Microsoft will offer basic Mesosphere support, though, and Mesosphere will handle tier 2/3 support for advanced topics.
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That's something Mesosphere co-founder and CEO Florian Leibert and Mesosphere CMO Peter Guagenti strongly denied when I talked to them earlier today.
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While it often seems like Mesosphere, Docker and Kubernetes are competing for the same customers, Mesosphere has found a niche for itself in the big data world.
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Mesosphere worked with Google on this project and Mesosphere will offer its users a pure up-stream version of Kubernetes without any vendor-specific changes to ensure there are no compatibility issues.
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Even if that were to happen, Mesosphere would continue to emphasize the advantages of paying for a Mesosphere subscription instead, as it enables a variety of computing capabilities for a single price, Leibert said.
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Both Microsoft and HPE would make logical acquirers for Mesosphere — and there have been reports that Microsoft was interested in acquiring the company last year — but so far, it seems Mesosphere has resisted these advances.
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The release of Mesosphere SKUs is a step in that direction.
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Microsoft's history with Mesosphere goes back quite a bit, of course.
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"At Mesosphere, we are big believers in open source," the company said today.
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We're excited to continue to work with Mesosphere and the community going forward.
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Mesosphere was born as the commercial face of the open-source Mesos project.
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Customers saw Mesosphere as a resource for Mesos, but not necessarily other key technologies.
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This is an extension of the work Nvidia and Mesosphere announced back in 2015.
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Mesosphere CMO Peter Guagenti has more than 20 years of experience in technology and marketing.
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The atoms were discovered in the Martian mesosphere, the upper layers of the red planet's atmosphere.
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On Tuesday, the $775 million startup D2iQ — formerly known as Mesosphere —announced a product called Kommander.
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Our modern atmosphere is divided into the troposphere, where we live, then the stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.
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With Infinity and Velocity, Mesosphere already offers additional tools on top of DC/OS for enterprises, too.
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These clouds form when the mesosphere is most humid, as water vapor lifts up from lower altitudes.
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Fey, who left Symantec in November, was appointed CEO of Mesosphere, an enterprise software company, in December.
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The CNCF's members include the likes of Cisco, Docker, Google, CoreOS, Intel, IBM, RedHat, Samsung, and Mesosphere.
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Leibert and Guagenti both stressed that Mesosphere will continue to invest in Marathon, just like it always has.
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The Information, which broke this story earlier this morning, argues that this means that Mesosphere is "bowing" to Kubernetes.
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HPE will also offer worldwide support for Mesosphere and additional consulting services for companies that want to adopt DC/OS.
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It also affects the radiative cooling from the carbon-dioxide bands in the Martian thermosphere, which is above the mesosphere.
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Although Docker helped popularize a new generation of container software, it has competition from groups like Mesosphere and Google's Kubernetes.
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As Mesosphere CEO and co-founder Florian Leibert told me, the company plans to continue to heavily invest in engineering.
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His popularity, based on the raft of toys, fashion collaborations and multimillion dollar auction results, hovers somewhere near the mesosphere.
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The remaining matter broke away in fizzing sparks that produced a short-lived but beautiful starburst display streaking through the mesosphere.
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Noctilucent, or "night-shining," clouds are Earth's highest clouds, located in an upper layer of our planet's atmosphere called the mesosphere.
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We previously reported that Mesosphere was raising this round (and including Microsoft as a strategic investor) at a $600 million valuation.
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Microsoft did attempt to acquire Mesosphere but ultimately the deal didn't work out, a source familiar with the matter told CNBC.
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Qatar Investment Authority invested in Mesosphere, a hybrid cloud platform company, and Temasek invested in China's facial recognition company SenseTime in April.
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They currently have 300 employees, 125 customers and are on a $50 million revenue run rate, according to information supplied by Mesosphere .
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Hewlett Packard Enterprise, an older company struggling to find its way in the new landscape, was one of the investors in Mesosphere.
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When it is not jokingly referred to as the ignorosphere, this atmospheric layer is called the mesosphere-lower thermosphere-ionosphere (MLTI) region.
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Last week, a San Francisco company called Mesosphere, which makes a way to operate among various corporate and public clouds, raised $73.5 million.
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Mesosphere is launching an updated version of its DC/OS platform for running microservices and big data applications in private and public clouds.
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But in a call with CNBC, Mesosphere executives suggested that wasn't right because its DC/OS offering does more than just run containers.
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This boundary is somewhat arbitrary, but it's located between the mesosphere and the thermosphere—a kind of end-of-the-line for the atmosphere.
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In context: Mesosphere is among several companies, including Google, that are helping to popularize new tools for managing servers, data centers, and cloud computing.
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Mesosphere had previously raised $124 million in funding from investors like Hewlett Packard, Intel, Microsoft, Khosla Ventures, Andreessen Horowitz, Data Collective, and Fuel Capital.
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J.P. With "Generations," his new album for 25-piece orchestra, Mr. Landrus, a baritone saxophonist, takes the jazz big band tradition into the mesosphere.
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Mesosphere, a San Francisco-based maker of a "data center operating system," is raising $40 million in new funding, Axios has learned from multiple sources.
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"At the time, we believed Mesosphere DC/OS to be one of the most exciting new enterprise operating system since Linux," HPE's Bob Moore writes today.
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HPE today announced that it has signed a global reseller agreement with Mesosphere to bring that company's container-centric DC/OS platform to its customer's data centers.
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Having Microsoft, HPE and others on board and establishing a more formal relationship with them may just allow Mesosphere to develop its core tools a bit faster.
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Indeed, I can't help but think that this move by Mesosphere is actually going to make it harder for Docker to find its own niche going forward.
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Mesosphere, a company that created an operating system of sorts for the modern datacenter, announced today that it has raised $125 million for their Series D round.
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The previous name, Mesosphere, was a reference to the Apache Mesos software project — which confused customers as the company expanded into Kubernetes, said D2iQ CEO Mike Fey.
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Docker says the team will work on creating a commercial distribution for Aurora (which would compete with the likes of Mesosphere) and integrating Aurora with Docker Swarm.
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Homebrew and Susa Ventures also participated, along with various angel investors, including Docker co-founder Solomon Hykes, Mesosphere co-founder Florian Leibert and Looker co-founder Ben Porterfield.
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The whole thing gets shot into the mesosphere when Bieber seamlessly segues into his own timeless classic, "One Time," positioning himself into the same pantheon as the Hip.
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On Wednesday the San Francisco start-up Mesosphere announced the upcoming availability of a beta version of Google-led open-source software called Kubernetes inside its flagship software.
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As far as container orchestration goes, Kubernetes is quickly becoming the de facto standard, even as Docker Swarm and Mesos/Mesosphere DC/OS continue to find their own niches.
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The problem with the old name Mesosphere was its focus on Mesos, says Fey, who took over for co-founder Florian Leibert last December to help grow the company.
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Virgin Galactic Unveils New SpaceShipTwo, The VSS Unity Today's went to Mach 2.47 and got up to 170,800 feet, touching the Earth's mesosphere before gliding down to a soft landing.
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Now, Mesosphere is pushing its open-source strategy further by launching a fully open-sourced version of DC/OS (which also previously didn't have that forward slash in its name).
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It's also the time of year, as winter ends, when the mesosphere is the coldest place on the planet, featuring temperatures as low as -210 degrees Fahrenheit (-135 degrees Celsius).
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Micrometeorites entering our atmosphere today chemically interact with the upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere Typically, space debris burns up in our atmosphere and becomes the shooting stars we see at night.
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In addition, Microsoft made a strategic investment in the company (and Microsoft reportedly tried to buy Mesosphere at one point last year, something Russinovich didn't want to comment on, of course).
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In one way, Mesosphere is mostly following the standard open-source business model of opening up most of its software and then selling specific tools and services on top of that.
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Fuel also has stakes in an impressive number of fast-growing and highly valued companies, including Katerra, Flexport and Convoy — all so-called unicorns — along with Figma, Mesosphere, CTRL-Labs and Lattice.
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These platforms are all open source, are improving rapidly with both company and community backing, and both Docker and Mesosphere offer commercial support and services to ensure successful deployments by traditional businesses.
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Other updates include better support for Mesosphere in Magnum, OpenStack's main project for making container orchestration services part of its stack, as well as Docker Swarm support for its Kuryr container networking service.
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And then of course came the more existential question: Why did Space Force need a camouflage pattern at all, since none of its personnel would ever actually be fighting out beyond the mesosphere?
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This announcement is going to come as quite a surprise to many, given that Mesosphere has long offered its own container orchestration tool for DC/OS and Apache Mesos in the form of Marathon.
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"To address the needs of our mutual customers, we are continuing to work with Docker and Mesosphere to offer enhanced integration of their enterprise offers in our Azure Marketplace," Monroy writes in today's announcement.
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Ten-Forward Vodka, made by Silver Screen Bottling Company and CBS Consumer Products, is created by sending a small batch of the alcohol out into the earth's mesosphere using a high-altitude balloon, Food & Wine reported .
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Before, it was called Mesosphere, with its name stemming from the open source Apache Mesos software that allows users to manage "clusters" of servers, helping manage resources across both their own data centers and the cloud.
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At first, the company worked with Mesosphere to allow its users to run its DC/OS on Azure; the two companies are also partnering to bring DC/OS support to Windows and Hyper-V containers, as well.
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" As for choosing HPE as the lead investor, Leibert noted that "combining the Mesosphere DCOS with HPE hardware is an unbeatable proposition and will accelerate the transformation of the datacenter from the old world to the new.
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Two years ago Mesosphere did incorporate a modified version of Kubernetes, an alternative to the Marathon system it primarily supports, into its DC/OS tool, which can operate databases and other software in addition to deploying containers.
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Mesosphere, the container-centric company that aims to help enterprises better utilize their data centers with the help of its Data Center Operating System (DCOS), today announced that it has raised a $73.5 million Series C funding round.
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The company also announced a healthy $9.3 million Series A investment led by Bain Capital Ventures and Mayfield along with individual investors including Sanjay Poonen, COO of VMware; Tobias Knaup, CTO of Mesosphere; and Prabhu Goel, founder of Verilog.
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"DC/OS is built around technologies that have automated infrastructure and application development at large web and consumer-technology companies, but is designed for use by all companies from startups to global enterprises," said Mesosphere co-founder and CEO Florian Leibert.
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The company asked him to create a parachute for rockets that can reach the mesosphere; Schjeldahl wanted to get into the business of gathering meteorological data at 200,0003 feet, where the atmospheric density happens to be similar to that on Mars.
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About a year ago, though, the company also launched Habitat, a more application-centric service that allows developers to package up their code for deployment on a wide variety of platforms, ranging from containers and VMs to Mesosphere and Cloud Foundry.
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Mesosphere's core technology called DC/OS, provides a way to manage datacenter resources, whether private or in the public cloud, much more efficiently than traditional tools by treating the entire datacenter as a single pool of resources, Tobias Knaup, Mesosphere CTO explained.
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The deadly projectile might ricochet downward, nose tilted up, on layers of atmosphere — the mesosphere, then the stratosphere and troposphere — like an oblate stone on water, in smaller and shallower skips, or it might be directed to pass smoothly through these layers.
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Companies can run DC/OS atop public clouds or on their own data center infrastructure, and doing so can be more cost-effective than raw public cloud because of its typical pricing model, Mesosphere CEO Florian Leibert told CNBC in an interview.
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Leading the charge in monitoring is Sysdig (disclosure: Bain Capital is an investor, and last week we announced a $15M Series B financing that we co-led with Accel Partners), who announced recently their partnerships with Kubernetes and Mesosphere to enable more consistent application deployment.
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Products from Docker, the Google-created project Kubernetes, and the container management and on-demand data services platform DC/OS from my company, Mesosphere, are just three examples of the tools that are increasingly being used by companies to bring the cloud back in-house.
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Before joining Mesosphere, he helped scale two other successful open source companies: Acquia, which provides commercial support, services and cloud infrastructure for the popular open source web experience development tool Drupal; and NGINX, which powers more than half of the world's most popular web applications.
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Products from Docker, the Google-created project Kubernetes and the container management and on-demand data services platform DC/OS from my company, Mesosphere, are several examples of the tools that are increasingly being used by companies as the basis for their next-generation computing.
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Before joining Mesosphere, he helped scale two other successful open source companies: Acquia, which provides commercial support, services and cloud infrastructure for the open source web experience development tool Drupal; and NGINX, which powers more than half of the world's most popular web applications.
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Mesosphere has taken on a mix of traditional venture capitalists, international funding authorities and strategic corporate backers, but the presence of T Rowe Price and the size of the round could be a signal that the company intends to go public at some point.
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"In bringing Kubernetes to DC/OS, Mesosphere provides customers with a robust platform for building, deploying, and operating data-rich, containerized applications in your data center and on public clouds," said Allan Naim, a Google product manager in charge of Kubernetes and the Google Container Engine.
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Mesosphere, which was one of the early companies to adopt containers and which focuses on allowing businesses to run their big data and analytics workloads in the cloud, today announced that it now also supports Kubernetes on its DC/OS platform for running big data applications in the cloud.
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He protects his own rim with the strategy and pizzazz of an anti-ballistic missile system, threatens the structural integrity of the rim he's dunking on more than any player since Shaquille O'Neal, and stays remarkably healthy for someone who makes his living launching nearly seven feet and 265 pounds into the low mesosphere dozens of times every game.
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Packaging Joe Beda (formerly of Google, now an EIR at Accel, and advisor to Shippable and CoreOS) argues that the container community has focused heavily on environments to host containers (such as CoreOS and others), and tools to orchestrate containers (such as Docker Swarm, Kubernetes, Mesosphere and others), but not enough on tools to better understand what's going inside the container itself.
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Companies like Red Hat (which built its business on the open-source Linux operating system), Hortonworks (built on Hadoop, a data processing and storage technology), Docker (containerization, used in data centers), Mesosphere (similar to Docker), and Mongo DB (a type of database) all aim to make money by selling other software, consulting, or support services that piggyback along with the core open source product that customers actually want.
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Within the mesosphere, temperature decreases with increasing height, due to decreasing absorption of solar radiation by the rarefied atmosphere and increasing cooling by CO2 radiative emission. The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause, is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere. Temperatures in the upper mesosphere fall as low as , varying according to latitude and season.
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In addition, parts of the mesosphere fall inside the ionosphere, meaning the air is ionized due to solar radiation. The ability to conduct military activities in the mesosphere gives a country some significant military potential.
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Space Shuttle Endeavour to straddle the stratosphere and mesosphere in this photo. The troposphere, which contains clouds, appears orange in this photo. Diagram showing the five primary layers of the Earth's atmosphere: exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. The layers are to scale.
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The main most important features in this region are strong zonal (East-West) winds, atmospheric tides, internal atmospheric gravity waves (commonly called "gravity waves"), and planetary waves. Most of these tides and waves start in the troposphere and lower stratosphere, and propagate to the mesosphere. In the mesosphere, gravity-wave amplitudes can become so large that the waves become unstable and dissipate. This dissipation deposits momentum into the mesosphere and largely drives global circulation.
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22-24 Other metal layers, e.g. iron and potassium, exist in the upper mesosphere/lower thermosphere region as well. Beginning in October 2018,The "dunes" were first spotted by photographers in Finland and Sweden. a distinct type of aurora has been identified, originating in the mesosphere.
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The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket- powered aircraft.
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The orange layer is the troposphere, which gives way to the whitish stratosphere and then the blue mesosphere.
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Software startup Mesosphere, Inc. sells the Datacenter Operating System, a distributed operating system, based on Apache Mesos. In September 2015, Microsoft announced a commercial partnership with Mesosphere to build container scheduling and orchestration services for Microsoft Azure. In October 2015, Oracle announced support for Mesos through Oracle Container Cloud Service.
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The TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics) is an orbiter mission dedicated to study the dynamics of the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) portion of the Earth's atmosphere. The mission was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on December 7, 2001 aboard a Delta II rocket launch vehicle.
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The presence of red sprites and blue jets (electrical discharges or lightning within the lower mesosphere), noctilucent clouds, and density shears within this poorly understood layer are of current scientific interest. On February 3, 2003, broke up on reentry at about altitude, in the lower mesosphere, killing all seven crew members.
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According to Daly, the base of the solid Earth mesosphere could extend to the base of the mantle (and, thus, to the top of the core). A derivative term, mesoplates, was introduced as a heuristic, based on a combination of "mesosphere" and "plate", for postulated reference frames in which mantle hotspots apparently exist.
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Mesosphere DC/OS (short for Datacenter Operating System), is an open-source, distributed operating system built with Apache Mesos. It was developed by Mesosphere and announced in April 2016. The difference between DC/OS and other cluster managers is the ability to provide dedicated container scheduling. The latest release, DC/OS 2.1.
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Mesosphere is an American technology company based in San Francisco, California which develops software for data centers based on Apache Mesos. It calls its product Datacenter Operating System.
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The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season (higher in winter and at the tropics, lower in summer and at the poles), but the lower boundary is usually located at altitudes from above the Earth's surface and the upper boundary (the mesopause) is usually around . The stratosphere and the mesosphere are sometimes collectively referred to as the "middle atmosphere", which spans altitudes approximately between 12 and 80 km above Earth's surface. The mesopause, at an altitude of , separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere—the second-outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere. This is the turbopause, below which different chemical species are well-mixed due to turbulent eddies.
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Ayaks was initially a classified Soviet spaceplane project aimed to design a new kind of global range hypersonic cruise vehicle capable of flying and conducting a variety of military missions in the mesosphere. The original concept revolved around a hypersonic reconnaissance aircraft project, but later was expanded into the wider concept of hypersonic multi-purpose military and civilian jets, as well as a SSTO platform for launching satellites. The mesosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere from to high, above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It is very difficult to fly in the mesosphere — the air is too rarefied for aircraft wings to generate lift, but sufficiently dense to cause aerodynamic drag on satellites.
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This helps the Earth. Noctilucent clouds are located in the mesosphere. The upper mesosphere is also the region of the ionosphere known as the D layer, which is only present during the day when some ionization occurs with nitric oxide being ionized by Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation. The ionization is so weak that when night falls, and the source of ionization is removed, the free electron and ion form back into a neutral molecule.
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Gerardi was also shortlisted in the Kruger Cowne One Young World Rising Star Programme. In 2016 she was listed on the Center for Development and Strategy's Top 30 Under 30 Leaders of Tomorrow. In 2018, Gerardi was named as a Scientist-Astronaut Candidate with Project PoSSUM (Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere), the first crewed suborbital spaceflight research program. The crew will study noctilucent clouds in the mesosphere, and their relation to global climate change.
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The Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics, or TIMED, mission explores Earth's mesosphere and lower thermosphere (40–50 miles up), the least explored and understood region of the atmosphere. Solar events, as well as temperature changes in the stratosphere can perturb this region, but the overall structure of and responses to these effects are not understood. Advances in remote sensing technology employed by TIMED enable it to explore this region on a global basis from space.
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Structure of the Earth. The mesosphere is labeled as Stiffer mantle in this diagram. The lower mantle, historically also known as the mesosphere, represents approximately 56% of the Earth's total volume, and is the region from 660 to 2900 km below the Earth's surface; between the transition zone and the outer core. The Preliminary reference Earth model (PREM) separates the lower mantle into three sections, the uppermost (660–770 km), mid-lower mantle (770–2700 km), and the D layer (2700–2900 km).
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These echoes come from equatorial irregularities generated in troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, equatorial electrojet, E and F region. Given the strength of the echoes, usually low power transmitters and/or smaller antenna sections are used.
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On May 7, 2018, the company announced that it had accumulated $125 million for their Series D round for its hybrid cloud platform. As of August 05, 2019, Mesosphere Inc. has been renamed to D2iQ.
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Space Shuttle Endeavour appears to straddle the stratosphere and mesosphere in this photo. "The orange layer is the troposphere, where all of the weather and clouds are generated and contained. This orange layer gives way to the whitish Stratosphere and then into the Mesosphere." (The shuttle is actually orbiting at more than in altitude, far above this transition layer.) This image shows the temperature trend in the lower stratosphere as measured by a series of satellite-based instruments between January 1979 and December 2005.
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From Earth's surface to the top of the stratosphere (50 km) is just under 1% of Earth's radius. The mesosphere (; from Greek mesos, "middle") is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases. This characteristic is used to define its limits: it begins at the top of the stratosphere (sometimes called the stratopause), and ends at the mesopause, which is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere with temperatures below .
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The mesosphere lies above altitude records for aircraft, while only the lowest few kilometers are accessible to balloons, for which the altitude record is 53.0 km. Meanwhile, the mesosphere is below the minimum altitude for orbital spacecraft due to high atmospheric drag. It has only been accessed through the use of sounding rockets, which are only capable of taking mesospheric measurements for a few minutes per mission. As a result, it is the least-understood part of the atmosphere, resulting in the humorous moniker ignorosphere.
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Mesosphere (not to be confused with mesosphere, a layer of the atmosphere) is derived from "mesospheric shell", coined by Reginald Aldworth Daly, a Harvard University geology professor. In the pre-plate tectonics era, Daly (1940) inferred that the outer Earth consisted of three spherical layers: lithosphere (including the crust), asthenosphere, and mesospheric shell. Daly's hypothetical depths to the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary ranged from , and the top of the mesospheric shell (base of the asthenosphere) were from . Thus, Daly's asthenosphere was inferred to be thick.
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Atmospheric tides dominate the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere, essential to understanding the atmosphere as a whole. Other phenomena studied are upper-atmospheric lightning discharges, such as red sprites, sprite halos or blue jets.
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Maureen D. Long is an observational seismologist studying mantle and Mesosphere dynamics. She currently serves as a professor at Yale University within the Department of Geology and Geophysics."The People of Geology and Geophysics." Yale University, people.earth.yale.
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More specifically, it studies about the transport of water from the troposphere to the stratosphere, and circulation of the stratosphere and mesosphere driven by internal gravity waves. Convective processes of the troposphere affect the transport of water vapour-a green house gas, and its circulation in both the stratosphere and mesosphere. By analysing the processes that occur in these layers, can improve atmospheric models, and provide a better understanding of Earth's climate and weather. The experiment also studies how much water the cloud turrets can carry into the stratosphere, and how lightning influences their formation.
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The stratosphere, extending from the top of the troposphere to the bottom of the mesosphere, contains the ozone layer. The ozone layer ranges in altitude between 15 and 35 km, and is where most of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is absorbed. The top of the mesosphere, ranges from 50 to 85 km, and is the layer wherein most meteors burn up. The thermosphere extends from 85 km to the base of the exosphere at 400 km and contains the ionosphere, a region where the atmosphere is ionized by incoming solar radiation.
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While primarily an astronomical research facility, the observatory also hosts two geophysics research stations, one studying the mesosphere and thermosphere, and one using lasers to probe the troposphere and stratosphere, studying aerosol and ozone content, using lidar techniques.
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Diagram showing the five primary layers of the Earth's atmosphere: exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. The layers are to scale. From Earth's surface to the top of the stratosphere (50 km) is just under 1% of Earth's radius.
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The mesopause is the point of minimum temperature at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions. Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide, the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 °C (-148 °F or 173 K).International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. "mesosphere". Compendium of Chemical Terminology Internet edition The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km (53 mi.), but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km (62 mi). Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly).
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SCIAMACHY was conceived to improve global knowledge and understanding of a variety of issues of importance for the chemistry and physics of the Earth's atmosphere (troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere) and potential changes resulting from either anthropogenic behavior or natural phenomena.
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They are visible only during local summer months and when the Sun is below the observer's horizon, but while these very high clouds are still in sunlight. Recent studies suggest that increased atmospheric methane emissions produce additional water vapor once the methane molecules reach the mesosphere – creating, or reinforcing existing noctilucent clouds. They are the highest clouds in Earth's atmosphere, located in the mesosphere at altitudes of around . They are too faint to be seen in daylight, and are visible only when illuminated by sunlight from below the horizon while the lower layers of the atmosphere are in Earth's shadow.
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The mesosphere of Venus extends from 65 km to 120 km in height, and the thermosphere begins at approximately 120 km, eventually reaching the upper limit of the atmosphere (exosphere) at about 220 to 350 km. The exosphere begins when the atmosphere becomes so thin that the average number of collisions per air molecule is less than one. The mesosphere of Venus can be divided into two layers: the lower one between 62–73 kmThis thickness corresponds to the polar latitudes. It is narrower near the equator—65–67 km. and the upper one between 73–95 km.
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The circulation patterns in the upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus are completely different from those in the lower atmosphere. At altitudes 90–150 km the Venusian air moves from the dayside to nightside of the planet, with upwelling over sunlit hemisphere and downwelling over dark hemisphere. The downwelling over the nightside causes adiabatic heating of the air, which forms a warm layer in the nightside mesosphere at the altitudes 90–120 km. The temperature of this layer—230 K (−43 °C)—is far higher than the typical temperature found in the nightside thermosphere—100 K (−173 °C).
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The Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) is a measurement instrument aboard NASA's Thermal Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics Dynamics (TIMED) satellite. The instrument measures ozone (and other atmospheric conditions) through an infrared radiometer (with a spectral range from 1.27 μm to 17 μm).
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At ground level, atmospheric tides can be detected as regular but small oscillations in surface pressure with periods of 24 and 12 hours. However, at greater heights, the amplitudes of the tides can become very large. In the mesosphere (heights of ~ 50-100 km) atmospheric tides can reach amplitudes of more than 50 m/s and are often the most significant part of the motion of the atmosphere. The reason for this dramatic growth in amplitude from tiny fluctuations near the ground to oscillations that dominate the motion of the mesosphere lies in the fact that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing height.
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The TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics) is an orbiter mission dedicated to study the dynamics of the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) portion of the Earth's atmosphere. The mission was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on December 7, 2001 aboard a Delta II rocket launch vehicle. The project is sponsored and managed by NASA, while the spacecraft was designed and assembled by the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University. The mission has been extended several times, and has now collected data over an entire solar cycle, which helps in its goal to differentiate the Sun's effects on the atmosphere from other effects.
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DK Space Encyclopedia: Atmosphere of Venus p 58. Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices. Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds. Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere.
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The lower stratosphere is centered around 18 kilometers above Earth's surface. The stratosphere image is dominated by blues and greens, which indicates a cooling over time. Diagram showing the five primary layers of the Earth's atmosphere: exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. The layers are to scale.
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"An acronym for Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere, PoSSUM grew from the opportunity created by the Noctilucent Cloud Imagery and Tomography Experiment, selected by the NASA Flight Opportunities Program as Experiment 46-S in March 2012."Messier, Doug. Project PoSSUM Graduates First Class of Scientist-Astronauts.
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Tidal Observations. Retrieved on 2008-04-15. However, at greater heights the amplitudes of the tides can become very large. In the mesosphere (heights of ~ 50 – 100 km) atmospheric tides can reach amplitudes of more than 50 m/s and are often the most significant part of the motion of the atmosphere.
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Air currents are concentrated areas of winds. They are mainly due to differences in pressure or temperature. They are divided into horizontal and vertical currents; both are present at mesoscale while horizontal ones dominate at synoptic scale. Air currents are not only found in the troposphere, but extend to the stratosphere and mesosphere.
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This reaction marks the boundary between upper mantle and lower mantle. This measurement is estimated from seismic data and high- pressure laboratory experiments. The base of the mesosphere includes the D″ zone which lies just above the mantle–core boundary at approximately . The base of the lower mantle is at about 2700 km.
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Many atmospheric dispersion models are referred to as boundary layer models because they mainly model air pollutant dispersion within the ABL. To avoid confusion, models referred to as mesoscale models have dispersion modeling capabilities that extend horizontally up to a few hundred kilometres. It does not mean that they model dispersion in the mesosphere.
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A major seasonal difference is that convective lift from below the mesosphere pushes very scarce water vapor to higher colder altitudes required for cloud formation during the respective summer seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres. Sightings are rare more than 45 degrees south of the north pole or north of the south pole.
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It incorporates all of the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lower part of the thermosphere. Chemically the homosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace amounts of other molecules, such as argon and carbon dioxide. It contains over 99% of the mass of the Earth's atmosphere. The density of air decreases with height in the homosphere.
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Most of the ozone production occurs in the tropical upper stratosphere and mesosphere. The total mass of ozone produced per day over the globe is about 400 million metric tons. The global mass of ozone is relatively constant at about 3 billion metric tons, meaning the Sun produces about 12% of the ozone layer each day.
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"The PoSSUM Campaign: Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere. Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colorado. Southwest Research Institute. "PoSSUM will optimize the opportunity created by the "PMC Imagery and Tomography Experiment", a high-latitude campaign selected by the NASA Flight Opportunities Program (Experiment 46-S) to study the small-scale dynamics of PMCs (polar mesospheric clouds).
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The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar (10 MPa to 10 kPa); the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between and pressures of between (10 kPa to 10 µPa); and the thermosphere extending from 4,000 km to as high as 50,000 km from the surface. There is no mesosphere.
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Atmospheric tides are global-scale periodic oscillations of the atmosphere. In many ways they are analogous to ocean tides. Atmospheric tides form an important mechanism for transporting energy input into the lower atmosphere from the upper atmosphere, while dominating the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere. Therefore, learning about atmospheric tides is essential in understanding the atmosphere as a whole.
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Clouds that form in the mesosphere have a generally cirriform structure, but are not given Latin names based on that characteristic. Polar mesospheric clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and are given the Latin name noctilucent which refers to their illumination during deep twilight. They are sub-classified alpha-numerically according to specific details of their cirriform physical structure.
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And last, to quantify the level of probability in any mathematical form is problematic.Schaum's Outlines, Logic, pp. 243–35 By what standard do we measure our Earthly sample of known life against all (possible) life? For suppose we do discover some new organism—let's say some microorganism floating in the mesosphere, or better yet, on some asteroid—and it is cellular.
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Jöckel, P. et al., (2006) The atmospheric chemistry general circulation model ECHAM5/MESSy: Consistent simulation of ozone from the surface to the mesosphere. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6, 5067-5104, doi:10.5194/acp-6-5067-2006. He showed that the increase of methane not only directly causes climate warming, but also indirectly through chemical reactions in the troposphere and stratosphere.
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The tides form an important mechanism for transporting energy from the lower atmosphere into the upper atmosphere, while dominating the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere. Therefore, understanding the atmospheric tides is essential in understanding the atmosphere as a whole. Modeling and observations of atmospheric tides are needed in order to monitor and predict changes in the Earth's atmosphere (see ).
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This view from orbit shows the full moon partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere. Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind.
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The ionosphere is a shell of electrons and electrically charged atoms and molecules that surrounds the Earth, stretching from a height of about to more than . It exists primarily due to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere, the troposphere extends from the surface to about . Above that is the stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere.
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Unlike Earth's, Uranus's atmosphere has no mesosphere. The troposphere hosts four cloud layers: methane clouds at about 1.2 bar, hydrogen sulfide and ammonia clouds at 3–10 bar, ammonium hydrosulfide clouds at 20–40 bar, and finally water clouds below 50 bar. Only the upper two cloud layers have been observed directly—the deeper clouds remain speculative. Above the clouds lie several tenuous layers of photochemical haze.
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It is a result of greenhouse effect, caused by methane. The mean temperature of the surface is (measured in 2005), and the mean value for the whole atmosphere is (2008). At height the temperature reaches its maximum (; stratopause) and then slowly decreases (about ; mesosphere). Causes of this decrease are unclear; it could be related to the cooling effect of carbon monoxide, or hydrogen cyanide, or other reasons.
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Galileo atmospheric probe stopped transmitting at a depth of 132 km below the 1 bar "surface" of Jupiter. The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere. Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior.
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The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind. (image not to scale.) The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon.
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This event was probably caused by an injection of sulfur dioxide into the mesosphere, which then condensed, forming a bright haze. The two eyes in the vortices have yet to be explained. Galileo. The dark spots are clouds silhouetted against the very hot lower atmosphere emitting thermal infrared radiation. The first vortex on Venus was discovered at the north pole by the Pioneer Venus mission in 1978.
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Cumulus clouds in May Terrestrial clouds can be found throughout most of the homosphere, which includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Within these layers of the atmosphere, air can become saturated as a result of being cooled to its dew point or by having moisture added from an adjacent source. In the latter case, saturation occurs when the dew point is raised to the ambient air temperature.
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Bruce Martin Jakosky (born December 9, 1955) is a professor of Geological Sciences and associate director of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He has been involved with the Viking, Solar Mesosphere Explorer, Clementine, Mars Observer, Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Science Laboratory and MAVEN spacecraft missions, and is involved in planning future spacecraft missions.
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By some definitions, Venus has no stratosphere. The troposphere begins at the surface and extends up to an altitude of 65 kilometres (an altitude at which the mesosphere has already been reached on Earth). At the top of the troposphere, temperature and pressure reach Earth-like levels. Winds at the surface are a few metres per second, reaching 70 m/s or more in the upper troposphere.
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The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about up to the thermopause at an altitude range of . The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase.
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MinIO server is hardware agnostic and works on a variety of physical and virtual/container environments. This allows it to run in containers running on commodity servers with local disks, and still have enterprise-level data safety and scalability. MinIO server can be installed on physical or virtual machines or launched as Docker containers and deployed on container orchestration platforms like Kubernetes, Mesosphere, and Docker Swarm.
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The OGO-6 observations of a bright scattering layer over the polar caps were identified as poleward extensions of these clouds.Gadsden (1995), p.18. A later satellite, the Solar Mesosphere Explorer, mapped the distribution of the clouds between 1981 and 1986 with its ultraviolet spectrometer. The clouds were detected with a lidar in 1995 at Utah State University, even when they were not visible to the naked eye.
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The mesosphere has been called the "ignorosphere" because it is poorly studied relative to the stratosphere (which can be accessed with high-altitude balloons) and the thermosphere (in which satellites can orbit). A deep sodium layer is located between . Made of unbound, non-ionized atoms of sodium, the sodium layer radiates weakly to contribute to the airglow. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimetre.
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Type III billows are arrangements of closely spaced, roughly parallel short streaks that mostly resemble cirrus. Type IV whirls are partial or, more rarely, complete rings of cloud with dark centres. Distribution in the mesosphere is similar to the stratosphere except at much higher altitudes. Because of the need for maximum cooling of the water vapor to produce noctilucent clouds, their distribution tends to be restricted to polar regions of Earth.
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The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about to the mesopause at above sea level. Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around .
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The ionosphere () is the ionized part of Earth's upper atmosphere, from about to altitude, a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation. It plays an important role in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among other functions, it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth.
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There are two main types of laser guide star system, known as sodium and Rayleigh beacon guide stars. Sodium beacons are created by using a laser tuned to 589.2 nanometers to energize atoms in the sodium layer of the mesosphere at an altitude of around . The sodium atoms then re-emit the laser light, producing a glowing artificial star. The same atomic transition of sodium is used in sodium-vapor lamps for street lighting.
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CloudNativeDay 2016 Founded in 2015, the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF) exists to help advance container technology and align the tech industry around its evolution. It was announced with Kubernetes 1.0, an open source container cluster manager, which was contributed to the foundation by Google as a seed technology. Today, CNCF is backed by over 450 sponsors. Founding members include Google, CoreOS, Mesosphere, Red Hat, Twitter, Huawei, Intel, Cisco, IBM, Docker, Univa, and VMware.
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It is the coldest part of the Venusian dayside atmosphere. In the dayside mesopause, which serves as a boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere and is located between 95–120 km, temperature increases to a constant—about 300–400 K (27–127 °C)—value prevalent in the thermosphere. In contrast, the nightside Venusian thermosphere is the coldest place on Venus with temperature as low as 100 K (−173 °C). It is even called a cryosphere.
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Unlike the troposphere, where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up, increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission. This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2. Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause, though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study. Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out.
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They are not common or widespread enough to have a significant effect on climate. However, an increasing frequency of occurrence of noctilucent clouds since the 19th century may be the result of climate change. Noctilucent clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and form near the top of the mesosphere at about ten times the altitude of tropospheric high clouds. From ground level, they can occasionally be seen illuminated by the sun during deep twilight.
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The National Atmospheric Research Laboratory(NARL) is an autonomous Research Institute funded by the Department of Space of the Government of India. NARL is engaged in fundamental and applied research in the field of Atmospheric Sciences. The research institute was started in 1992 as National Mesosphere- Stratosphere-Troposphere (MST) Radar Facility (NMRF). Over the years many other facilities such as Mie/Rayleigh Lidar, Lower atmospheric wind profiler, optical rain gauge, disdrometer, automated weather stations etc.
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Ithaco became notable for having manufactured the reaction wheels of the Kepler spacecraft, the Hayabusa spacecraft, the Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) satellite and the Dawn spacecraft, which developed problems or even failed. The ROSAT reaction wheels lasted over 8 years. Collins Aerospace announced in August 2012 layoffs at Ithaco Space Systems due to Ithaco having been "focused on space programs that have recently seen slower growth", and further layoffs at former Hamilton Sundstrand.
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The final cryogens evaporated from the instrument on May 5, 1993 and the instrument warmed up, ending its useful life. The instrument looked sideways out of the UARS platform to allow the instrument to look through the stratosphere and the lower mesosphere. CLAES produced a 19-month global database showing the vertical distributions of important ozone-layer gases in the stratosphere and their variation with time of day, season, latitude, and longitude.
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Mesosphere was established in 2013 by Benjamin Hindman, Tobias Knaup and Florian Leibert. The Datacenter Operating System (DC/OS) runs on servers in a physical or cloud computing data center, on top of a Linux distribution. In June 2014 the company announced $10.5 million of venture capital investment from Andreessen Horowitz, Data Collective and Fuel Capital. A second round of $36 million investment was announced in December 2014, led by Khosla Ventures.
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It was listed by TechCrunch in 2016 for companies having valuation ranging in between $500 million to $1 billion. It had a 2016 contract with the United States government, and reportedly an investment from In-Q-Tel, controlled by the US Central Intelligence Agency. On 19 April 2016, Mesosphere open-sourced Datacenter Operating System. At the launch, Autodesk announced that they were able to reduce running AWS instances by 66% using DC/OS.
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Her "NASA Blueberry" branding used on her website and other online platforms comes from the call sign she selected at space camp. Alyssa and Burt Carson have traveled together to sixteen countries and NASA visitors centers across nine states. At 15, she participated in the Advanced PoSSUM (Project Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere) Space Academy. At age 16, Carson became the youngest person to complete the space camp program run by the Alabama Space Science Exhibit Commission.
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False colors show intensities of skyglow from artificial light sources Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complex procedure. The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even in the absence of terrestrial sources of light and illumination from the Moon. This is caused by two main sources: airglow and scattered light. At high altitudes, primarily above the mesosphere, there is enough UV radiation from the sun of very short wavelength to cause ionization.
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The stratopause (formerly Mesopeak) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers: the stratosphere and the mesosphere. In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude, and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs. This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth: it occurs on any other planet or moon that has an atmosphere as well. On Earth, the stratopause is high above the Earth's surface.
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Temperature profile of the Uranian troposphere and lower stratosphere. Cloud and haze layers are also indicated. The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three main layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of −300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar; the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures between and the thermosphere/exosphere extending from 4000 km to as high as a few Uranus radii from the surface. There is no mesosphere.
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The observations in the various infrared atmospheric windows indicate that the anticyclonic circulation observed near the poles penetrates as deep as to 50 km altitude, i.e. to the base of the clouds. The polar upper troposphere and mesosphere are extremely dynamic; large bright clouds may appear and disappear over the space of a few hours. One such event was observed by Venus Express between 9 and 13 January 2007, when the south polar region became brighter by 30%.
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Earth atmosphere diagram showing all the layers of the atmosphere to scale The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions; the thermosphere thus constitutes the larger part of the ionosphere. Taking its name from the Greek θερμός (pronounced thermos) meaning heat, the thermosphere begins at about 80 km (50 mi) above sea level.Duxbury & Duxbury.
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The world's first commercial astronaut corps, the Association of Spaceflight Professionals received funding for a series of crewed spaceflight missions through the NASA Flight Opportunities Program in March 2012. Several million dollars have been allocated for detailed spectroscopic analysis of high-altitude noctilucent cloud formations on suborbital flights using rapidly reusable, task-and-deploy spaceplanes.Reimuller, J. et al. PoSSUM: Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2013, abstract id. SA33B-1993. adsabs.harvard.edu.
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The Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF) is a Linux Foundation project that was founded in 2015 to help advance container technology and align the tech industry around its evolution. It was announced alongside Kubernetes 1.0, an open source container cluster manager, which was contributed to the Linux Foundation by Google as a seed technology. Founding members include Google, CoreOS, Mesosphere, Red Hat, Twitter, Huawei, Intel, Cisco, IBM, Docker, Univa, and VMware. Today, CNCF is supported by over 450 members.
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Space Shuttle Endeavour silhouetted against the atmosphere. The orange layer is the troposphere, the white layer is the stratosphere, and the blue layer is the mesosphere. (The shuttle is actually orbiting at an altitude of more than , far above all three layers.) The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, and is also where nearly all weather conditions take place. It contains 75% of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of the total mass of water vapour and aerosols.
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Most observations are reported from the night side of the orbit and the observer is looking towards the twilight sector. At this time the observer's eye is dark-adapted and polar mesospheric clouds would appear with maximum contrast against a comparatively dark background. Soviet astronauts have reported sightings of mesospheric clouds even when the Sun is above the horizon. Satellite observations allow the very coldest parts of the polar mesosphere to be observed, all the way to the geographic pole.
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This instrument, which is attached to the Canadian satellite SCISAT, has shown that nitrous oxide is present throughout the entire atmosphere during all seasons, primarily due to energetic particle precipitation. Measurements taken by the instrument show that different reactions create nitrous oxide in the lower thermosphere than in the mid to upper mesosphere. The ACE-FTS is a crucial resource in predicting future ozone depletion in the upper stratosphere by comparing the different ways in which nitrous oxide is released into the atmosphere.
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The stratosphere and mesosphere extend from 65 km to 95 km in height. The thermosphere and exosphere begin at around 95 kilometres, eventually reaching the limit of the atmosphere at about 220 to 250 km. The air pressure at Venus' surface is about 92 times that of the Earth. The enormous amount of CO2 in the atmosphere creates a strong greenhouse effect, raising the surface temperature to around 470 °C, hotter than that of any other planet in the Solar System.
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In the Earth's atmosphere, gravity waves are a mechanism that produce the transfer of momentum from the troposphere to the stratosphere and mesosphere. Gravity waves are generated in the troposphere by frontal systems or by airflow over mountains. At first, waves propagate through the atmosphere without appreciable change in mean velocity. But as the waves reach more rarefied (thin) air at higher altitudes, their amplitude increases, and nonlinear effects cause the waves to break, transferring their momentum to the mean flow.
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An alternative is the use of a laser beam to generate a reference light source (a laser guide star, LGS) in the atmosphere. There are two kinds of LGSs: Rayleigh guide stars and sodium guide stars. Rayleigh guide stars work by propagating a laser, usually at near ultraviolet wavelengths, and detecting the backscatter from air at altitudes between . Sodium guide stars use laser light at 589 nm to resonantly excite sodium atoms higher in the mesosphere and thermosphere, which then appear to "glow".
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The magnetosphere guides cosmic ray and solar energetic particles to polar latitudes, while high energy charged particles enter the mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. These energetic particles at the top of the atmosphere shatter atmospheric atoms and molecules, creating harmful lower energy particles that penetrate deep into the atmosphere and create measurable radiation. All aircraft flying above 8 km (26,200 feet) altitude are exposed to these particles. The dose exposure is greater in polar regions than at mid-latitude and equatorial regions.
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The first physical confirmation that water ice is indeed the primary component of noctilucent clouds came from the HALOE instrument on the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite in 2001. In 2001, the Swedish Odin satellite performed spectral analyses on the clouds, and produced daily global maps that revealed large patterns in their distribution. On April 25, 2007, the AIM satellite (Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere) was launched. It is the first satellite dedicated to studying noctilucent clouds, and made its first observations on May 25, 2007.
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Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation, growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds. These aerosols are found in the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere, which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere. Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water (warm clouds), tiny crystals of ice (cold clouds), or both (mixed phase clouds). Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory.
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Diagram showing the five primary layers of the Earth's atmosphere: exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. The layers are to scale. From the Earth's surface to the top of the stratosphere (50km) is just under 1% of Earth's radius. The exosphere ( "outside, external, beyond", "sphere") is a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body, but where the density is too low for them to behave as a gas by colliding with each other.
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SABER had a flaw in its optical filter that caused it to overestimate water vapor levels; this error was discovered and the data were corrected.Rong 2019, p. 3-4. Based on the corrected data, SABER found that between 2002 and 2018, water vapor levels in the lower stratosphere were increasing at an average rate of 0.25 ppmv (around 5%) per decade, and in the upper stratosphere and mesosphere, water vapor levels were increasing at an average rate of 0.1-0.2 ppmv (around 2-3%) per decade.
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The plot is centered on a colossal blast of heavily chilled mesosphere air spreading over the Earth after a solar eclipse, which (combined with the effects of environmental pollution), causes a hole to open in the ozone layer. The catastrophic event threatens to engulf the entire world in ice. As Hobart, Tasmania, is hit by the cold front with temperatures of below −70°C, causing people to die almost instantaneously, physicist Jack Tate (Michael Shanks) tries to find a solution while protecting his family.
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The object displaces the water or medium the wave is travelling through and the medium moves in an upward motion. However, because of gravity, the water or medium is pulled back down and the repetition of this cycle creates the transverse wave motion. The undular bore's wavelength can measure peak to peak and can travel to . The medium it travels through is the atmosphere. There are several varying types of ‘‘bores’’ in different layers of the atmosphere, such as the mesospheric bore which occurs in the mesosphere.
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Ongoing research indicates that convective lift in the mesosphere is strong enough during the polar summer to cause adiabatic cooling of small amount of water vapour to the point of saturation. This tends to produce the coldest temperatures in the entire atmosphere just below the mesopause. These conditions result in the best environment for the formation of polar mesospheric clouds. There is also evidence that smoke particles from burnt-up meteors provide much of the condensation nuclei required for the formation of noctilucent cloud.
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It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft. orbiting in the thermosphere. Because of the angle of the photo, it appears to straddle the stratosphere and mesosphere that actually lie more than below.
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The Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) is a satellite originally launched to conduct a 26-month study of noctilucent clouds (NLCs). Its mission was extended, and as of 2019 is still operational. It is the ninetieth Explorer program mission and is part of the NASA-funded Small Explorer program (SMEX). On April 25, 2007 AIM was boosted into a high polar orbit by a Pegasus-XL rocket, which was air-launched from the Lockheed L-1011 Stargazer aircraft operated by Orbital Sciences.
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A meteoroid of the Perseids with a size of about ten millimetres entering the earth's atmosphere in real time. The meteorid is at the bright head of the trail, and the ionisation of the mesosphere is still visible in the tail. The entry of meteoroids into Earth's atmosphere produces three main effects: ionization of atmospheric molecules, dust that the meteoroid sheds, and the sound of passage. During the entry of a meteoroid or asteroid into the upper atmosphere, an ionization trail is created, where the air molecules are ionized by the passage of the meteor.
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The relatively recent creation of miniaturized silicon drift detectors has enabled the MinXSS measurements. MinXSS data will provide a means of probing the solar corona—especially in active regions and solar flares—and will be used as an input for models of the Earth's upper atmosphere, particularly the ionosphere, thermosphere, and mesosphere. 550x550px MinXSS is also the first flight of the Blue Canyon Technologies XACT attitude determination and control system (ADCS), one of the only commercially available 3-axis ADCSs for CubeSats. It is performing even better than its specification.
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Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics is an open access peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the European Geosciences Union. It covers research on the Earth's atmosphere and the underlying chemical and physical processes, including the altitude range from the land and ocean surface up to the turbopause, including the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. The main subject areas comprise atmospheric modelling, field measurements, remote sensing, and laboratory studies of gases, aerosols, clouds and precipitation, isotopes, radiation, dynamics, and biosphere and hydrosphere interactions. Article types published are research and review articles, technical notes, and commentaries.
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The third layer is the mesosphere which extends from 50 km to about 80 km. There are other layers above 80 km, but they are insignificant with respect to atmospheric dispersion modeling. The lowest part of the troposphere is called the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) or the planetary boundary layer (PBL) . The air temperature of the atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude until it reaches what is called an inversion layer (where the temperature increases with increasing altitude) that caps the Convective Boundary Layer, typically to about 1.5 to 2.0 km in height.
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The part of the ABL between the Earth's surface and the bottom of the inversion layer is known as the mixing layer. Almost all of the airborne pollutants emitted into the ambient atmosphere are transported and dispersed within the mixing layer. Some of the emissions penetrate the inversion layer and enter the free troposphere above the ABL. In summary, the layers of the Earth's atmosphere from the surface of the ground upwards are: the ABL made up of the mixing layer capped by the inversion layer; the free troposphere; the stratosphere; the mesosphere and others.
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An Airbus A321 on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus plant at Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport NASA's AIM (Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere) satellite, assembled in clean room An aerospace manufacturer is a company or individual involved in the various aspects of designing, building, testing, selling, and maintaining aircraft, aircraft parts, missiles, rockets, or spacecraft. Aerospace is a high technology industry. The aircraft industry is the industry supporting aviation by building aircraft and manufacturing aircraft parts for their maintenance. This includes aircraft and parts used for civil aviation and military aviation.
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Going upwards from the ground, these are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The density of air is mainly determined by temperature and water vapor content, the density of sea water by temperature and salinity, and the density of lake water by temperature. Where stratification occurs, there may be thin layers in which temperature or some other property changes more rapidly with height or depth than the surrounding fluid. Depending on the main sources of buoyancy, this layer may be called a pycnocline (density), thermocline (temperature), halocline (salinity), or chemocline (chemistry, including oxygenation).
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From Earth's surface to the top of the stratosphere (50 km) is just under 1% of Earth's radius. The stratosphere () is the second major layer of Earth's atmosphere, just above the troposphere, and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is stratified (layered) in temperature, with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth; this increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation (shortened UV) by the ozone layer. This is in contrast to the troposphere, near the Earth's surface, where temperature decreases with altitude.
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The border between the troposphere and stratosphere, the tropopause, marks where this temperature inversion begins. Near the equator, the lower edge of the stratosphere is as high as , at midlatitudes around , and at the poles about Temperatures range from an average of near the tropopause to an average of near the mesosphere. Stratospheric temperatures also vary within the stratosphere as the seasons change, reaching particularly low temperatures in the polar night (winter). Winds in the stratosphere can far exceed those in the troposphere, reaching near in the Southern polar vortex.
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A FASOR used at the alt=A thin bright yellow light beam goes straight up into the sky from an optical instrument The sodium layer is a layer of neutral atoms of sodium within Earth's mesosphere. This layer usually lies within an altitude range of above sea level and has a depth of about . The sodium comes from the ablation of meteors. Atmospheric sodium below this layer is normally chemically bound in compounds such as sodium oxide, while the sodium atoms above the layer tend to be ionized.
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This transfer of momentum is responsible for the forcing of the many large-scale dynamical features of the atmosphere. For example, this momentum transfer is partly responsible for the driving of the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation, and in the mesosphere, it is thought to be the major driving force of the Semi-Annual Oscillation. Thus, this process plays a key role in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere. The effect of gravity waves in clouds can look like altostratus undulatus clouds, and are sometimes confused with them, but the formation mechanism is different.
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Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning-induced discharges known as transient luminous events (TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric thunderclouds.
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In 2015, she was the Commander for NASA's HERA : Human Exploration and Research Analog (HERA) VII at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, a 14-day analog mission to an asteroid Geographos. Patil-Sabale graduated from the PoSSUM (Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere) Scientist-Astronaut program in 2016. In 2017, Patil-Sabale became a Citizen Scientist-Astronaut candidate for the PHEnOM (Physiological, Health, and Environmental Observations in Microgravity) Project. In 2018, she was the Crew Commander of Crew 193 at the Mars Desert Research Station in Utah.
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The air circulated from the dayside also carries oxygen atoms, which after recombination form excited molecules of oxygen in the long-lived singlet state (1Δg), which then relax and emit infrared radiation at the wavelength 1.27 μm. This radiation from the altitude range 90–100 km is often observed from the ground and spacecraft. The nightside upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus is also the source of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium emissions of CO2 and nitric oxide molecules, which are responsible for the low temperature of the nightside thermosphere. The Venus Express probe has shown through stellar occultation that the atmospheric haze extends much further up on the night side than the day side. On the day side the cloud deck has a thickness of 20 km and extends up to about 65 km, whereas on the night side the cloud deck in the form of a thick haze reaches up to 90 km in altitude—well into mesosphere, continuing even further to 105 km as a more transparent haze. In 2011, the spacecraft discovered that Venus has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 km. Venus has an extended ionosphere located at altitudes 120–300 km. The ionosphere almost coincides with the thermosphere.
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Alan Eustace set the current world record for highest and longest-distance free fall jump in 2014 when he jumped from . However, Joseph Kittinger still holds the record for longest-duration free fall, at 4 minutes and 36 seconds, which he accomplished during his 1960 jump from . Higher jumps from the mesosphere or thermosphere have yet to be successfully performed, though Orbital Outfitters,Orbital Outfitters now defunct, was working to create a suit that would have enabled safe space diving. Space diving from beyond the stratosphere was first imagined in 1934, appearing in E. E. "Doc" Smith's science fiction novel Triplanetary.
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Happer describes his laboratory's research interests in atomic physics: "we're interested in the mechanisms that limit the performance of optical pumping systems, such as atomic clocks, magnetometers, and laser guide-star adaptive optics systems."William Happer, Princeton University Happer joined the JASON advisory group in 1976, and he continues to be active there. Happer is credited with a key insight in 1982 that made adaptive optics possible: there is a layer of sodium in the mesosphere, at around 90 to 100 km of elevation, which could be lit by a laser beam to make an artificial guide star.
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In 1940, the Phenix building was leased to the Elizabeth City County school system. to serve as a public high school for black students living in the area. In 1953, the Phenix Training School became a senior high school, serving students in grades 10 through 12, and became George P. Phenix High School. The original building survives as Phenix Hall on the University's campus, and houses several research offices including the Department of Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, who hosts the data center for NASA's Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere mission, the only space mission managed by a historically black university.
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OSIRIS (Optical Spectrograph and InfraRed Imager System) is an instrument that measures vertical profiles of spectrally dispersed, limb scattered sunlight from the upper troposphere into the lower mesosphere. OSIRIS is one of two instruments on the Odin satellite, launched February, 2001 (the other instrument being a sub-mm radiometer) into a sun-synchronous, 6 pm/6 am local time orbit at 600 km. This restricts OSIRIS sunlit observations to the Northern hemisphere in May, June, July August and the Southern hemisphere in November, December, January and February. Global coverage from 82°S to 82°N occurs on the months adjoining the equinoxes.
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In general, amorphous ice can form below ~130 K. At this temperature, water molecules are unable to form the crystalline structure commonly found on Earth. Amorphous ice may also form in the coldest region of the Earth's atmosphere, the summer polar mesosphere, where noctilucent clouds exist. These low temperatures are readily achieved in astrophysical environments such as molecular clouds, circumstellar disks, and the surfaces of objects in the outer solar system. In the laboratory, amorphous ice transforms into crystalline ice if it is heated above 130 K, although the exact temperature of this conversion is dependent on the environment and ice growth conditions.
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The ratio N2/O which is a measure of the electron density at the ionospheric F region is highly affected by these variations.Prölss, G.W., and M. K. Bird, "Physics of the Earth's Space Environment", Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, 2010 These changes follow from the diffusion of the minor constituents through the major gas component during dynamic processes. The thermosphere contains an appreciable concentration of elemental sodium located in a 10-km thick band that occurs at the edge of the mesosphere, 80 to 100 km above Earth's surface. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimeter.
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The giant balloon was loaded with cameras, which captured six million high-resolution images filling up 120 terabytes of data storage, aiming to study the PMCs which are affected by the atmospheric gravity waves, resulted from air being pushed up by mountain ranges all the way up to the mesosphere. These images would aid in studying turbulence in the atmosphere, and consequently better weather forecasting. NASA uses AIM satellite to study these noctilucent clouds, which always occur during the summer season near the poles. However, tomographic analyses of AIM satellite indicate that there is a spatial negative correlation between albedo and wave‐induced altitude.
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Recent advances in high- resolution genetics and X-ray absorption spectroscopy are providing revelations on the biogeochemical relations between microorganisms and minerals that may shed new light on this question. For example, the IMA- commissioned "Working Group on Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry " deals with minerals in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. The group's scope includes mineral-forming microorganisms, which exist on nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe to depths of at least 1600 metres below the sea floor and 70 kilometres into the stratosphere (possibly entering the mesosphere). Biogeochemical cycles have contributed to the formation of minerals for billions of years.
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The largest-amplitude atmospheric tides are mostly generated in the troposphere and stratosphere when the atmosphere is periodically heated, as water vapor and ozone absorb solar radiation during the day. These tides propagate away from the source regions and ascend into the mesosphere and thermosphere. Atmospheric tides can be measured as regular fluctuations in wind, temperature, density and pressure. Although atmospheric tides share much in common with ocean tides they have two key distinguishing features: # Atmospheric tides are primarily excited by the Sun's heating of the atmosphere whereas ocean tides are excited by the Moon's gravitational pull and to a lesser extent by the Sun's gravity.
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SvalSat is part of NASA's Near Earth Network. This includes support for the Earth Observing System, which includes satellites such as Aqua, Aura, Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite, and QuikSCAT, as well as the Small Explorer program which includes Galaxy Evolution Explorer, the Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite, Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission, Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics, Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, and Transition Region and Coronal Explorer. SvalSat and Poker Flat are collectively responsible for half of the network's 140 daily passes. Satellites operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration using SvalSat includes the Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership and the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program.
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ECHAM is a general circulation model (GCM) developed by the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, one of the research organisations of the Max Planck Society. It was created by modifying global forecast models developed by ECMWF to be used for climate research. The model was given its name as a combination of its origin (the 'EC' being short for 'ECMWF') and the place of development of its parameterisation package, Hamburg. The default configuration of the model resolves the atmosphere up to 10 hPa (primarily used to study the lower atmosphere), but it can be reconfigured to 0.01 hPa for use in studying the stratosphere and lower mesosphere.
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In his free time, McDowell conducts research into the history of spaceflight, and since 1989 has written and edited Jonathan's Space Report, a free internet newsletter documenting technical details on satellite launches. This information, obtained from original sources including declassified Department of Defense documents and Russian-language publications, can also be found on McDowell's web site.Jonathan's Space Report In 1994 McDowell published a history of the North American X-15 spaceplane, in which he suggested that 80 km should be adopted as the boundary of space. In the mesosphere, 80 km is nearly equal to 50 mi, the altitude used by the United States to confer astronaut status on pilots, as in the X-15 program itself.
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Schröder (2001), p.2457 Systematic photographic observations of the clouds were organized in 1887 by Jesse, Foerster, and Stolze and, after that year, continuous observations were carried out at the Berlin Observatory.Schröder (2001), p.2459 During this research, the height of the clouds was first determined, via triangulation.Schröder (2001), p.2460 The project was discontinued in 1896. In the decades after Otto Jesse's death in 1901, there were few new insights into the nature of noctilucent clouds. Wegener's conjecture, that they were composed of water ice, was later shown to be correct. Study was limited to ground-based observations and scientists had very little knowledge of the mesosphere until the 1960s, when direct rocket measurements began.
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There are forces throughout the homosphere (which includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere) that can impact the structural integrity of a cloud. It has been speculated that as long as the air remains saturated, the natural force of cohesion that hold the molecules of a substance together may act to keep the cloud from breaking up. However, this speculation has a logical flaw in that the water droplets in the cloud are not in contact with each other and therefore not satisfying the condition required for the intermolecular forces of cohesion to act. Dissolution of the cloud can occur when the process of adiabatic cooling ceases and upward lift of the air is replaced by subsidence.
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The radiant point for the Perseid meteor shower A meteoroid of the Perseids with a size of about ten millimetres entering the Earth's atmosphere in slow motion (x 0.1). The meteoroid is at the bright head of the trail, and the recombination glow of the ionised mesosphere is still visible for about 0.7 seconds in the tail. (Variant of the animation in real time) A near-Earth perspective of its orbit, the radiant of the Perseid meteor shower, and the orbit of the shower's parent comet, 109P/Swift-Tuttle, to show their spatial relationships on August 12 00:00 UTC. The Perseid debris cloud is fairly wide (~0.1 AU), filling the frame.
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TIMED Mission diagram (NASA) The Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) region of the atmosphere to be studied by TIMED is located between 60 and 180 km above the Earth's surface where energy from solar radiation is first deposited into the atmosphere. This can have profound effects on Earth's upper atmospheric regions, particularly during the peak of the Sun's 11-year solar cycle when the greatest amounts of its energy are being released. Understanding these interactions is also important for our understanding of various subjects in geophysics, meteorology, and atmospheric science, as solar radiation is one of the primary driving forces behind atmospheric tides. Changes in the MLT can also affect modern satellite and radio telecommunications.
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Although simplistic fireball calculations predicted the fireball would hit the ground, the bomb's own shock wave bounced back and prevented this. The fireball reached nearly as high as the altitude of the release plane and was visible at almost away from where it ascended. The mushroom cloud was about high (over seven times the height of Mount Everest), which meant that the cloud was above the stratosphere and well inside the mesosphere when it peaked. The cap of the mushroom cloud had a peak width of and its base was wide. According to a witness to the explosion, a Soviet cameraman: > “The clouds beneath the aircraft and in the distance were lit up by the > powerful flash.
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This research involves the use of seismography, analytical and numerical modeling efforts, and space geodetic techniques, such as laser ranging, artificial satellites, and interferometric observations of radio waves emanating from deep space. An important component of CIRES research in geodesy/geodynamics is participation in the multi- university consortium developed to assemble, test, and administer the deployment of instrument packages that use radio signals from Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites to determine distances between points on Earth's surface. The scientific objective is to monitor crustal deformation in tectonically active areas. Weather and Climate Dynamics Division (WCD) This division focuses on understanding how global processes are intertwined to create the weather and climate observed from the troposphere to the mesosphere.
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It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east–west flow, resulting in a small north–south circulation.The Physics of Atmospheres, John Theodore Houghton, section and references therein of The general circulation of the middle atmosphere In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2.
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Since spectral lines remain within the range of the spectrometer in both phases of the switching cycle, data could be obtained twice as fast as with position switching, although higher order polynomials, typically 4th or 5th order, were required to remove the residual baseline. A telluric emission line from carbon monoxide in the mesosphere, variable in both intensity and LSR velocity, is detected in frequency-switched spectra; because the LSR velocity of the line could be predicted exactly, blending with galactic emission could be avoided by appropriate scheduling of the observations. In a few cases of large surveys (e.g., Taurus and Orion) a model of the telluric line was fit daily to spectra free of galactic emission and used to remove the line from all spectra.
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Ahmed Farid, born on February the 14th in Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt, is an astronaut-scientist candidate at the PoSSUM (Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere) program supported by NASA in Florida, United States. Farid's main work is in Space Operations Mission control center. He was hired by the international space company Telespazio VEGA, Germany, and he's located at the German Space Operation Center (DLR), Munich, Germany. Farid is also the Co- Chairman of the African Regional Group at the International Astronautical Federation (IAF), which welcomes the establishment of IAF Regional Groups aimed at improving the exchange of information on space activities and facilitating the development of regional cooperation in space venture and space applications He works in space operations, human spaceflight, and satellite operations.
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In all cases, once initial deceleration has lowered the orbital perigee into the mesosphere, all spacecraft lose most of the remaining speed, and therefore kinetic energy, through the atmospheric drag effect of aerobraking. Intentional aerobraking is achieved by orienting the returning space craft so as to present the heat shields forward toward the atmosphere to protect against the high temperatures generated by atmospheric compression and friction caused by passing through the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds. The thermal energy is dissipated mainly by compression heating the air in a shockwave ahead of the vehicle using a blunt heat shield shape, with the aim of minimising the heat entering the vehicle. Sub-orbital space flights, being at a much lower speed, do not generate anywhere near as much heat upon re-entry.
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Meteor seen from the site of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) Fireball below) A meteor, known colloquially as a shooting star or falling star, is the visible passage of a glowing meteoroid, micrometeoroid, comet or asteroid through Earth's atmosphere, after being heated to incandescence by collisions with air molecules in the upper atmosphere, creating a streak of light via its rapid motion and sometimes also by shedding glowing material in its wake. Although a meteor may seem to be a few thousand feet from the Earth,Bob King.(2016).NIGHT SKY WITH NAKED EYE How to Find Planets, Constellations, Satellites and Other Night Sky Wonders Without a Telescope meteors typically occur in the mesosphere at altitudes from . The root word meteor comes from the Greek meteōros, meaning "high in the air".
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Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform because the scale heights of different chemical species differ according to their molecular masses. The term near space is also sometimes used to refer to altitudes within the mesosphere. This term does not have a technical definition, but typically refers to the region of the atmosphere up to , roughly between the Armstrong limit (above which humans require a pressure suit in order to survive) and the Kármán line (where astrodynamics must take over from aerodynamics in order to achieve flight); or, by another definition, to the range of altitudes above which commercial airliners fly but below which satellites orbit the Earth. Some sources distinguish between the terms "near space" and "upper atmosphere", so that only the layers closest to the Kármán line are described as "near space".
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2401–2404 but the only natural ceiling is via photolysis in the mesosphere and upper stratosphere.Kovács, Tamás; Wuhu Feng; Totterdill, Anna; Plane, John M.C.; Dhomse, Sandip; Gómez-Martín, Juan Carlos; Stiller, Gabriele P.; Haenel, Florian J.; Smith, Christopher; Forster, Piers M.; García, Rolando R.; Marsh, Daniel R. and Chipperfield, Martyn P.; 'Determination of the atmospheric lifetime and global warming potential of sulfur hexafluoride using a three- dimensional model' It is estimated, for instance, that perfluorocarbons (, , ) can stay in the atmosphere for between two thousand six hundred and fifty thousand years.Midgeley, P.M. and McCulloch, A.; Properties and Applications of Industrial Halocarbons, in Fabian, Peter and Singh, Onkar N. (editors); Reactive Halogen Compounds in the Atmosphere, Volume 4, p. 134 This means that such compounds have an enormous global warming potential.
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The largest-amplitude atmospheric tides are mostly generated in the troposphere and stratosphere when the atmosphere is periodically heated as water vapour and ozone absorb solar radiation during the day. The tides generated are then able to propagate away from these source regions and ascend into the mesosphere and thermosphere. Atmospheric tides can be measured as regular fluctuations in wind, temperature, density and pressure. Although atmospheric tides share much in common with ocean tides they have two key distinguishing features: i) Atmospheric tides are primarily excited by the Sun's heating of the atmosphere whereas ocean tides are primarily excited by the Moon's gravitational field. This means that most atmospheric tides have periods of oscillation related to the 24-hour length of the solar day whereas ocean tides have longer periods of oscillation related to the lunar day (time between successive lunar transits) of about 24 hours 51 minutes.
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It is convenient to separate the atmospheric regions according to the two temperature minima at about 12 km altitude (the tropopause) and at about 85 km (the mesopause) (Figure 1). The thermosphere (or the upper atmosphere) is the height region above 85 km, while the region between the tropopause and the mesopause is the middle atmosphere (stratosphere and mesosphere) where absorption of solar UV radiation generates the temperature maximum near 45 km altitude and causes the ozone layer. Figure 1. Nomenclature of atmospheric regions based on the profiles of electric conductivity (left), temperature (middle), and electron number density in m−3(right) The density of the Earth's atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude. The total mass of the atmosphere is M = ρA H ≃ 1 kg/cm2 within a column of one square centimeter above the ground (with ρA = 1.29 kg/m3 the atmospheric density on the ground at z = 0 m altitude, and H ≃ 8 km the average atmospheric scale height).
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As an Earth-grazer passes through the atmosphere its mass and velocity are changed, so that its orbit, as it re-enters space, will be different from its orbit as it encountered Earth's atmosphere.US19720810 (Daylight Earth grazer) Global Superbolic Network Archive, 2000, 'Size: 5 to 10 m'Daylight Fireball of August 10, 1972 C. Kronberg, Munich Astro Archive, archived summary by Gary W. Kronk of early analysis and of Zdeněk Ceplecha's paper for Astronomy and Astrophysics in 1994, '3 meters, if a carbonaceous chondrite, or as large as 14 meters, if composed of cometary materials', 'post-encounter ... 2 or 10 meters' There is no agreed-upon end to the upper atmosphere, but rather incrementally thinner air from the stratosphere (~50 km), mesosphere (~85 km), and thermosphere (~690 km) up to the exosphere (~10,000) (see also thermopause). For example, a meteoroid can become a meteor at an altitude of 85–120 km above the Earth.
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The U.S. Air Force definition of an astronaut is a person who has flown higher than above mean sea level, approximately the line between the mesosphere and the thermosphere. NASA formerly used the FAI's figure, though this was changed in 2005, to eliminate any inconsistency between military personnel and civilians flying in the same vehicle, when three veteran NASA X-15 pilots (John B. McKay, William H. Dana and Joseph Albert Walker) were retroactively (two posthumously) awarded their astronaut wings, as they had flown between and in the 1960s, but at the time had not been recognized as astronauts. The latter altitude, achieved twice by Walker, exceeds the modern international definition of the boundary of space. Recent works by Jonathan McDowell (Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics) and Thomas Gangale (University of Nebraska-Lincoln) advocate that the demarcation of space should be at , citing as evidence von Kármán's original notes and calculations (which concluded the boundary should be 270,000 ft), plus functional, cultural, physical, technological, mathematical, and historical factors.
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