"It could vary from a couple of hundred matings to thousands of matings, and we just don't know where that number is right now," he says.
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There were a couple of matings, but it never resulted in a pregnancy.
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Masturbation could be used by males to decrease the length of matings, too.
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It goes to show these matings weren't a one-time event in our history.
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" Female mosquitofish, on the other hand, "want fewer matings, as they also have to ensure the survival of the offspring.
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They also do it if a female has mated only once, because multiple matings boost the chance of fertile eggs.
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Taking off: "In most cases, the offspring of cross-species matings are poorly adapted to their environment," writes Rory Galloway for the BBC.
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"The function of male penis is not only limited to sperm transfer, but also to remove sperm left in female storage organ from previous matings," Khelifa said.
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For Mallet's almost entirely hybridized butterflies, "the occasional trickle of one hybrid mating every 1,000 normal matings is sufficient to completely homogenize genes between the species," he said.
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The genetic modification is inherited by the offspring of these matings; female offspring die, while male offspring, which carry the gene, survive and continue passing the trait to further generations.
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Males infected with the bacteria are released into a mosquito population that is either not infected, or infected with a different Wolbachia strain, which leads to "incompatible" or sterile matings.
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Arrange for enough such matings to occur and the result will be fewer tsetse flies—and, with luck, less sleeping sickness, a disease spread to people and cattle by the flies.
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Scientists estimate that a third of all duck matings are forced, leading to a genital arms in race in which the the twisted configuration of the female reproductive tracts, or oviducts, restore female choice.
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"There's no point in having an animal produced and then it dies from disease, there's no point in having matings which are not productive," Bruce Whitelaw, professor of animal biotechnology at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, told CNBC's Sustainable Energy.
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"First they bump into each other, then the male chases the female and tries to hook his front appendages behind the females' second legs and oftentimes the female will resist," says Kasey Fowler-Finn, a biology professor at University of Nebraska who studies arachnid matings.
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Evidence indicates that the opportunity for multiple matings is present for V. acadica, even though the queens do not participate in these matings.
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Sexual antagonism occurs when two species have conflicting optimal fitness strategies concerning reproduction (see link in introduction paragraph). Multiple matings is a classic example of competing optimal strategies. Males, who typically have a much lower overall investment in reproduction, may benefit from more frequent matings. Females, however, invest much more in reproduction and can be endangered, harmed, or even killed by multiple matings.
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Incidences of the condition have been reported in many litters that were repeat matings of previously healthy litters; matings repeated after the incidence of FCKS do not produce flat kittens any more frequently than non-repeat matings; recovered FCKS that have been bred from have likewise not produced offspring that suffered from the condition any more frequently than normal cats, but numbers in this category are obviously low. It is possible that some lines in which the queens provide excessive milk may lead to colic-related FCKS in the kittens, leading to the supposition of heredity. Although after experiencing cases of FCKS most breeders do not repeat matings. In 59 cases of repeat matings 52 litters did not result in FCKS again while 7 did.
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Males have a dominance hierarchy, with the alpha males being generally older than subordinates. Females seek matings with all the males, although the alpha male may defend her against matings from lower ranking males. In turn, males seek matings with all the females. DNA fingerprinting has been used to show that, within broods, there is often mixed paternity, although the female is always the true mother of the nestlings raised within her nest.
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The progeny of backcrosses and intercrosses will form some incrosses and some matings of other types.
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Incestuous matings by the purple- crowned fairy wren Malurus coronatus result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (greater than 30% reduction in hatchability of eggs). Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings (see Promiscuity#Other animals for 90% frequency in avian species) that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding. However, there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings. Nevertheless, 43% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young.
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Males accordingly complete more matings with virgins than non-virgins and they transfer their spermatophore more quickly.
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Thus, there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating.
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This suggests that there might be a fitness barrier to increased matings, which might be why colonies are usually monandrous.
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Agalychnis saltator males have also been observed in amplexus with Agalychnis callidryas females. The eggs from such matings are infertile.
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In addition, multiple matings allow females to produce a greater number of eggs, of which there can be up to thirty.
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Self-fertilization by a hermaphrodite will produce only hermaphrodites. Matings of a male and hermaphrodite will produce both males and hermaphrodites.
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Medical geneticists can use the Hardy-Weinberg law to calculate the probability of human matings that may result in defective offspring.
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Holden, Rebecca J, and Nisi Shawl. Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler. Seattle, WA: Aqueduct Press, 2013.
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The deer mice Peromyscus leucopus and P. gossypinus exhibit reproductive character displacement in mating preferences, with heterospecific matings taking place between the species.
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Incestuous matings in birds result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (e.g. reduction in hatchability of eggs and reduced progeny survival).
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Incestuous matings by the purple-crowned fairywren result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (greater than 30% reduction in hatchability of eggs). Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding (although social monogamy occurs in about 90% of avian species, an estimated 90% of socially monogamous species exhibit individual promiscuity in the form of extra-pair copulations, i.e. copulation outside the pair bond). Although there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings, 43% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young.
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The grey-sided vole (Myodes rufocanus) exhibits male-biased dispersal as a means of avoiding incestuous matings. Among those matings that involve inbreeding, the number of weaned juveniles in litters is significantly fewer than that from noninbred litters, due to inbreeding depression. Brandt’s vole (Lasiopodomys brandtii) lives in groups that mainly consist of close relatives. However, they show no sign of inbreeding.
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Two longhair Burmillas mated together will always produce longhair kittens, while shorthair matings depend on whether the longhair genes are carried by the shorthair parents.
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Female traits in empidids, such as abdominal sacs and enlarged pinnate leg scales, have been suggested to 'deceive' males into matings by disguising egg maturity.
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She was followed by matings to Storm Cat that produced Saoirse Cat, to A.P. Indy that produced Autobahn Girl, and to El Prado that produced El Saoirse.
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In recent years genetic testing for the alleles of some genes has become available. Software is also available to assist breeders in determining the likely outcome of matings.
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We are not in the marketplace for horses. We breed them. All the effort begins before the horses are even bred because you are looking at the matings.
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It seems that M. celer males mate multiply more more often than females do. Two studies have shown that males are capable of multiple matings over their lifetimes, but the same two studies are at odds about a female's ability to have multiple mates. The earlier study observed that its females mated only once and that after copulation, a waxy coating was present over the female's epigyne, which the researchers claimed probably prevented successive matings. The more recent study found, however, that while a large fraction of its females refused to mate a second time, 15% still mated a second time, showing that second matings are not impossible in M. celer, even if they are not a preferred behavior.
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The patrollers do not just wait around for territories to be vacated; they will sneak matings with females in territories when the territorial males are temporarily away or distracted.
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The administration of the Parc naturel régional de Camargue participates in several aspects of the management of the breed, including registration of births and matings, and organisation of course camarguaises.
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Female ovarian fluids can promote or hinder sperm especially if they have complementary or uncomplimentary chemical signals. Some females may also physically choose from among spermatophores taken from multiple matings.
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Shaviro, Steven. "Exceeding the Human: Power and Vulnerability in Octavia Butler's Fiction." In Rebecca J. Holden and Nisi Shawl. Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler.
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The male uses the excretions of its cement glands to plug the vagina of the female, preventing subsequent matings from occurring. Embryos develop inside the female, and the life cycle repeats.
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The new queen flies out for mating and is pursued by hundreds of males. The queen puts herself at risk during these matings as it exposes her to predation and many are killed.
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A stud manager or "stud master" is an individual responsible for an employer's breeding stock. The term is usually used for individuals working with dogs or horses. It is usually applied regardless of gender. The stud manager typically suggests desired matings to the owner, and arranges for the same, whether in-house or by contract with animals standing at stud, approves and arranges matings to the owner's animals at stud requested by outsiders, and keeps all records, including notifying the appropriate animal registries.
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Females store the sperm in a tubular receptacle and in two mushroom-shaped spermathecae; sperm from multiple matings compete for fertilization. A last male precedence is believed to exist; the last male to mate with a female sires about 80% of her offspring. This precedence was found to occur through both displacement and incapacitation. The displacement is attributed to sperm handling by the female fly as multiple matings are conducted and is most significant during the first 1–2 days after copulation.
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He realized that if females found these male burdens more "attractive," and if that attractiveness resulted in more matings by burdened males, then the increase in matings of a few sons might offset the death of many other sons as a result of the burden. In effect, if the success of the surviving males produced enough offspring to cover more than the loss of potential offspring from their lost brothers, then the female who mated with a burdened male had chosen correctly.
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This is in contrast to monogamy, where individuals have one mate for life. Mating multiply can be advantageous to both sexes, which is why this strategy has evolved in many species, including the cabbage looper. For female cabbage loopers, rate of oviposition increases with the number of matings, and ultimately lay more eggs total. While it was once believed that multiple matings were necessary to fertilize all eggs, evidence shows that only one mating is needed to fertilize almost all eggs.
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Litters have been reported of up to 20 pups and the reproductive cycle is believed to be every two years. After sex, mating pairs separate without forming a pair bond and each continues polygamous matings.
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Capybaras mate only in water, and if a female does not want to mate with a certain male, she either submerges or leaves the water. Dominant males are highly protective of the females, but they usually cannot prevent some of the subordinates from copulating. The larger the group, the harder it is for the male to watch all the females. Dominant males secure significantly more matings than each subordinate, but subordinate males, as a class, are responsible for more matings than each dominant male.
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As male-male competition is high, the exact nature of the relationship between male fitness and frequency of matings may be unclear due to sperm competition, cryptic female choice, and cost to benefit ratio of mating.
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S146, pp. 131–151. . The amount of sex pheromone released by males decreases as the number of matings increase. It has been shown that females reject males with lower pheromone levels. Females reject males in multiple ways.
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Although some experimental breeding took place during the 1970s and 1980s in the UK, including Pat Turner's Seychellois breeding program, modern-day Oriental bicolours owes their origins to matings initiated in the United States by Lindajean Grillo of Ciara Cattery. Starting in 1979, Grillo carried out a series of matings between Siamese and bicoloured American Shorthair. She then selected the best bicoloured offspring to mate back to Siamese or Orientals in order to regain type. The variety was granted recognition by TICA in 1983 and the first champion was Ciara Quite-N-Oreo.
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Not only were extra matings costly, but there was no support for any genetic benefits from having multiple mating partners. Instead, the results from the experiment showed that egg production and egg hatching success were the highest when the number of partners were kept at a minimum. On the other hand, studies have shown that males have had a higher reproductive success than females when they were polygynandrous. When compared to female chimpanzees, male chimpanzees had a better ratio of number of matings and number of offspring produced.
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Each pair of adults shares some of their dens with offspring from the previous breeding season. These dens are marked and defended from other mahogany gliders. The pairs are usually monogamous, although extra-pair matings have been observed.
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Sometimes called Butler's "pregnant man story," "Bloodchild" won the Nebula Award, Hugo Award, and Locus Award.Holden, Rebecca J, and Nisi Shawl. Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler. Seattle, WA : Aqueduct Press, 2013.
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"From 'Hierarchical Behavior' to Strategic Amnesia: Structures of Memory and Forgetting in Octavia Butler's Fledgling." In Rebecca J. Holden and Nisi Shawl. Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler. Seattle, WA : Aqueduct Press, 2013.
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The male long-tailed widowbird (Euplectes progne) has exceptionally long tail feathers roughly half a meter in length. Male tail feathers were cropped and glued and those with artificially enhanced tail lengths secured the most matings, demonstrating female preference.
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Nuptial food gifts influence female egg production in the scorpionfly Panorpa cognata. Ecological Entomology. 32(3), 327 -332. The duration of copulation impacts the female's length of time between rematings; longer copulations result in a longer period between matings.
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The larger and more costly ejaculates become, the more reciprocal sperm transfer is favoured, as each slug receives compensation for its investment. Reciprocity, either simultaneous or serial, appears to alleviate the gender conflict, and is a feature of most slug matings.
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The Tiffanie was developed in the 1980s in the United Kingdom as a longhaired version of the Asian Shorthair. The breed origins can be traced back to matings between a longhaired cat and a Burmese. They are very similar to Burmillas.
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Queens in this species can be polyandrous. Multiple mating is not common in bumblebees. In this species it is related to short matings, possibly with little sperm transferred. Because of multiple mating, sisters in a colony may have different fathers.
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Once male and female are attached during copulation, male move its head downwards. Males without antennae did not answer female mate-call, which resulted in lack of mating. Females without antennae seldom mated but all matings were reported to be abnormal.
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Langhammer (1982) reports that matings from these albino forms with red and yellow pigments produce 25% wild coloured offspring and 75% albino fry. The albino fry were themselves divided into completely amelanistic forms, and forms which retained colouration of their parents.
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Simon Weinstock became a partner in Ballymacoll with his father. Simon took a very active role in the running of the stud and took particular responsibility for the matings. Simon Weinstock died in May 1996, at the age of 44.
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Not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parental plants, and gene flow may still occur for example through triploid hybrid x diploid matings that produce tetraploids, or matings between meiotically unreduced gametes from diploids and gametes from tetraploids. It has been suggested that many of the existing plant and most animal species have undergone an event of polyploidization in their evolutionary history. Reproduction of successful polyploid species is sometimes asexual, by parthenogenesis or apomixis, as for unknown reasons many asexual organisms are polyploid. Rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death.
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Inbreeding depression was evident for a variety of traits: pup mass at emergence from the natal burrow, hind-foot length, growth until independence and juvenile survival. The grey-sided vole (Myodes rufocanus) exhibits male- biased dispersal as a means of avoiding incestuous matings. Among those matings that do involve inbreeding the number of weaned juveniles in litters is significantly smaller than that from non-inbred litters indicating inbreeding depression. In natural populations of the bird Parus major (great tit), inbreeding is likely avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative.
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High-ranking males have more access to fertile females and consequently partake in most of the matings within the group; in one population, three males were responsible for over 75% of matings. In this population, males often vary in their rank, and as they gain rank, they gain more time spent exclusively with fertile females; the opposite is seen as males drop in rank. In many primates, including bonnet macaques and rhesus monkeys, the offspring of high-ranking individuals have better fitness and thus an increased rate of survival. This is most likely a function of two factors.
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The cricket species, Gryllus bimaculatus, is a polygamous species. Multiple matings increases the hatching success of clutch of eggs which is hypothesized to be a result of increased chances of finding compatible sperm. Therefore, it is in the female's best interest to mate with multiple males to increase the offspring genetic fitness; however, males would prefer to sire more of the females' offspring and will try to prevent the female from having multiple matings by mate guarding to exclude rival males. Similarly, the polyandrous species of spider Pisaura mirabilis has been demonstrated to have cryptic female choice.
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The Response-Threshold Model only provides for effective task allocation in the honey bee colony if thresholds are varied among individual workers. This variation originates from the considerable genetic diversity among worker daughters of a colony due to the queen’s multiple matings.
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Three to five days after the hatchlings emerge from the eggs, the juvenile geckos can begin feeding. Subsequent matings can be observed as soon as one hour after the deposition of the clutch occurs. On average, females can produce five clutches per year.
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Most matings take place in the fall, however some occur in the spring. Rossiter, S. et al. 2000 The reproductive behaviour of this species has been studied in detail. During the mating period, females visit males that are roosting in small caves.
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Phytophthora species may reproduce sexually or asexually. In many species, sexual structures have never been observed, or have only been observed in laboratory matings. In homothallic species, sexual structures occur in single culture. Heterothallic species have mating strains, designated as A1 and A2.
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The most dominant males get the first matings. A female will mate with the same male several times. If a male has not yet mated with a female, he will disrupt the copulations she has with other males. However, mate guarding is rare.
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Motor patterns of male euglossine bees evoked by floral fragrances. Animal Behaviour, 19(3), 583-588.. The accumulated "fragrances" are evidently released by the males at their display sites in the forest understory, where matings are known to take place.Eltz et al. 2005Zimmermann et al.
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Moreover, matings of certain mouse strains used in research results in unequal offspring ratios. One gene responsible for sex ratio distortion in mice is r2d2 (r2d2 – responder to meiotic drive 2), which predicts which strains of mice can successfully breed without offspring sex ratio distortion.
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This can be due to the fact that the mating plugs disappear relatively quickly, in 6–12 hours. However observed matings may not be the same as actual sperm transfer, though from this also, it is clear that multiple mating occurs in this species.
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However honeybee males also plug the female's reproductive tract to no avail; honeybees mate tens of times on one mating flight. While there may be genetic fitness benefits in colony heterogeneity from a polyandrous mating system, bumblebees are also likely to be monandrous due to social constraints, risks associated with multiple matings, and phylogenetic inertia since the ancestral bees are singly mated. Finding multiple mates might be energetically costly and expose the queen to higher predation risks. Additionally, while queens may prefer multiple matings to ensure more genetic variability and viable offspring, workers are more closely related to full sisters than to paternal half sisters.
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While females may gain some benefits from multiple matings, polyandry is costly, and mated females are often aggressive towards males (see below). An increase in the number of matings for an individual is disadvantageous for a female's health because it decreases the number of offspring they can have. Having a male in their web also causes females to catch less prey because they repair their web less often and forage less while the male is present; the male also eats some of the captured prey. Males often stay two to three days in a female's nest, but have been known to stay up to 18 days.
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Females may also mate with several males for genetic benefits such as genetic diversity among her offspring due to the variety of sperm available to her. In song birds, extra-pair matings occur because females are able to sneak away from their home territories to solicit to other males. When female song birds seek extra-male partners, they sexually select males with colorful plumage more elaborate than those of their social partner. Studies show that female song birds that have less plumage partners most actively seek extra-pair matings, furthermore males with the most developed traits—such as longer tails or brighter plumage survive better.
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Drosophila melanogaster (shown mating) is an important model organism in sexual conflict research. Sexual conflict or sexual antagonism occurs when the two sexes have conflicting optimal fitness strategies concerning reproduction, particularly over the mode and frequency of mating, potentially leading to an evolutionary arms race between males and females. In one example, males may benefit from multiple matings, while multiple matings may harm or endanger females, due to the anatomical differences of that species. The development of an evolutionary arms race can also be seen in the chase-away sexual selection model, which places inter-sexual conflicts in the context of secondary sexual characteristic evolution, sensory exploitation, and female resistance.
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Shackleton M.A., Jennions M.D., Hunt J. 2005. Fighting Success and Attractiveness as Predictors of Male Mating Success in the Black Field Cricket, T. commodus. Behavior Ecology 58:1-8 . Once a female have chosen a mate, they undergo multiple matings to increases the males’ probability of paternity.
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Reich explains that somewhere between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago, modern humans mated with Neanderthals, and their descendants carried those genes all over the world. An ancient skeleton from Romania had up to 9% Neanderthal DNA, so natural selection has been removing Neanderthal genes since those matings.
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The hybridization was most probably with an A.laterale. All known unisexuals have at least one A. laterale genome and this is thought to be essential for unisexuality. However, the A. laterale genome has been replaced several times, independently, in each of the lineages by matings with A.laterale.
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Each person has two sets of genes, one set inherited from the father, one from the mother. Sickle cell anemia is a blood disorder which occurs when a particular pair of genes both carry the 'sickle-cell trait'. The reason that the sickle-cell gene has not been eliminated from the human population by selection is because when there is only one of the pair of genes carrying the sickle-cell trait, that individual (a "carrier") is highly resistant to malaria, while a person who has neither gene carrying the sickle-cell trait will be susceptible to malaria. Let's see what the Price equation has to say about this. Let zi=i be the number of sickle-cell genes that organisms of type i have so that zi = 0 or 1 or 2. Assume the population sexually reproduces and matings are random between type 0 and 1, so that the number of 0–1 matings is n0n1/(n0+n1) and the number of i–i matings is n2i/[2(n0+n1)] where i = 0 or 1.
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In an attempt to create a more attractive buff-coloured duck Mrs. Campbell resorted to further cross-matings. The resulting progeny, introduced to the Public in January 1901, is alleged to have reminded Mrs. Campbell of British army uniforms, hence naming this new colour-form "Khaki Campbell Duck".
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Females become sexually mature at the age of five years. They experience sexual swelling, which involves the genitals becoming pink or reddened. At one site, matings largely take place between February and November, while births occur between March and May. Copulations tend to last for half a minute.
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Pilot whales have one of the longest birth intervals of the cetaceans, calving once every three to five years. Most matings and calvings occur during the summer for long-finned pilot whales.Jefferson T. A., Leatherwood, S., Webber, M. A. (1993) "FAO Species identification guide. Marine mammals of the world".
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The APQHA was formed in 1961 in Abilene, Texas, mainly to register cropout horses from the matings of registered Quarter Horses. They also allowed the registering of non-cropouts ("solids") who had Quarter Horse conformation and bloodlines.Oelke The Paint Horse p. 33 The APSHA was formed in February 1962.
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Matings are generally observed between March and May, but the most likely time of conception is April.Martin, L., Kennedy, J.H., Little, L., & Luckhoff, H.C. (1993) "The reproductive biology of Australian flying-foxes (genus Pteropus)". In Ecology, evolution and behaviour of bats (ed S.M. Swift), pp. 167–186. Oxford, London.
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Both selection and assortive mating are necessary, that is, that matings of A \times A and a \times a are more common than matings of a \times A and A \times a. A restriction of migration between populations can further increase the chance of reinforcement, as it decreases the probability of the differing genotypes to exchange. An alternative model exists to address the antagonism of recombination, as it can reduce the association between the alleles that involve fitness and the assortive mating alleles that do not. Genetic models often differ in terms of the number of traits associated with loci; with some relying on one locus per trait and others on polygenic traits.
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Amplexus is a form of copulation in which the male grasps the female with his front legs while she lays her eggs and he simultaneously releases fluid containing sperm. Matings in this species are relatively unique in that quacking frogs are polyandrous; about half of all matings involve more than one male, and possibly up to nine, resulting in a brood of offspring with multiple paternities. Polyandrous mating is more likely among smaller males, as large males can monopolize and dominate the female during amplexus. This does not appear to be beneficial, as the efficiency of the sperm does not differ significantly in terms of sperm number, size, motility, and longevity between large and small males.
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A female without an additional nutrient source is less choosy in the mating process. She does not even refuse matings with close relatives, such as brothers.Edvardsson, M., et al. (2008). No evidence that female bruchid beetles Callosobruchus maculatus use remating to reduce costs of inbreeding. Animal Behaviour 75(4), 1519-24.
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German, English and Scottish Fallows were proved to be distinct and separate mutations by test matings made independently by T G Taylor, Mrs Amber Lloyd of Walton-on-Thames and Frank Wait. When birds of any two of the mutations were paired together only normal black-eyed young were produced.
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Among many displaying male partnerships in a locality (a dispersed lek), only one or a very few males may account for the vast majority of matings in a given breeding season. As in other lekking species, the female then builds the nest and raises the young without involvement by males.
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Triangle = male. Figure b. Females in need of male time and energy should synchronise their cycles, preventing any one male from monopolising access. Reproduction is said to be synchronised when fertile matings across a population are temporarily clustered, resulting in multiple conceptions (and consequent births) within a restricted time window.
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Its developer Brother Adam was inspired by the survival of the Italian (A. m. ligustica) × dark bee (A. m. mellifera) crosses whenever the Isle of Wight disease, later identified as Acarine, reached Buckfast Abbey. To be able to control the matings, he started to use an isolated valley in Dartmoor.
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The term polygamy is an umbrella term used to refer generally to non-monogamous matings. As such, polygamous relationships can be polygynous, polyandrous or polygynandrous. In a small number of species, individuals can display either polygamous or monogamous behaviour depending on environmental conditions. An example is the social wasp Apoica flavissima.
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The nests can measure from in width and deep. Black sparrowhawks form monogamous pairs, though extra-pair matings are not uncommon.Martin, R.O., Koeslag, A., Curtis, O & Amar, A. (2014). Fidelity at the frontier: divorce and dispersal in a newly colonised raptor population. Animal Behaviour 93: 59-68. doi:org/10.1016/janbehav.2014.04.
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The pheromone is rarely detected in males as they store it internally. The odor on females can last for weeks, even months, and is advantageous as neither sex wastes time or risks injury in subsequent matings. H. erato chestertonii has an odor distinct from other subspecies. No other Lepidoptera exhibit this behavior.
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Andrade, M.C.B. Female hunger can explain variation in cannibalistic behavior despite male sacrifice in redback spiders. Behavioral Ecology 9, 33-42 (1988). Among mantises, cannibalism by female Pseudomantis albofimbriata improves fecundity, overall growth, and body condition. A study on the Chinese mantis found that cannibalism occurred in up to 50% of matings.
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Red deer mating patterns usually involve a dozen or more mating attempts before the first successful one. There may be several more matings before the stag will seek out another mate in his harem. Red deer are among the mammals exhibiting homosexual behavior.Bagemihl, Bruce (1999), Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity.
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Using, in pinworms, mother-son matings are not expected to occur commonly in this life cycle since a female's progeny must leave the host. However, in G. batrachiensis, a second mode of reproduction has developed that makes mother-son matings possible: the method by which females produce two types of eggs, thin and thick shelled, as explored in detail in the earlier sections of this article. Once again, thin- shelled eggs contain well developed larvae that hatch at deposition and develop in the same host as the mother; thick shelled eggs are deposited in the two to four stage of cleavage and must pass to the external environment before they are infective. The colonizing period in G. batrachiensis lasts about three months.
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For example, pin and thrum morphs of Primula have effects on genetic compatibility (pin style x thrum pollen, or thrum style x pin pollen matings are successful, while pin x pin, and thrum x thrum matings are rarely successful due to pollen-style incompatibility), and have different style length, anther height in the corolla tube, pollen size, and papilla size on the stigma. Each of these effects is controlled by a different locus in the same supergene, but recombinants are occasionally found with traits combining those of "pin" and "thrum" morphs. Gene complexes, in contrast, are simply tightly linked groups of genes, often created via gene duplication (sometimes called tandem duplication if the duplicates remain side-by-side). Here, each gene has similar though slightly diverged function.
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Newly eclosed queens mate with unrelated males near the natal nest and then return to it, where they are readopted. Other queens disperse to mating aggregations, mate, and then leave the aggregations to establish new colonies elsewhere. Matings near the nest may occur because L. acervorum queens 'call' males through the use of pheromones.
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Most matings occur in May and June when water temperatures are rising, but they may mate throughout the year. Most females then lay their eggs between April and August. Mating ranges from 10 to 60 minutes long. During this time, the male extends a modified arm called the hectocotylus which transfers spermatophores to the female.
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Furthermore, interbreeding with wild horses was an economic loss for farmers since the foals of such matings were intractable. Tarpans survived the longest in the southern parts of the Russian steppe. By 1880, when most "tarpans" may have become hybrids, wild horses became very rare. In 1879 the last scientifically confirmed individual was killed.
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To ready themselves for the vigorous matings, sires eat a plant called bittersweet. During mating season, a sire is liable to kill anything that distracts it from the mating process. The sand-dance is an exhibition of grace, prowess, and endurance. The sires perform this dance in front of the egg-laden she-dragons.
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"Inbreeding makes female beetles frisky." Live Science. The more partners that a male or female has, the higher the chances that at least one of the matings is with an unrelated partner and the greater the genetic diversity in the offspring. In this way, genetic incompatibility is reduced and diversity is increased in a population.
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First brood females emerge and mate before overwintering. Males emerge in late May and attempt matings with workers and foundresses. It is unknown if the foundresses monopolize reproduction, and this is an important question as it defines the function of the caste system of this species. Nests are reconstructed and eggs are laid in March.
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The Peterbald breed was originally created by crossing Donskoy with Oriental Shorthair cats to create a hairless cat of Oriental-type. Matings between the Donskoy and the Peterbald are no longer permitted since 2000, and outcrossing is not permitted, except with the domestic shorthair, due to the effect of the Donskoy's dominant hairless mutation.
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In August 2003, two wild-occurring hybrids between wild Canadian lynx and bobcats were confirmed by DNA analysis in the Moosehead region of Maine. Three hybrids were identified in northeastern Minnesota. These were the first confirmed hybrids outside of captivity. Mitochondrial DNA studies showed them all to be the result of matings between female Canada lynx and male bobcats.
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A. maculosum females are known to take part in polyandrous behavior. Most females collect enough sperm after a single copulation, but take part in multiple copulations during their lifetime. On one hand, taking part in multiple matings takes time away from foraging. On the other hand, monogamy also expends time and energy trying to repel and avoid the male.
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There are a few possible evolutionary advantages to evolve synchronous mating. It may ensure that as many matings as possible occur during the period of time. It also ensures that males can put all their effort into one short breeding season. Another possible advantage of synchronous mating is to swamp predators with large amounts of offspring after weaning.
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This species bears live young (ovoviviparous) like other North American water snakes. A few observations have been made of matings in late winter or early spring. Females generally have very large litters and give birth in the summer. The size of the litter ranges from 20 to 40, and the young are typically born from June to September.
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Instead, it is more likely that the spermatophore provides nutrients to the female that confers reproductive benefits. This may explain why males produce female-attracting pheromones, as females may be seeking nutrient-rich spermatophores. For male cabbage loopers, multiple matings did not affect the quality of their spermatophores, suggesting that they can maximize reproductive opportunities without decreasing fecundity.
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In a social perspective, the observed inclination to practice consanguinity has been due to advantages to social and financial status. Upholding familial structure and assets, and ease of marital arrangements are valued among consanguineous marriages.Shawky RM, El-Awady MY, Elsayed SM, Hamadan GE. Consanguineous matings among Egyptian population. Egypt J Med Human Genet 2011;12(2):157-63.
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Mares and a foal Horse breeding is reproduction in horses, and particularly the human-directed process of selective breeding of animals, particularly purebred horses of a given breed. Planned matings can be used to produce specifically desired characteristics in domesticated horses. Furthermore, modern breeding management and technologies can increase the rate of conception, a healthy pregnancy, and successful foaling.
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From the point of view of taxonomy, hybrids differ according to their parentage. Hybrids between different subspecies (such as between the Dog and Eurasian wolf) are called intra-specific hybrids. Interspecific hybrids are the offspring from interspecies mating; these sometimes result in hybrid speciation. Intergeneric hybrids result from matings between different genera, such as between sheep and goats.
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In TICA outcrossing has mainly been with the domestic short-haired cat and domestic long-haired cat, although registration rules do allow other breeds to be used and bred down from towards the F3 generation which is eligible for entry in TICA cat shows. When undertaking outcross matings to non-pedigrees, reputable breeders seek out cats closely resembling the correct LaPerm body type with coats that are not overly thick. This practice continues the use of the kind of cats which composed much of the original foundation stock for the breed and helps to maintain genetic health by using the widest gene pool available. However, in some countries, such as the UK, it is illegal to sell the kittens from such matings as pedigrees because of the Trades Description Act 1968GCCFcats.
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The male returns with a stare and may turn to look at another spot he considers more suitable for mating. Single-mount and multiple- mount matings have been reported. Mating takes place from August to December. The pregnancy lasts between 165 and 190 days, resulting in the birth of a single offspring just before fruiting season of some favorite foods.
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Oxyurida, in general, tend to take advantage of the amazing colonizing ability of the females. An individual female can colonize a host if she can last long enough to mate and produce offspring with parthogenetically birthed sons. There is evidence that mother- son matings occur in these species. Thick-shelled eggs are the transmission and dispersal stage of G. batrachiensis.
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Larvae of these beetles are xylophagous. They mainly feed on downy oak (Quercus pubescens), evergreen oak (Quercus ilex) and cork oak (Quercus suber). These longhorn beetle are considered a pest of oaks.Torres-Vila LM, Mendiola-Diaz FJ, Conejo-Rodríguez Y, Sánchez- González Á. Reproductive traits and number of matings in males and females of Cerambyx welensii (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) an emergent pest of oaks.
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Broodstock managers can use or select for traits such as fast growth rates or disease resistance over generations to produce more desirable fish. This ability for genetic improvement of stocks is more efficient and produces higher value stock. Broodstocks also enable you to selectively plan and control all matings. Selective breeding is an important part of the domestication of aquaculture species.
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Sometimes, females choose not to struggle and simply acquiesce to forceful matings. This can happen when they decide that the cost of resisting would be greater than the cost of mating. They use submission to avoid further harassment or aggression, which could end in death or injury. This is often seen in primate species, such as chimpanzees and hamadryas baboons.
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A female may scream and vigorously fight off her suitors, but will submit to one that is dominant or is more familiar. The bellows and screams that accompany matings can attract other males to the scene, obliging the incumbent to delay mating and fight off the intruders. These fights may allow the female to assess which is dominant.Martin and Handasyde, pp. 58–60.
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Callosobruchus maculatus penis Copulation is injurious for the female beetle. The male possesses penile spines which damage the female reproductive tract. The female may forcefully kick the male during copulation, ending the mating. It is possible that male may benefit from harming the female because the injury could reduce matings or mating success with other males, or increase her egg production.
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The pair actually mate in midair; thus, the higher they get during the flight, the longer their mating can last. The Pernese commonly believe that longer matings result in larger clutches. For this reason, queen riders are strongly encouraged to restrain their dragons from eating heavily just before a flight, instructing them to drink blood instead for a quick burst of energy.
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The male European corn borer produces a spermatophore ejaculate that contains spermatozoa to fertilize the female and protein to nourish the female, a nuptial gift. The cost of producing a spermatophore is relatively low compared to the female investment in oviposition. Males mate an average of 3.8 times during their life. The average refractory period between matings for the male is 1.6 days.
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Domestic cats are often described as induced ovulators. During intromission, the penis probably causes distension of the posterior vagina and induces release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus via neuroendocrine reflexes. A surge of luteinising hormone (LH) occurs within minutes of mating. With multiple matings, the LH surge is greater and lasts longer than when only one mating occurs.
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Males vary in their reproductive success but do not tend to show reproductive skew within a year. However, over several years, skew becomes strong due to the repeated success of particular males.Rossiter, S. 2006. After mating, seminal fluid coagulates in the female’s vulva to form a plug, which probably functions either to prevent subsequent matings by other males,Fenton, M. 1994.
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The males "sing" a species-specific mating song; like other cicadas, they produce loud sounds using their tymbals. Singing males of a single Magicicada species form aggregations (choruses) that are sexually attractive to females. Males in these choruses alternate bouts of singing with short flights from tree to tree in search of receptive females. Most matings occur in "chorus" trees.
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Fighting tactics of fallows bucks (Dama dama, Cervidae): Reducing the Risks of Serious Conflict. Ethology, 104(9), 789–803. . the breeding season or rut lasts approximately 135 days. In the Northern hemisphere the breeding season tends to occur in the second half of October, while it occurs in April in the south, some matings can still occur before and after.
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He explains that as ovulation is always concealed in women, men can only determine paternity (and thus decide on whether to kill the woman's child) probabilistically, based on his previous mating frequency with her, and so he would be unable to escape the possibility that the child might be his own, even if he were aware of promiscuous matings on the woman's part.
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Generally, the female conceives after two or three matings. Although the female has plenty of room in her uterus to gestate twins, twins are rarely conceived. The female African forest elephant's pregnancy lasts 22 months. Based on the maturity, fertility, and gestation rates, African forest elephants have the capabilities of increasing the species' population size by 5% annually under ideal conditions.
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These severe, high altitude climate conditions extend parasite diapause for about a month compared to the lowland host colonies, which allows the P. atrimandibularis to usurp colonies that are more developed. Since Polistes social parasites are very rare, these altitudinal migrations also give them an advantage. The migrations promote encounters between the two sexes and give more opportunities for matings between non-relatives.
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Such a risk is sometimes circumvented by multiple paternity and extra-pack matings. The dispersal of wolves from their packs is largely restricted by the scarcity of unoccupied habitat. These packs live in communal territories, which encompass of land on average. In areas with little food, the species lives in pairs, sometimes accompanied by pups, and defends larger territories averaging .
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Mating lasts around 3 hours. Increased mating times are correlated with increased production of fertile eggs. When mating is interrupted, the C. fumiferana female may oviposit infertile eggs or resume mating with other males. Consecutive matings in male C. fumiferana lead to an overall decline in male reproductive performance: decreased spermatophore mass, increased mating time, and a smaller amount of sperm produced.
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The modern Gampr has changed little within the history of its existence in Armenian Highlands. It is one of few natural breeds not subjected to hard selection by phenotype. They preserved the genetic variation that other dog breeds had initially. This genetic variation was promoted by spontaneous and, in some cases, intentional periodic matings with locally indigenous wolves (still present).
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Mating usually occurs during mid-day and is initiated while the queen is in flight. Several males will chase a queen and attempt to mate with her. One or two of the males will knock the queen to the ground where most matings occur. It is typical for copulations to only last a minute on average due to frequent interruptions by competing males.
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Illustration of a male Males are rare in hermaphroditic species of Icerya. Males are haploid while females are diploid. Females have an ovitestis that is capable of producing both sperm and oocytes which fertilize internally to produce diploid offspring (females) through a form of hermaphroditism. The cells of the ovitestis are haploid and are derived from excess sperm during matings with males.
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A preliminary 2009 genetic study by Taylor and Parkin showed that matings of "auxiliary males" with the female of a breeding pair do occur, and that the echo parakeet is therefore not strictly monogamous. Such a mating system is beneficial to the conservation of the species, as it increases genetic diversity, but it is unclear why such breeding groups form.
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A Bonsmara bull in Namibia The Bonsmara is a breed of cattle known for its high quality beef and resistance to local diseases. Originating in South Africa as a scientific experiment of professor Jan Bonsma, the Bonsmara was created after many cross matings and back-crosses consisting of five-eighths Afrikaner (Sanga-type), three-sixteenths Hereford, and three-sixteenths Shorthorn (both taurine types).
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The tawny coster is one of a group of butterflies where females feature a sphragis (copulatory plug) which is formed after a mating session. After males produce the spermatophore, they pass an additional gland secretion (a waxy substance) that spills out of the female's copulatory opening, forming a mating plug that hardens within a few hours for the purpose of preventing further matings.
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In hybridogenetic reproduction, gametes of the hybrid lineage normally contain complete genomes of only one parental species, in this case usually P. ridibundus, (the other is eliminated from the genome prior to meiosis). Matings between hybrids and P. lessonae restore hybridity in the subsequent generation. The Pelophylax hybridogenetic complex is unusual in that both male and female hybrids occur. Although Prof.
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Gamma males are the smallest males and mimic juveniles. This also allows them to mate with the females without the alpha males detecting them. Similarly, among common side-blotched lizards, some males mimic the yellow throat coloration and even mating rejection behaviour of the other sex to sneak matings with guarded females. These males look and behave like unreceptive females.
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Later, English, German and Scottish Fallows were proved to be distinct and separate mutations by test matings made independently by T G Taylor, Mrs Amber Lloyd of Walton-on-Thames and Frank Wait, and qualified names were then introduced to distinguish them. It was found that birds of any two of the mutations produced only normal black-eyed young when paired together.
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Crucial in the decision to breed would be the primary cause of FCKS in the litter, which may or may not be genetic (see Heredity above). Some recovered FCKS adults have produced FCKS offspring in their turn, and some queens consistently produce flat kittens, so breeding from those lines is therefore inadvisable. However, repeat matings in which FCKS has appeared does not result in further FCKS kittens any more often than non- repeat matings. Queens and studs who consistently throw complete litters of kittens with the condition are generally neutered, but isolated instances of single flat kittens in an otherwise healthy litter seem to be unlikely to have a genetic component and neutering of parents of such kittens is not usually necessary in pedigree breeding, particularly where doing so may have detrimental effects on the gene pool.
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Due to its large genetic pool with non-pedigree cats, the American Curl is generally a healthy breed.American Curl Cat Behavior, Facts and Health Care Problem These cats' ears however require frequent cleaning to prevent infections, and need gentle handling to prevent damage. Various matings between curled cats and normal cats revealed a dominant inheritance of the curl gene. Sex linked distribution was not found.
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Bengal cats from the first three filial generations of breeding (F1–F3) are considered "foundation cats" or "Early Generation" Bengals. The Early generation (F1–F3) males are frequently infertile. Therefore, female early generation Bengals of the F1, F2, and F3 are bred to fertile domestic Bengals. F1 hybrid Bengal females are fertile, thus they are used in subsequent, unidirectional back-cross matings to fertile domestic cat males.
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Male Sturnus unicolor individuals face a choice when it comes to the mating season. They can either invest in parental care, through helping feed the young, provide shelter, etc. and be monogynous or they can control many nests at one time, increase the number of matings they engage in and be polygynous. To add to this, much of the time their choice is biological.
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Matings often occur on piles of snow or dead plant material. Males appeared to have external genitalia that comes into contact with the ovipositor of females. While males varied widely in overall body size, male genitalia were relatively similar in size despite overall size difference. This implies that during their seemingly random search for mates, males do not have to differentiate females based on their overall size.
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They soon encountered a seemingly English speaking Cambodian geriatric named Tai who restrained them via magic. Tai explained to the soldiers the history of her people and the need for the soldiers to mate with six young women from her cult. The soldiers were led to believe that through these matings their children would one day rule the world. Five of the soldiers agreed to this pact.
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Apis dorsata exhibit high degrees of polyandry, with many drones mating with the queen. In fact, Apis dorsata fabricius is known to have the highest levels of polyandry among all social insects. In general, this bee population experiences extreme multiple matings. This may be attributed to the short duration of flight times for mating. During mating, the drones fly to “drone congregation areas” (DCAs).
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One reason for why polyandry remains, despite its negative effect on female's health, is because it is very beneficial to males. Males may chance upon only one or two mates in their entire lifetime. Polyandry in Stegodyphys lineatus avoids inbreeding and reduces the genetic incompatibilities with matings of related individual. The increased genetic diversity that results from polyandrous behaviour carry genetic benefits that outweigh the costs.
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'Waisted' or 'undercut' studs, as engine cylinder head retainers With respect to shape, stud bolts a.k.a. studs are categorized into three basic types: "fully threaded stud bolts", "tap end stud bolts", and "double end stud bolts". Each of these studs have different application. As name suggests, fully threaded studs have full body coverage with threads for full engagement of the matings nuts or similar parts.
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Male and female Phidippus clarus mating Some P. clarus females mate with more than one male. In these females, copulations after the first occur after longer courtships. This shows that already-mated females are less receptive to mates, and suggests that females may be trading up in subsequent matings. One mated female P. clarus can lay well over 100 eggs per sac in a thick silken cocoon.
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There are far fewer female vampires than male ones. Vampire matings last only ten or fifteen years with the couple then choosing to re-mate or go their separate ways. Vampires are forbidden to use projectile weapons like guns, bows, and crossbows as they view these as dishonourable, preferring hand-to-hand fighting with swords, axes, etc., or throwing weapons such as a shuriken.
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The California sea hare, Aplysia californica, is a simultaneous hermaphrodite. A. californica has the ability to store and digest allosperm (sperm from a partner) and often mates with multiple partners. Studies of multiple matings in A. californica have provided insights on how conflicts between the sexes are resolved. A potent sex pheromone, the water-borne protein attractin, is employed in promoting and maintaining mating in Aplysia.
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It builds its nests underground and prefers large open areas such as pastures and golf courses. Vespula atropilosa colonies are founded by a queen in the spring and grow most during mid-summer. It preys on other insects such as flies and grasshoppers but is not a scavenger like other wasps. Queens mate with multiple males, and males will fight each other for matings.
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The wood mouse has a breeding season from February to October in which multiple matings occur between males and females, resulting in scramble competition. Such behavioral characteristics result in sperm competition and multiple paternity litters. The society is polygynous with copulation resulting from scramble competition during reproductive periods. Males possess a sac known as the cauda epididymis, which stores sperm and lies underneath the scrotal protrusion.
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Among her research collaborators was biologist Viktor Hamburger.Dorothea Rudnick and Viktor Hamburger, "On the Identification of Segregated Phenotypes in Progeny from Creeper Fowl Matings" Genetics 25(2)(March 1940): 215-224. Rudnick's publications were especially noted for the cell diagrams she hand-drew to explain embryogenesis and other processes.Sabine Braukman, "On Fate and Specification: Images and Models of Developmental Biology" in Nancy Anderson and Michael Dietrich, eds.
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Retired to broodmare duty, It's In The Air stood in the United States and in Great Britain. From her matings, she produced foals by Northern Dancer, Nijinsky, Seattle Slew, Sadler's Wells, Green Desert, Shadeed, and Zilzal. Among them were six winners, none of which achieved significant Grade/Group wins. Her daughter Try To Catch Me (by Shareef Dancer) did, however, produce the multiple Grade I/Group One winner Storming Home.
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This was believed to be due to the absence of male kudus in the herd. The hybrid produced was sterile, which was unexpected before the study. The study conformed the chromosome numbers of both the eland and the kudu and the strangeness of their attached Y chromosomes. Reports state that repeated matings of male elands with domestic (Bos primigenius) and zebu cows (Bos indicus) have also produced sterile hybrids.
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A delay of two to nine months precedes the fertilized eggs implanting into the wall of the uterus, though matings in December can result in immediate implantation. Ordinarily, implantation happens in December, with a gestation period lasting seven weeks. Cubs are usually born in mid-January to mid-March within underground chambers containing bedding. In areas where the countryside is waterlogged, cubs may be born above ground in buildings.
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However, alternative views state that the male role is preferred, as males benefit more from multiple matings than females do.Michiels NK, Raven-Yoo-Heufes A, Kleine Brockmann K. Sperm trading and sex roles in the hermaphroditic opisthobranch sea slug Navanax inermis: eager females or opportunistic males? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2003;78(1):105-16. Neither strategy is evolutionarily stable, as both gender roles are required for successful reproduction.
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B. pratorum mate infrequently and do not exhibit polyandry. It was hypothesized that because Bombus bees are parasitized they may have developed polyandry, but this is not the case. Instead they mate singly with a low mating frequency. B. pratorum do not appear to require multiple matings to produce enough sperm to fertilize eggs because as it is, only a couple hundred of the workers contribute sperm anyway.
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Its characteristic vocalization is a howl made by solitary individuals. Humans are the coyote's greatest threat, followed by cougars and gray wolves. In spite of this, coyotes sometimes mate with gray, eastern, or red wolves, producing "coywolf" hybrids. In the northeastern regions of North America, the eastern coyote (a larger subspecies, though still smaller than wolves) is the result of various historical and recent matings with various types of wolves.
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There are at least two mechanisms evolved to prevent females from remating: physical and neurological/behavioral. The physical mechanism involves a literal physical barrier. When the male's spermatophore is deposited into the female's bursa copulatrix, the spermatophore has a long neck that can act as a mating plug to seal it and prevent further mating. However, some second matings occur before the plug has hardened or if the plug erodes.
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It is likely that cryptic female choice is a consequence of the conflict between the reproductive desires of males and females. While males commonly increase their reproductive success by maximally fertilizing each female they mate with, females can incur costs to their personal health as a result of such behavior. Cryptic female choice reduces these costs by allowing them to also benefit from and select for favorable matings.
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Thoroughbred breeding theories are used by horse breeders in an attempt to arrange matings that produce progeny successful in horse racing. Bloodstock experts also rely on these theories when purchasing young horses or breeding stock. A basic understanding of these theories can also help the racing public understand a horse's theoretical genetic potential. The breeding theories stem from the belief that careful analysis of bloodlines can lend predictability to breeding outcomes.
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If presented with the opportunity, female European corn borers, like most moths, mate with multiple males in a reproductive strategy known as polyandry. Polyandry confers several benefits to the females. For example, multiple matings increase female fecundity and longevity, because female moths receive both nutritional resources and multiple spermatophores from males. Furthermore, mating with multiple males ensures that the female receives enough sperm to completely fertilize her eggs.
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Batty, Joseph (1999) Barnevelder Fowl - History and Management of This Popular Breed Which Lays Deep Brown Eggs, 112 pp, Paperback, Beech Publishing House. The American Poultry Association recognises three colour varieties: black and white were recognised in 1883, and blue in 1987.albc-usa.org, the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy Many other breeds were created using Langshan blood in the foundation matings. These include, for example, Barnevelders, Black Orpingtons, and Marans.
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Wild males begin breeding in their thirties when they are at a size and weight that is competitive with other adult males. Male reproductive success is maximal in mid-adulthood and then begins to decline. However, this can depend on the ranking of the male within their group, as higher-ranking males maintain a higher rate of reproduction. Most observed matings are by males in musth over 35 years of age.
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Mating occurs on the host plant and averages thirty minutes, during which the flies are attached and can fly about. Then, when the flies separate, the ovipositor and penis are quickly retracted. The flies undergo multiple matings, which benefits both sexes. Generally, multiple mating is thought to be a more adaptive strategy for males because of male potential to fertilize many females and the trend of greater female parental investment.
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Hybridization without change in chromosome number is called homoploid hybrid speciation. It is considered very rare but has been shown in Heliconius butterflies and sunflowers. Polyploid speciation, which involves changes in chromosome number, is a more common phenomenon, especially in plant species. Polyploidy is a mechanism that has caused many rapid speciation events in sympatry because offspring of, for example, tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny.
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Multiple mating can be beneficial to certain species because it allows for increased reproduction and a variety of genes in offspring. In some cases, females prefer multiple matings because it increases their lifespan as they receive nutrients from males during copulation. It is possible for diamondback moths to mate multiple times, but monogamy seems to be more common. When males have more than one mate, they do not receive any benefit.
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Mating only occurs in the sand fly vector, and hybrids can be transmitted to the mammalian host by sand fly bite. In L. braziliensis matings in nature are predominantly between related individuals resulting in extreme inbreeding. The rate of outcrossing between different strains of Leishmania in the sand fly vector depends on the frequency of co-infection. Such outcrossing events appear to be rare in L. major and L. donovani.
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12 : Iss. 2 , Article 9. Hybrids of both sexes are fertile, and can be successfully bred through four generations. Such matings have occurred long before the European colonization of the Americas, as melanistic coyotes have been shown to have inherited their black pelts from dogs likely brought to North America through the Bering Land Bridge 12,000 to 14,000 years ago by the ancestors of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.
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This defines a species as It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in the wild.
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All central Hox genes have been lost. Comparison of the genome with that of other chordates will help identify the genes which appeared early in the vertebrate lineage. In the Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, inbred lines have been developed using repeated matings of closely related individuals. The molecular base of a number of aspects of vertebrate development is identical in these simple chordates to those in higher vertebrates.
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Sexual development can occur when amoeboid cells are starved for their bacterial food supply and dark humid conditions are present. Both heterothallic and homothallic strains of Dictostelium can undergo mating. Heterothallic sexual development has been most extensively studied in D. discoideum, and homothallic sexual development has been most well studied in D. mucoroides. Heterothallic matings are initiated by fusion of haploid cells (gametes) from two strains of opposite mating type.
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Thus there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating. Meerkat females appear to be able to discriminate the odour of their kin from the odour of their non- kin. Kin recognition is a useful ability that facilitates both cooperation among relatives and the avoidance of inbreeding. When mating does occur between meerkat relatives, it often results in inbreeding depression.
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Pheromones refer to chemical factors secreted by an organism that effect the social behavior of other organisms that receive them. The pheromone secreted by females for mate calling is (Z,E)-9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate. As most matings occur at night, females producing largest amount of pheromone was observed 2–3 hours into scotophase, a dark phase of light cycle. The amount of pheromone in these females ranged from 6–8 ng.
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These distinctive calls include territorial calls made as threats to other males, advertisement calls made to attract females, and encounter calls which precede combat. The bullfrogs have a prolonged breeding season, with the males continuously engaging in sexual activity throughout. Males are present at the breeding pond for longer periods than females during the entire season, increasing their chances of multiple matings. The sex ratio is typically skewed toward males.
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A male finds prospective mates by olfaction. He then slips his cerci under the tip of the female's abdomen so that his and her ventral abdominal surfaces are in contact with each other, while both face in opposite directions. If not disturbed, pairs can stay in this mating position for many hours. Matings occurred frequently among clustered individuals particularly in locations that allow both partners to cling to a surface.
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P. hawaiensis is used in genetic research because eggs and embryos are easily manipulated. Embryos can be rapidly and easily removed from the brood pouch and maintained in seawater. Eggs can be collected and hatched individually, and the mature animals can subsequently be used in pairwise sister-brother or mother-son matings to generate inbred lines. Fertilized eggs are sufficiently large to perform microinjections and blastomere isolations with relative ease.
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A female jewel spider can mate with multiple males during a single reproductive cycle. If given the chance, the female will still readily mate with other males shortly after a successful mating. To prevent sperm competition, the successful male will defend the female shortly before and after mating. It actively drives away other rival males until the female enters a refractory period and ceases to be receptive to further matings.
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Comma butterflies have a polyandrous mating system where females mate with multiple males to receive the necessary amount of sperm to fertilize their eggs. The polyandrous female distributes her matings equally over her lifetime, so males' mating success increases proportionally to their lifespan. The mating success of both sexes is correlated to the duration of an individual's life, so no difference in mortality rates is observed between males and females.
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Mating on average occurs at 2am, but has been observed occurring between 12 and 4am. Mating generally occurs 3–4 days after emergence, but can occur up to 16 days afterwards. Usually, mating does not occur before the third day, as eggs are not fully developed upon emergence and require a few days to reach maturity. Multiple matings is a mating strategy where individuals have multiple mates in their lifetime.
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At least two species in the genus Dugesia, flatworms in the Turbellaria sub- division of the phylum Platyhelminthes, include polyploid individuals that reproduce by parthenogenesis. This type of parthenogenesis requires mating, but the sperm does not contribute to the genetics of the offspring (the parthenogenesis is pseudogamous, alternatively referred to as gynogenetic). A complex cycle of matings between diploid sexual and polyploid parthenogenetic individuals produces new parthenogenetic lines.
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The loss of the bone in humans, when it is present in our nearest related species the chimpanzee, is thought to be because humans "evolved a mating system in which the male tended to accompany a particular female all the time to try to ensure paternity of her children" which allows for frequent matings of short duration. Observation suggests that primates with a baculum only infrequently encounter females, but engage in longer periods of copulation that the baculum makes possible, thereby maximizing their chances of fathering the female's offspring. Human females exhibit concealed ovulation also known as hidden estrus, meaning it is almost impossible to tell when the female is fertile, so frequent matings would be necessary to ensure paternity. It has been speculated that the loss of the bone in humans, when it is present in our nearest related species the chimpanzee, is a result of sexual selection by females looking for honest signals of good health in prospective mates.
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Like in species of Gyrinicola, there is an alternation of generations. Thus, in all of the autoinfective oxuridans the basic pattern involves a generation of colonizing females that give rise to a second generation in the same host individual; worms of this second generation produce thick-shelled dispersing eggs. The patterns of autoinfection highlight mother-son mating and the sex ratio. Female biased broods are favored, involving mother-son matings and accessibility to haplodiploids.
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Melanistic coyotes owe their color to a mutation that first arose in domestic dogs. Coyotes have occasionally mated with domestic dogs, sometimes producing crosses colloquially known as "coydogs". Such matings are rare in the wild, as the mating cycles of dogs and coyotes do not coincide, and coyotes are usually antagonistic towards dogs. Hybridization usually only occurs when coyotes are expanding into areas where conspecifics are few, and dogs are the only alternatives.
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Female bonobos carry and nurse their young for four years and give birth on average every 4.6 years. Compared to common chimpanzees, bonobo females resume the genital swelling cycle much sooner after giving birth, enabling them to rejoin the sexual activities of their society. Also, bonobo females which are sterile or too young to reproduce still engage in sexual activity. Mothers will help their sons get more matings from females in oestrus.
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Hand mating is the most efficient method, but requires the most work on the part of the human involved. A male and female llama are put into the same pen and mating is monitored. They are then separated and re-mated every other day until one or the other refuses the mating. Usually, one can get in two matings using this method, though some stud males routinely refuse to mate a female more than once.
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Male Females are more likely than males to take advantage of sugar water or other resources. In an experiment to test the hypothesis that access to nutritional resources would affect the frequency of second matings, females with access to sugar were less likely to mate more than once. Available food makes the female less receptive to advances from males, which present a nuptial gift as part of courtship.Fox, C. W. and J. Moya-Laraño. (2009).
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A deaf 8-month-old homozygous merle Australian Shepherd. She has blue eyes with starburst pupils and an eccentric pupil in her left eye. Dogs with two copies of the merle gene (homozygous merle or "double merle") have an even higher chance of being deaf and with vision impairments. The UK Kennel Club has acknowledged the health risk associated with homozygous merle and stopped registering puppies produced from merle to merle matings in 2013.
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All Ragdolls are descended from Baker's cats through matings of Daddy Warbucks to Fugianna and Buckwheat. Baker, in an unusual move, spurned traditional cat- breeding associations. She trademarked the name Ragdoll, set up her own registry – the International Ragdoll Cat Association (IRCA) – around 1971, and enforced stringent standards on anyone who wanted to breed or sell cats under that name. The Ragdolls were also not allowed to be registered by other breed associations.
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This avoidance resulted from a strong deficit in successful matings between mice sharing both MUP haplotypes (complete match). In another study, using white-footed mice, it was found that when mice derived from wild populations were inbred, there was reduced survival when such mice were reintroduced into a natural habitat. These findings suggest that inbreeding reduces fitness, and that scent signal recognition has evolved in mice as a means of avoiding inbreeding depression.
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Female red flour beetles are also known to store sperm after mating. More sperm is stored by the first mating, which leads to less sperm stored in subsequent matings. However, amount of stored sperm does not stop the last male mate from fertilizing the egg. This is due to the fact that with each mating, males can remove previously stored sperm thus giving their own sperm an advantage to fertilize the egg.
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1 day old pups Breeding onset occurs at about 50 days of age in both females and males, although females may have their first estrus at 25–40 days. Mice are polyestrous and breed year round; ovulation is spontaneous. The duration of the estrous cycle is 4–5 days and lasts about 12 hours, occurring in the evening. Vaginal smears are useful in timed matings to determine the stage of the estrous cycle.
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This additional benefit allows gift-giving males to surpass the fitness of other males. In this way, females are exploiting the inherent sexual dimorphism of their species. In species where males provide females with a nuptial gift during mating, there is a particular scope for males to manipulate females to acquire matings and prolong copulation to enhance their fertilization success. Typically, females control the duration and volume of sperm transfer throughout the mating process.
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Since inbreeding is detrimental, it tends to be avoided. In the house mouse, the major urinary protein (MUP) gene cluster provides a highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity that appears to underlie kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance. Thus there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating. Another mechanism for avoiding inbreeding is evident when a female house mouse mates with multiple males.
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In many non-monogamous species, the benefit to a male's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple females is large, whereas the benefit to a female's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple males is small or nonexistent. In these species, there is a selection pressure for whatever traits enable a male to have more matings. The male may therefore come to have different traits from the female. Male (left), offspring, and female (right) Sumatran orangutans.
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The reproductive females of social Hymenoptera—wasps, bees, and ants—mate with multiple partners. These females are called queens, to distinguish them from the non-reprodutive females that tend the colony and do not mate. A honey bee queen ideally mates with about a dozen drones (males) in her nuptial flight. The sperm of matings are stored in a special reservoir, called the spermatheca, for the life of the queen—which can be several years.
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The highest documented mating frequency for an Apis queen is in Apis nigrocincta, where queens mate with an extremely high number of males with observed numbers of different matings ranging from 42 to 69 drones per queen.Hadisoesilo, Soesilawati. "The Comparative Study of Two Species of Cavity-Nesting Honey Bees of Sulawesi, Indonesia" (PDF). The sting of queens is not barbed like a worker's sting, and queens lack the glands that produce beeswax.
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Mating occurs at dawn, and usually multiple mating events take place. Research shows that increased mating frequency correlates with a higher proportion of fertile eggs. This is supported by the idea that multiple matings do not reduce the receptivity of a female fly to copulation, regardless of the characteristics of the mating male. Studies showed that the number of copulation events rather than the number of mates led to an increase in hatching success.
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Based on related species of the Oriental and Indo-Malayan region Seifert & Frohschammer (2013) predict the following biological traits: (a) there are only ergatoid males – winged males, which are an ancestral trait in Cardiocondyla, are no longer developed, (b) ergatoid males are long-lived, mate always inside the nest and try to kill rivals using their sickle-shaped mandibles in order to monopolize the matings and (c) nests should contain 1–4 queens.
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To avoid being eaten by the females, which are typically much larger, male spiders identify themselves to potential mates by a variety of complex courtship rituals. Males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Females weave silk egg-cases, each of which may contain hundreds of eggs. Females of many species care for their young, for example by carrying them around or by sharing food with them.
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Fujian pond turtles (Mauremys iversoni) are hybrid specimens mainly produced in Chinese turtle farms, usually from matings between female yellow pond turtles and golden coin turtles (Cuora trifasciata) males. The supposed Mauremys pritchardi turtles are wild and captive-bred hybrids between the present species and the Chinese pond turtle (Chinemys reevesi). "Clemmys guangxiensis" is a composite taxon described from specimens of Mauremys mutica and the natural hybrid "Mauremys" × iversoni. The yellow pond turtle is threatened with extinction.
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Although the black-throated blue warbler is a socially monogamous species, males are frequently observed in territories of other males, suggesting the occurrence of extra-pair matings. Nestling parentage is identified by microsatellites in a study plot at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire. The results show that extra-pair fertilization occurs and that the majority of the extra-pair sires come from males in neighboring territories. Only very few extra-pair sires are from distant territories.
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The first studbook—official documentation of pedigrees, matings, and ensuing offspring—for Hanoverians was founded in 1888 by the Royal Agricultural Society. The "Hanoverian Warmblood studbook" was kept by the Chamber of Agriculture from 1899 until 1922, when the Society of Hanoverian Warmblood Breeders was founded, privatizing ownership of the studbook. This society unified over 50 local breeders' clubs with a total of over 10,000 members. Today, this society is known simply as the Hannoveraner verband, or Hanoverian Society.
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A male Eresus sandaliatus Sexual selection in spiders shows how sexual selection explains the evolution of phenotypic traits in spiders.Buss, D. M. The evolution of human intrasexual competition: tactics of mate attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, 616–28 (1988). doi= 10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.616 Male spiders have many complex courtship rituals and have to avoid being eaten by the females, with the males of most species survive a few matings, and having short life spans.
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In this species, males plug a females insemination duct with a portion of their palp that contains the ejaculatory duct called the embolus. The embolus that is found in the female's posterior receptaculum suggests that males are trying to limit sperm competition. In some spider species, such as the Nephila pilipes, multiple males try to mate with only one female. This can be harmful to the female, because it forces her to participate in energy costly matings.
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This butterfly exhibits protandry. Males tend to emerge 4–8 days before females do and the average life span of both sexes is 10 days, though it can be as long as three weeks. Protandry may have an effect on the butterfly's mating success in a population. In many time constrained species such as the Edith's checkerspot, early season matings may have a higher probability of producing adults in the next generation than those later in the year.
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After first matings occur in early spring, first instar larvae begin to appear in late spring, usually completing the first instar by late May to June. Most individuals reach second instars by mid summer, and third instars are reached in fall. Larvae hibernate during the winter before emerging as adults the following spring. Larvae are sedentary and live in permanent burrows and feed by using their mandibles to catch arthropods that pass by the mouth of their burrows.
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Three closely related Mycosphaerella species, M. fijiensis, M. musicola and M. eumusae cause a destructive disease of bananas. Each of these three species is heterothallic, that is, matings can only occur between individuals of different mating type. Although the mating type DNA sequences of the three species appear to have arisen from a common ancestral sequence, there also has been considerable evolutionary divergence between them.Arzanlou M, Crous PW, Zwiers LH. Evolutionary dynamics of mating-type loci of Mycosphaerella spp.
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The turnip sawfly (Athalia rosae) is a typical sawfly with dark green or blackish 18-25 mm long larvae that feed on plants of the brassica family, and can sometimes be a pest. It winters below the ground, emerging in early summer as a 7-8 mm adult with a mainly orange body and a black head. The adult feeds on nectar. The turnip sawfly was found to result in diploid males and females after sister-brother matings.
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Dominant females procure more food, matings, and supporters. Among olive baboons in Tanzania, high-ranking females give birth at shorter intervals to infants with a higher survival rate, and their daughters tend to mature faster than low-ranking females. These high-ranking females also appear to have a higher probability of miscarriages and some high-ranking matrilines have inexplicably low fertility. One theory suggests this occurs due to stress on the high-ranking females, although this theory is controversial.
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The young virgin queen has a limited time to mate. If she is unable to fly for several days because of bad weather and remains unmated, she will become a "drone layer." Drone-laying queens usually signal the death of the colony, because the workers have no fertilized (female) larvae from which to raise worker bees or a replacement queen. Though timing can vary, matings usually take place between the sixth and tenth day after the queen emerges.
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As a part of their work, Professor Reul's team assembled 117 specimens and began the process of standardising them into distinct varieties. Classifying them as a single breed, initially Professor Reul's team divided the breed into six different varieties based on coat type and colour, between 1892 when the first breed standard was drafted and 1956, as many eight varieties and as few as two varieties were recognised by either the Club de Chien Berger Belge or the Société Royale Saint-Hubert. In 1905 it was decided that interbreeding between the different varieties should be forbidden, but the disruptions caused by the First World War resulted in a decline in breed numbers so in 1920 it was decided matings between the varieties should be allowed in order to preserve the breed and avoid issues resulting from inbreeding. The Second World War once again threatened the viability of the breed and in late 1945 it was decided once again that matings between dogs of the different varieties was to be encouraged, and through careful breeding the Belgian Shepherd recovered in numbers.
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When the female is experimentally prevented from kicking the male (by removal of the hind legs), matings continued for longer than usual, and injury increased. However, the amount of time before she became receptive again and the rate of oviposition were not affected. This suggests that penile spines do not increase the reproductive success of males, and it is suspected that the spines do not increase reproductive success for either sex, and may have no adaptive value.Edvardsson, M. and T. Tregenza. (2005).
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"Matings are very rarely observed, but reportedly occur in or around the small territories that males defend on vertical perches on tree trunks or stems in the forest understory. At these perches, the males perform a characteristic display during which they may buzz their wings or show brief hovering flights. The potential release of fragrances during the display may lure in receptive females, ostensibly over some distance." Male Euglossines are attracted to diverse sources of fragrance such as flowers and sap.
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Agassou is the product of a divine mating—his mother was a princess and is said to have mated with a leopard, giving birth to Agassou. Agassou is further noted as ruler and king of a particular sect in Africa that has come to be known as the Leopard Society. His brothers were also to have been the progeny of divine matings. Their lineage, their royal regalia, and their legacy are still held by the Leopard Society of West Africa.
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A. nigrocincta queens mate with a relatively high number of males compared to queens of other bee species, with observed numbers of different matings ranging from 42 to 69 drones per queen. The mating frequency is the highest documented for honeybees, aside from Apis dorsata, Apis laboriosa, and Apis cerana nuluensis, the only Apis species that do not have documented paternity frequencies. Similar to other Apis species, A. nigrocincta have monogynous colonies with queens mating with a large number of males.
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This technique was used to eradicate Cochliomyia hominivorax screw-worm fly from the USA where the flies were endemic, and from Libya where there had been an accidental importation from South America. Although this species of blowfly under natural conditions has larvae of the obligate myiasis type, it is possible to colonize the entire lifecycle in large factory conditions. Massive numbers of pupae are sterilized by irradiation. When released, these flies mate with the wild flies and the matings produce no offspring.
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B. terrestris is a singly mating species. Mating with multiple males might provide benefits of genetic variability among the brood, but it does not happen in this or any but the most highly derived social bees. The lack of multiple matings by B. terrestris queens may be partly due to male interference. B. terrestris males plug the female's sexual tract with a sticky secretion during mating, which appears to reduce the female's ability to successfully mate with other males for several days.
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At stud Miss Andretti initially missed (failed to conceive) to matings with Redoute's Choice and Fastnet Rock. On 1 September 2009 she foaled a chestnut colt by Exceed And ExcelASB: Miss Andretti Retrieveded 2011-2-21 at Toolooganvale Stud in the Hunter Region. This colt by Exceed And Excel, was sold at the Gold Coast auction for $460,000 to her trainer Lee Freedman. Owner Sean Buckley has agreed to take back part- ownership of the foal with hall of fame trainer Lee Freedman.
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Secondly, in order to outweigh the aforementioned costs, mating during infertile phases should increase females' reproductive success by increasing the number of offspring produced. Current research has only investigated this factor indirectly, and it has predominantly been investigated in insects. For example, when male insects deliver material benefits in exchange for sexual access, the reproductive success of the females increases with the number of matings. It is important to note that the mating behaviour assessed was not limited to extended female sexuality.
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This hypothesis suggests the adaptive advantage for women who had hidden estrus would be a reduction in the possibility of infanticide by men, as they would be unable to reliably identify, and kill, their rivals' offspring. This hypothesis is supported by recent studies of wild Hanuman langurs, documenting concealed ovulation, and frequent matings with males outside their fertile ovulatory period. Heistermann et al. hypothesize that concealed ovulation is used by women to confuse paternity and thus reduce infanticide in primates.
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When mice inbreed with close relatives in their natural habitat, there is a significant detrimental effect on progeny survival. Since inbreeding can be detrimental, it tends to be avoided by many species. In the house mouse, the major urinary protein (MUP) gene cluster provides a highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity that appears to underlie kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance. Thus there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating.
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In some insects, nuptial gifts allow the male to copulate longer and transfer more sperm to the female. In fruit flies, katydids, and scorpion flies, nuptial gifts contain substances that reduce a female's receptivity to additional matings. While nuptial gifts also may boost female fecundity, from a male's perspective, such investment will only be beneficial if it increases the number of his own offspring. In bell crickets, nuptial gifts may be necessary to avoid injury or death by cannibalizing females.
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Further more he analyzed characters of some 40,000 guinea pigs in 23 strains of brother- sister matings against a random-bred stock. (Wright 1922a-c). The concentrated study of these two groups of mammals eventually led to the Shifting Balance Theory and the concept of "surfaces of selective value" in 1932. (Wright 1988 Pg 122 American Naturalist) He did major work on the genetics of guinea pigs, and many of his students became influential in the development of mammalian genetics.
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Male common side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana) exhibit polymorphism in their throat pigmentation, and these different phenotypes are correlated with different mating strategies. Orange-throated males are the largest and most aggressive, defending large territories and keeping harems of females. Blue-throated males are of intermediate size, and guard smaller territories containing only a single female. Yellow-throated males are the smallest, and instead of holding territories they mimic females in order to sneak matings away from the other two morphs.
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Females produce one clutch (eggs) per year, consisting of anywhere between 20-50 eggs, and matings occur around the same general time of egg-laying. The population exhibits strong sexual dimorphism in body size between male and female B. nicefori. Males reach a standard length of 29–50 mm at maturation, whereas females are considerably larger reaching a standard length of 39–75 mm. The overall time it takes for these salamanders to completely mature is thought to be approximately 6 years.
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Copulation between male and female small heath butterflies lasts between 10 minutes and 5 hours, occurring at any time in the day. In 1985, a study observed that males often mate within their own territory (86.7% of 30 matings), and these copulations are generally lengthy, lasting over 100 minutes. Otherwise, copulations lasted approximately 10–30 minutes, especially for vagrant males. The study also found that either the male or female (but generally the male) is forced to leave the territory after copulation.
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Spiders perform cannibalism under a range of circumstances. Females eating males: Perhaps the most widely known example of cannibalism in spiders is when females cannibalise males before, during or after copulation. For example, the male Australian redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti) is killed by the female after he inserts his second palpus in the female's genital opening; in over 60% of matings, the female then eats the male. However, the theory of the "sacrificial male" may have become greater than the truth.
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Usually, when the female is ready to mate, she may let the male catch her, at which point he will grasp her by biting a fold of her skin behind her neck. The male will then position his tail underneath the female's tail near her vent. Males have two sex organs, known as hemipenes, which are normally kept within the body, but are everted from his vent for mating. Males seem to alternate between the left and right hemipenis on successive matings.
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The name dogla is a native Indian name used for a supposedly natural hybrid offspring of a male leopard and a tigress, the combination designated leoger in the table above. Indian folklore claims that large male leopards sometimes mate with tigresses, and anecdotal evidence exists in India of offspring resulting from leopard to tigress matings. A supposed dogla was reported in the early 1900s. Many reports probably refer to large leopards with abdominal striping or other striped shoulders and bodies of a tiger.
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Mating success is dependent on a variety of factors that range from the plumage exhibited by a male to the composition of the lek itself. In one study, the female Guianan cocks-of-the- rock displayed sexual selection based on sequential comparisons or threshold standards. The hens engaged in a “pool–comparison” tactic, meaning that females chose males of higher rank in courtship. Males of higher rank were those with more matings received from other females; the lower-ranking single males were ignored.
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It is believed to be the only bat species with a classical lek mating system, wherein males gather on a "lek", which in this case is a long and thin stretch of land, such as along a river. There, they produce loud, honking vocalizations to attract females. Females visit the lek and select a male to mate with; the most successful 6% of males are involved in 79% of matings. Offspring are born five or six months later, typically a singleton, though twins have been documented.
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In addition to their appearance they possess aspects of their physiology that make them completely unique amongst parrots. Vasa chicks are known to hatch after only 18–20 days of incubation, which is highly irregular as parrots of the vasa size range tend to take up to 30 days to hatch. The male vasas' cloaca is able to invert into a hemipenis, which becomes erect during mating – a feature unique to the genus. This phallus is associated with prolonged matings enforced by a copulatory tie.
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Due to Chord and Tai's urging Dwayne became Night Thrasher and assembled a young team of superheroes named the New Warriors.Thor #411 Chord often served as their pilot. Tai had hoped to sacrifice the New Warriors to the well of the Dragon's Breadth cult in place of the members of the Folding Circle (the children from the matings of the soldiers and the female maidens) and absorb the power released from their sacrifice. Chord accompanied the New Warriors to Brazil to investigate Project: Earth.
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However, studies have shown increased female fecundity and fertility from multiple matings. Females have long-term sperm storage, and there is little to no parental investment after she lays eggs. A 2000 study by Opp and Prokopy found that male and female apple maggot flies mated up to six times a day in males and eight times in females, thus there is most likely no mating refractory period, unlike other tephritid species like Mediterranean fruit flies, whose females may mate only after stored sperm is depleted.
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Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to recent research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings.
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Multiple mating events can ensure that females obtain a greater net amount of sperm, resulting in an increased likelihood of successful fertilization. In nature, repeated matings could result in males that have a low sperm count. Due to the males' low sperm count, a female may need to mate with several males before being successfully inseminated. Although multiple mating events may result in an increased likelihood for finding genetically compatible sperm, genetic compatibility cannot always be considered a major fitness advantage for polyandrous behavior.
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Matings start before ovulation occurs and the first pregnancies of the year often result in a single foetus, with pregnancy failures being common. Peak reproductive activity occurs in March and April, when all females may be pregnant, the majority with three or more foetuses. The mating system of the hare has been described as both polygynous (single males mating with multiple females) and promiscuous. Females have six-weekly reproductive cycles and are receptive for only a few hours at a time, making competition among local bucks intense.
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Over several matings, possibly a dozen or more, the queen receives and stores enough sperm from a succession of drones to fertilize hundreds of thousands of eggs. If she does not manage to leave the hive to mate—possibly due to bad weather or being trapped in part of the hive—she remains infertile and becomes a drone layer, incapable of producing female worker bees. Worker bees sometimes kill a non-performing queen and produce another. Without a properly performing queen, the hive is doomed.
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In those cases, the mated female is constantly seen flying over both the original and the new male's territory, evaluating the qualities of both territories and exchanging calls with both males. The social mate displays aggressive behaviors towards the female, while the new male shows less aggression and sings softer songs. At the same time, both the mated male and the new male will fly over other territories to attract other females as well. Divorce, mate switching and extra-pair matings do occur in northern mockingbirds.
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Mate-searching is concentrated to a limited portion of the Polistes nimpha habitat. Males gather in great numbers; either flying high above the ground where matings can take place or perched near hibernation places waiting for uninseminated females. The criteria for these locations depend on accessibility to the nests, appropriate hibernacula, foraging areas, hilltops, landmarks and other environmental necessities. Males land under specific conditions of temperature and insulation; if clouds cover the sun, the wasps may leave the hedges and return when the sun is back out.
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86.3% of the population are mestizo, having mixed indigenous and European ancestry. Historical evidence and census supports the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry", as a result of a strong bias favoring matings between European males and Native American females, and to the important indigenous male mortality during the Conquest. The genetics thus suggests the native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war and disease. Large numbers of Spaniard men settled in the region and married or forced themselves with the local women.
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Post-copulatory mechanisms may also be present within fungi through polyandry in which zygote-level sexual selection might occur. Within multicellular ascomycete fungi, a haploid mycelium produces a fruiting body which in turn produces many offspring that are also haploid. Each fruiting body has the potential to be fertilized by more than one male gamete. Laboratory experiments have shown that multiple matings are possible and the female has the ability to selectively abort fruiting bodies that have been inappropriately fertilized by a closely related yet incompatible species.
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A receptive female holds her tail to one side and stands still while copulation takes place. Matings may be repeated several times and may take place twice or more times within a minute. The male neither eats nor rests when a female is present in his territory, and during this time, the female keeps close to the male, often rubbing her head on his torso and sniffing his penis. While in season, a female may visit several territories and mate with several different males.
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In any case, outcross matings provide the benefit of masking deleterious recessive alleles in progeny. This benefit has been proposed to be a major factor in the maintenance of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes, as summarized in the article Evolution of sexual reproduction. An epigenetic contribution to heterosis has been established in plants, and it has also been reported in animals. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), discovered in 1993, are a class of non-coding small RNAs which repress the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) or cause degradation of mRNAs.
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They choose to perform a long, elaborate zig-zag flight pattern to draw attention after they reach a group of perching males, who will take part in lekking as a show of dominance. The female then selectively chooses her mate and begins a monandrous relationship. Most matings occur with residents within territories than with the wandering non-residents. Females often mate with males with larger wings, as territory owners are usually larger, and generally mate only once or twice in their short overall lifetimes.
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Presently, though the mating seasons overlap, the polar bears' season begins slightly earlier than the grizzly bears'. A blog columnist for the Seattle Post-Intelligencer suggested that more hybrids may be seen as global warming progresses and alters normal mating periods. The Canadian Wildlife Service noted that grizzly-polar hybrids born of zoo matings have proven fertile. Grizzly bears have been sighted in what is usually polar bear territory in the Western Arctic near the Beaufort Sea, Banks Island, Victoria Island, and Melville Island.
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It is important to note that females also benefit from high fecundity, and thus this trait is probably more affected by classical natural selection. Maternal investment: In many species, males benefit from high maternal investment as it allows them to preserve more energy and time for additional matings rather than investing their resources on one offspring. Females are expected to invest a certain amount of time and resources, but it can also be detrimental to the female if too much maternal investment is expected.
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The high degree to which alpha males monopolize matings results in an unusually large number of paternal half-siblings and full siblings in this species relative to other primate species. Kinship is an important organizing factor in the structuring of female-female social relationships. Particularly in larger groups, females preferentially associate with, groom, and provide coalitionary support to their matrilineally related female kin. They do not exhibit a similar preference for their paternal half sisters, which may mean that they only are capable of recognizing kinship through the maternal line.
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Female nursing young Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two, and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. By the autumn of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring, although reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least . The gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between . When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators.
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However, "haphazard" is not the same as "random" to a geneticist. The offspring of such matings might be less likely to express certain genetic disorders because there might be a decreased chance that both parents carry the same detrimental recessive alleles, but some deleterious recessives occur across many seemingly unrelated breeds, and therefore merely mixing breeds is no guarantee of genetic health. Also, when two poor specimens are bred, the offspring could inherit the worst traits of both parents. This is commonly seen in dogs that came from puppy mills.
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A meta analysis of 27 species found that qualities such as lekking size, male display rate, and the rate of male aggression exhibit positive correlation with male success rates. A positive correlation was also found between attendance, magnitude of exaggerated traits, age, frequency of fights, and mating success. This female preference leads to mating skew, with some males being more successful at copulating with females. The variation in mating success is quite large in lek mating systems with 70–80% of matings being attributed to only 10–20% of the males present.
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Unlike the wolf, which has been known to practice both monogamous and bigamous matings, the coyote is strictly monogamous, even in areas with high coyote densities and abundant food. Females that fail to mate sometimes assist their sisters or mothers in raising their pups, or join their siblings until the next time they can mate. The newly mated pair then establishes a territory and either constructs their own den or cleans out abandoned badger, marmot, or skunk earths. During the pregnancy, the male frequently hunts alone and brings back food for the female.
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An 8 week old Khaki Campbell (rear) and a 13-week-old Mallard Mrs Adele Campbell GRO & BMD Records commenced poultry-keeping around 1887 and later purchased an Indian Runner Duck of indiscriminate type which was an exceptional layer (182 eggs in 196 days),Weir, Harrison. 1902 Our Poultry p.706-707Brown, J. T.1909 Encyclopaedia of Poultry Vol.1, pp.123-124 and which formed the basis in developing the "Campbell Ducks"; in her own words "Various matings of Rouen, Indian Runner and Wild Duck were resorted to produce them".
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Survival The decline in intellectual ability has left everyone to fend for themselves in the post-apocalyptic society. Rye carries a gun with her at all times for this reason. Rye has learned to be a quick thinker, knowing exactly what to do when the fight on the bus breaks out, like stopping herself from getting hurt and getting off the bus as soon as she could.Govan, Sandra Y. "Disparate Spirits Yet Kindred Souls: Octavia E. Butler, 'Speech Sounds,' and Me." Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler.
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The sphragis acts to increase the chance of individual males successfully producing offspring by preventing other males from inseminating already mated females. There is evidence that females have attempted to counter this strategy by evolving remarkably broad genitalia that makes it more difficult for sphragides to remain in place. The evolutionary incentive to counter the sphragis is likely the nutritional benefit females obtain from the spermatophore, hence multiple matings provide female butterflies with additional resources. The sphragis does not obstruct the passage of eggs as there are separate orifices for copulation and oviposition.
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Infanticide is more commonly reported in one-male groups, perhaps because one male monopolizing matings drives the evolution of this trait. In multiple-male groups, the costs for infanticidal males are likely to be high as the other males may protect the infants and they can't ensure that they'll sire young with other males around. Nevertheless, infanticide does occur in these groups, and is suggested that such practices serve to return a female to estrous and gain the opportunity to mate. Females usually give birth to a single infant, although twins do occur.
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The American mink was introduced and released in Europe during the 1920s-1930s. The American mink is less dependent on wetland habitats than the European mink and is 20-40% larger. The impact of feral American minks on European mink populations has been explained through the competitive exclusion principle and because the American mink reproduces a month earlier than the European species, and matings between male American minks and female European minks result in the embryos being reabsorbed. Thus, female European minks impregnated by male American minks are unable to reproduce with their conspecifics.
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The great spruce bark beetle is unusual among members of its genus in that the beetles mate before they emerge from under the bark, while they are not yet fully chitinised. There are many more female than male beetles, often 10/1 but exceptionally 45/1, and the matings are normally incestuous, being between siblings. The beetles emerge into the open air through a round hole which may be used by many beetles. They are weak fliers and many disperse by walking, tunnelling into a different part of the same tree.
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One explanation for the dimorphism observed in the N. pilipes species is sexual size dimorphism may have evolved due to selection favoring female gigantism. Gigantism may have evolved in response to reduce the effectiveness of male mating plugs. With a mating plug, male spiders ensure that only the male who create the plug post coitus would be the father of the resulting offspring. Although in the species of N. pilipes, plugging does not seem to have an effect as females are still able to have successful matings even with multiple plugs.
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Due to the limited size of the Stabyhoun population, careful breeding is essential. The Dutch Association for Stabyhouns and Wetterhouns (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Stabij- en Wetterhounen/NVSW), the Ameri-Can Stabyhoun Association and the UK Stabyhoun Association has breed advisors who assist with mating selections. In an effort to control inbreeding, the association keeps breeding at a minimum and carefully considers prospective matings. Despite there being small populations of Stabyhouns outside of the Netherlands, the breeding population is small and the greatest genetic diversity remains in the Netherlands.
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In behavioral ecology, negative frequency- dependent selection often maintains multiple behavioral strategies within a species. A classic example is the Hawk-Dove model of interactions among individuals in a population. In a population with two traits A and B, being one form is better when most members are the other form. As another example, male common side-blotched lizards have three morphs, which either defend large territories and maintain large harems of females, defend smaller territories and keep one female, or mimic females in order to sneak matings from the other two morphs.
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While B. terrestris is a singly mating species, a polyandrous system would potentially be beneficial because it would be possible to attain greater genetic variability for resistance against disease. Accordingly, artificially increasing the number of mates a B. terrestris queen obtains through artificial insemination has shown that the increased genetic variability in her offspring confers greater resistance to the most common bumblebee parasite, Crithidia bombi. However, the average reproductive success between one and multiple matings is not linear. Queens that mated once and mated four times had a higher fitness than those that mated twice.
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Females can mate with multiple males (with as many as five), but it is not necessarily advantageous, because unnecessary matings waste time and energy. Polyandry may contribute to outbreeding if females preferentially mate with unrelated males. Polyandry can occur if the benefits of mating more than once are greater than the costs. It can also occur if males force female spiders to mate again through infanticide because females can lay multiple clutches, even though mating multiple times is against the female's interests because it generally reduces the female's fitness.
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Trivers and Willard also identified a circumstance in which reproducing individuals might experience deviations from expected offspring reproductive value--namely, varying maternal condition. In polygynous species males may mate with multiple females and low- condition males will achieve fewer or no matings. Parents in relatively good condition would then be under selection for mutations causing production and investment in sons (rather than daughters), because of the increased chance of mating experienced by these good-condition sons. Mating with multiple females conveys a large reproductive benefit, whereas daughters could translate their condition into only smaller benefits.
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In polygynous mating systems, sexual conflict means the optimization of male reproductive success by having mated with multiple females, even though the reproductive success of a polygynously mated female is thereby reduced. Such can be the case for the Guianan cock-of-the-rocks, whose male members spend a majority of their time and energy maintaining their plumage and attempting to seek the most matings. Females, on the other hand, spend their time building and maintaining their nest where they will lay their eggs and raise the young.
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Silver foxes exist in seasonally monogamous pairs for the breeding months of December to April, and most matings occur in January and February. Female silver foxes are monestrous (having 1 estrus cycle per year) with estrus lasting 1–6 days and parturition occurring after about 52 days of gestation. During or approaching estrus, the vulva of silver foxes increases in size and tumescence, indicating the sexual readiness or condition of the fox. Female silver foxes generally breed during their first autumn, but a number of factors that contribute to their breeding success.
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The availability of resources and population size can greatly affect how many matings each individual participates in. Increased population size within a given area with fixed resources can limit how many offspring can survive. Therefore, males must often compete with other males to be the last male that mates with the female, to increase his fertilization rate. By being the last male to mate with a female, it is likely that his ejaculate removed previous ejaculate from previous males, increasing the chances that his sperm fertilizes the female.
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Furthermore, under such conditions, natural selection would favour the development of barriers to hybridisation, as individuals that avoided hybrid matings would tend to have more fit offspring, and thus contribute to the reproductive isolation of the two incipient species. This idea came to be known as the Wallace effect,Slotten pp. 413–15. later referred to as reinforcement. Wallace had suggested to Darwin that natural selection could play a role in preventing hybridisation in private correspondence as early as 1868, but had not worked it out to this level of detail.
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In S.L. Gursky and K.A.I. Nekaris (eds), Primate Anti- Predator Strategies. New York: Springer, pp. 173-205. Synchrony in general is for primates an important variable determining the extent of "paternity skew"—defined as the extent to which fertile matings can be monopolised by a fraction of the population of males. The greater the precision of female reproductive synchrony—the greater the number of ovulating females who must be guarded simultaneously—the harder it is for any dominant male to succeed in monopolising a harem all to himself.
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In wild little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus), males often mount other males (and females) during late autumn and winter, when many of the mounted individuals are torpid. 35% of matings during this period are homosexual. These coercive copulations usually include ejaculation and the mounted bat often makes a typical copulation call consisting of a long squawk. Similarly, in hibernacula of the common noctule (Nyctalus noctula), active males were observed to wake up from lethargy on a warm day and engage in mating with lethargic males and (active or lethargic) females.
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Interbreeding of differently coloured dogs was still taking place during this period, but this gradually changed and sportsmen started to limit matings to dogs adapted to the terrain they were required to cover. Originally, setters in Ireland were mostly red, or the parti-colour red and white, or even mostly white dogs. All were accepted as Irish Setters and were mated to each other. As late as 1875 at a conformation show in Dublin, there were 66 entries in the Irish Setter classes; 23 of these entries were red and white.
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It considered that the genes of the working lines of Irish Setters were very similar to those of the Irish Red and White setters and their close ancestry had already been used to aid the revival of the Irish Red and White setter. Before any outcross matings could take place, the mating would have to be approved by the official Outcross Committee. Only dogs with current health tests would be considered. However, the programme was met with dismay by many other breed clubs worldwide who felt it was a flawed and disappointing decision.
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The southern reedbuck breeds almost all the time of the year, although most matings occur during the hot and wet season. Females reach sexual maturity when they are two years old, when they leave their parent's territory. Males, which reach maturity at a slightly older age, may remain with the family group until their third year. A single young is born per birth after a gestation period of seven to eight months, and remains amongst the dense and tall grass cover in which it was born for the next two months.
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Carlos, whose research name was JD, made regular appearances in the series starting with the second episode. A rather amorous fellow who was billed as the Kalahari's "Casanova", he impregnated at least four Whiskers females during the first series including Daisy, Mozart, Tosca, and Kinkajou. Despite his roving ways, the show producers referred to him as Mozart's "long-time love" due to their frequent matings. In the third series, Carlos put aside his roving ways and became the dominant male of the Starsky, with both Kinkajou and Mozart pregnant with his pups.
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Deliberate inbreeding, including mother-to-son, father-to- daughter and brother-to-sister matings was said to result in serious genetic disease being perpetuated in many breeds. A 2006 report by Companion Animal Welfare Council called for major changes, stating that "inbreeding needs to be controlled" and that "animals with genetic defects should be barred from breed shows." Irving rejected the claims in the report, saying that it was based on emotion rather than science. The gene pool of the 10,000 Pugs in the UK is the equivalent of only 50 individuals.
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The designation of Mozambique tilapias as an invasive species rests on their life-history traits: Tilapias exhibit high levels of parental care as well as the capacity to spawn multiple broods through an extended reproductive season, both contributing to their success in varying environments. In the lek system, males congregate and display themselves to attract females for matings. Thus, mating success is highly skewed towards dominant males, who tend to be larger, more aggressive, and more effective at defending territories. Dominant males also build larger nests for the spawn.
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They did not believe that the entire donor chromosome was typically transferred to the recipient. On the other hand, Lederberg had an alternative explanation for the apparent ordered transfer of part of the chromosome. In analogy with fertilization and meiosis of higher organisms, he proposed that all of the genetic material was transferred but that breakage of the donor chromosome occurred at specific locations so that segments of the donor chromosome could be deleted. Zygotic induction was discovered while the location of prophage λ was being mapped using Hfr x F− matings.
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About 1% of males are small, intermediate in size between males and females, and do not grow the elaborate breeding plumage of the territorial and satellite males, although they have much larger internal testes than the ruffed males. Although the males of most lekking bird species have relatively small testes for their size, male ruffs have the most disproportionately large testes of any bird.Birkhead (2011) p. 323. This cryptic male, or "faeder" (Old English "father") obtains access to mating territories together with the females, and "steals" matings when the females crouch to solicit copulation.
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Equine SCID is an autosomal recessive disorder that affects the Arabian horse. Similar to the "bubble boy" condition in humans, an affected foal is born with no immune system, and thus generally dies of an opportunistic infection, usually within the first four to six months of life. There is a DNA test that can detect healthy horses who are carriers of the gene causing SCID, thus testing and careful, planned matings can now eliminate the possibility of an affected foal ever being born."SCID in Arabian Horses"Parkinson, Mary Jane.
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Larger males tend to engage in more tapping sequences and have higher fertilization success, either due to their size or due to female preference for large males. During copulation, male sperm is deposited into a storage organ called the bursa copulatrix. Sperm from previous matings is mostly stored in doublet storage tubes called spermathecae, while sperm from the most recent mating is typically in a separate singlet spermatheca. During male tapping, sperm is moved into the singlet spermatheca, and typically females use the sperm from the singlet spermatheca during egg-laying.
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First water frogs farm built by Berger in Poznań Utilizing the abundant data that he regularly collected over several years on three populations from near Turew, Wielkopolska (numbers of adults per kind, numbers of eggs and egg masses produced, numbers fertilized, numbers and kinds of tadpoles produced) Berger offered convincing evidence that the single all-hybrid population among the three persisted, not because of the usual matings that permit hybrid water frog lineages to persist, but only because of rare successes of fertilization involving ova with several unusual and rare genomic compositions.
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Mating plug in female's abdomen The species has no courtship. Rather, males simply dive on a female upon finding her and force her down to the ground if she is not already there, and forcibly attempt to mate. This is successful if she has not already mated, but usually unsuccessful if she has already mated, due to a mating plug, a small waxy plug deposited onto a female's abdomen by a male to prevent future copulation. Unsuccessful matings may last an hour or more before the female escapes.
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According to some sources, it is not apparent whether queens start new colonies independently or if they intrude on another colony. Queens either mate and reproduce in their original colony, or can split off with a number of workers, in order to found a new colony via swarming. Males do also remain in their biological colonies and do not travel to other colonies to seek matings. Depending on the ratio of workers to queens in the colony, queens will regulate the number of new queens and workers raised.
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When a male and female Bengal each carry a copy of the recessive long hair gene, and those two Bengals are mated with each other, they can produce long-haired Bengals. (See Cat coat genetics#Genes involved in fur length and texture.) In the past, long-haired offspring of Bengal matings were spayed or neutered until some breeders chose to develop the long-haired Bengal (which they called a Cashmere Bengal) Long- haired Bengals are generally not recognized by cat registries; however, since 2013, they have "preliminary" breed status in the New Zealand Cat Fancy (NZCF) registry, under the breed name Cashmere Bengal.
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Argue speculates this may be a description of the blue belton colour found in English Setters. Caius went on to describe the dog called a setter using the Latin name index: By the 17th century setters, or "setting dogges", had become established and were widespread on British estates, although the evolution into the more specific individual breeds of setters occurred at a later date. The interbreeding of the different colours was still taking place during this period but it gradually changed and sportsman/breeders began to segregate matings to dogs adapted to the terrain it was required to work on.
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They can mate at any time of the year, though the main peak occurs in February–May, when mature sows are in postpartal estrus and young animals experience their first estrus. Matings occurring outside this period typically occur in sows which either failed to mate earlier in the year or matured slowly. Badgers are usually monogamous; boars typically mate with one female for life, whereas sows have been known to mate with more than one male. Mating lasts for fifteen to sixty minutes, though the pair may briefly copulate for a minute or two when the sow is not in estrus.
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Males of some species use bodily fluids, such as seminal fluid from their ejaculate, to aid in the coercion of females. Seminal fluid in males of Drosophila melanogaster may contain chemicals that increase the amount of time it takes for females to remate, decrease the length of successive matings, or keep her from remating at all. The less a female mates with other males after copulation with a male, the more likely it is for him to ensure his paternity. These chemicals may also serve to increase the female's reproductive success, but at the cost of decreased longevity and immune response.
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It is mostly documented among species that belong to the same genus, but sometimes occurs between species of distant taxa. Alfred Kinsey cites reports of sexual activity involving a female eland with an ostrich, a male dog with a chicken, a male monkey with a snake, and a female chimpanzee with a cat. A 2008 review of the literature found 44 species pairs that had been observed attempting interspecies mating, and 46 species pairs that had completed interspecies matings, not counting cases that had resulted in hybridization. Most were known from laboratory experiments, but field observations had also been made.
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Males in certain species of spiders often employ drastic methods to be paternally successful. Monogyny in spiders culminates in extreme traits, such as dramatic male self-sacrifice and emasculation of the male by the female during copulation. Since males only mate with one female in a monogynous setting, each individual male must do whatever it takes to increase his particular paternity success, even if it means sacrificing himself. Male redback spiders twist their abdomens onto the fangs of their mates during copulation and, if cannibalized (65% of matings), increase their paternity relative to males that are not cannibalized.
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Triparental mating is a form of Bacterial conjugation where a conjugative plasmid present in one bacterial strain assists the transfer of a mobilizable plasmid present in a second bacterial strain into a third bacterial strain. Plasmids are introduced into bacteria for such purposes as transformation, cloning, or transposon mutagenesis. Triparental matings can help overcome some of the barriers to efficient plasmid mobilization. For instance, if the conjugative plasmid and the mobilizable plasmid are members of the same incompatibility group they do not need to stably coexist in the second bacterial strain for the mobilizable plasmid to be transferred.
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Contrary to initial reports of monogamy, ruffed lemurs in the wild exhibit seasonal polygamous breeding behavior, with both males and females mating with more than one partner within a single season. Mating is not restricted to just community members, but also involves members of neighboring communities. Females mate primarily with males with whom they had affiliative relations prior to the mating season, although some matings occurred with roaming males from other communities. Shortly before mating season begins, females exhibit swelling of the sex skin, which reaches its peak around the middle of their 14.8 day estrous cycle.
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Historical evidence and census supports the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry", as a result of a strong bias favoring matings between European males and Native American females, and to the important indigenous male mortality during the Conquest. The genetics thus suggests the native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war and disease. Large numbers of Spaniard men settled in the region and married or forced themselves with the local women. The Natives were forced to adopted Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Lencas and Pipil women and children were Hispanicized.
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These multiple matings by females decreases the certainty of paternity of male Barbary macaques and may lead them to care for all infants within the group. In order for a male to ensure his reproductive success, he must maximize his time spent around the females in the group during their fertile periods. Injuries to male macaques peaks during the fertile period, which points to male-male competition as an important determinant of male reproductive success. Not allowing a female to mate with other males, however, would be costly to the male since doing so would not allow him to mate with more females.
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Pygmy swordtail Xiphophorus multilineatus males offer another example of alternative mating strategies. Some males mature later at a larger size and always use courtship behaviour, while other males mature early at a smaller size, sometimes using courtship behaviour when alone with a female, but more often using sneaky behaviour. This behaviour is not preferred by the female, and is therefore not as successful as courtship in gaining matings, however the higher probability of surviving to reach sexual maturity due to maturing early is enough to maintain the smaller, sneakier males in the population.Molly R. Morris, Oscar Rios-Cardenas, Jason Brewer.
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He was sired by Orme who in turn was sired by Ormonde, the 1886 Triple Crown winner. Their victories made owner Hugh Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster, the only person to own two English Triple Crown winners. His dam was the high-strung mare, somewhat aptly named Vampire, by Galopin. Vampire also produced these horses from six matings with Orme: Flying Lemur (£1,325, a stud failure); Vamose (£5,604 and at stud in France with limited success) and Pipistrello (a non-winner and useless as a stallion), Wetaria, and Vane (produced the Royal Hunt Cup and Ebor Handicap winner, Weathervane).
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Since unsuccessful precopulatory songs were not as loud and had a broader bandwidth than that of successful songs, it is believed that the precopulatory song may be the last acoustic opportunity for males to display their fitness to the female. This could explain greater mating success for better males giving precopulatory songs due to increased female compliance once a male has mounted. However, longer precopulatory songs correlate with shorter matings. This is thought to occur because longer precopulatory songs are employed by males with mates that are less sexually responsive; therefore, the longer song may be just enough to lead to mating.
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An example of gametic isolation involves the allopatric sea urchins (Arbacia) have minimal bindin differences (bindin is a protein involved in the process of sea urchin fertilization, used for species-specific recognition of the egg by the sperm) and have insufficient barriers to fertilization. Comparison with the sympatric species Echinometra and Strongylocentrotus of the Indo-Pacific finds that they have significant differences in bindin proteins for fertilization and marked fertilization barriers. Echinometra viridis, one of several species in the genus that produce fertile hybrids. Laboratory matings of closely related sea urchin species Echinometra oblonga and E. sp.
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Other stallions may tolerate the close presence of an immature and less dominant stallion. Stallions and mares often compete together at horse shows and in horse races, however, stallions generally must be kept away from close contact with mares, both to avoid unintentional or unplanned matings, and away from other stallions to minimize fighting for dominance. When horses are lined up for award presentations at shows, handlers keep stallions at least one horse length from any other animal. Stallions can be taught to ignore mares or other stallions that are in close proximity while they are working.
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Bronze turkeys are the product of crossing domestic turkeys brought from England, with the wild turkey. These matings produced a bird that was larger and more robust than the European turkeys, and tamer than wild turkeys. Though the Bronze turkey type was created in the 18th century, the actual name was not used until the 1830's, when a strain developed in the U.S. state of Rhode Island was named the Point Judith Bronze. The name later spread to be used in reference to the breed as a whole, and was in the process simplified to just "Bronze".
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For this reason, females copulate with more males when genetic diversity is low in order to attain fertilization success and also increase fitness in their subsequent offspring. In some studies, however, it has been noted that fertilization can still occur when related beetles mate. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that there is a significantly lower number of offspring produced when inbred beetles mate than when the matings are between out-bred partners. Successful fertilization observed in a small portion of research in related beetles has led some biologists to claim that there may be no inbreeding depression in red flour beetles.
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Although most avian genomes are three times smaller than mammalian genomes, their genomes are enriched with telomeric sequence and class III (mega-telomere) arrays, perhaps due to the relatively large number of microchromosomes. The presence of mega-telomeres may be enhanced by the process of domestication or development of highly inbred vertebrate lines. The largest chicken arrays were discovered in the most inbred genetic lines. Studies of full siblings and their progeny from the UCD 003 line, established in 1956 and maintained by full-sibling matings, established a consistent profile with 200 Kb or larger telomeres.
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The Murray Grey breed was developed from an initial chance mating of a black Aberdeen Angus bull and a roan Shorthorn cow in 1905 during the Federation drought. The resulting 13 dun-grey calves from these matings were kept as curiosities and then bred on the Thologolong property along the Murray River in New South Wales by Peter and Ena Sutherland.Beef Cattle - Breeding and Management, W.A. Beattie, Popular Books,1990 These are unusually coloured as they are black, cattle grew quickly, were good converters of feed and produced quality carcases. Local cattlemen soon became interested in the greys and began breeding them.
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In some cases the signal receiver is lured toward the mimic. This involves mimicry of a resource that is often vital to the prey's survival (or more precisely, the survival of its genes) such as nutrition or a mate. If the bait offered is of little value to prey they would not be expected to take such a risk. For example, in all known cases of sexual signal mimicry it is always the male sex that is deceived (in fact, it has been suggested that females of some species have evolved mimicry as a strategy to avoid unwanted matings).
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Two hypotheses for explaining this fact are the sexy son hypothesis and the handicap principle. The sexy son hypothesis states that females may initially choose a trait because it improves the survival of their young, but once this preference has become widespread, females must continue to choose the trait, even if it becomes harmful. Those that do not will have sons that are unattractive to most females (since the preference is widespread) and so receive few matings. The handicap principle states that a male who survives despite possessing some sort of handicap thus proves that the rest of his genes are "good alleles".
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There is some evidence that D. laevigatus will undergo multiple matings under lab conditions, but this has never been tested in the wild. The traditional view of driver ant reproduction involved the colony breeding in a cycle of emigration and reproduction phases. During the emigration phase, the colony continuously travels throughout its territory, consuming any prey it encounters. Once the ants have arrived in an area with enough prey density, the colony constructs a semi-permanent nest and the queen lays a new generation of eggs to be raised until local resources deplete and the cycle continues.
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Although promiscuity is said to benefit both males and females, there has not yet been sufficient data to support the fact that promiscuity benefits females. In a study of dark-eyed juncos, the offspring produced by extra-pair males were neither better nor worse than the offspring of their male social partners. However, the study of dark-eyed juncos did reveal more sired offspring in promiscuous females than monogamous females. In a study of female water striders, the results showed that multiple matings can become costly to the female—especially since a lot of time and energy is invested in producing an egg.
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Drones (males) emerging from their nest Queens are polyandrous, meaning that queens can mate more than once; queens mate with one to nine males during a nuptial flight, and the effective number of mates per queen ranges from 1.0 to 11.4. Most queen ants only mate with one or two males. If the number of available male mates increases, the number of effective matings per queen decreases. Colonies are polygynous, meaning that a colony may house multiple queens; one to four queens typically inhabit a colony, and in multiple-queen colonies, the egg- laying queens are unrelated to one another.
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Proclossiana eunomia exhibits a polygynous mating system which is quite common in butterflies with short breeding periods. With breeding periods of 5 and 7 days, respectively for males and females, there is little time to maximize matings. The butterfly Proclossiana eunomia wants to pass on as many genes as it can in its short lifespan and thus males do not discriminate, trying to court all females they encounter. On the other hand, females are a bit more selective and have been observed to refuse incoming males either by displaying a mate-refusal posture or by simply fleeing away.
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The cat was imported to the US and adopted into the breeding program. Singapuras at a cat show The Singapura was accepted for registration by the TICA in 1979 for championship competition and by CFA in 1982 and granted championship status in 1988. In between this period, breeders found that the occasional litter would have a solid colored kitten, caused by the recessive gene for solid color. In a desire for the Singapura to breed true, many breeders chose to do test matings to pinpoint and remove from their breeding programs individuals with the recessive gene.
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"The paper by Hintz and Van Vleck caused all this commotion, but there were earlier mentions of a roan cross being lethal, too," Penedo explained. "But it was never fully established by any molecular analysis that homozygous roan horses would not be produced from matings of two roan parents." in Overton, 2004. The belief in "lethal roan" persisted until recently, when homozygous roan stallions with large numbers of offspring - all roan - were satisfactorily identified. Homozygous roan stallions were identified in both European populations of Belgian horses in 1977, and in North American, in Quarter Horse stallions.
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In natural populations of the great tit, inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative. Purple-crowned fairywren females paired with related males may undertake extra-pair matings that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding, despite ecological and demographic constraints. Southern pied babblers (Turdoides bicolor) appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways: through dispersal and by avoiding familiar group members as mates. Although both males and females disperse locally, they move outside the range where genetically related individuals are likely to be encountered.
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Once a snail has mated, it fires a dart before some, but not all, subsequent matings. A snail often mates without having a dart to use,Mating and Copulation written by Robert Nordsieck, Retrieved 8 August 2009 because it takes time to create a replacement dart. In the case of the garden snail Cornu aspersum, it takes a week for a new dart to form. The dart is shot with some variation in force, and with considerable inaccuracy, such that one-third of the darts that are fired in Cornu aspersum either fail to penetrate the skin, or miss the target altogether.
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The territorial mating behaviour of male A. manicatum occurs when foraging resources are amassed, allowing for monopolization and defence of territories by individual males. Resource defence, as exhibited by male A. manicatum, has been thought to benefit females by reducing foraging competition for pollen and nectar. The rate a female visits a territory is highly correlated with the number of flowers in that area. If females forage in sites that are being defended by males and the cost of additional matings is low for female members, then male resource defence and female polyandry may co-evolve.
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In Tenodera sinensis, 83% of males escape cannibalism after an encounter with a female, but since multiple matings occur, the probability of a male's being eaten increases cumulatively. The female may begin feeding by biting off the male's head (as they do with regular prey), and if mating has begun, the male's movements may become even more vigorous in its delivery of sperm. Early researchers thought that because copulatory movement is controlled by a ganglion in the abdomen, not the head, removal of the male's head was a reproductive strategy by females to enhance fertilization while obtaining sustenance. Later, this behavior appeared to be an artifact of intrusive laboratory observation.
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There is no statistical evidence to suggest that FCKS may be due to genetic factors: certain bloodlines seem to produce a preponderance of kittens with the condition, but this may be due to enhanced reporting within the breed. The literature citing heredity as a cause (Saperstein, Harris & Leipold (1976)) does not provide any evidential support and the information is repeated in later literature citing that source as authority. The majority of cases are of single kittens, with low but significant numbers of whole or part litters reported. Numerous breeders experience periods in which FCKS seems to occur over a number of matings, but then stops, suggesting an environmental cause.
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An important note is male bonnet macaques are generally far more laid back and carefree in their social lives than many other macaque species. Competition among male bonnet macaques is much more subdued and there is a much higher emphasis on pacifism. Male bonnet macaques groom each other, hug each other, sleep near each other, play together and engage in homosexual male on male anal sex as a social defuser, essentially regulating the bonnet macaque as the "bonobo" of the macaque family. While assertive males may take measures to monopolize matings, they cannot control females and these females will mate promiscuously, as macaques do.
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However, there are differences in adult sex ratios between families: in families in which females require multiple matings to keep producing eggs, sex ratios are less biased (close to 1); in families in which females can produce eggs continuously after only one mating, sex ratios are strongly skewed towards females. Several species of reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination, where incubation temperature of eggs determines the sex of the individual. In the American alligator, for example, females are hatched from eggs incubated between , whereas males are hatched from eggs . In this method, however, all eggs in a clutch (20–50) will be of the same sex.
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Walter Cline noted that, "all normal Siwan men and boys practice sodomy...the natives are not ashamed of this; they talk about it as openly as they talk about love of women, and many if not most of their fights arise from homosexual competition....Prominent men lend their sons to each other. All Siwans know the matings which have taken place among their sheiks and their sheiks' sons....Most of the boys used in sodomy are between twelve and eighteen years of age." In the late 1940s, a Siwan merchant told the visiting British novelist Robin Maugham that the Siwan men "will kill each other for boy. Never for a woman".
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Evening won the 1987 Science Fiction Chronicle Reader Award"Annotated Bibliography of Butler's Fiction." Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler. Ed. Rebecca J. Holden and Nisi Shawl. Seattle: Aqueduct Press, 2013. 274-292. and was nominated for the Theodore Sturgeon Award, the Nebula Award for Best Novelette1988 Nebula Awards, at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database; retrieved June 11, 2014 and the Locus Award for Best Novelette.1988 Locus Poll Award, at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database; retrieved June 11, 2014 Jo Walton has described Evening as "chilling and astonishing",Out of Control: Octavia Butler’s Bloodchild and Other Stories, by Jo Walton, at tor.
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The interaction between two neighbours can be modelled as an iterated prisoner's dilemma game. In this view, a territory owner that acts non-aggressively towards a neighbour can be thought of as cooperating, while a territory owner that acts aggressively towards its neighbour can be considered to have defected. A necessary condition for the prisoner’s dilemma game to hold is that an aggressive individual should enjoy greater benefits than a non-aggressive individual when each is faced with a non-aggressive opponent. This stipulation is plausible, as an aggressive individual might enlarge their territory or steal food or matings from a non-aggressive individual.
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An opposite prediction holds for poor- condition parents—selection will favor production and investment in daughters, so long as daughters are likely to be mated, while sons in poor condition are likely to be out-competed by other males and end up with zero mates (i.e., those sons will be a reproductive dead end). The hypothesis was used to explain why, for example, Red Deer mothers would produce more sons when they are in good condition, and more daughters when in poor condition. In polyandrous species where some females mate with multiple males (and others get no matings) and males mate with one/few females (i.e.
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Founder's Homepage Carol Ann Brewer In April 1986, a litter was born from this mating. Brewer eventually kept one of the female kittens, named "Pixie", and after a year started a breeding program with Pixie as the foundation cat. Over the next couple of years, Brewer introduced into her program 23 cats from around the nearby Cascade range, that were believed by her to be born from naturally occurring matings between bobcats and domestic cats. She coined the term "Legend Cat" to refer to such cats and has since registered a trademark in the U.S. to limit the term to describe permitted outcrosses used in her breeding program.
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Like other spiders, the male of this species uses his pedipalps to insert sperm into the female's seminal receptacles. The terminal joint of the palps become detached and remains in the female during seventy-five to eighty percent of matings, especially when the female is aggressive. It is surmised that the severed copulatory organs may function as plugs to prevent leakage of sperm and that abandoning them may be a sensible option for the male as otherwise his damaged palps might leak haemolymph. Although their loss effectively makes the male sterile, he usually stays with the female and fends off rival males, and this behaviour protects his reproductive investment.
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Repeated matings will kill males, so they are generally very wary of the females. The Yilanè language is incredibly complex, based on sounds, color (the Yilanè are able to alter the skin color on parts of their body, notably the hands, akin to chameleons) and body movements, and a key factor in social status among females is how well the language is mastered. As their emotions are directly and immediately translated into the movement of their bodies, Yilanè cannot lie. In order to deceive others they may only restrict their movements or go into a state of immobility until the emotion or thought has passed.
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A 1979 study of American-bred Belgian draft horses found fewer roan offspring from roan-to-roan matings than expected for a simple dominant trait. Finding neither stillborn nor sickly, short-lived foals from these roan parents, the researchers concluded that in the homozygous condition the roan gene was lethal to the embryo or fetus. Other studies at the time were using progeny ratios to identify potential lethality related to other coat colors, such as "dominant white" and "lethal white," and so roan was believed to follow a similar pattern. Genetic science in the 1970s could not provide a clear answer, as methods of molecular analysis had not yet been developed.
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At New York's Belmont Park, she finished second to Soaring Softly in the Grade I Flower Bowl Invitational Handicap. Entered in the inaugural running of the Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf, the parimutuel betting public made Coretta the seventh choice at 16:1 odds. In the 1⅜ miles race, she ran near the leaders until the top of the homestretch when she moved into the lead only to be caught near the finish line to finish second again to Soaring Softly. Retired to broodmare duty, among her matings Leigh bred Coretta two times to Ogden Phipps' stallion Seeking The Gold, naming the foals "Civil Rights" and "Shared Dreams".
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Cattle only produce milk after calving, and so every dairy cow must produce a calf every year. In dairy herds (which in the British Isles are almost all Holstein-Friesians), the best milking cows will normally be bred to a dairy bull, usually by artificial insemination (AI). The female purebred dairy calves from these matings will go on to become replacement dairy cows. Half of the purebred calves will, of course, be male - these are mostly not needed for breeding, and are generally unsuitable for beef; they may be reared for veal or are killed and disposed of at a few days old, depending on economics.
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Multi-male mating, or MMM, is recorded as a measure to prevent infanticide in species where young is altricial, or heavily dependent, and where there is a high turnover rate for dominant males, which leads to infanticide of the previous dominant male's young. Examples include, but are not limited to; white-footed mice, hamsters, lions, langurs, baboons, and macaques. Along with mating with multiple males, the mating of females throughout the entirety of a reproductive cycle also serves a purpose for inhibiting the chance of infanticide. This theory assumes that males use information on past matings to make decisions on committing infanticide, and that females subsequently manipulate that knowledge.
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He does not allow females to lay eggs in the hole he defends without mating with him first, but he does not pursue females who opt instead to leave the scene. The structure of the penis suggests that, as with many other odonates, male Megaloprepus are able to displace sperm from previous matings, ensuring the paternity of the eggs. For their part, females do not choose mates based on size, and will sometimes remate with smaller males who cannot take over a territory and instead adopt a satellite position nearby. At least some females will lay eggs in undefended tree holes before mating again.
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Bold Ruler was retired to stud at Claiborne Farm, but the Phippses owned most of the mares to which Bold Ruler was bred, and few of his offspring were sold at public auction. To bring new blood into their breeding program, the Phippses sometimes negotiated a foal-sharing agreement with other mare owners: Instead of charging a stud fee for Bold Ruler, they would arrange for multiple matings with Bold Ruler, either with two mares in one year or one mare over a two-year period. Assuming two foals were produced, the Phipps family would keep one and the mare's owner would keep the other, with a coin toss determining who received first pick.Nack, p.
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At the height of his display, he will completely inflate, appearing as a round green puffball with no wings, and his pink flank feathers will seemingly extend over his back. The most attractive male will be the male with the most flank feathers, as the extension of the pink color over the back is what most impresses the female. Finally, the male will also flick its wings to generate a 'rattling' sound, which is a courtship trait unique to the tody. Broad-billed todies are seasonally monogamous, meaning that once a pair forms, they will usually stay with that mate until the end of the breeding season, though multiple matings and clutches have been observed.
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Synchrony in general is for primates an important variable determining the extent of 'paternity skew'—defined as the extent to which fertile matings can be monopolised by a fraction of the population of males. The greater the precision of female reproductive synchrony—the greater the number of ovulating females who must be guarded simultaneously—the harder it is for any dominant male to succeed in monopolising a harem all to himself. This is simply because, by attending to any one fertile female, the male unavoidably leaves the others at liberty to mate with his rivals. The outcome is to distribute paternity more widely across the total male population, reducing paternity skew (figures a, b).
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A grandson of Old King, Snow King, was at the center of the first major study of the dominant white coat color in horses, conducted in 1969 by Dr. William L. Pulos of Alfred University and Dr. Frederick B. Hutt of Cornell. They concluded, based on test matings and progeny phenotype ratios, that the white coat was dominantly inherited and embryonic lethal in the homozygous state. Other factors, such as variations in expressivity and the influence of multiple genes, may have influenced the progeny ratios that Pulos and Hutt observed. The white coat of the American White Horse has not yet been mapped. A 1924 study by C. Wriedt identified a heritable white coat color in the Frederiksborg horse.
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Scholars view the shapeshifting Anyanwu as a fictional representation of Donna Haraway's "cyborg" identity as defined in her 1985 essay "A Cyborg Manifesto". Specifically, Anyanwu embodies Haraway's "lived social and bodily realities in which people are not afraid of their joint kinship with animals and machines, not afraid of permanently partial identities and contradictory standpoints" as her shapeshifting abilities compete with Doro's genetic engineering.Holden, Rebecca J. "'I Began Writing About Power Because I Had So Little': The Impact of Octavia Butler's Early Work on Feminist Science Fiction as a Whole (and On One Feminist Science Fiction Scholar in Particular.)" Ed. Rebecca J. Holden and Nisi Shawl. Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler.
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Sleeping Irish Red and White Setter In an attempt to address the possibility of a very restricted gene pool, the Irish Kennel Club (IKC) announced in 2011 that it was to instigate a programme of allowing Irish Red and White Setters to be crossed with Irish Setters. Any such outcross matings were to be carefully monitored. The programme was supported by the Irish Red and White Setter Club of Ireland, the Irish Red Setter Club (Ireland) and other national Kennel Clubs. The IKC felt there was a high degree of inbreeding within ten generations of Irish Red and White setters and wished to increase the genetic diversity of the breed to prevent genetic problems arising from close inbreeding.
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Although the American white ibis is predominantly monogamous and both sexes provide parental care to their young, the male often flies off to engage in extra-pair copulation with other nesting females after mating with its primary female partner. These extra-pair copulations are usually done after the within-pair copulations, and make up about 45% of all total matings, although only about 15% of all extra-pair copulations are successful. By not restricting the number of females it copulates with, the male is able to increase its reproductive success considerably. Although females are receptive towards extra-pair copulations, male mate-guarding greatly reduces the rate of successful female involvement in attempted extra- pair copulations by other males.
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In a large, linear barrier reef in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, very large aggregations of group-matings form daily in a single area near the foreside of the reef. Tagging studies have shown that fish are generally faithful to particular feeding schools that are assorted throughout the forereef, and that they tend to migrate to spawning grounds over 1.5 kilometers away. There is no mating that appears to happen in other upcurrent areas of the forereef. Despite large differences in the times that are spent on the migration, there are no significant differences in the fecundity or frequency of spawning among females that live at different distances from the mating aggregation.
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Hamlets are simultaneous hermaphrodites (or synchronous hermaphrodites): They have both male and female sexual organs at the same time as an adult, meaning that they function as a male and female, making them one of the few vertebrates that are male and female at the same time. They seem quite at ease mating in front of divers, allowing observations in the wild to occur readily. They do not practice self-fertilization, but when they find a mate, the pair takes turns between which one acts as the male and which acts as the female through multiple matings, usually over the course of several nights. Hamlets preferentially mate with individuals of their same color pattern.
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A parallel was drawn recently between the tragedy of the commons and the competing behaviour of parasites that through acting selfishly eventually diminish or destroy their common host. The idea has also been applied to areas such as the evolution of virulence or sexual conflict, where males may fatally harm females when competing for matings. The idea of evolutionary suicide, where adaptation at the level of the individual causes the whole species or population to be driven extinct, can be seen as an extreme form of an evolutionary tragedy of the commons. From an evolutionary point of view, the creation of the tragedy of the commons in pathogenic microbes may provide us with advanced therapeutic methods.
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Female D. anilis are polyandrous and will often mate with several males while discharging a single batch of eggs. Females can store enough sperm for two egg batches, and therefore mating before each egg-laying is time- consuming and unnecessary, exposing females to risk of predation, disease, and injury during male-male conflicts. However, the multiple matings give the female access to the resources of territory-holding males, such as food and egg-laying sites, and mating with territory-holding males may allow the female to be defended while she lays her eggs. Larger females tend to mate with fewer males and engage in fewer copulation cycles during each mating, which may give them an advantage over smaller females.
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Mate assessment involves the discrimination of conspecifics, so that mating requires that males and females recognize and mate with individuals of the appropriate sex and species, as indicated by the appropriate chemical and visual cues that are made. Sometimes, homosexual copulation has been seen in addition to two males upon one female. Very rarely do females accept a mate from a different species or genus, and if they do, it is usually because they are too immature to realize the correct sexual cues of males from their own species. However, these "incorrect" matings do occur so that there is diversity in the species, as seen through the different larval patterns that have evolved in the species, depending on the type of plant the eggs are laid upon.
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True to its common name, the species often prefers the broad leaves of magnolia trees, particularly in warm, humid forests, but can also be found in dryer climates on oak, maple, pine, and other trees, as well as on bushes lower to the ground. Matings occur in spring months, particularly in May, after which females lay eggs (typically pale green and numbering between 25-70 per clutch) as late as July on the underside of leaves and then guard them until they hatch, with the mothers then dying in August. Sub-adults overwinter on trees and then finish developing in the early spring. Both females and males use both visual and vibratory signals in identifying and communicating with one-another, both in challenges and during mating behavior.
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Neolamprologus pulcher Mate-guarding is a defensive behavioral trait that occurs in response to sperm competition; males try to prevent other males from approaching the female (and/or vice versa) thus preventing their mate from engaging in further copulations. Precopulatory and postcopulatory mate-guarding occurs in birds, lizards, insects and primates. Mate-guarding also exists in the fish species Neolamprologus pulcher, as some males try to "sneak" matings with females in the territory of other males. In these instances the males guard their female by keeping them in close enough proximity so that if an opponent male shows up in his territory he will be able to fight off the rival male which will prevent the female from engaging in extra-pair copulation with the rival male.
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Although he went blind before he was twenty, Huber employed a secretary, François Burnens, to make daily observations, conduct careful experiments, and keep accurate notes over more than twenty years. Huber confirmed that a hive consists of one queen who is the mother of all the female workers and male drones in the colony. He was also the first to confirm that mating with drones takes place outside of hives and that queens are inseminated by a number of successive matings with male drones, high in the air at a great distance from their hive. Together, he and Burnens dissected bees under the microscope and were among the first to describe the ovaries and spermatheca, or sperm store, of queens as well as the penis of male drones.
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Fossils of members of the genus Microtus are known from California as far back as 1.2 million years ago, although it is unclear whether these represent California voles specifically, or a related, possibly extinct, species. Genetic evidence suggests the closest extant relative of the California vole is most likely the Mexican vole, Microtus mexicanus, and the species is known to be able to produce infertile hybrids with other closely related species, such as the montane vole. Indeed, matings between northern and southern subspecies of California vole do not always produce fertile offspring, with male hybrids in particular typically being infertile. This may indicate some of the subspecies are in the process of diverging into separate species, and it has even been proposed that the California vole may already represent two different species.
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Telegony, once a popular theory among nineteenth century biologists, was largely dismissed with the arrival of Mendelian genetics. However, in 2014 the evolutionary ecologists A. J. Crean and colleagues reported a seemingly telegonic phenomenon in a fly, Telostylinus angusticollis. Y. S. Liu has proposed possible molecular mechanisms that may account for telegony; however, his work is predicated on the beliefs of pre- Mendelian breeders to reinforce the idea that traits are passed from earlier matings. The proposed mechanisms include the penetration of spermatozoa into the somatic tissues of the female genital tract, the incorporation of the DNA released by spermatozoa into maternal somatic cells, the presence of fetal DNA in maternal blood, incorporation of exogenous DNA into somatic cells, presence of fetal cells and fetal DNA in maternal blood and sperm RNA-mediated non- Mendelian inheritance of epigenetic changes.
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Schoroder summarizes this hypothesis outlined in Alexander and Noonan's 1979 paper: if women no longer signaled the time of ovulation, men would be unable to detect the exact period in which they were fecund. This led to a change in men's mating strategy: rather than mating with multiple women in the hope that some of them, at least, were fecund during that period, men instead chose to mate with a particular woman repeatedly throughout her menstrual cycle. A mating would be successful in resulting in conception when it occurred during ovulation, and thus, frequent matings, necessitated by the effects of concealed ovulation, would be most evolutionarily successful. A similar hypothesis was proposed by Lovejoy in 1981 that argued that concealed ovulation, reduced canines and bipedalism evolved from a reproductive strategy where males provisioned food resources to his paired female and dependent offspring.
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Males can potentially fertilize eggs at a much faster rate than females can produce them, meaning a male can best increase his reproductive success by finding and fertilizing as many different females as possible. In Drosophila melanogaster, the reproductive success of males increased with the number of matings, but for females there was no direct relationship with number of mates and number of offspring produced. When males have multiple mating partners, they sometimes have to share parentage of the offspring, reducing the genetic value of the offspring to him and thus reduces the relative benefit of staying to help. When paternity is shared between multiple males, males are expected to be less likely to stay in order to help the female care for the offspring because there is little benefit in staying to help raise the other offspring when there are other males present.
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Shawl has edited several anthologies of speculative fiction, especially collections of Afrofuturist, feminist/LGBT, and African-American sf/fantasy short stories, including recent homages to pioneering black/queer sf novelists Samuel R. Delany and Octavia E. Butler: Stories for Chip: A Tribute to Samuel R. Delany (2015), co-edited with Bill Campbell, and Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler (2015), co-edited by Rebecca J. Holden. Shawl's anthology work has been part of their longtime participation within both the feminist and the African-American sf writing communities, evidenced in their editing of WisCon Chronicles Vol. 5: Writing and Racial Identity (2011, generated from America's most venerable feminist sf convention); as well as in their stories' publication within women sf writers' literary experiments, such as Talking Back: Epistolary Fantasies (2006, by feminist sf publisher Aqueduct Press) and within African-American speculative fiction collections, notably the groundbreaking Dark Matter: A Century of Speculative Fiction from the African Diaspora (2000).
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Some of those foals were white, and some colored, but none could have been WW." No aborted fetuses were found, suggesting that death occurred early on in embryonic or fetal development and that the fetus was "resorbed."Pulos & Hutt (1969). "As aborted foetuses were not found although a constant watch was maintained for them, it is possible that the homozygotes die early in gestation and are resorbed." Prior to Pulos and Hutt's work, researchers were split on the mode of inheritance of white and whether it was deleterious (harmful).Pulos & Hutt (1969). "... in his genetic analysis of records of the Frederiksborg white horses, [Wriedt] considered [them] to be recessive whites, with homozygotes white, white with gray spots, or gray white ("weissgraue") ... He considered that the gene for white could not itself be lethal because four fertile white mares produced from 46 matings a total of 37 foals, none of which was dead or weak, and that good record (80 percent fertility) was better than could have been expected if the gene for white color were lethal.
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" In 1937 the anthropologist Walter Cline wrote the first detailed ethnography of the Siwans in which he noted: "All normal Siwan men and boys practice sodomy...among themselves the natives are not ashamed of this; they talk about it as openly as they talk about love of women, and many if not most of their fights arise from homosexual competition....Prominent men lend their sons to each other. All Siwans know the matings which have taken place among their sheiks and their sheiks' sons....Most of the boys used in sodomy are between twelve and eighteen years of age." After an expedition to Siwa, the archaeologist Count Byron de Prorok reported in 1937 "an enthusiasm [that] could not have been approached even in Sodom... Homosexuality was not merely rampant, it was raging...Every dancer had his boyfriend...[and] chiefs had harems of boys". In the late 1940s a Siwan merchant told the visiting British novelist Robin Maugham that the Siwan women were "badly neglected", but that Siwan men "will kill each other for boy.
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The name Fallow was first applied to the German Fallow by Herr Kokemüller after Dr Steiner, who examined some German Fallow feathers microscopically, wrote to him, "It would be better to describe this form as the fallow Budgerigar rather than cinnamon." At the time it was believed that Dr Steiner used the word by analogy with fallow or undeveloped land, to mean the melanin pigment was undeveloped, but as an alternative meaning for 'fallow' (and also for its German equivalent) is 'pale yellow' or 'light brown', it seems far more likely that it was this meaning that was intended. When the English Fallow appeared a few years later it was so similar in appearance to the German Fallow that for a time they were both called Fallows. Later, English, German and Scottish Fallows were proved to be distinct and separate mutations by test matings made independently by T G Taylor, Mrs Amber Lloyd of Walton-on-Thames and Frank Wait, and qualified names were then introduced to distinguish them.
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