- Ribosome 7- Nucleus 8- Endoplasmic reticulum 9- Lipid body 10- Plasma membrane 11- Spitzenkörper 12- Golgi apparatus Hyphae growing on tomato sauce. Aspergillus niger Conidia on conidiophores A hypha (plural hyphae, from Greek ὑφή, huphḗ, "web") is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium.

These gills produce microscopic spores that help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface. Forms deviating from the standard morphology usually have more specific names, such as "bolete", "puffball", "stinkhorn", and "morel", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "agarics" in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or their order Agaricales. By extension, the term "mushroom" can also refer to either the entire fungus when in culture, the thallus (called a mycelium) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms, or the species itself.

Post-copulatory mechanisms may also be present within fungi through polyandry in which zygote-level sexual selection might occur. Within multicellular ascomycete fungi, a haploid mycelium produces a fruiting body which in turn produces many offspring that are also haploid. Each fruiting body has the potential to be fertilized by more than one male gamete. Laboratory experiments have shown that multiple matings are possible and the female has the ability to selectively abort fruiting bodies that have been inappropriately fertilized by a closely related yet incompatible species.

The characteristic spiny capillitia The fruit body usually grows to a diameter of , although extremes of and have been reported. Its shape ranges from roughly spherical, to obovate (egg- shaped) or pyriform (pear-shaped), sometimes plicate (crumpled, wrinkled) around a somewhat fibrous, persistent tuft of mycelium. The puffball is initially covered by a thick, felted, whitish layer (the exoperidium). This is continuous at first but eventually cracks and peels away in thin flakes, exposing a leathery to corky, nearly smooth, light brown to dark pinkish-brown surface.

Albatrellopsis confluens has caps that are pinkish-buff to pale orange, and white flesh that dries to a pinkish-buff; it has a taste that is bitter, or like cabbage. The spores of A. confluens are weakly amyloid. Additional differences distinguishing Albatrellopsis confluens from A. subrubescens include the presence of clamp connections in the context hyphae, and mycelium on the base of the stem. The European fungus A. citrinus, originally considered a morphotype of A. subrubescens, was described as a new species in 2003.

The fungus remains completely intercellular, growing between the cells of the aboveground parts of its grass host. The fungus is asexual, and is transmitted to new generations of tall fescue only through seed, a mode known as vertical transmission. Thus in nature, the fungus does not live outside the plant. Viability of the fungus in seeds is limited; typically, after a year or two of seed storage the fungal endophyte mycelium has died, and seeds germinated will result in plants that are endophyte-free.

Species are mainly parasitic on wood-rotting fungi in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, particularly on species that occur on dead attached branches. Hosts include members of the corticioid fungi, polypores, and Dacrymycetales in the Basidiomycota and species of Diaporthe, other Sordariomycetes, and lichens in the Ascomycota. Some Tremella species parasitize the fruit bodies of their hosts (sometimes incorporating host hyphae), others parasitize the mycelium within the wood. As a group, Tremella species occur worldwide, though individual species may have a more restricted distribution.

Penicillium verrucosum is found to be slow-growing: it achieves between 15 mm and 25 mm of growth in diameter on both Czapek Yeast Agar (CYA) and Malt Extract Agar (MEA) after seven days. P. verrucosum has a white mycelium and greyish-green to dull green conidia on the aforementioned media. The reverse is coloured yellow brown to deep brown on CYA and dull brown to olive on MEA. Other varieties of P. verrucosum can have differently coloured conidia, including the colours dark green and blue-green.

The fungus mycelium has also been found growing on fire wounds on living trees of Engelmann spruce and Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), where it attacks the springwood and causes small pockets of rot. A snowbank mushroom, L. montanus fruits near melting snow banks, typically in the spring and early summer (May to July). The species occurs in northern and central Rocky Mountains east to the Cascade Range and south to Utah. Other states in which it has been recorded include Washington, Idaho, Montana, Colorado, Wyoming, and California.

Philippine downy mildew has been most studied on maize for its economic significance, but it shares similar symptoms with other hosts. A characteristic chlorosis, which develops from the loss of chlorophyll, and the downiness that gives the genus its popular name, are the two most common symptoms. The species also cause the growth of new leaves to be narrow and rigid, a stunting of shoots and roots, decreased production of pollen, and sterile and malformed ears. Mycelium extends throughout the entire plant except for the roots.

Pythium may survive in the soil for extended periods of time, often coming from debris from past infected plants or spores living in the soil. Pythium spreads by the movement and growth of mycelium and spores from plant to plant. Pythium thrives in hot and humid weather typically day temperatures of 80°F to 95°F in areas that have little air movement but high moisture content. In lower temperatures of 55°F to 65°F and extended periods of wet weather Pythium is still prevalent.

In P. teres f. teres, seed-borne mycelium can also act as the primary inoculum; however, this is much less common than is the infection from pathogenic pseudothecia overwintered in barley stubble. In the same vein, volunteer barley plants and those closely related to barley, such as barley grass, wheat, and oat, can be infected through mycelia or conidia and become an inoculum source: the extent to which this affects the spread of the disease is unknown. Plant debris, however, remains the primary source by which barley is infected.

The zones appear somewhat lighter in color because the hyphae are more closely packed and form crystalline substances that deposit into the agar. The mature mycelium consists of thin- walled, densely packed hyphae that are 1.5–3.2 µm in diameter. They are often gnarled or somewhat spiral (subhelicoid), and frequently branched at an angle of about 45°, with a clamp at the base of the branch. They contain amorphous granules that appear refractive when viewed under phase contrast microscopy, and their walls are often encrusted with tiny granules.

The production of the copper carbonate is produced in the presence of proteins made and secreted by the fungi. These fungal proteins that are found extracellularly aid in the size and morphology of the carbonate minerals precipitated by the fungi. In addition to precipitating carbonate minerals, fungi can also precipitate uranium- containing phosphate biominerals in the presence of organic phosphorus that acts a substrate for the process. The fungi produce a hyphal matrix, also known as mycelium, that localizes and accumulates the uranium minerals that have been precipitated.

They are broad (between 3 and 6 mm), and have a close to subdistant spacing, with about 26–35 gills reaching the stem. The fragile stem is long by thick and yellow to yellow-brown, becoming reddish-brown to orange-brown in the bottom half in maturity. The lower portion of young stems is covered with white flecks. Roughly equal in thickness at the top and bottom, the base of the stem is covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem.

Mycena inclinata is a saprobic fungus, deriving its nutrients from decomposing organic matter found in plant litter such as leaves, twigs, bark and branches. It accomplishes this by producing enzymes capable of breaking down the three major biochemical components of plant cell walls found in litter: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The fruit bodies of Mycena inclinata grow in dense groups or clusters on decaying hardwood logs and stumps (especially oak and chestnut) during the spring and autumn. The fungus forms a white, woolly mycelium on the surface of decomposing oak leaves.

The balls float on the surface of the water above submerged twigs. Experimental observations on the development of the fruit body, based on the growth on the fungus in pure culture, suggest that a thin strand of mycelium tethers the ball above water while it matures. Fruit bodies start out as a tuft of hyphae, then become cup-shaped, and eventually enclose around a single chamber that contains reddish spores. Initially discovered in a marsh in the state of Washington, the fungus has since been collected in Japan, South Africa, and Canada.

In 2013, Scott Redhead made it the type species of Protostropharia, a new genus circumscribed to contain Stropharia species characterized by the formation of astrocystidia rather than acanthocytes on their mycelium. A form sterilis and two varieties, minor and radicata, described by F.H. Møller in 1945, are no longer considered to have independent taxonomic significance. The specific epithet semiglobata is Latin for "half-spherical", and refers to the shape of the cap. It is commonly known as the halfglobe mushroom, the hemispheric stropharia, the round stropharia, or the dung roundhead.

An ergot kernel, called a sclerotium, develops when a spore of fungal species of the genus Claviceps infects a floret of flowering grass or cereal. The infection process mimics a pollen grain growing into an ovary during fertilization. Infection requires that the fungal spore have access to the stigma; consequently, plants infected by Claviceps are mainly outcrossing species with open flowers, such as rye (Secale cereale) and ryegrasses (genus Lolium). The proliferating fungal mycelium then destroys the plant ovary and connects with the vascular bundle originally intended for seed nutrition.

As a part of asexual fungi group Fungi imperfecti, Cladosporium carpophilum does not produce sexual spores but produce conidia, mycelium, and chlamydospsores for its dispersal and survival structures. Conidia produced during spring and summer are the major source for primary inoculum. Another possible source for primary inoculum could be infected leaves fallen on the ground however the importance of this mechanism is unknown. Conidia produced under the favorable conditions are spread from primary source by wind or rain to infect developing young susceptible twigs, fruits, or leaves of peach plant.

The bulk of Aureoboletus mirabilis is typically hidden from sight, existing as masses of almost invisible fungal threads called mycelium, which form the active feeding and growing structures of the fungus. The mushrooms, or fruit bodies are created solely for the production of spores by which the fungus reproduces itself. The caps of the fruit bodies are up to in diameter, red or brownish-red in color, initially convex but flattening out as they develop. The cap is fleshy, with a rough surface that is slippery or slimy in young specimens, or in moist environments.

The mushrooms originate as minute fruit bodies (called "pins" due to their shape) from a yellow mycelium that forms a mat and tends to engulf pine needles. The pins, typically 1–2 mm in diameter, lengthen vertically until they are roughly three or four times longer than they are thick. Until this point, the fruit body is a homogenous mass of tissue. It differentiates simultaneously into cap and stem along a cleavage plane (an axis along which any cell division occurs) from the outside inward, which gives rise to deep furrow encircling the fruit body.

It also a common cause of timber rotting in buildings, which has made this pathogen difficult to differentiate from S. lacrymans because of their similarities. This disease often goes unnoticed initially due to a lack of any above ground symptoms of disease. Signs of the pathogen include basidiospores, and fungal masses that are generally dark brown and membranous in the center but become thin white mycelium towards edges of the mass. The brown cubical rot caused by S. himantioides resembles the rots of Phaeolus schweinitzii and S. lacrymans.

Fruit bodies grow on the ground, scattered or grouped together. They are a component of the diet of the red squirrel, and serve as breeding sites for some fungus-feeding flies in the Drosophilidae and Mycetophilidae families. Lactarius torminosus mushrooms may be parasitized by the mold Hypomyces lithuanicus, which produces a cream-ochre to cinnamon- colored granular or velvety growth of mycelium on the surfaces of the gills and causes them to be deformed. The species is found in northern temperate and boreal climates, penetrating sometimes into subarctic regions.

The mycorrhizosphere is the region around a mycorrhizal fungus in which nutrients released from the fungus increase the microbial population and its activities. The roots of most terrestrial plants, including most crop plants and almost all woody plants, are colonized by mycorrhiza-forming symbiotic fungi. In this relationship, the plant roots are infected by a fungus, but the rest of the fungal mycelium continues to grow through the soil, digesting and absorbing nutrients and water and sharing these with its plant host. The fungus in turn benefits by receiving photosynthetic sugars from its host.

Soil fumigation can also be used, with chloropicrin being particularly effective in reducing disease incidence in contaminated fields. In tomato plants, the presence of ethylene during the initial stages of infection inhibits disease development, while in later stages of disease development the same hormone will cause greater wilt. Tomato plants are available that have been engineered with resistant genes that will tolerate the fungus while showing significantly lower signs of wilting. Verticillium albo-altrum, Verticilium dahliae and V. longisporum can overwinter as melanized mycelium or microsclerotia within live vegetation or plant debris.

Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis, showing root tips with fungal mycelium from the genus Amanita An ectomycorrhiza (from Greek ἐκτός ', "outside", μύκης ', "fungus", and ῥίζα ', "root"; pl. ectomycorrhizas or ectomycorrhizae, abbreviated EcM) is a form of symbiotic relationship that occurs between a fungal symbiont, or mycobiont, and the roots of various plant species. The mycobiont is often from the phyla Basidiomycota and Ascomycota, and more rarely from the Zygomycota. Ectomycorrhizas form on the roots of around 2% of plant species, usually woody plants, including species from the birch, dipterocarp, myrtle, beech, willow, pine and rose families.

Stipe central, covered with squamules but apical part glabrous, upper half ribbed by the subdecurrent lines of the hymenophore or confined to apex; basal mycelium whitish. Context pallid to light yellowish, usually unchanging in color when cut but turning pale reddish to pale reddish purple in some areas over the course of 1–2 h. Basidiospores purple to purplish red in H2O, purplish violet in 5% KOH, boletoid to somewhat amygdaliform, slightly thick-walled; minutely verrucose under light microscope but with regular to irregular shallow pits under SEM. Cheilocystidia and pleurocystidia lageniform, thick-walled.

However, a 2001 study by Czederpiltz, Volk and Burdsall showed that the Entoloma was in fact the microparasite. The whitish-grey malformed fruit bodies known as carpophoroids were the result of E. abortivum hyphae penetrating the Armillaria and disrupting its normal development. The main part of the fungus is underground where a mat of mycelial threads may extend for great distances. The rhizomorphs of A. mellea are initiated from mycelium into multicellular apices of rhizomorphs, which are multicellular vegetative organs that exclude soil from the interior of the rhizomorph tissues.

A clonal colony of Iris germanica-note the rhizomatous stems by which the plant reproduces. A clonal colony or genet is a group of genetically identical individuals, such as plants, fungi, or bacteria, that have grown in a given location, all originating vegetatively, not sexually, from a single ancestor. In plants, an individual in such a population is referred to as a ramet. In fungi, "individuals" typically refers to the visible fruiting bodies or mushrooms that develop from a common mycelium which, although spread over a large area, is otherwise hidden in the soil.

The mycelium grows intracellularly and haustoria penetrate through the host cells when the temperature is around 60 degrees F. After about 1–2 weeks when the temperature is between 60-64 degrees F, conidiophores (the asexual stage) will form out of the plant stomata bearing conidia. Sporulation occurs at night. The conidia disseminate in high humidity mornings when it’s about 50-60 degrees. Meanwhile during the sexual stage, the antheridia (the male sex organ) fertilizes the oogonium (the female sex organ) with a fertilization tube and an oospore is developed.

Recognition of compatible sexual partners in zygomycota is based on a cooperative biosynthesis pathway of trisporic acid. Early trisporoid derivatives and trisporic acid induce swelling of two potential hyphae, hence called zygophores, and a chemical gradient of these inducer molecules results in a growth towards each other. These progametangia come in contact with each other and build a strong connection. In the next stage, septae are established to limit the developing zygospore from the vegetative mycelium and in this way the zygophores become suspensor hyphae and gametangia are formed.

MycoBond is a low-energy material that is heat resistant and fire resistant and is biodegradable. Mycobond was discovered and developed by two Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute graduate students and National Science Foundation (NSF) assisted them in doing so. MycoBond is created by using the natural growth process of the vegetative structure of a fungus called mycelium. MycoBond is produced from crop waste such as seed husks (examples cited are oat, rice or buckweed husks, or cottonseed hulls), or woody biomass, that has been inoculated with a fungus (specifically mushroom).

Stagnicola is an agaric fungal genus that contains the single species Stagnicola perplexa. This fungus colonizes plant debris in wet coniferous forest floor depressions and shallow pools, and fruits after the pools drain or dry in late summer to early fall in North America (Canada, USA) and Europe. The genus is characterized by smooth, yellowish brown basidiospores lacking a germ pore, and a naucorioid appearance, with brownish mycelium at the base of the stems. Phylogenetically, Stagnicola appeared rather isolated and proved to be closest to Mythicomyces and Mythicomyces was closest to the Psathyrellaceae.

Cortinarius paleaceus (Weinm.) Fr. and Cortinarius paleiferus Svrek (sometimes written C. paleiferCourtecuisse, R. & Duhem, B. (1994) "Guide des champignons de France et d'Europe" Delachaux et Niestlé , also available in English.) have commonly been identified in Europe as separate species.See also the entry in Index Fungorum for the current name and synonyms. C. paleiferus is defined as having more widely spaced gills, and has a pale violet mycelium at the base of the stipe. Now these types are combined into one species and considered to be only varieties of C. flexipes.

Van Tieghem's father was a textile merchant who died of yellow fever in Martinique before he was born, and his mother shortly thereafter. One of five children, he obtained his baccalauréat in 1856, and continued his studies at the École Normale Supérieure, where after receiving agrégation, he worked in the laboratory of Louis Pasteur (1822–1895). Here he performed research involving the cultivation of mushrooms. He is credited with creation of the eponymous "Van Tieghem cell", a device mounted on a microscope slide that allows for observing the development of a fungus' mycelium.

A fairy ring (possibly Chlorophyllum molybdites) on a suburban lawn in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia A fairy ring, also known as fairy circle, elf circle, elf ring or pixie ring, is a naturally occurring ring or arc of mushrooms. They are found mainly in forested areas, but also appear in grasslands or rangelands. Fairy rings are detectable by sporocarps (fungal spore pods) in rings or arcs, as well as by a necrotic zone (dead grass), or a ring of dark green grass. Fungus mycelium is present in the ring or arc underneath.

An environmental isolate of Penicillium Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastomosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae.

This intracellular mycelium can be found invaded in parts of the flowering development of the corn, and S. reilianum can completely decrease floral tissue due to an ability to detect floral induction. S. reilianum is biotrophic in that it depends on the maize or sorghum for growth and survival. The inflorescence of the male or female parts of the plants, female being the ear and the male being the tassel can be affected by the timing of infection by this species. Necrosis and disease development is most prevalent on the head of the infected host.

Annales de Phytopathologie 7(4), 355-356Giovannetti, G., A. Fontana (1982). Mycorrhizal synthesis between Cistaceae and Tuberaceae. New Phytologist 92, 533-537 In this relationship, the fungus complements the root system in its task of absorbing water and minerals from the soil, and thus allows the host plant to dwell on particularly poor soils. In addition, an interesting quality of T. melanosporum is its ability to kill all vegetation except the host plant within the reach of its mycelium, and thus to give its host some sort of "exclusiveness" for the adjacent land area.

The stem is tall, and slender, with a diameter of . It is white, smooth (glabrous), solid (that is, not hollow internally), and has an abruptly bulbous base with the shape of a flattened sphere; it may develop longitudinal splits on the sides. The base is often attached to a copious white mycelium—a visual reminder that the bulk of the organism lies unseen below the surface. The ring is membranous, and persistent—not weathering away with time; the ring may be attached to the stem with white fibers.

Several Ascomycota species are not known to have a sexual cycle. Such asexual species may be able to undergo genetic recombination between individuals by processes involving heterokaryosis and parasexual events. Parasexuality refers to the process of heterokaryosis, caused by merging of two hyphae belonging to different individuals, by a process called anastomosis, followed by a series of events resulting in genetically different cell nuclei in the mycelium. The merging of nuclei is not followed by meiotic events, such as gamete formation and results in an increased number of chromosomes per nuclei.

The conidia are 8.5–12 by 4–5 µm, peanut-shaped, non-amyloid (not changing color when stained with Melzer's reagent), clamped, and produced by fragmentation of the coarse mycelium. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae. Asexual spores are 10.0–15.5 by 3–4 µm, ellipsoid to oblong, non-amyloid, and contain granular contents. The grayish color of the fruit bodies is caused by encrusted pigments (crystalline aggregates of pigment molecules, possibly melanin) that occur throughout the tissue of the stem and cap, including the gills; these pigments are absent in Collybia species.

The group was formerly included in the genus Clitocybe, but in 2003 was erected to genus level to accommodate species for which mycelium cannot reduce nitrate and basidiospores do not adhere in tetrads, but exhibit a lacrymoid (tear-shaped) morphology, a confluent base and a cyanophobic basidiospore wall. The genus contains 19 widespread species according to the Index Fungorum and one new species I. rufa, only known from high altitude localities in southwestern China, described in 2016. The type species of the genus, as defined by the author Harmaja, is I. gibba.

Like many other mushrooms, L. indigo develops from a nodule, that forms within the underground mycelium, a mass of threadlike fungal cells called hyphae that make up the bulk of the organism. Under appropriate environmental conditions of temperature, humidity, and nutrient availability, the visible reproductive structures (fruit bodies) are formed. The cap of the fruit body, measuring between in diameter, is initially convex and later develops a central depression; in age it becomes even more deeply depressed, becoming somewhat funnel-shaped as the edge of the cap lifts upward.Hesler and Smith (1979), p. 27.

It is also found in Australia and New Zealand, South Africa, and South America. Because of its rarity, it has been placed on the Regional Red Lists of several European countries, including Montenegro, Denmark, Norway, and Poland. Like most earthstars, G. quadrifidum is a saprobic fungus, and spends most of its life cycle as thin strands of mycelium, deriving nutrients by decomposing leaf litter and similar detritus, converting it to humus and mineralizing organic matter in the soil. The fungal fruit bodies are generally found in coniferous woodland, where they appear in summer and autumn.

Pythium dissotocum is a polycyclic oomycete root rot capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. In its mid-season asexual phase, P. dissotocum disperses by forming a filamentous sporangia, which produce vesicles housing 10-75 motile zoospores. Vesicles open, releasing zoospores which contact host roots, encyst, and produce a germ tube which infects the host root, and begins formation of mycelium. In sexual reproduction, if multiple mating types are present, hyphal antheridium can contact each other and undergo plasmogamy, merging their membranes near the end of growing season.

Sunny also picks up some food to prepare a meal for them all, including a tin of wasabi sauce. A few hours later the Medusoid Mycelium wanes and they return to the submarine. Once they get to the submarine, they discover that Widdershins and Phil have vanished from the submarine, and that a spore of the mushroom has infiltrated Sunny's helmet while in the grotto. Fiona stops Klaus from opening the helmet, insisting that Sunny must remain isolated in the helmet for all their safety until she can find an antidote.

This species' mycelium is densely produced from all of its orifices and sutures; it is initially a silky white, becoming a ginger colour. Its stromata is single, produced from a dorsal pronotum measuring between and in length, which is cylindrical, dark brown at its base, and pinkish in the fertile upper part. The ascomata are immersed and flask-shaped, measuring up to , including a short ostiole. Its asci are 8-spored, hyaline and cylindrical, while the ascospores are multiserriate and vermiform; its apex is acute, with a rounded base.

If the sporangia germinate through the development of a vegetative germ tube, the germ tube will then develop into a mycelium and go on to produce many sporangia and sporangiospores. If the fungus germinates through the formation of secondary spores, these secondary spores will usually be slightly smaller than the parent spores. The secondary spores may also go on to produce many smaller microspores. In young cultures, the C. coronatus spores have a smooth appearance, however as they mature, the spores gradually become covered with short hair like projections called villi.

As in all mushroom-producing fungi, the fruit bodies (sporocarps) are the reproductive structures that are produced from fungal mycelium when the appropriate environmental conditions of temperature, humidity and nutrient availability are met. Hydnellum peckii is a stipitate hydnoid fungus, meaning that it has a cap atop a stipe (stem), and a form resembling a Hydnum—characterized by a teeth-like hymenium, rather than gills or pores on the underside of the cap. Fruit bodies growing closely together often appear to fuse together (this is called "confluence"). They can reach a height of up to .

The life cycle starts with the fungus overwintering as sclerotia on plants debris, in seeds and in soils as a saprophyte. Conidia also play an important role as a survival structure, once they are resistant to drying, and might survive up to one year in the absence of a susceptible host. When condition are favorable the sclerotia produce new conidia, which act as primary inoculum to infect plants. The conidia produce mycelium that infects the plant through stomata when humidity is 85% or higher and produce conidiophores on the abaxial leaf surface of infected leaves.

Frequently both mycelium and yeast-like cells are present. The genome of A. namibiae (as well as other closely related species) contains unusually high numbers of genes for extracellular enzymes for carbohydrate degradation (CAZy) and proteases, MFS membrane sugar transporters, and alkali metal cation transporters (or ion transporters). Genes presumably involved in the synthesis of the biotechnologically important polysaccharide pullulan and siderophores were found, but the gene for antibiotic Aureobasidin A could not be identified. Genes possibly associated with the degradation of plastic and aromatic compounds are also present.

Once infected, the production of hyphae and mycelium continue to spread the infection, creating sporangia as a secondary cycle. The resources gathered are a result of the symbiotic relationship with Burkholderia species, allowing for rhizoxin production to kill plant cells. A sexual stage is present, in the same fashion as most zygomycetes, with fused hyphae of alternate mating types producing a zygospore. There is an upcoming theory that suggests that a portion of the R. microsporus reproductive cycle is replaced when put in symbiosis with the rhizoxin producing bacteria.

Later on, Kit is among those who are poisoned by the Medusoid Mycelium and refuses the hybrid horseradish apple that counters it due to the side effects it has on unborn children. As Kit goes into labour, Count Olaf performs his only act of kindness by carrying her to a place to give birth as he helps to deliver her child. After Kit dies giving birth, Count Olaf dies from his injuries. Both of them are buried next to each other as the Baudelaires take Beatrice Baudelaire II into their custody.

If so organic nitrogen uptake also takes place through amino acid permeases and peptide transporters. Once incorporated into the fungi as amino acids, there are a few different proposed mechanisms with which the nitrogen is transferred to the host plant. These pathways of nitrogen transfer are thought to be exclusively biotrophic, a significant amount of nitrogen may also be transferred necrotorphically but through a significantly different process. In the first pathway the amino acids are transferred to the extraradical mycelium where the amino acids are broken down by the catabolic stage of the urea cycle.

Powdery mildew is a polycyclic disease (one which produces a secondary inoculum) that initially infects the leaf surface with primary inoculum, which is conidia from mycelium, or secondary inoculum, which is an overwintering structure called a chasmothecium. When the disease begins to develop, it looks like a white powdery substance. The primary inoculum process begins with an ascogonium (female) and antheridium (male) joining to produce an offspring. This offspring, a young chasmothecium, is used to infect the host immediately or overwinter on the host to infect when the timing is right (typically in spring).

Development of the cone like structure (view above, slice below) The Neighbour-Sensing mathematical model of hyphal growth is a set of interactive computer models that simulate the way fungi hyphae grow in three-dimensional space. The three-dimensional simulation is an experimental tool which can be used to study the morphogenesis of fungal hyphal networks. The modelling process starts from the proposition that each hypha in the fungal mycelium generates a certain abstract field that (like known physical fields) decreases with increasing distance. Both scalar and vector fields are included in the models.

Tortotubus is an early (Ordovician to Devonian) terrestrial fungus. Its growth trajectory can be ascertained from its fossils, which occur across the globe from the Ordovician to the Devonian. These fossils document foraging activities of slender, cell-wide exploratory hyphae; when these hit a source of food, they produced secondary branches that grew back down the original filament, covered themselves with an envelope, and served as pipes to shuttle nutrients to other parts of the organism. Today, mycelium with this growth pattern is observed in the mushroom-forming fungi.

This species has a number of synonyms, due to different names and categories being applied when it was first being described. Tsiklinskaya originally isolated and described the species, but failed to indicate the size of aleuriospores and didn't include drawings. Photographs of mycelium and spores were inconclusive because they didn't give a true picture of the size or structure due to failure in indicating the magnification. Due to this uncertainty, both Griffon and Maublanc (1911) and Velich (1914) placed it in the genus Sepedonium when they isolated and described it.

M. polycephala was the first species described in the genus Mortierella of the phylum Zygomycota. It has been observed on feces of bats and rodents, such as mice and rats, and it was first described by Coemans on the Bulletin de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de Belgique in 1863. Coemans isolated it from wood rot polypore fungi in the genera Daedalea and Polyporus, however he did not study the mycelium or the chlamydospores. The study of the previous characteristics was done by Van Tieghem who described the sporangia, chlamydospores and stylospores.

Frequently both mycelium and yeast-like cells are present. The genome of A. subglaciale (as well as other closely related species) contains unusually high numbers of genes for extracellular enzymes for carbohydrate degradation (CAZy) and proteases, MFS membrane sugar transporters, and alkali metal cation transporters (or ion transporters). Genes presumably involved in the synthesis of the biotechnologically important polysaccharide pullulan and siderophores were found, but the gene for antibiotic Aureobasidin A could not be identified. Genes possibly associated with the degradation of plastic and aromatic compounds are also present.

The germ tubes either penetrate through the leaf or enter through a natural opening such as the stomata. The parenchymatous leaf tissue is invaded by the mycelium of the fungus; cells of the leaf tissue subsequently begin to turn brown and collapse. These lesions give rise to conidiophores which, upon favorable conditions, can either further infect the original host plant (kernels, husks, stalks, leaves) or release conidia to infect other nearby plants. The term 'favorable conditions' implies that water is present on the leaf surface and temperature of the environment is between 60 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit.

Its conidiogenous hyphae are hyaline, measuring approximately 1.5–2.0μm wide, often found in fascicles in aerial mycelium. These are reduced to a single denticle that is 1.0–3.0μm long and 1.5–3.5μm wide. Conidia are two-celled, either solitary or distributed side by side in clusters. Its terminal cell is 4.0–5.5 by 4.0–5.0μm, being globose to subglobose, transitioning to a pale brown to dark brown colour; its conidial walls are slightly thick, smooth or verrucose, with warts measuring 0.75 to 1.5μm, incrusted with a brown-coloured slime that is 1–2μm thick around the apex.

Mycena inclinata, commonly known as the clustered bonnet or the oak-stump bonnet cap, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap up to in diameter. The thin stem is up to tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print is white.

The mycelium with uredinia looks yellow-orange and powdery, and appears on the underside of leaves as points ~0.1 mm in diameter. Young lesions appear as chlorotic or pale yellow spots some millimetres in diameter, the older being a few centimetres in diameter. Hyphae are club-shaped with tips bearing numerous pedicels on which clusters of urediniospores are produced. Telia are pale yellowish, teliospores often produced in uredinia; teliospores more or less spherical to limoniform, 26–40 × 20–30 µm in diameter, wall hyaline to yellowish, smooth, 1 µm thick, thicker at the apex, pedicel hyaline.

Altovis is a herbal supplement. Its main active ingredients are caffeine and ginseng. Altovis is produced and sold by Berkeley Premium Nutraceuticals (best known for Enzyte), initially via subsidiary Wagner Nutraceuticals. When originally introduced, the active ingredients in Altovis were green tea leaf extract (provides caffeine), cordyceps extract (mycelium), Eleutherococcus (Siberian ginseng), vinpocetine (from vocanga tree seeds), and octacosanol. It also contains the following other ingredients: Dicalcium phosphate, microcrystalline cellulose, croscarmellose sodium, stearic acid, silica, magnesium stearate, and film coat (hypromellose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, titanium dioxide, FD&C; yellow #6 lake, riboflavin, FD&C; blue #2 lake).

Rhizoctonia can be found across all areas of the United States (environmental conditions permitting) where its host crops are located. The severity of infection can vary and for highly infected patches, severity of the infection can be very devastating to the farmer. Some of these consequences are major yield losses (from 25% to 100%), increased soil tare (because the soil sticks to the fungus' mycelium), and poor industrial quality of the crops based on increased levels of sodium, potassium, and nitrogen. Due to the number of hosts that the pathogen attacks, these consequences are numerous and detrimental to a variety of crops.

Birds also prey on certain insects that eat plants and hinder them from growing these insects are known as non beneficial organisms. Nematodes are considered beneficial because they will help compost and provide nutrients for the soil the plants are growing in. Insects and arachnids help the growing process because they prey on non beneficial organisms that consume plants for food. Fungi help the growing process by using long threads of mycelium that can reach very long distances away from the tree or plant and bring water and nutrients back to the tree or plant roots.

The mycelia also extended the environment in the soil that the bacteria were able to grow in. An experimental study in Portugal showed that Pinus pinaster trees grew better after being inoculated with mycelium from S. bovinus, Laccaria laccata and Lactarius deterrimus and spores of Pisolithus tinctorius and Scleroderma citrinum. These fungi were proposed as an alternative for chemical fertiliser in arboriculture of pine trees. Suillus bovinus has been shown to improve the tolerance of its host Pinus sylvestris to metal pollutants such as cadmium and zinc, though not to hazardous organic compounds such as m-toluate.

While an accurate estimate has not been made, the total weight of the colony may be as much as 605 tons. If this colony is considered a single organism, then it is the largest known organism in the world by area, and rivals the aspen grove "Pando" as the known organism with the highest living biomass. It is not known, however, whether it is a single organism with all parts of the mycelium connected. A spatial genetic analysis estimated that a specimen of Armillaria ostoyae growing over in northern Michigan, United States weighs 440 tons (4 x 105 kg).

It can also be found in areas such as Western Europe, Central Europe, New Zealand and parts of west Asia (Iran). The range in which P. cyanescens occurs is rapidly expanding, especially in areas where it is not native as the use of mulch to control weeds has been popularized. This rapid expansion of range may be due in part to the simple expedient of P. cyanescens mycelium having colonized the distribution network of woodchip suppliers and thus being distributed on a large scale with commercial mulch. It has been documented to fruit in Spring on the East Coast of the United States.

Colonies are flat, smooth and distributed evenly with moderate aerial mycelium and a distinct edge. The colour is olivaceous-grey on the reverse side and paler on the surface when grown on Potato dextrose agar (PDA) and Malt Extract Agar (MEA) plates. The conidia of T. herbarum are typically 3-5 celled, dark brown or black colour and rough-walled with prickly or spiny ornamentation resembling a burned crust appearance. The apical cell is usually more lightly pigmented than the lower cells, and at maturity it tends to collapse inward forming a characteristic structure called a "corona (crown) cell".

Amanita regalis is a rare species typically found growing on the ground in mountainous forests, both deciduous and coniferous. It is a mycorrhizal fungus, and exists in a symbiotic relationship with certain tree species. The system of fine below- ground threads, the mycelium, envelopes the roots of the trees and supplies them with needed minerals, trace elements and water from the soil, while the tree, in turn, supplies the fungus with food from its own supply, which it produces through photosynthesis. A. regalis has been shown experimentally to form mycorrhiza with birch, Scots pine, Mountain pine, and Norway spruce.

In Germany The fruit bodies of Guepinia helvelloides grow singly or in small clumps. Although they can appear to be growing in the soil, their mycelium lives in buried wood. They are tall and wide, spoon- or tongue- shaped, and twisted like a cornet or horn so that they look like a slender funnel, cut out on one side and often with a wavy margin. The fruit bodies are flexible, thick, and smooth on the outer side which they are usually attenuated on the underside into a cylindrical or depressed stem that is up to high and about thick.

Caps of older specimens break up into yellowish brown scales from the center outward. Like all milk-caps (Lactarius and Lactifluus), L. deceptivus is mycorrhizal, meaning the fungus forms a mutualistic association with certain trees and shrubs. The subterranean mycelium of the fungus forms an intimate association with tree roots, enveloping them in a sheath of tissue that allows both organisms to exchange nutrients they would otherwise be unable to obtain. The fruit bodies of the fungus grow solitarily, scattered, or in groups on the ground in conifer or hardwood forests, often under oak (Quercus) or hemlock (Tsuga).

The scientific name is derived from the Greek 'στροφος/strophos' meaning "belt", in reference to the annulus present on the stipe. Spore print color is generally medium to dark purple- brown with white edge at maturity, except for a few species that have rusty- brown spores. There is a great deal of variation, however, since this group as presently delimited is polyphyletic. Members of the core clade of Stropharia are characterized by crystalline acanthocytes among the hyphae of the mycelium and that make up the rhizoids at the base of the mushroom, and in one species, Stropharia acanthocystis, also occur in the hymenium.

Paecilomyces marquandii can grow at wide range of temperature from with optimal growth at 25 °C but no growth above 37 °C. Temperature tolerance is a characteristic that distinguishes Paecilomyces marquandii from Purpureocillium lilacinum with the latter exhibiting growth above 37 °C. Colonies of P. marquandii grown on malt agar reach 5–7 cm in diameter in 14 days at 25 °C with a velvety, brownish-violet aerial mycelium occasionally producing short tufts of conidiophores called synnemata. Colonies begin as white becoming violet then dark vinaceous brown with bright yellow to orange yellow reverse at maturity.

Many interconnected hyphae form a thallus usually referred to as the mycelium, which—when visible to the naked eye (macroscopic)—is commonly called mold. During sexual reproduction, many Ascomycota typically produce large numbers of asci. The ascus is often contained in a multicellular, occasionally readily visible fruiting structure, the ascocarp (also called an ascoma). Ascocarps come in a very large variety of shapes: cup-shaped, club-shaped, potato-like, spongy, seed-like, oozing and pimple-like, coral-like, nit-like, golf-ball-shaped, perforated tennis ball- like, cushion-shaped, plated and feathered in miniature (Laboulbeniales), microscopic classic Greek shield-shaped, stalked or sessile.

The "candlesnuff fungus" in its asexual state, Xylaria hypoxylon In lichenized species, the thallus of the fungus defines the shape of the symbiotic colony. Some dimorphic species, such as Candida albicans, can switch between growth as single cells and as filamentous, multicellular hyphae. Other species are pleomorphic, exhibiting asexual (anamorphic) as well as a sexual (teleomorphic) growth forms. Except for lichens, the non- reproductive (vegetative) mycelium of most ascomycetes is usually inconspicuous because it is commonly embedded in the substrate, such as soil, or grows on or inside a living host, and only the ascoma may be seen when fruiting.

The stem is long and wide, equal or tapering slightly toward apex, whitish, and floccose to smooth. The basal bulb is club-shaped, ventricose-fusiform or turnip-shaped, rounded or pointed, usually covered with rings of reddish-brown scales or warts of universal veil remains, often extending up the stem for a short distance. The universal veil on the stem base is quite unusual in Amanita, because it forms warts that extend nearly to the very bottom of the bulb. The stem often roots into the soil beneath the bulb with an elongated cord of mycelium known as a pseudorhiza.

Astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species. The mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients (particularly phosphorus) from the earth; in exchange, the fungus receives carbohydrates from photosynthesis. In North America, associations with oak and pine are usual, while in India, it has been noted to grow commonly with chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) and sal (Shorea robusta). The false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields, often scattered or in groups, especially in nutrient-poor, sandy or loamy soils.

Mycena galopus is a saprobic fungus, and plays an important role in forest ecosystems as a decomposer of leaf litter. It has been estimated in the UK to account for a large portion of the decomposition of the autumn leaf litter in British woodlands. It is able to break down the lignin and cellulose components of leaf litter. Grown in axenic culture in the laboratory, the fungus mycelium has been shown to degrade (in addition to lignin and cellulose) hemicelluloses, protein, soluble carbohydrates, and purified xylan and pectin using enzymes such as polyphenol oxidases, cellulases, and catalase.

Cercospora arachidicola (the anamorph stage) survives as stroma or mycelium in crop residue. Primary infection usually occurs after a period of rain, where the leaf is continually wet, and the pathogen thrives in areas of high relative humidity and moderate temperature (25-30 °C). The anamorph stage is dominant due to the fact that ascospores produced in pseudothecia, which is embedded in plant tissue, during the teleomorph stage, (Mycosphaerella arachidis) are not often produced in nature. Conidia are the most important primary source of inoculum, and are produced on stromatic tissue of the adaxial leaf surface, infecting the leaves of the peanut plants.

Wu and Yang proposed that this clade be called the subfamily Chalciporoideae. The genus Rubinoboletus was merged into this genus based on their morphological similarity, and subsequent genetic analysis—mainly due to Rubinoboletus (now Chalciporus) rubinus being nested within Chalciporus. Members of the genus Chalciporus have boletoid fruit bodies with pores that are various shades of red to pink, stipes lacking in reticulations, yellow mycelium and smooth oval spores. Two species, C. chontae and C. radiatus, have pores that are arranged in furrows that radiate out from the top of the stipe under the cap and resemble gills.

A. bisporus being cultivated The earliest scientific description of the commercial cultivation of A. bisporus was made by French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in 1707. French agriculturist Olivier de Serres noted that transplanting mushroom mycelia would lead to the propagation of more mushrooms. Originally, cultivation was unreliable as mushroom growers would watch for good flushes of mushrooms in fields before digging up the mycelium and replanting them in beds of composted manure or inoculating 'bricks' of compressed litter, loam, and manure. Spawn collected this way contained pathogens and crops commonly would be infected or not grow at all.

Pore Surface: Bright yellow, maturing to greenish yellow; depressed at the stem by maturity; not bruising; 1–2 angular pores per mm at maturity; tubes to 1.5 cm deep. Stem: 10–15 cm long; 1–2 cm thick; equal above a slightly swollen base; coarsely and deeply lacerated-ridged or lacerated-reticulate; yellow near apex; below yellowish to whitish, with yellow to reddish ridges; base often slightly curved and rooting; basal mycelium white and prominent. Flesh: Yellow in cap; pinkish under the cuticle; whitish in stem; stem midportion staining pinkish on exposure. Odor and Taste: Not distinctive.

Structural formula of atromentin Screening of an extract of Hydnellum peckii revealed the presence of an effective anticoagulant, named atromentin (2,5-dihydroxy-3,6-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,4-benzoquinone), and similar in biological activity to the well-known anticoagulant heparin. Atromentin also possesses antibacterial activity, inhibiting the enzyme enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (essential for the biosynthesis of fatty acids) in the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae. Hydnellum peckii can bioaccumulate the heavy metal caesium. In one Swedish field study, as much as 9% of the total caesium of the topmost of soil was found in the fungal mycelium.

The defining feature of this group—the hysterothecium—is a dense, persistent darkly colored structure, with a boat-like shape and a pronounced lengthwise slit. Hysterothecia are capable of opening partially to reveal a lenticular (lens-shaped), disk-like hymenium or closing tightly in response to relative humidity. They can be embedded in the substratum, bursting through the surface of the substratum (erumpent), or rest entirely on the surface. They can be solitary or in groups, ellipsoid to greatly elongated, and are sometimes branched, triradiate or borne on a crust- or net- like growth of mycelium (a subiculum).

Mycelial cords Armillaria Initial symptoms of honey fungus infection include dieback or shortage of leaves in spring. Rhizomorphs (also called mycelial cords) appear under the bark and around the tree, and mushrooms grow in clusters from the infected plant in autumn and die back after the first frost. However these symptoms and signs do not necessarily mean that the pathogenic strains of honey fungus are the cause, so other identification methods are advised before diagnosis. Thin sheets of cream colored mycelium, beneath the bark at the base of the trunk or stem indicated that honey fungus is likely the pathogen.

Phaeocollybia is defined as mushrooms, with a glutinous or moist or sometimes dry and innately scaly, conic, umbonate cap, a rooting, cartilaginous to wiry stipe, generally lacking a visible veil or cortina or with faint traces, and spores which are brown in deposit. The spores are ornamented but will lack a germ pore or plage. The most distinctive feature microscopically is the presence of tibiiformIn the shape of a tibia bone, that is, with a long narrow neck with an apex that is swollen into a knob, like a tibia. cystidia or branches on the mycelium and mycorrhizal sheaths.

Members of the Sarcoscyphaceae grow as saprotrophs on dead wood, and especially in the case of Sarcoscypha, on mostly damp branches or twigs of hard-wood species often in association with damp loving mosses. There is a strong association with damp places and north facing slopes. Typical locations include woods in damp stream valleys. Fruiting in most species tends to be in late winter or early spring with fruiting bodies produced on the dead wood within which the mycelium grows, although in some cases the apothecium appears to arise from amongst moss or from the leaf-litter.

In February 1913, while a graduate student at Cornell University, she studied the collection of Polyporaceae at the New York Botanical Garden, with special reference to the species occurring in the United States. In 1913, she published the article "A New Wood-Destroying Fungus" in the Botanical Gazette where she worked with Atkinson in Cornell examining polypores collected in the engineering building at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute growing on woodwork. The fungus was identified as a new species, Poria atrosporia, mycelium with pale umbrinous coloration within the substratum or in a superficial layer found on wood from conifers.

In addition, new data also suggests that AM fungi host plants also secrete chemical factors which attract and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. The necessary components for the colonization of Glomeromycota include, the host's fine root system, proper development of intracellular arbuscular structures, and a well-established external fungal mycelium. Colonization is accomplished by the interactions between germinating spore hyphae and the root hairs of the host or by development of appressoria between epidermal root cells. The process is regulated by specialized chemical signaling and by changes in gene expression of both the host and AM fungi.

These proteins act together as a master regulator the initiation of sexual fruiting body development, which begins when both proteins are expressed in a dikaryotic cell. Apothecia result from this union. These are brown in color, and darken as they mature, and they range between 7–12 mm in height, with apothecial disks from 3–4 mm diameter and 0.5-1.0 mm in thickness. The ascospores produced from the apothecia are 23 x 10 μm. These ascospores infect Lilium species’ leaves as effectively as the conidia throughout the growing season, although mycelium are the primary inoculants of young lily shoots in the spring.

Aspergillus wentii does not grow well on creatine sucrose agar (CREA) and produces sterile hyphae on malt extract agar. Aspergillus wentii is moderately xerophile, able to tolerate very dry conditions with low water activity (with an aW of 0.73–0.79 for growth and germination). In its natural environment, Aspergillus wentii is aerobic, able to grow, replicate, and produce metabolites optimally in an oxygen-rich environment. Under light exposure, Aspergillus wentii cultures have been observed to produce white aerial mycelium (at times expressing a pink hue) in large masses that can often expand to fit entire volumes of test tubes or culture plates.

Some authors have suggested that Amylostereum should be placed in the family Echinodontiaceae. The similarities between A. chailletii and A. areolatum have caused some confusion regarding their placement in the genus. As only the size of their fruit bodies differ from each other in appearance, researcher German Josef Krieglsteiner assumed that both are the same species in different age stages. Experiments with pure cultures of the fungi, however, showed that the mycelia of A. chailletii, A. laevigatum and A. ferreum were partially compatible to each other, but the mycelium of A. areolatum was incompatible to other species.

The other three species separated later from each other and are thus partially compatible to each other. A. ferreum and A. laevigatum produced in 59% of all cases a common mycelium, A. ferreum and A. chailletii only in 44%. There is an undescribed species in Amylostereum; according to DNA analysis, it stands between A. laevigatum and A. ferreum. This is remarkable, as these fungi originated from Mycetangae (storing organs of Platypodinae) of a North American wood wasp, while A. laevigatum has never been seen as symbiont of wood wasps, neither in North American nor in Europe.

Wilting of leaves caused by necrosis of the rachis Small lens-shaped lesion on the bark of stem Large lesion extending along a branch Initially, small necrotic spots (without exudate) appear on stems and branches. These necrotic lesions then enlarge in stretched, perennial cankers on the branches, wilting, premature shedding of leaves and particularly in the death of the top of the crown. Below the bark, necrotic lesions frequently extend to the xylem, especially in the axial and paratracheal ray tissue. The mycelium can pass through the simple pits, perforating the middle lamella but damage to either the plasmalemma or cell walls was not observed.

It is probable that the preserved "trunks" represent the fruiting body, or "sporophore", of a fungus, which would have been fuelled by a mycelium, a net of dispersed filaments ("hyphae"). On a microscopic scale, the fossils consist of narrow tube-like structures, which weave around one another. These come in two types: skeletal "tubes", 20–50 μm across, have thick (2–6 μm) walls and are undivided for their length, and generative "filaments", which are thinner (5–10 μm diameter) and branch frequently; these mesh together to form the organism's matrix. These thinner filaments are septate—that is to say, they bear internal walls.

The cell wall of C. cupreum is largely composed of chitin and glucan, which is reflected in the large number of acquired genes encoding class V chitin synthase and glucan synthase found in the C. cupreum cDNA. The vegetative mycelium is profusely branched, septate and multicellular; the mycelial cells are multinucleate. The species is distinguished from other Chaetomium species by a high frequency of boat-shaped ascospores and copper coloured terminal hairs. The fruiting bodies occur on the surface of the substratum and are attached by undifferentiated rhizoids. The perithecia of C. cupreum are ovate in shape and copper colored with dimensions of 110–120 x 120–130 μm.

No definite preference for soil type has been determined, having been found in sands, clay, gravels, and peat. In 1867, Worthington George Smith reported that he had successfully cultivated the species by partially burying fruit bodies under water-soaked rotting fir leaves that were placed in a bell-glass in a warm room. According to his account, a white mycelium grew over the leaves and eventually formed small white pins (immature, undifferentiated fruit bodies) that grew into fully formed mushrooms about two weeks after starting. The geographical distribution of the fungus includes North America north of Mexico, Northern Africa, Europe, New Zealand, and Asia (Amur region of Russia, India, and Korea).

In most infections there is only one fungal individual present, but occasionally several individuals may be isolated from a single tree, and in these cases it is possible that the birch bracket fungus entered after something else killed the tree. These fungal "individuals" can sometimes be seen if a slice of brown-rotted birch wood is incubated in a plastic bag for several days. This allows the white mycelium of the fungus to grow out of the surface of the wood. If more than one individual dikaryon is present, lines of intraspecific antagonism form as the two individual mycelia interact and repel each other.

Continuous light is not required for fruit body development; after the mycelium has reached a certain stage of maturity, only a brief exposure to light is necessary, and fruit bodies will form if even subsequently kept in the dark. Lu suggested in 1965 that certain growing conditions—such as a shortage in available nutrients—shifts the fungus' metabolism to produce a hypothetical "photoreceptive precursor" that enables the growth of the fruit bodies to be stimulated and affected by light. The fungi is also positively phototrophic, that is, it will orient its fruit bodies in the direction of the light source.Brodie (1975), pp. 57–8.

Once this reaches the haemocoel, the protoplast flows through the tube and into the fly's haemolymph. The mycelium of the fungus may grow into an area of the brain that controls the behaviour of the fly, forcing it to land on a surface and crawl upwards. The hyphae gradually grow through the whole of the body, digesting the guts, and the fly dies in about five to seven days. When it is critically ill, it tends to crawl to a high point, straighten its hind legs and open its wings, a behaviour that ensures that the fungal spores are dispersed as widely as possible.

S.A.M.H. Naqvi (2004) Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables: Volume I: Diagnosis and Management Throughout spring and summer, the fungus produces acervuli on the exterior of the necrotic areas at their mature stage. Under wet condition, these acervuli form conidia. The conidia from acervuli becomes the secondary sources of infection for the remainder of the growing seasons. In summary, the disease cycle of Elsinoe Ampelina is as follows: 1) the fungus overwinters by forming both pseudothecium and sclerotia, 2) the spores from both structures cause primary inoculum and form mycelium on the infected lesions, 3) acervuli disseminate conidia which becomes the source of secondary inoculum.

The fungal hyphae penetrate the wood and release enzymes that break down structural polysaccharides such as cellulose. There may be no external indications that the fungus is present until the rot is far advanced and fruit bodies are formed. The strand mycelium of Serpula, which can be up to 8 mm thick, are invasive and can spread over non-nutritive surfaces to find new food sources, even spreading through pores in stone, brickwork, and cement. After its initial growth period, the fungus can produce the water it needs and can continue growth into dry timber, eventually degrading it to powder—hence the term "dry rot".

Beetles and their larvae graze on mycelium exposed on the gallery walls and on bodies called sporodochia, clusters of the fungus' spores. Most ambrosia beetle species don't ingest the wood tissue; instead, the sawdust resulting from the excavation is pushed out of the gallery. Following the larval and pupal stage, adult ambrosia beetles collect masses of fungal spores into their mycangia and leave the gallery to find their own tree. A few dozen species of ambrosia fungi have been described, currently in the genera Ambrosiella, Meredithiella, and Phialophoropsis (from Microascales), Afroraffaelea and Raffaelea (from Ophiostomatales), Ambrosiozyma (Saccharomycetales), Fusarium and Geosmithia (from Hypocreales), and Flavodon (from Basidiomycota).

The book The End of Animal Farming by Jacy Reese Anthis argues that plant-based food and cultured meat will completely replace animal-based food by 2100. The types of ingredients that can be used to create meat analogs is expanding, from companies like Plentify, which are using high-protein bacteria found in the human microbiome, to companies like Meati Foods, that are cultivating the mycelium of fungi to form steaks, chicken breasts, or fish. Moving away from plant-based meat analogs due to the efficiency of the prokaryotic and fungi kindgoms may occur in the future as these nascent niched industries continue to grow.

A recent study has conservatively estimated global ectomycorrhizal fungal species richness at approximately 7750 species, although, on the basis of estimates of knowns and unknowns in macromycete diversity, a final estimate of ECM species richness would probably be between 20,000 and 25,000. Ectomycorrhizas consist of a hyphal sheath, or mantle, covering the root tip and a Hartig net of hyphae surrounding the plant cells within the root cortex. In some cases the hyphae may also penetrate the plant cells, in which case the mycorrhiza is called an ectendomycorrhiza. Outside the root, ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium forms an extensive network within the soil and leaf litter.

It is particularly adept at breaking down lignin, which is the second most abundant renewable organic compound in the biosphere, after cellulose. Research also suggests that the fungus weathers soil minerals, making them more available to mycorrhizal plants. Phosphorus, an important macronutrient influencing plant growth, typically occurs in primary minerals like apatite, or other organic complexes, and its low solubility often results in low phosphorus availability in soil. The biological activity of M. galopus mycelium can increase the availability of phosphorus and other nutrients, both as a result of soil acidification due to cation uptake and via the release of weathering agents such low molecular mass organic acids.

Various stages in the life cycle of Claviceps purpurea fruiting bodies with head and stipe on Sclerotium An ergot kernel called Sclerotium clavus develops when a floret of flowering grass or cereal is infected by an ascospore of C. purpurea. The infection process mimics a pollen grain growing into an ovary during fertilization. Because infection requires access of the fungal spore to the stigma, plants infected by C. purpurea are mainly outcrossing species with open flowers, such as rye (Secale cereale) and Alopecurus. The proliferating fungal mycelium then destroys the plant ovary and connects with the vascular bundle originally intended for feeding the developing seed.

Seedling infection near the hypocotyl-root junction (just below the soil line) then occurs in the early spring following overwintering of Alternaria dauci mycelium or conidia. This infected region will become necrotic and lead to the production of more asexual conidia on conidiophores, which will serve as secondary inoculum. Wind and rain cause conidia to disperse to neighboring host species, and multiple germination tubes will be produced from each conidium that successfully colonizes a new host. As penetration occurs, Alternaria dauci will produce a chemical known as phytotoxin zinniol, which degrades cell membranes and chloroplasts, ultimately leading to the chlorotic symptoms characteristic of the disease.

Studies in mice has shown that G. tsugae shows several potential medicinal benefits including anti-tumor activity through some of the active polysaccharides found in G. tsugaeMizuno T, Wang G, Zhang J et al: Reishi, Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma tsugae: bioactive substances and medicinal effects. Food Rev Intl 1995; 11(1):151-166Mayuzumi I, Okamoto H & Li J: Antitumor active protein-containing glycans from the Chinese mushroom songshan lingzhi, Ganoderma tsugae mycelium. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 1994; 58(7):1202-1205. G. tsugae has also been shown to significantly promote wound healing in mice as well as significantly increase the proliferation and migration of fibroblast cells in culture.

Many research indicate that the growth direction of mycelium, spore germination, and bud tube elongation of mycoparasites have tropic reaction or tropism before attaching the host fungi. This tropic reaction is resulted from chemical stimulants secreted from mycohost and the direction of concentration gradient determines the growth direction of the parasite. As the mycoparasitic interaction is host-specific and not merely a contact response, it is likely that signals from the host fungus are recognized by mycoparasites such as Trichoderma and provoke transcription of mycoparasitism-related genes. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Close-up of fruit body tip, showing separation of the "arms" Immature fruit bodies of L. mokusin are white, gelatinous "eggs" measuring in diameter, and are attached to the ground by thickened strands of mycelium called rhizomorphs. As the fungus matures, the egg ruptures as the fruit body rapidly expands, leaving volval remnants behind at the base. The stipe of the hollow, spongy mature fruiting body has dimensions of by , and ranges in color from white to pink to red, with 4–6 distinct deeply grooved sides divided lengthwise by ribs. The basis of distinction between L. mokusin and other species of Lysurus is the angular form of its stipe.

During the reproductive phase of its life cycle, Spinellus fusiger grows throughout the cap of the mushroom host, eventually breaking through to produce radiating reproductive stalks (sporangiophores) bearing minute, spherical, terminal spore-containing structures called sporangia. Ultimately, the spores in the sporangia are released after the breakdown of the outer sporangial wall, becoming passively dispersed to new locations via wind, water, and insects. The sporangia contain non-motile mitospores known as aplanospores. Like other Spinellus species, S. fusiger is homothallic, a condition where sexual zygospores can be produced union of branches from the same mycelium and so can be produced by the growth from a single spore.

The mycelium may be abundant and persistent, or scant and short-lived (evanescent). The cleistothecia can become large (216-245 μm), with soft wall tissue, and obscure cellular structure and cracks and wrinkles (reticulations).Microscopic view of cleistothecium showing appendages with bulbous baseThe cleistothecia typically develop 8-12 easily detachable hyaline appendages that vary in length from 191-290 μm long. The asci are 4 to 5 to 20 or more, ovate, supported by small stalk-like structures (pedicellate), with dimensions of 72-83 by 32-40 μm. There are typically 2 spores per ascus, sometimes 3 or 4, and they are 31-36 by 21-25 μm.

Slightly expanded, they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in the primordia. Similarly, there are other mushrooms, like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), that grow rapidly overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall. The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse.

Young Amanita phalloides "death cap" mushrooms, with a matchbox for size comparison Many mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether.

Mucor mucedo produces oxalate, or oxalic acid, a simple dicarboxylic acid that is one of the terminal metabolic products of many fungi and plants. It is well known to be toxic to higher animals, including humans, due to its local corrosive effect and affinity for calcium ions, which oxalate reacts with to form water-insoluble calcium crystals. Mucor mucedo also produces aflatoxins, which are known to cause liver cancer and other digestive, urinary, endocrine, haematopoetic, reproductive, and circulatory complications, although this requires further confirmatory studies as aflatoxins are mainly characteristic of Aspergillus species. The ability for mycotoxins to diffuse from the mycelium into the environment depends on its water solubility.

Friday Caliban is a young island girl who quickly befriends the Baudelaires, giving Sunny a whisk as a gift, and making enemies with Count Olaf by abandoning him. She is the daughter of Thursday and Miranda Caliban. Her mother told her that her father was eaten by a manatee in the storm which shipwrecked her on the island, but the truth is that Miranda and Thursday were separated by the schism and Miranda did not want her daughter to know this. Friday was forced to leave the island on a boat with the other islanders, all of them infected by the Medusoid Mycelium, leaving the Baudelaires behind.

The fruit bodies begin from dense, black mycelium on the surface of oak branches in contact with the ground. Starting out as rolls of cylindrical tissue 1 or more centimeters long and 3–4 mm wide, they expand slowly over the winter, and grow rapidly in the spring when the weather becomes warmer.A bisected immature specimen with cup not yet openedThe goblet-shaped fruit body (technically an ascocarp) is in diameter and deep; initially it is closed, but opens as it matures, leaving a ragged or smooth inrolled margin around a round opening. The flesh of the ascocarp walls is tough and initially gelatinous, later becoming leathery.

Phlebopus tropicus has been shown to form a crust of mycelium around the roots of species of Citrus in Brazil covering colonies of the comstock mealybug Pseudococcus comstocki which attack the roots of these plants after they have been carried there by ants (Solenopsis saevissima var. moelleri); these mycelial crusts are called criptas by Brazilian writers. The Pseudococcus living in symbiosis with the fungus is believed to be the immediate reason for the subsequent death of the affected trees, but the action of an endotrophic mycorrhizal fungus weakens the plant before the attack of the Pseudococcus takes place. Phlebopus portentosus is a popular edible in the cuisine of northern Thailand.

Those fungi that are able to live symbiotically with living plants, creating a relationship that is beneficial to both, are known as Mycorrhizae (from myco meaning fungal and rhiza meaning root). Plant root hairs are invaded by the mycelia of the mycorrhiza, which lives partly in the soil and partly in the root, and may either cover the length of the root hair as a sheath or be concentrated around its tip. The mycorrhiza obtains the carbohydrates that it requires from the root, in return providing the plant with nutrients including nitrogen and moisture. Later the plant roots will also absorb the mycelium into its own tissues.

The infection cycle begins in the springtime, when suitable temperatures and moisture promote the release of V. inaequalis ascospores. These spores rise into the air and land on the surface of a susceptible tree, where they germinate and form a germ tube that can directly penetrate the plant's waxy cuticle. A fungal mycelium forms between the cuticle and underlying epidermal tissue, developing asexually the conidia, that germinate on fresh areas of the host tree, which in turn produce another generation of conidial spores. This cycle of secondary infections continues throughout the summer, until the leaves and fruit fall from the tree at the onset of winter.

The mycelium penetrates the host through injured bark and advances proximally and distally along newly infected roots. It eventually penetrates through the host’s cambium and grows inside the wood causing decay and death of living cells in the heartwood and sapwood. During this process of entering into the cambium, the pathogen kills the phloem and initiates the decay of the xylem. The pathogen utilizes both cellulose and lignin, weakening the plant and eventually this leads to its death Phellinus Weirii over-winters within infected stumps and can remain viable for up to 50 years It is also known to infect bark, but this infection process is not well understood.

P. porphyrae shares many physical traits with P. marinum and P. monospermum, and appears to be most closely related to P. adhaerens. However it has up to four diclinous antheridia and sometimes two antheridial cells per stalk; P. monospermum has 1-4 either diclinous or monoclinous antheridia and P. marinum has only a single diclinous antheridium. P. monospermum and P. marinum also have oogonia terminally on short branches, yet in P. porphyrae they tent to be intercalary. In a laboratory it will grow 5 mm per day on seawater-cornmeal agar with low aerial mycelium and colorless colonies, but will not grow at all on potato-carrot agar.

While I. leucospoides lay its eggs into the woodwasp's egg and the hatching period is therefore similar to its host's, the ichneumons mentioned lay their eggs on larvae or adult woodwasps; they hatch out later in the springtime. The parasites locate host larvae hidden in the wood using their antennae to detect cues, including the smell of leaking drill dust or fungus mycelium, weak vibrations, or differences in temperature. The majority of these insect hyperparasites feed on honeydew and nectar, both of which affect the woodwasps' sensitivity. Another parasite is the nematode Beddingia (Deladenus) siricidicola, which was suggested in the New World in the 1970s as a possible biological control.

Escobar grew cultures of the fungus by placing fresh fruit bodies on agar containing growth medium with an extract of horse dung. The tips of the hyphae were used to obtain axenic cultures; the fungus can grow on a variety of media commonly used to grow fungi in the laboratory. Depending on the composition of the growth media, fruit bodies were formed as early as eight days after initiating, when grown at and under dim light. When minute agar blocks containing mycelium were submerged in distilled water, mycelial strands grew towards the water surface and eventually gave rise to floating fruit bodies connected to the parent agar block by strands of hyphae.

The life cycle of the genus Cyathus, which contains both haploid and diploid stages, is typical of taxa in the basidiomycetes that can reproduce both asexually (via vegetative spores), or sexually (with meiosis). Like other wood-decay fungi, this life cycle may be considered as two functionally different phases: the vegetative stage for the spread of mycelia, and the reproductive stage for the establishment of spore-producing structures, the fruit bodies. The vegetative stage encompasses those phases of the life cycle involved with the germination, spread, and survival of the mycelium. Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature, and grow into branching filaments called hyphae, pushing out like roots into the rotting wood.

Originally described by Franz Joseph Kallenbach in 1929 as Boletus lignicola, it was given its current name by mycologist Albert Pilát in 1969. He first placed it in the genus Pulveroboletus before erecting the new genus Buchwaldoboletus on account of its occurrence on wood (rather than in the ground), decurrent and arcuate pores, the yellow mycelium at the base of the stipe, the blueing flesh and lack of hyphal clamps. Other genera in which the species has been placed include Xerocomus by Rolf Singer in 1942, Gyrodon by Paul Heinemann in 1951, and Phlebopus by Meinhard Moser in 1955. The species name comes from the Latin words lignum "wood" and the verb cǒlěre "to inhabit".

In laboratory experiments, extracts of I. badia fruit bodies have been shown to have significant antioxidative properties in vitro. Fruit bodies contain the compound theanine, an amino acid and a glutamic acid analogue found in green tea. Efforts have been made to establish a protocol for producing theanine by growing the fungus mycelium using submerged fermentation. Several indole compounds have been detected in fruit bodies. Unprocessed mushrooms contain tryptophan (0.68 mg per 100 g dry weight), tryptamine (0.47), serotonin (0.52), kynurenine sulphate (1.96), and kynurenic acid (1.57). Due to their temperature sensitivity, cooking significantly changes the contents and composition of indole compounds: cooked mushrooms contained tryptophan (1.74 mg/100 g dw), 5-methyltryptophan (6.55), melatonin (0.71), and indoleacetonitrile (2.07).

The life cycle of the Nidulariaceae, which contains both haploid and diploid stages, is typical of taxa in the basidiomycetes that can reproduce both asexually (via vegetative spores), or sexually (with meiosis). Like other wood-decay fungi, this life cycle may be considered as two functionally different phases: the vegetative stage for the spread of mycelia, and the reproductive stage for the establishment of spore-producing structures, the fruiting bodies. The vegetative stage encompasses those phases of the life cycle involved with the germination, spread, and survival of the mycelium. Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature, and grow into branching filaments called hyphae, pushing out like roots into the rotting wood.

Although this species lacks cells called pleurocystidia (large sterile cells found on the gill face in some mushrooms), it contains abundant cheilocystidia (large sterile cells found on the gill edge) that are 27.2–48 by 4.8–8 µm in size. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae. The outer cellular layer of the cap cuticle is made of bladder-shaped, thick-walled hyphae, each individually supported by a small stalk that extends down into a "gelatinized zone". Chlamydospores are asexual reproductive units made by some fungi that allow them to exist solely as mycelium, a process which helps them survive over periods unsuitable for growth; Rhodotus was shown experimentally to be capable of producing these structures in 1906.

In the mid-20th century, a cottony mycelium-like growth began appearing in the bottles of some sweet fortified wines produced in California's Central Valley. Being fortified, these wines often had alcohol levels in excess of 20% which is usually a level that discourages growth of most spoilage organisms associated with winemaking. Nicknamed "Fresno mold" due to where it was first discovered, the culprit of this growth was determined to be L. fructivorans, a species which can be controlled by sanitation and maintaining adequate sulfur dioxide levels. Some Lactobacillus and Pediococcus species (particularly P. damnosus and P. pentosaceus) have the potential to synthesize polysaccharides that add an oily viscosity to the wine.

Although the fruit bodies of P. bembae are roughly similar to those in Xerocomus, species in this genus do not have the powdery veil characteristic of P. bembae. Two similar species in the same area include P. annulus and P. croceus, described in 1951 by Belgian mycologist Paul Heinemann, based on specimens collected in the Congo. Although the identity of these two species is not fully clarified because of insufficient collections, P. bembae differs from both in its larger cystidia, its cream-colored flesh with pale reddish- brown to light brown tones under the cap cuticle (compared to white in P. annulus and P. croceus), its yellow mycelium (white in P. annulus and P. croceus), and differences in ecology.

The occurrence of Boletopsis nothofagi seems to be strongly connected to the occurrence of the southern beech Nothofagus fusca, a species of Fagales that is endemic to New Zealand. B. nothofagi has been found exclusively in N. fusca forests spread through New Zealand below 37° S. The fungus forms a mycorrhizal association with the trees of N. fusca, in which the hyphae of the fungal mycelium wrap around the roots of the tree and penetrate the cortex, but not its cells. Subsequently, B. nothofagi takes over the function of the root hair and directs water and soil nutrients to the tree. In return, the fungus can, through contact with the root tissue, access the products of the tree's photosynthesis.

The fungi also provide more nutrition, especially phosphorus, and promotes the overall health of the plant. The mycelium quick expansion also can greatly extend the rhizosphere influenze zone (hyphosphere), providing the plant with access to more nutrients and contaminants. Increasing the rhizosphere overall health also means a rise in the bacteria population, which can also contribute to the bioremediation process. This relationship has been proven useful with many pollutants, such as Rhizophagus intraradices and Robinia pseudoacacia in lead contaminated soil, Rhizophagus intraradices with Glomus versiforme inoculated into vetiver grass for lead removal, AMF and Calendula officinalis in cadmium and lead contaminated soil, and in general was effective in increasing the plant bioremediation capacity for metals, petroleum fuels, and PAHs.

The following description for the treatment of dry rot is typical of traditional methods:Hicken, N. (1972) The Dry Rot Problem 2nd Edition, London, Hutchinson & Co. # Cut out all wood showing decay, presence of white mycelium, etc. and all apparently sound timber within a radius of one metre of the nearest visibly decayed timber. Burn all such material. # Hack off all plaster/render and remove any skirtings, panelling, linings and ceilings necessary to trace the fullest extent of the growth over or through adjacent masonry, concrete or timber surfaces. # Clean off with a wire brush all surfaces and any steel and pipe work within the area up to a radius of 1.5 metres from the furthest extent of suspected infection.

Meanwhile, rabbits keep cropping the grass, but do not eat the fungi, allowing them to grow through their competition to tower, relatively, above the grass. By the time a circle of mushrooms reaches about in diameter, rabbit droppings have replenished the nitrogen levels near the centre of the circle, and a secondary ring may start to grow inside the first. Soil analysis of soil containing mycelium from a wood blewit (Clitocybe nuda) fairy ring under Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) in southeast Sweden yielded fourteen halogenated low molecular weight organic compounds, three of which were brominated and the others chlorinated. It is unclear whether these were metabolites or pollutants.

Together with a well-developed layer of mycelium, the rays are typically bound to fragments of earth or forest duff. Close-up of pedicel and underside of spore sac The tough and membranous endoperidium comprising the spore sac, purple-brown in color and tall by wide, is supported by a small stalk—a pedicel—that is 3–4 mm long by 7–10 mm wide and which has a grooved (sulcate) apophysis, or swelling. This ring-shaped swelling is made of remnants from a tissue called the pseudoparenchymatous layer. When fresh, the pseudoparenchymatous layer is whitish in color, thick and fleshy; it dries to become brown to dark brown while shrinking and often splitting and peeling.

This is a much broader availability of sugars than was available in the biotrophic phase, which consisted mostly of glucose and fructose derived from sucrose. Because of how rapidly the fungus is killing the host, it no longer releases any defense response prevention proteins, relying purely on the rapid death of the host and growth of the pathogen. Additionally, since the mycelium must rapidly spread during the necrotrophic stage in order to supply nutrients to the fungus, it will more easily thrive in younger bean plants, which have softer tissues than their older counterparts. While there is very little discoloration of the host cells before secondary hyphae development, discoloration becomes rapidly apparent about 100 hours post infection.

This is epidemiologically important for two reasons: firstly, it implies that the organism will be genetically variable, potentially leading to variations in disease severity, treatment response and habitat preference; secondly, it implies that a suitable, stable habitat must exist for the complex process of sexual reproduction to take place. This habitat is as yet unknown. In its asexual form, the fungus grows as a typical colonial microfungus, comparable to Penicillium or Rhizopus mold forms commonly seen on mouldy bread. In nature, the fungus forms a network of thread-like mycelium that penetrates the substratum on which it grows, and then after 3–5 days of growth begins to reproduce asexually with small (2–10 µm) conidia (asexual spores).

The interface between the plant and fungal partners in this association is between the roots of the plant and the mycelium of the fungus. Myco-heterotrophy therefore closely resembles mycorrhiza (and indeed is thought to have evolved from mycorrhiza), except that in myco-heterotrophy, the flow of carbon is from the fungus to the plant, rather than vice versa. Most myco-heterotrophs can therefore be seen as ultimately being epiparasites, since they take energy from fungi that in turn get their energy from vascular plants. Indeed, much myco-heterotrophy takes place in the context of common mycorrhizal networks, in which plants use mycorrhizal fungi to exchange carbon and nutrients with other plants.

In other genera of termites such as Macrotermes, the main role of the fungus garden is to degrade lignin so as to enable the termites to make more efficient use of cellulose. However, in colonies of Hypotermes makhamensis, the garden's main role is to provide a nutritious food source, the termites principally feeding on the fungal mycelium rather than the digested product. In Cambodia, a newly described species of tiny, blind, wingless scarab beetle, Termitotrox cupido, has been found inside the Hypotermes makhamensis mound, on the walls of the fungus garden chambers. Other species of termites also have Termitotrox beetles dwelling in their fungus gardens but it is unclear what role these beetles play in the termite colony.

Glomus iranicum var. tenuihypharum is an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) that helps improve the physiochemical conditions of the soil and stimulates growth and productivity of the majority of plants. This species, isolated from an alkaline pH 9.5 soil with high concentrations of Mg, Ca and Mn salts, achieves good symbiosis with the majority of agricultural plants, including those under intensive agricultural conditions. It produces abundant extramatrical mycelium that can explore large volumes of soil, reproduces through spores generated inside the root, facilitates good transport of nutrients within the roots of the plant and tolerates high concentrations of nutritional salts in the soil, exhibiting good tolerance to the fertilisation protocols of intensive agriculture.

Mycelium composites were later developed for packaging, sound absorption, and structural building materials such as bricks. In the United Kingdom, the Materials for Life (M4L) project was founded at Cardiff University in 2013 to "create a built environment and infrastructure which is a sustainable and resilient system comprising materials and structures that continually monitor, regulate, adapt and repair themselves without the need for external intervention." M4L led to the UK's first self-healing concrete trials. In 2017 the project expanded into a consortium led by the universities of Cardiff, Cambridge, Bath and Bradford, changing its name to Resilient Materials 4 Life (RM4L) and receiving funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council.

Agaritine (1) was long thought by biologists to emanate from shikimate (4), with the glutamate moiety clearly originating from glutamic acid. (4) L-Shikimic Acid, the fully protonated conjugate acid of L-shikimate This assumption was made purely by inference: a similar compound, γ-glutaminyl-4-hydroxybenzene (5) is produced in the fruiting body of mushrooms in the genus Agaricus with similar abundance to agaritine and has been shown to be derived from the shikimate biosynthetic pathway. Recent work, however, has uncovered several problems with this hypothesis, of which inconsistencies in radiolabeling experiments are most notable. These recent efforts now assert that the molecule is synthesized in the vegetative mycelium and then translocated into the fruiting body.

For example, Endogone fungi are known to grow in sand dunes, a nutrient-deficient substrate. Dune plants are dependent upon the fungus for growth and ecological success: the mycelium of the fungus helps aggregate and stabilize the sand in a network of hyphae, giving it cohesion and helping early succession plants establish roots. It also traps and binds fragments of organic material such as decaying roots and rhizomes. Various species of rodents and shrews include Endogone fungi in their diets, including the southeastern shrew (Sorex longirostris), the masked shrew (Sorex cinereus), the vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans), the woodland jumping mouse (Napaeozapus insignis), the Siskiyou chipmunk (Tamias siskiyou), and the marsh rice rat (Oryzomys palustris).

Hardwood vascular wilt diseases are characterized by blockage of the tree's water-conducting vessels by either the physical presence of the pathogen (mycelium and spores), or through the host's own response to infection. Oak trees, in response to wounding or infection often produce tyloses, balloon-like outgrowths of the vessels' cell walls that can function to wall-off pathogens and prevent infections from spreading. Red oaks appear to lack a host-response mechanism that restricts the pathogen's movement, and infection usually kills the tree by wilting the entire crown. White oaks, which produce tyloses more quickly and in greater numbers, are more resistant to the disease, though the exact mechanism for this resistance is unknown.

Isolates of P. fastigiata are able to grow at temperatures ranging from 3 °C to 35 °C, with an optimum temperature range of 20 °C-25 °C and pH range between 4-9. Extracts of water and acetone from balsam fir, black spruce, white spruce and red spruce have been shown to stimulate the growth of the fungus in culture. The presence of biotin also increases the growth of this fungus and extracts of ammonium tartrate increase mycelium production. This saprophytic fungus is able to gain energy from decaying organic matter, and is able to utilize asparagine and potassium nitrate as sources of nitrogen, as well as L-arabinose as a source of carbon.

The life cycle of Crucibulum, which contains both haploid and diploid stages, is typical of the species of Basidiomycota that can reproduce both asexually (via vegetative spores), or sexually (with meiosis). Like other wood-decay fungi, this life cycle may be considered as two functionally different phases: the vegetative stage for the spread of mycelia, and the reproductive stage for the establishment of spore-producing structures, the fruiting bodies. Cross section of C. laeve fruiting bodies in various stages of development The vegetative stage encompasses those phases of the life cycle involved with the germination, spread, and survival of the mycelium. Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature, and grow into branching filaments called hyphae, pushing out like roots into the rotting wood.

As the fruiting body matures and the fruiting body expands, the epiphragm ruptures, exposing the internal contents. The wall of the fruiting body is made of a single uniform layer of closely interwoven hyphae (the threadlike filaments that form the mycelium) roughly 0.25–0.5 mm thick; this wall structure is in contrast to species from the bird's nest fungus genus Cyathus, which have a distinctly three-layered wall. Young species have a yellowish velvety cover of fine hairs, but this external surface becomes sloughed off and becomes smooth as the fruiting body matures; the color changes to brown, although some old weathered specimens may be bleached grey or dirty white. The inner surface of the fruiting body is smooth and shiny.

The dikaryotic mycelia from which the fruit bodies are produced is long lasting, and will continue to produce successive generations of fruit bodies as long as the environmental conditions are favorable. Cyathus stercoreus The development of Cyathus fruit bodies has been studied in laboratory culture; Cyathus stercoreus has been used most often for these studies due to the ease with which it may be grown experimentally. In 1958, E. Garnett first demonstrated that the development and form of the fruit bodies is at least partially dependent on the intensity of light it receives during development. For example, exposure of the heterokaryotic mycelium to light is required for fruit to occur, and furthermore, this light needs to be at a wavelength of less than 530 nm.

The mycelium invades the sapwood and is able to disseminate over great distances under the bark or between trees in the form of black rhizomorphs ("shoestrings"). In most areas of North America, Armillaria ostoyae can be separated from other species by its physical features: cream-brown colors, prominent cap scales, and well- developed stem ring distinguish it from any Armillaria. It is known as having grown possibly the largest living organism by area - estimated by scientists as a contiguous specimen found in the Oregon Malheur National Forest covering - and colloquially called the "Humongous fungus". Armillaria ostoyae grows and spreads primarily underground and the bulk of the organism lies in the ground, out of sight, making it invisible from the surface.

Since P. camemberti is responsible for the main flavor and odor of popular cheeses, the fungus can be used for the flavoring of other foods, such as dry, fermented sausages. José M. Bruna and his team saw that the flavor comes from compounds produced by the fungus, such as ammonia, methyl ketones, primary and secondary alcohols, esters, and aldehydes, and decided to superficially inoculate P. camemberti on dry, fermented sausages to improve its sensory properties. P. camemberti promotes proteolysis and lipolysis, which is the breakdown of proteins and lipids, resulting in free amino acids, free fatty acids, and volatile compounds that allow for the ripened flavor. The fungus created a mycelium, protecting the lipids within, allowing for better flavor and odor of sausages.

Phytophthora pseudosyringae is a semi-papillate homothallic soil-borne plant pathogen causing root and collar rot of deciduous tree species in Europe. It is associated with necrotic fine roots and stem necroses of Fagus sylvatica and Alnus glutinosa, and isolates are moderately aggressive to fine roots of oaks and beech (Nothofagus), highly aggressive to holly leaves and apple fruits, and slightly pathogenic to alder bark. It belongs to the class of oomycetes and is often described as a ‘fungal-like’ organism since they form a heterotrophic mycelium as the ‘true fungi’, but in contrast, their cell wall lacks chitin and is composed only of cellulose and glucans. Its name derives from Greek Phytophthora (), “plant” and (), “destruction”; “the plant- destroyer” and plurivora and from Latin ( = many, - = feeding).

The thick gills have an adnate attachment to the stem (broadly attached to the stem slightly above the bottom of the gill, with most of the gill fused to the stem), and are white to light grey in colour, paler toward the edge. There are about 24–28 gills extending completely from the cap margin to the stem, and one or two tiers of lamellulae (shorter gills does do not extend fully from the margin to the stem). The thin stem is up to 4 cm (1.6 in) high and 0.3 cm (0.12 in) wide, and does not have a ring. Young specimens will typically have whitish scales at the base; later, these will slough off and a felt-like whitish mycelium may be apparent.

Atta colombica, queen with larvae and workers on substrate Winged females and males leave their respective nests en masse and engage in a nuptial flight known as the revoada (Port.) or vuelo nupcial (Span.). Each female mates with multiple males to collect the 300 million sperm she needs to set up a colony.. Once on the ground, the female loses her wings and searches for a suitable underground lair in which to found her colony. The success rate of these young queens is very low, and only 2.5% will go on to establish a long-lived colony. To start her own fungus garden, the queen stores bits of the parental fungus garden mycelium in her infrabuccal pocket, which is located within her oral cavity..

A study demonstrated that sexual selection does occur between the donating nucleus of the heterokaryon and the receiving homokaryon through the two nuclear types within the heterkaryon. These two nuclear types are in competition with each other to fertilize the homokaryon. Female choice between the nuclear types is also possible as there is a strong bias for one of the two nuclei. However, it is more supported that competition between the donating nuclei is more responsible as it has been shown that there is a variation in the success of various nuclei independent of the receiving mycelium. Some factors that may affect the nuclei’s success include faster mitotic division, increased migration, and possibly a mechanism that suppresses mitotic division in the competition.

The development of rhizomorphs begins with a submerged thallus that produces mycelium (hyphae biomass) that when deprived of nutrients and exposed to increasing oxygen, morphogenesis occurs giving rise to pseudo or microsclerotia (survival structures of some fungi), which precede rhizomorph development. Concentrations of oxygen play an important role in the production of rhizomorphs. When there is a high concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere, soil moisture, temperature and pH, rhizomorph production increases. Rhizomorphs contain four differentiated types of tissues #The outer layers are a compact growing point that make up the mucilage #The melanized wall that serves as protection against colonization by another microorganisms (bacteria or fungi) #The medulla that serves for conduction of water and dissolves nutrients #The central line used as an air conducting channel.

Phellodon melaleucus Phellodon species, like other members of the family Bankeraceae, are sensitive to air pollution and soil pollution, and are in general decline in western Europe. In a preliminary assessment for a red list of threatened British Fungi, P. confluens, P. tomentosus, and P. melaleucus are considered vulnerable, and P. niger is rare. Conservation efforts for stipitate hydnoid fungi are hampered by a dearth of information about their basic ecology, and so molecular genetic techniques are increasingly employed in attempts to better understand these fungi. In the case of Phellodon tomentosus, for example, there is little correlation between fruitbody appearance and below- ground mycelium, making it hard to determine the distribution and rarity of the fungus with standard surveying techniques.

Some phialides on widely-spaced branches are flask- shaped, resembling a wine bottle, whereas some tend to have a very swollen middle when in dense clusters or "pseudo-whorls". T. koningii typically produces smooth and ellipsoidal (egg-shaped) conidia, with a mean length of 4.1-4.3 µm, that aggregates in a slimy green mass at the tip of the phialides. The chlamydospores are pale brown, globe-like in shape, and are located at terminal and intercalary positions on the hyphae. In culture, colonies display rapid growth on potato dextrose agar (PDA), as cream-coloured in the beginning but later turns green because of sporulation. T. koningii grows at an optimum temperature of 25 °C in darkness, producing white mycelium with a radius of 50–60 mm.

Brown patch symptoms differ depending on the various maintenance practices performed on the turfgrass (mowing height, fertilizer, watering, etc.) Symptoms on turfgrasses that are wet for extended periods and are closely mowed will produce a distinctive gray-purplish bordered ring "smoke-ring" that is up to 50 cm in diameter. While on taller cut grasses that are not wet for extended periods of time will begin to produce patches that can be several feet in diameter and may have a "frogeye" appearance. White mycelium can be found on dew-covered turf in the early part of the morning. Penn State On a closer look at the grass leaf blades (usually on Tall Fescue) you maybe able to see tan to brown small, irregular shaped lesions.

Rhizophagus irregularis (previously known as Glomus intraradices) is an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus used as a soil inoculant in agriculture and horticulture. In addition, it is one of the best mycorrhizal varieties of fungi available to mycoforestry, but as it does not produce fruiting bodies it "has virtually no market value as an edible or medicinal mushroom"Stamets, P. (2005). Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World Rhizophagus irregularis is also commonly used in scientific studies of the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on plant and soil improvement. Until 2001, the species was known and widely marketed as Glomus intraradices, but molecular analysis of ribosomal DNA led to the reclassification of all arbuscular fungi from Zygomycota phylum to the Glomeromycota phylum.

Their life cycle begins when the female oviposits into the part of the plant which her species prefers, she inserts her egg along with a fungal spore from a mycangia (a small pocket to store fungal spores). A gall forms and the fungal mycelium grows to line the inside of the gall, when the egg hatches the developing larva feeds upon the fungus. Adult emergence is timed with periods of plant growth associated with winter, spring, or summer rain fall. In contrast to many other groups of plant-feeding insects (which form new species through changes to new host plants) the evolution of new species in the A. auripila group seems to be a result of colonizing new parts of the same plant and/or colonization of new seasons of plant growth.

This is usually true for populations that have been exposed to contaminants for long time, and have developed a high tolerance, and happens via biosorption on the cellular surface, which means that the metals enter the mycelium in a passive way with very little intracellular uptake. A variety of fungi, such as Pleurotus, Aspergillus, Trichoderma has proven to be effective in the removal of lead, cadmium, nickel, chromium, mercury, arsenic, copper, boron, iron and zinc in marine environment, wastewater and on land. Not all the individuals of a species are effective in the same way in the accumulation of toxins. The single individuals are usually selected from an old-time polluted environment, such as sludge or wastewater, where they had time to adapt to the circumstances, and the selection is carried on in the laboratory.

Interview subjects included Bo Diddley and an escapee from the Central Islip State Hospital. In the second issue, an article about the proposed Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant by Lorna Salzman summed up most of the arguments that would be used over the following fifteen years in the successful campaign to forestall and ultimately thwart the plant's operation. The environment was a major theme, including Eric Salzman's in- depth coverage of "Mysteries of the Mycelium" and on-going discussions of whether local snapping turtles (a/k/a "toropes") should be exterminated or celebrated. Like most of the dozens of off-beat little newspapers that sprang up in suburban and rural areas while the big-city underground press was expiring, the Moniebogue Press was addressed to the general public, (usually) avoided obscenity, and didn't promote drugs.

Myco-heterotrophic roots of Monotropa uniflora with Russula brevipes mycelium Full (or obligate) myco-heterotrophy exists when a non-photosynthetic plant (a plant largely lacking in chlorophyll or otherwise lacking a functional photosystem) gets all of its food from the fungi that it parasitizes. Partial (or facultative) myco-heterotrophy exists when a plant is capable of photosynthesis, but parasitizes fungi as a supplementary food supply. There are also plants, such as some orchid species, that are non-photosynthetic and obligately myco-heterotrophic for part of their life cycle, and photosynthetic and facultatively myco-heterotrophic or non-myco-heterotrophic for the rest of their life cycle. Not all non-photosynthetic or "achlorophyllous" plants are myco-heterotrophic – some non-photosynthetic plants like dodder directly parasitize the vascular tissue of other plants.

Early diagnosis is the key to survival of the patients, but the diagnosis of the disease is hard due to difficulties in stimulating sporulation. Furthermore, there has been only 38 cases of infections reported as of 2012 and the author of the paper suggested that low number of cases reported can be due to lack of awareness of this species in clinical environment, high mortality rate, and largely, microbiological and clinical bias resulted from difficulties in stimulating sporulation of this species. To ease the identification of fungus producing sterile mycelium such as S. vasiformis and A. elegans, exoantigen test has been developed. For S. vasiformis, even though exoantigen testing is helpful with positive test, it is rarely used because of the high false-negative rate, requiring confirmation by sporulating morphology with all the negative tests.

The genus Harzia consists of a hyaline mycelium, a brown thick-walled blastoconidia, and hyaline conidiophores. As of a member of the genus Harzia, the spores of H. acremonioides are large, one-celled, cinnamon brown or golden brown, ovoid to sugblobose, thick-walled, usually smooth-walled, but sometimes with a slight wrinkling or the exposure, and they tend to vary in size. H. acremonioides are produced asexually, at 20 °C on MEA, its colonies can reach about 3.3 cm diam in about just five days, and 20-30 x 15-20 um, almost smooth-walled obovoid conidia are produced. Growths of H. acremonioides can be obtained on potato mush agar, potato glucose agar, potato extract agar, and rice; slightly growth can be obtained in solutions of sucrose and maltose and a synthetic mutrient agar.

Zone lines form in wood for many reasons, including host reactions against parasitic encroachment, and inter-specific interactions, but the lines observed by Rayner and Todd when transversely-cut sections of brown-rotted birch tree trunk or branch were incubated in plastic bags appeared to be due to a reaction between different individuals of the same species of fungus. This was a startling inference at a time when the prevailing orthodoxy within the mycological community was that of the "unit mycelium". This was the theory that when two different individuals of the same species of basidiomycete wood rotting fungi grew and met within the substratum, they fused, cooperated, and shared nuclei freely. Rayner and Todd's insight was that basidiomycete fungi individuals do, in most "adult" or dikaryotic cases anyway, retain their individuality.

When the fruit body is injured and the latex is exposed, an esterase enzyme (an enzyme that splits esters into an acid and an alcohol in a chemical reaction with water called hydrolysis) presumably cleaves the inactive esterified benzoxepines into their active forms, where they can help defend the mushroom against yeasts and parasitic fungi. In nature, the mushroom is rarely attacked by parasitic fungi, however, it is prone to infection by the "bonnet mold" Spinellus fusiger, which is insensitive to the benzoxepines of M. galopus. In an English field study, where the two fungi M. galopus and Marasmius androsaceus made up over 99% of the fruit bodies in a site under Sitka spruce, the fungivorous collembolan arthropod Onychiurus latus preferred to graze on the mycelium of M. androsaceus. This selective grazing influences the vertical distribution of the two fungi in the field.

Colony of Microsporum gypseum on Sabouraud agar The colonies of M. gypseum are described as cottony or powdery, they grow rapidly with a colour range of white to buff, with a reserve that can range from pink, to red, to yellow (cinnamon); they may occasionally have overtones of violet. The powdery appearance of the colony is due to the abundant production of macroconidia on the older mycelium, while the edges of the colony are described as scalloped to ragged and can exhibit pleomorphism. Macroconidia of M. gypseum have a substantial range that can occur as short pedicels, terminal, solitary, spindle shaped, large, thick walled, that are smooth or roughened, borne directly on hyphae or on short branches. They are often very large (e.g., 40–150 x 8–15 μm), ellipsoid to fusiform, moderately thick, have verrucose and are 4–6 septate.

The description given of the companies on 19 October, and how they fit into the group's strategy, were contradicted by the later statement: initially, Altis was described as being engaged in "environmental solutions business proposing resources recycling and CO2 reduction focused on petrochemical plants." In a 27 October disclosure, the unit was "mainly engaged in recycling business for medical waste." Humalabo was described initially said to undertake "research and development/sale of skin improving substances using [a fungus known as] basidomycota", but in the later statement was said to be "mainly engaged in development of [health] supplements with ingredients extracted from shiitake mushroom mycelium." While the basic description of News Chef as a maker of cookware for microwave ovens was not changed, Olympus added that "disease prevention and prognosis through foods" was one of its objects.

Coprinus atramentarius is a larger, gray species that grows in dense clusters on stumps or on the ground from buried wood, lacks glistening particles on the cap, and the cap and gills dissolve at maturity. Coprinellus radians develops singly or in clumps from a tufted mat of coarse yellow-orange mycelium on the wood. Coprinellus truncorum is also covered with glistening granules and is said to be almost indistinguishable from C. micaceus in the field; microscopy is needed to tell the difference, as C. truncorum has ellipsoid spores with a rounded germ pore, compared to the shield-shaped (mitriform) spores with truncated germ pores of C. micaceus. One study suggests that compared to C. truncorum, C. micaceus is browner in the center of the cap (rather than grayish) and has a greater tendency to grow in clusters; more molecular evidence is required to determine if the two taxa are genetically identical.

The roughly spherical leathery fruit bodies (ascomata) are 170–240 μm high by 200–300 μm wide, and are almost completely embedded in the host tissue. The ascomata have ostioles (openings) at the top, and are arranged in small dark brown colonies with light grey patches where the cuticle is detached from the plant epidermis. There is a dark brown mycelium in the epidermal cells surrounding the ostioles, making a pseudostroma—a stroma in which fungal cells and remnants of host tissue are mixed. Although the ascomata have no necks, they do have black bristles (measuring 28–36 by 2.5–4 μm) that surround and obstruct the ostiole. The peridium is 10–13 μm thick, and made of 2–3 layers of roughly spherical or ellipsoidal brown cells with large lumina that form a textura angularis—a parenchyma-like tissue of very densely packed cells that appear angular in longitudinal section.

Saprotrophic microscopic fungi are sometimes called saprobes; saprotrophic plants or bacterial flora are called saprophytes (sapro- + -phyte, "rotten material" + "plant"), though it is now believed that all plants previously thought to be saprotrophic are in fact parasites of microscopic fungi or other plants. The process is most often facilitated through the active transport of such materials through endocytosis within the internal mycelium and its constituent hyphae. states the purpose of saprotrophs and their internal nutrition, as well as the main two types of fungi that are most often referred to, as well as describes, visually, the process of saprotrophic nutrition through a diagram of hyphae, referring to the Rhizobium on damp, stale whole-meal bread or rotting fruit. Various word roots relating to decayed matter (detritus, sapro-), eating and nutrition (-vore, -phage), and plants or life forms (-phyte, -obe) produce various terms, such as detritivore, detritophage, saprotroph, saprophyte, saprophage, and saprobe; their meanings overlap, although technical distinctions (based on physiologic mechanisms) narrow the senses.

After germinating, the stromata infect grass leaf blades through their stomata.Buczacki, S. and Harris, K., Pests, Diseases and Disorders of Garden Plants, HarperCollins, 1998, p484 The other stage is visible as small, pink, cotton wool-like mycelium, found where the blades meet. It is common when both warmth and humidity are high. Environment Laetisaria fuciformis, the fungus that causes red thread disease develops more often in cool (59-77 °F) and wet conditions.1 These conditions are more present in the spring and fall when rainfall is higher and temperatures are slightly lower. Over 77°F, the growth rate of the fungus decreases significantly, and it ceases at 85°F. 8 Turf grass that is poor in nutrition and are slow growing are areas that are more susceptible to red thread disease.2 The fungus grows from the thread like red webbing structures called sclerotia.1 The sclerotia can survive in leaf blades, thatch, and soil for months to years.

New Zealand Platypus species Platypus apicalis, Platypus caviceps and Platypus gracilis have an imperative impact in transmitting airborne and water-borne spore to contaminate the injuries, as there would be no effect from atmosphere on organism's developing in many parts of the nation. Spores can be either liberated from mycelium creating on the surface of corrupted trees or other wood surfaces or by wind-borne frass sullied with spores and mycelial parts from frightening little creature tunneling in polluted tissue. There is in like manner the affirmation of underground spread, probably through either root joins root contact or underground vectors. displayed that C. australis was not subject to P. subgranosus for transmission or for entry to the trees, despite the way that P. subgranosus are of critical in ailment spread through opportunity of polluted frass and the making of wounds in concentrated on trees [Ridley G.S., Bain J., Bulman L.S., Dick M.A. & Kay M.K. (2000) Threats to New Zealand’s indigenous forests from exotic pathogens and pests.

The pellicle rips into shreds when peeled. The pliant flesh is thin, 2 mm in the center of the cap and tapered evenly to the margin. The cap surface is covered with grayish fibrils; underneath the fibrils the color is initially the same as the cap, but becomes blackish-brown in age at the base or over lower parts. The gills are slightly darker than the cap in color, broadly adnate, but develop a slight decurrent tooth in age (when the gill separates slightly from the stem). The gills are broad (about 3 mm), with a close to subdistant spacing. Roughly 24 gills reach the cap edge from the stem; there are additionally 2 or three tiers of lamellulae—short gills that do not extend completely from the stem to the cap edge. The stem is long by 1.5–2.5 mm thick, and equal in width throughout its length. It is attached to its substrate (wood or sticks) by a grayish mat of mycelium.

Like many other Cyathus species, the cup is attached to its growing surface by a clump of mycelium called an emplacement; in C. helenae the diameter of the emplacement is typically wider than that of the peridium, and it often incorporates bits of "organic trash". A periodiole and attached funiculus in cross-section The 'eggs' of the bird's nest – the peridioles – are 2 mm in diameter, and covered with a silvery tunica (the outermost covering layer of the periodiole). Peridioles are attached to the fruit body by a funiculus, a structure of hyphae that is differentiated into three regions: the basal piece, which attaches it to the inner wall of the peridium, the middle piece, and an upper sheath, called the purse, connected to the lower surface of the peridiole. In the purse and middle piece is a coiled thread of interwoven hyphae called the funicular cord, attached at one end to the peridiole and at the other end to an entangled mass of hyphae called the hapteron.