228 Sentences With "mastication" | Random Sentence Generator

The amplified noise of his breathing and mastication are nearly overwhelming.

The line that was supposed to be read: You always talk about mastication all the time!

Lunchtime was a blessed relief because the kickdrum was augmented by the sound of my own mastication.

Come with me and we'll be in a world of pure mastication, take a look and you'll see into your digestion.

Before she could hand me the change I had completed my mission of mastication and had to leave my imaginary drive-thru mental vacation.

A very important part of the pleasure of eating is mastication, since it helps disintegrate the food structure and causes the slow release of juices and flavor.

Pathetic, and almost moving, when you think about it: the worst sinners imaginable, each doomed to everlasting mastication, are guys undone by the successes of their famous friends.

Such a self-serving hallucination about the Electoral College would have been the takeaway from any other president's news conference — good for a solid week of media mastication.

But with the robots, I kind of wanted something that could almost be another player, that's both listening at times yet also woefully ignorant—blindly continuing their mastication of the drums.

At last year's Frieze London and in the fountains of London's Battersea Park, her impermanent, slippery ponds have replicated the "mastication, the assimilation, the dispersal," as she puts it, of consumed detritus into the environment.

So, whether you're looking for inspiration, mastication, or just a new way to pour a little more acid on that stomach ulcer, here is a selection of the best food porn uploaded to Instagram this week.

Of course, for most of us, the absolute highlight of this festival of lights is the food and so, where better to look for some inspiration, delectation, and mastication than right here: the best of the week's food photography uploaded to Instagram?

"Almost all of the muscles used for mastication are not externally visible, so it wouldn't impact your facial contour at all," said Dr. John Dahl, assistant professor of otolaryngology at Indiana University School of Medicine and a surgeon at Riley Hospital for Children at IU Health.

The periodontal system automatically controls the measure of mastication force. The jaw elevator muscles develop the main forces used in mastication. The force generated during routine mastication of food such as carrots or meat is about . The maximum masticatory force in some people may reach up to .

A monkey using mastication to process tough plant matter Chewing or mastication is the process by which food is crushed and ground by teeth. It is the first step of digestion, and it increases the surface area of foods to allow a more efficient break down by enzymes. During the mastication process, the food is positioned by the cheek and tongue between the teeth for grinding. The muscles of mastication move the jaws to bring the teeth into intermittent contact, repeatedly occluding and opening.

There are four classical muscles of mastication. During mastication, three muscles of mastication (musculi masticatorii) are responsible for adduction of the jaw, and one (the lateral pterygoid) helps to abduct it. All four move the jaw laterally. Other muscles, usually associated with the hyoid, such as the mylohyoid muscle, are responsible for opening the jaw in addition to the lateral pterygoid.

The mandible is the only bone that moves during mastication and other activities, such as talking. While these four muscles are the primary participants in mastication, other muscles are usually if not always helping the process, such as those of the tongue and the cheeks.

In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the muscles of mastication. Found only in mammals, it is particularly powerful in herbivores to facilitate chewing of plant matter. The most obvious muscle of mastication is the masseter muscle, since it is the most superficial and one of the strongest.

Sasaki S, The neural control of orienting: role of multiple-branching reticulospinal neurons. Prog Brain Res. 2004;143:383-9. The neurons in the dorsal half of this nucleus fire rhythmically during mastication, and in an anesthetized animal it is possible to induce mastication via electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis or adjacent areas of the gigantocellular nucleus.Scott G, Effect of lidocaine and NMDA injections into the medial pontobulbar reticular formation on mastication evoked by cortical stimulation in anaesthetized rabbits.

Fletcher inspired Russell Henry Chittenden of Yale University to test the efficacy of his mastication system.Chittenden, Russell. (1907).

In children, open bite can be caused by prolonged thumb sucking. Patients often present with impaired speech and mastication.

The teeth of such of the reptiles as are dentulous, are simple organs of prehension, and not intended for mastication.

Pentachlorobenzenethiol is used in the rubber industry. The compound is added to rubber (both natural and synthetic) to facilitate processing (mastication).

The lateral pterygoid or external pterygoid is a muscle of mastication with two heads. It lies superiorly to the medial pterygoid.

Available resources, location, and amount of mastication affect the final nest's appearance, so much variation is seen among the nests of V. crabro.

Comparative morphology of the muscles of mastication in the giant panda and the Asiatic black bear. Annals of Anatomy. Anatomischer Anzeiger 185 (#3): 287–292.

The primary function of the lateral pterygoid muscle is to pull the head of the condyle out of the mandibular fossa along the articular eminence to protrude the mandible. A concerted effort of the lateral pterygoid muscles helps in lowering the mandible and opening the jaw, whereas unilateral action of a lateral pterygoid produces contralateral excursion (a form of mastication), usually performed in concert with the medial pterygoids. Unlike the other three muscles of mastication, the lateral pterygoid is the only muscle of mastication that assists in depressing the mandible (opening the jaw). At the beginning of this action it is assisted by the digastric, mylohyoid and geniohyoid muscles.

Masticatory force or force of mastication is defined as the force that is created by the dynamic action of the masticatory muscles during the act of chewing.

In What Is Wrong with British Diet? Being an Exposition of the Factors Responsible for the Undersized Jaws and Appalling Prevalence of Dental Disease Among British Peoples. London: William Heinemann. Dr. Campbell wrote several medical research papers on mastication and the physiology of the jaw bones, jaw muscles and teeth formation in children and this is reflected in the series published in The Lancet, Observations on Mastication I-III in 1903.

The medial pterygoid (or internal pterygoid muscle), is a thick, quadrilateral muscle of mastication. The mandibular branch of the fifth cranial nerve, the trigeminal nerve, innervates the medial pterygoid muscle.

The resulting mastication and digestion of the fruits would induce seed coat abrasion, which would help seed germination. Nowadays this role of mastication and dispersal has been taken up primarily by horses and cattle. An insect pest, common to guanacaste trees of the Costa Rican Central Valley, produces spherical green galls of 1.5 cm diameter on new shoots in February and March. Similar parasitism seems to occur on guanacaste trees of the wet, southwestern lowlands (around Palmar Sur).

Rubber compounding means incorporating rubber ingredients into a rubber mixture so it is evenly dispersed, then the rubber mixture is called a rubber compound. The mill aids in two main steps of rubber processing - mastication and mixing. Mastication is when the raw polymer is sheared and the broken down to create an easier flow. This allows for better incorporation of materials, which leads to the mixing component, when the other materials for a compound are added.

As with the other muscles of mastication, control of the temporal muscle comes from the third (mandibular) branch of the trigeminal nerve. Specifically, the muscle is innervated by the deep temporal nerves.

The muscles of the lower extremities are often affected first followed by upper extremities and sometimes the muscles of respiration and mastication. In general, proximal muscle is always affected more than distal muscle.

This ossification evolved to morphologically aid the mastication of plant matter.Holtz, Thomas R., Jr.; Rey, Luis V. (2007). Dinosaurs: the most complete, up-to-date encyclopedia for dinosaur lovers of all ages. New York: Random House. .

Unlike meridiolestidans, it retains a parastylar hook on its molariform teeth. Therefore, it was likely less specialised to transverse (side-to-side) mastication. It was rather similar to Dryolestes, indicating a similar tenrec or hedgehog-like lifestyle.

It occasionally ossifies, and in such cases, between its upper border and the base of the skull, a foramen is formed - pterygospinous foramen (Civinini) which transmits the branches of the mandibular nerve to the muscles of mastication.

The anterior and intermediate zygomatic ridges of the skull were the origin of the superficial masseter muscle, which facilitates chewing. The separation of the origin of this muscle into two parts and the rounded muscle scars left by them are unique among mammals to multituberculates. The masticatory muscles of multituberculates independently evolved features shared with rodents and small herbivorous marsupials. As with rodents, multituberculates may have been capable of bilateral mastication—where both rows of teeth in the mandible perform the same function simultaneously—and unilateral mastication (where the rows on one side are used).

2) Mastication Food is mechanically broken down by the action of the teeth controlled by the muscles of mastication (V3) acting on the temporomandibular joint. This results in a bolus which is moved from one side of the oral cavity to the other by the tongue. Buccinator (VII) helps to contain the food against the occlusal surfaces of the teeth. The bolus is ready for swallowing when it is held together by saliva (largely mucus), sensed by the lingual nerve of the tongue (VII—chorda tympani and IX—lesser petrosal) (V3).

The sensory function of the trigeminal nerve is to provide tactile, proprioceptive, and nociceptive afference to the face and mouth. Its motor function activates the muscles of mastication, the tensor tympani, tensor veli palatini, mylohyoid and the anterior belly of the digastric. The trigeminal nerve carries general somatic afferent fibers (GSA), which innervate the skin of the face via ophthalmic (V1), maxillary (V2) and mandibular (V3) divisions. The trigeminal nerve also carries special visceral efferent (SVE) axons, which innervate the muscles of mastication via the mandibular (V3) division.

He developed a digestive theory of "trituration" which emphasized the grinding action of mastication and peristalsis of muscle walls of the stomach.Albala, Ken; Eden, Trudy. (2011). Food and Faith in Christian Culture. Columbia University Press. pp. 116-118.

Published by Mosby, Inc. (2000) . These nerves control the muscles of the face and neck and are involved in facial expression, mastication, swallowing, and other motor functions. The corticospinal tract conducts impulses from the brain to the spinal cord.

Economo published about 150 articles and books. In his early studies, he concentrated on the neuroanatomy and physiology of the midbrain, pons and trigeminal nerve pathway and wrote articles dealing for example with choreic hemiplegia, pontine tumors, mastication and deglutition.

The metacone is a cusp on the molars of the upper dentition in hominids. It is found at the buccal distal area of the tooth. The crests between the cusps are adaptations for slicing food during occlusion or mastication (chewing).

A water buffalo chewing cud Chewing is primarily an unconscious (semi-autonomic) act, but can be mediated by higher conscious input. The motor program for mastication is a hypothesized central nervous system function by which the complex patterns governing mastication are created and controlled. It is thought that feedback from proprioceptive nerves in teeth and the temporomandibular joints govern the creation of neural pathways, which in turn determine duration and force of individual muscle activation (and in some cases muscle fiber groups as in the masseter and temporalis). This motor program continuously adapts to changes in food type or occlusion.

Primary spaces are the result of direct spread from the infected tooth, while secondary spaces are the result of spread from primary spaces. In the oral cavity, mouth infections from primary spaces can spread to fascial planes between the muscles of mastication (masseter, medial pterygoid, and temporalis) or within the deep neck spaces. The space between the muscles of mastication is collectively known as the masticator space and they are all connected with each other at the back of the throat. Therefore, when an infection spreads to the masticator space, significant swelling, tenderness, and trismus are usually present.

The facial nerve (CN VII) also has buccal branches, which carry motor innervation to the buccinator muscle, a muscle of facial expression. This follows from the trigeminal (V3) supplying all muscles of mastication and the facial (VII) supplying all muscles of facial expression.

The deep temporal nerves provide motor innervation to the temporalis, which is a muscle of mastication that elevates and retracts the mandible. The deep temporal nerves also have articular branches which provide a minor contribution to the innervation of the temporomandibular joint.

Shearing is also an important factor in mastication effectiveness, and resistance to shear is proportional to the cross sectional area of the teeth. In postcanine Megadontia specimens, the cross sectional area is on average much larger than modern hominids which implies greater shear stress resistance.

Based on its long limbs, it might have been a terrestrial forager. It bears a dentition atypically suited for mastication, being more specialised to this than other eudimorphodonts, and may have been a generalist or herbivore. Its gracile wings suggested a soaring mode of flight.

The labium is a single structure, although it is formed from two fused secondary maxillae. It can be described as the floor of the mouth and functioning in close the mouth of the insect. With the maxillae, it assists manipulation of food during mastication.

Nury Vittachi (2000) From Yinglish to sado-mastication. World Englishes 19 (3), 405–414 Other terms used to describe the phenomenon include "Chinese English", "China English", and "Sinicized English".He, Deyuan & Li, David C.S. (2009). Language attitudes and linguistic features in the 'China English' debate.

The attached gingiva dissipates functional and masticatory stresses placed on the gingival tissues during common activities such as mastication, tooth brushing and speaking.Gehrig, J., & Willmann, D. E. (2011). Foundations of Periodontics for the Dental Hygienist (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health.

All of the pharyngeal muscles that come from the first pharyngeal arch are innervated by the mandibular divisions of the trigeminal nerve. These muscles include all the muscles of mastication, the anterior belly of the digastric, the mylohyoid, tensor tympani, and tensor veli palatini.

Flavor perception is an aggregation of auditory, taste, haptic, and smell sensory information. Retronasal smell plays the biggest role in the sensation of flavor. During the process of mastication, the tongue manipulates food to release odorants. These odorants enter the nasal cavity during exhalation.

The muscles of mastication or masticatory muscles are:Crispian Scully, (2002) Oxford Handbook of Applied Dental Sciences, Oxford University Press – . P151 :a) masseter, :b) temporalis, :c) medial pterygoid, :d) superior belly of the lateral pterygoid, :e) anterior digastrics, :f) geniohyoid, :g) mylohyoid :h) inferior belly of the lateral pterygoid.

All decapods have an internal tube that transports food through the mouth, stomach, intestine, and anus. It is divided into three sections: the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut is split into the cardiac foregut and pyloric foregut. They both contain ossicles, which serve the essential role of mastication.

Unlike most of the other facial muscles, which are innervated by the facial nerve (or CN VII), the muscles of mastication are innervated by the trigeminal nerve (or CN V). More specifically, they are innervated by the mandibular branch, or V3. The Mandibular nerve is both sensory and motor.

Feeding behavior to food is due to amino acids released by food. This is reported to cause maxillary and mandibular barbell movements, which orient the catfish's posture and food search. When the food stimulates the taste receptors, it causes more excitation which see as exaggerated biting, turning, or mastication.

Epilepsy symptoms such as seizures can spread discharges that cause FCMS. This causation results in the only reversible development of FCMS as it is the only cause that allows full recuperation from speech, swallowing, and mastication difficulties when treated. This causation is most commonly seen in children with FCMS.

In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use. In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus.

The Iguana teeth are continually replaced, likely due to their fragility, whereas the Uromastyx teeth are not replaced and must be longer lasting. It is thought that little mastication occurs in both species, aside from simple cropping. Unfortunately, little other research has been conducted on the function of herbivorous reptile teeth.

Along with the other three muscles of mastication (temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid), the masseter is innervated by the anterior division of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve. The innervation pathway is: gyrus precentralis > genu capsula interna > nucleus motorius nervi trigemini > nervus trigeminus > nervus mandibularis > musculus masseter.

Twitches in the affected muscle fibres (fasciculations) may be present. In the tongue, this resembles worms moving in the tissue. If the muscles of the face are affected (i.e. if there is damage to cranial nerve VII; V for the jaw in mastication), there may be drooping, sagging or drooling.

The anterior division gives off branches to three major muscles of mastication and a buccal branch which is sensory to the cheek. The posterior division gives off three main sensory branches, the auriculotemporal, lingual and inferior alveolar nerves and motor fibres to supply mylohyoid and the anterior belly of the digastric muscle.

BVA denied this claim for an increased evaluation. In June 1991, he filed again and provided medical evidence showing that he had impaired sensation on the side of his face and disfiguring scars. The report also showed that he had difficult with mastication and pain. The VA Regional Office denied a higher evaluation.

Lingual papillae, particularly filiform papillae, are thought to increase the surface area of the tongue and to increase the area of contact and friction between the tongue and food. This may increase the tongue's ability to manipulate a bolus of food, and also to position food between the teeth during mastication (chewing) and swallowing.

The premolars, also called premolar teeth, or bicuspids, are transitional teeth located between the canine and molar teeth. In humans, there are two premolars per quadrant in the permanent set of teeth, making eight premolars total in the mouth. They have at least two cusps. Premolars can be considered transitional teeth during chewing, or mastication.

Paired maxillae cut food and manipulate it during mastication. Maxillae can have hairs and "teeth" along their inner margins. At the outer margin, the galea is a cupped or scoop-like structure, which sits over the outer edge of the labium. They also have palps, which are used to sense the characteristics of potential foods.

Thought to be herbivorous because of the lack of teeth and movement of lower jaws that appeared to be efficient in mastication. Zambiasaurus had a barrel shaped body that was strongly built but very slow. The body was help off the ground but it either had a sprawling stance or a more upright stance.

The Sphenomandibularis is a muscle attaching to the sphenoid bone and the mandible. It is a muscle of mastication. Unlike most of the muscles of the human body, which had been categorized several centuries ago, Sphenomandibularis was discovered in the mid-1990s at the University of Maryland at Baltimore. The findings were published in 1996.

It is a valley-like or concave depression that lies directly beneath the contact point, between the facial and lingual papilla. However, the col may be absent if there is gingival recession or if the teeth are not contacting. The main purpose of the interdental gingiva is to prevent food impaction during routine mastication.

Trismus, commonly called lockjaw, is reduced opening of the jaws (limited jaw range of motion). It may be caused by spasm of the muscles of mastication or a variety of other causes. Temporary trismus occurs much more frequently than permanent trismus. It is known to interfere with eating, speaking, and maintaining proper oral hygiene.

Due to weakness of the muscles of facial expression and muscles of mastication, facial weakness may manifest as the inability to hold the mouth closed (the "hanging jaw sign") and as a snarling expression when attempting to smile. With drooping eyelids, facial weakness may make the individual appear sleepy or sad. Difficulty in holding the head upright may occur.

The mandibular second premolar is the tooth located distally from both the mandibular first premolars of the mouth but mesially from both mandibular first molars. The function of this premolar is to assist the mandibular first molar during mastication. Mandibular second premolars have three cusps. There is one large cusp on the buccal side of the tooth.

The tongue is an important accessory organ in the digestive system. The tongue is used for crushing food against the hard palate, during mastication and manipulation of food for softening prior to swallowing. The epithelium on the tongue's upper, or dorsal surface is keratinised. Consequently, the tongue can grind against the hard palate without being itself damaged or irritated.

Situated beneath the mandibles, paired maxillae manipulate food during mastication. Maxillae can have hairs and "teeth" along their inner margins. At the outer margin, the galea is a cupped or scoop-like structure, which sits over the outer edge of the labium. They also have palps, which are used to sense the characteristics of potential foods.

In P. romeroi, the enamel also has a distinctive kind, just called "Pyrotherium's enamel" in which the enamel bands are arranged vertically with the prisms in a decoupled way (that is, forming patterns in "X").Koenigswald, W 647 . von, Martin, T. and Billet, G. 2015. Enamel microstructure and mastication in Pyrotherium romeroi (Pyrotheria, Mammalia). Paläontologische Zeitschrift 89: 611–634.

The mandibular central incisor is the tooth located on the jaw, adjacent to the midline of the face. It is mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both mandibular lateral incisors. As with all incisors, its function includes shearing or cutting food during mastication, commonly known as chewing. There are no cusps on the tooth.

If abscess drainage has been achieved, antibiotics are not usually necessary. Antibiotics tend to be used when local measures cannot be carried out immediately. In this role, antibiotics suppress the infection until local measures can be carried out. Severe trismus may occur in when the muscles of mastication are involved in an odontogenic infection, making any surgical treatment impossible.

He also contributed articles to the book, A System of Diet and Dietetics which was positively reviewed in the Journal of the American Medical Association. Campbell authored the book What is Wrong With British Diet?, in 1936. Campbell argued that the British diet was too heavy in cereal foods, cooked vegetables and puddings which provided inadequate mastication.

Greaves offered a new view on this bone and came up with the mastication hypothesis. Greaves suggests that the bar strengthens the relatively weak orbital area against torsional loading, imposed by bite force in species with large masseter and temporalis muscles. However the orientation of the postorbital process does not match the direction of the forces mentioned by Greaves.

Soft splints are occasionally reported to worsen discomfort related to TMD. Specific types of occlusal splint are discussed below. A stabilization splint is a hard acrylic splint that forces the teeth to meet in an "ideal" relationship for the muscles of mastication and the TMJs. It is claimed that this technique reduces abnormal muscular activity and promotes "neuromuscular balance".

The labium typically is a roughly quadrilateral structure, formed by paired, fused secondary maxillae. It is the major component of the floor of the mouth. Typically, together with the maxillae, the labium assists manipulation of food during mastication. Dragonfly nymph feeding on fish that it has caught with its labium and snatched back to the other mouthparts for eating.

The mandibles of a bull ant In arthropods, the jaws are chitinous and oppose laterally, and may consist of mandibles or chelicerae. These jaws are often composed of numerous mouthparts. Their function is fundamentally for food acquisition, conveyance to the mouth, and/or initial processing (mastication or chewing). Many mouthparts and associate structures (such as pedipalps) are modified legs.

The motor component of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve controls the movement of eight muscles, including the four muscles of mastication: the masseter, the temporal muscle, and the medial and lateral pterygoids. The other four muscles are the tensor veli palatini, the mylohyoid, the anterior belly of the digastric and the tensor tympani. A useful mnemonic for remembering these muscles is "My Tensors Dig Ants 4 MoM" (Mylohyoid—Tensor Tympani + Tensor Veli Palatini—Digastric (Anterior) – 4 Muscles of Mastication (Temporalis, Masseter, Medial and Lateral Pterygoids)) With the exception of the tensor tympani, all these muscles are involved in biting, chewing and swallowing and all have bilateral cortical representation. A unilateral central lesion (for example, a stroke), no matter how large, is unlikely to produce an observable deficit.

Another intriguing example of human vestigiality occurs in the tongue, specifically the chondroglossus muscle. In a morphological study of 100 Japanese cadavers, it was found that 86% of fibers identified were solid and bundled in the appropriate way to facilitate speech and mastication. The other 14% of fibers were short, thin and sparse – nearly useless, and thus concluded to be of vestigial origin.

Franquet's bat, like other epauletted fruit bats feeds mainly by night on fruit, nectar and the petals of certain flowers, making much noise while feeding. Suction, rather than mastication, appears to be the primary mode of consumption of food by Epomops bats. The extensible lips protrude and engulf the fruit. The hard rind is then pierced with the canines and premolars.

The two parotid glands are major salivary glands wrapped around the mandibular ramus in humans. These are largest of the salivary glands, secreting saliva to facilitate mastication and swallowing, and amylase to begin the digestion of starches. It is the serous type of gland which secretes alpha-amylase (also known as ptyalin). It enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct.

The deep cervical fascia is often divided into a superficial, middle, and deep layer. The superficial layer is also known as the investing layer of deep cervical fascia. It envelops the trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and muscles of facial expression. It also contains the submandibular and parotid salivary gland as well as the muscles of mastication (the masseter, pterygoid, and temporalis muscles).

The relationship between C. dissimile and its host has not been definitively characterized, but is not likely to be parasitism. The mouth parts are not suited either for mastication or suction. They appear to be adopted for licking up nourishment from the surface of the host. The host is not frequently seen outside its burrow which can be 2 meters deep.

The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth of most vertebrates, that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing.

594 the Romanian suggested that the shape of one's skull was determined by mastication. The Société as a whole found his interpretation strange and unappealing. An influential racial theorist, Joseph Deniker, also rejected the idea, and noted in particular Sanielevici's "strange and false" argument that the only naturally "brachycephalic" skulls were "Mongoloid". Joseph Deniker, "Revue d'antropologie", in L'Année Psychologique, Vol.

This arch divides into a maxillary process and a mandibular process, giving rise to structures including the bones of the lower two-thirds of the face and the jaw. The maxillary process becomes the maxilla (or upper jaw), and palate while the mandibular process becomes the mandible or lower jaw. This arch also gives rise to the muscles of mastication.

Sometimes TMD pain can radiate or be referred from its cause (i.e. the TMJ or the muscles of mastication) and be felt as headaches, earache or toothache. Due to the proximity of the ear to the temporomandibular joint, TMJ pain can often be confused with ear pain. The pain may be referred in around half of all patients and experienced as otalgia (earache).

Limitation of mandibular movement itself may lead to further problems involving the TMJs and the muscles of mastication. Changes in the synovial membrane may lead to a reduction in lubrication of the joint and contribute to degenerative joint changes. The muscles become weak, and fibrosis may occur. All these factors may lead to a further limitation of jaw movement and increase in pain.

Teeth may tilt at an awkward angle, putting pressure on gums when food is being chewed. This can ultimately lead to compromised gums or infections. Dentists replace missing, damaged, and severely decayed teeth by fixed or removable prostheses to restore or improve mastication function. There is a fundamental question in any treatment plan, namely, the desirable/mandatory length of an occlusal table.

Cheeks are fleshy in humans, the skin being suspended by the chin and the jaws, and forming the lateral wall of the human mouth, visibly touching the cheekbone below the eye. The inside of the cheek is lined with a mucous membrane (buccal mucosa, part of the oral mucosa). During mastication (chewing), the cheeks and tongue between them serve to keep the food between the teeth.

The mandibular first premolar is the tooth located laterally from both the mandibular canines of the mouth but mesially from both mandibular second premolars. The function of this premolar is similar to that of canines in regard to tearing being the principal action during mastication. Mandibular first premolars have two cusps. The one large and sharp is located on the buccal side of the tooth.

The Vazirani- alkinosi technique is also known as the closed-mouth mandibular nerve block. It is mostly used in patients who have limited opening of the mandible or in those that have trismus; spasm of the muscles of mastication. The nerves which are anesthetised in this technique are the inferior alveolar, incisive, mental, lingual and mylohyoid nerves. Dental needles are available in 2 lengths; short and long.

Orthopedicheskaia Stomatalogia. Moscow / Medpress-inform, , P41 temporalis - 8 cm2, masseter - 7.5 cm2, and medial pterygoid - 4 cm2 which makes a total of 19.5cm2. However, this force in some people is measured up to 3900N in combination. The force generated during routine mastication like having carrots or meat is about 70-150N although in some people with specific conditions it may reach up to 500-700N.

Individuals with hypodontia tend to have deeper bites and spaces. Further deepening of the bite can also be seen on individuals with missing posterior teeth. Apart from that, hypodontia may lead to non-working interferences, poor gingival contours and over-eruptions of the opposing teeth. It has been found that individual with hypodontia experience more difficulty during mastication or functioning movements due to smaller occlusal table available.

Like all other known dicynodonts Eosimops was herbivorous, using its horny beak to process plant matter. As it didn't have a well-developed mastication system in comparison to modern vertebrates and lacked a gastric mill, Eosimops likely had a well- developed digestive tract and focused on feeding on high-quality forage. This likely included gymnosperm plants, evidence of which has been found in dicynodont coprolites.

Illustration of the skull Eodicynodon was a medium-sized dicynodont, at about 450 mm long and 150 mm high. While it had many features common to all dicynodonts, such as canine tusks and jaw structures related to the "cheek pivot system" of mastication, it also displayed a number of ancestral features more similar to some of its primitive therapsid relatives, which are listed below.

Triassic and Jurassic ancestors of living mammals, along with their close relatives, had high metabolic rates. This meant consuming food (generally thought to be insects) in much greater quantity. To facilitate rapid digestion, these synapsids evolved mastication (chewing) and specialized teeth that aided chewing. Limbs also evolved to move under the body instead of to the side, allowing them to breathe more efficiently during locomotion.

In anatomy, the temporal muscle, also known as the temporalis, is one of the muscles of mastication. It is a broad, fan-shaped muscle on each side of the head that fills the temporal fossa, superior to the zygomatic arch so it covers much of the temporal bone.Illustrated Anatomy of the Head and Neck, Fehrenbach and Herring, Elsevier, 2012, page 98 Temporal refers to the head's temples.

Restoration Thrinaxodon was a small synapsid roughly the size of a fox and possibly covered in hair. The dentition suggests that it was a carnivore, focusing its diet mostly on insects, small herbivores and invertebrates. Their unique secondary palate successfully separated the nasal passages from the rest of the mouth, allowing the Thrinaxodon to continue mastication without interrupting to breathe, an adaptation important for digestion.

Supari Palm or Betelnut (Areca catechu). Kolkata, West Bengal. Dried areca nut or betel nut Areca nut production in India is dominant in the coastal region within from the coast line, and also in some other non-coastal states of India. Areca nut (Areca catechu), a tropical crop, is popularly known as betel nut, as its common usage in the country is for mastication with betel leaves.

1831 satire on steam coaches Walter Hancock (16 June 1799 – 14 May 1852) was an English inventor of the Victorian period. He is chiefly remembered for his steam-powered road vehicles, but also received a patent for preparing and cutting natural rubber into sheets. He was the younger brother of Thomas Hancock, the inventor of rubber mastication who is also claimed by some to be the inventor of rubber vulcanization.

Around 9–10 mya during the Late Miocene, the Canis, Urocyon, and Vulpes genera expanded from southwestern North America, where the canine radiation began. The success of these canines was related to the development of lower carnassials that were capable of both mastication and shearing. Around 8 Mya, the Beringian land bridge allowed members of the genus Eucyon a means to enter Asia and they continued on to colonize Europe.

The wear facets on the upper molar suggest a probable occlusal relationship with the lower dentition. However no conclusion can be made about occlusion without a lower dentition specimen. There is also a posterolingual cusp with two shearing crests and basins to indicate mastication via grinding. This molar is the earliest representative of several independent evolutionary developments found in later mammalian groups such as Boreosphenida, Australosphenida, Shuotheriids, and Docodonta.

It is also the earliest mammal representative to possess this advanced dental specialization and is the evidence towards the hypothesis of homoplastic evolution of dental grinding features. Before the finding of the Tikitherium specimen, it was hypothesized that the origin of the crushing mastication in docodonts was from Morganucodon's,Butler, P.M. 1997. An Alternative Hypothesis on the Origin of Docodont Molar Teeth. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 17(2):435-439.

Shelley wrote in A Vindication of Natural Diet: "It is only by softening and disguising dead flesh by culinary preparation that it is rendered susceptible of mastication or digestion, and that the sight of its bloody juices and raw horror does not excite intolerable loathing and disgust."Shelley, Percy Bysshe, "A Vindication of Natural Diet;" London: Smith & Davy. 1813, pp. 1–36. Shelley used the imagery of slaughtering a lamb.

In most members of Dicynodontia, both the reduced dentition and sharp cutting edge around the anterior end of the lower jaw suggest a scissor-like mode of food collection. After collection, mastication would have occurred via a back-and- forth grinding process. However, Dicynodontoides strays from this general pattern of food processing. Its caniniform blades, though periodically absent in this genus, are likely to have functioned as a paper cutter.

The first segments which connect the appendages to the body are known as the coxa (plural coxae). The first pair (Appendage I) are the chelicerae, small pincer-like arms used for tearing food apart (mastication) during feeding. After the chelicerae are three pairs of short legs (Appendages II, III, and IV). They are spiniferous, with predominantly two spines on each podomere and with the tipmost segment having a single spine.

Medial pterygoid is innervated by nerve to medial pterygoid (a branch of the mandibular nerve), which also innervates tensor tympani and tensor veli palatini. Unlike the lateral pterygoid and all other muscles of mastication which are innervated by the anterior division of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve, the medial pterygoid is innervated by the main trunk of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (V), before the division.

Sanielevici placed human nutrition and mastication at the core of racial distinctions, and went on to stratify artistic temperaments into racial clusters. The author faded into obscurity by the 1940s, when his work was vilified by the governing fascists, then expunged by the communist regime. His tracts were revisited with more sympathy after the 1960s, but reviewers generally describe Sanielevici as an eccentric and discountable contributor to Romanian culture.

The Court rejected the argument by the Board. The Court noted that the rating criteria under diagnostic code 7800 was entirely cosmetic in nature, while the rating criteria under 7804 dealt only with the pain associated with the scarring itself. Additionally, diagnostic code 5325 only dealt with facial muscle damage resulting in difficulty with mastication. Therefore, his symptomatology was distinct and separate, thereby not in violation of 38.

Most people with bruxism will experience no pain. The presence or degree of pain does not necessarily correlate with the severity of grinding or clenching. The pain in the muscles of mastication caused by bruxism can be likened to muscle pain after exercise. The pain may be felt over the angle of the jaw (masseter) or in the temple (temporalis), and may be described as a headache or an aching jaw.

The parotid gland also secretes salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), which is the first step in the decomposition of starches during mastication. It is the main exocrine gland to secrete this. It breaks down amylose (straight chain starch) and amylopectin (branched starch) by hydrolyzing alpha 1,4 bonds. Additionally, the alpha amylase has been suggested to prevent bacterial attachment to oral surfaces and to enable bacterial clearance from the mouth.

The left temporalis muscle The left medial pterygoid muscle, and the left lateral pterygoid muscle above it, shown on the medial surface of the mandbilar ramus, which has been partially removed along with a section of the zygomatic arch The left masseter muscle (red highlight), shown partially covered by superficial muscles The muscles of mastication (the temporalis, masseter, medial and lateral pterygoid muscles) are paired on either side and work together to move the mandible, which hinges and slides around its dual articulation with the skull at the temporomandibular joints. Some of the muscles work to elevate the mandible (close the mouth), and others also are involved in lateral (side to side), protrusive or retractive movements. Mastication (chewing) is a complex neuromuscular activity that can be controlled either by subconscious processes or by conscious processes. In individuals without bruxism or other parafunctional activities, during wakefulness the jaw is generally at rest and the teeth are not in contact, except while speaking, swallowing or chewing.

Megadontia works by increasing the ratio of minimum to maximum second moments of area or the efficiency of a shape to resist bending or malformation. This resistance is tied to whichever specific axis about which the bending is being applied. Also called mandible robusticity, this characteristic allows for much stronger mastication of food. However, calculations made using biomechanical models does not necessarily perfectly predict the efficiency of different mandibular compositions in resistance to bending forces.

On physical exam, the fracture appears as a loss of cheek projection with increased width of the face. In most cases, there is loss of sensation in the cheek and upper lip due to infraorbital nerve injury. Facial bruising, periorbital ecchymosis, soft tissue gas, swelling, trismus, altered mastication, diplopia, and ophthalmoplegia are other indirect features of the injury. The zygomatic arch usually fractures at its weakest point, 1.5 cm behind the zygomaticotemporal suture.

Patients with mouth infections usually complain of pain at the affected tooth with or without fevers. Inability to fully open one's mouth, also known as trismus, suggests that the infection has spread to spaces between the jaw and muscles of mastication (masseter, medial pterygoid, and temporalis). If an abscess has formed, swelling, redness, and tenderness will be present. Depending on the location of the abscess, it will be visible intraorally, extraorally, or both.

Compared to other dicynodonts, the shortened skull could be indicative of specific herbivory habits, such as biting off small pieces of vegetation. Pertaining to mastication, crushing action was likely more emphasized than slicing, due to structural limitations of lower jaw movement. Additionally, these limitations could have conferred a "selective browser" role upon Geikia. Aside from jaw specialization, the forward position and large size of the orbits could suggest a degree of stereoscopic vision.

Most of the upper dentition has been eroded away, but the dental formula of Ancalecetus most likely was . Tooth wear show that Ancalecetus, like other basilosaurids, fed on larger prey, probably fish, that required mastication before swallowing and that the type specimen survived into adulthood. The unfused mandibular symphysis reaches as far posteriorly as P2. The large mandibular foramina, which contain the auditory fat pad in modern whales, is very well-preserved in Ancalecetus.

The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth of most vertebrates that manipulates food for mastication and is used in the act of swallowing. It has importance in the digestive system and is the primary organ of taste in the gustatory system. The tongue's upper surface (dorsum) is covered by taste buds housed in numerous lingual papillae. It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva and is richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels.

The maxillary central incisor is a human tooth in the front upper jaw, or maxilla, and is usually the most visible of all teeth in the mouth. It is located mesial (closer to the midline of the face) to the maxillary lateral incisor. As with all incisors, their function is for shearing or cutting food during mastication (chewing). There is typically a single cusp on each tooth, called an incisal ridge or incisal edge.

When the embryo is 42 days old, the mesenchymal arches can be recognized with its corresponding cranial nerve. The first pharyngeal arch forms maxillary and mandibular processes. It is innervated by the trigeminal nerve and molds muscles related to mastication such as temporal, masseter, medial, lateral, pterygoid bones, tensor palati, and tensor tympani. This arch originates maxillar and mandibular prominences, part of the temporal bone and Meckel's cartilage (malleus and incus) as skeletal structures.

The ecology of the species is unclear owing to the lack of living analogues for its unique morphology. On several morphological grounds, Croitor proposed that its habits were peri- or semiaquatic, with the weak mastication ability and polished cheek teeth by attrition suggesting a preference for soft water plants, with taking of non-aquatic forage during the dry seasons. The extreme pachyostosis was suggested to have been a protection against attacks by crocodiles.

The pull of the main muscle of mastication, the masseter, is at a perpendicular angle with the curve of Spee to adapt for favorable loading of force on the teeth. The long axis of each lower tooth is aligned nearly parallel to their individual arch of closure. The Curve of Spee is, essentially, a series of sloped contact points. It is of importance to orthodontists as it may contribute to an increased overbite.

Comminution is the reduction of solid materials from one average particle size to a smaller average particle size, by crushing, grinding, cutting, vibrating, or other processes. In geology, it occurs naturally during faulting in the upper part of the Earth's crust. In industry, it is an important unit operation in mineral processing, ceramics, electronics, and other fields, accomplished with many types of mill. In dentistry, it is the result of mastication of food.

It was from Southeast Asia that the crop spread to Asia and India where it is cultivated as a cash crop. It is conjectured that ancient Indian literature provide information on betel nut and its mastication. The Indian Ayurveda texts also refer to the areca nuts as a traditional medicine. Its use in India is also noted from the pre-vedic period and was described by the word taamboola in ancient Indian civilization.

Bolton is a critic of the European Union. In his book Surrender Is Not an Option, he criticized the EU for pursuing "the endless process of diplomatic mastication" rather than satisfactorily solving problems, and he labeled the organization's diplomats as "EUroids". He has also criticized the EU for advancing what he considers liberal policies. Bolton campaigned in Ireland against further EU integration in 2008, and he criticized the Treaty of Lisbon for expanding EU powers.

The personal presence and self-impartation of Christ in the Lord's Supper were especially important for Melanchthon; but he did not definitely state how body and blood are related to this. Although rejecting the physical act of mastication, he nevertheless assumed the real presence of the body of Christ and therefore also a real self-impartation. Melanchthon differed from John Calvin also in emphasizing the relation of the Lord's Supper to justification.

The mandibular second premolar is the tooth located distally (away from the midline of the face) from both the mandibular first premolars of the mouth but mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both mandibular first molars. The function of this premolar is assist the mandibular first molar during mastication, commonly known as chewing. Mandibular second premolars have three cusps. There is one large cusp on the buccal side (closest to the cheek) of the tooth.

In carnivores, the superior buccal gland is large and discrete: the Zygomatic gland. During mastication (chewing), the cheeks and tongue between them serve to keep the food between the teeth. Some animals such as squirrels and hamsters use the buccal pouch to carry food or other items. Malar stripes of a Geopard cheetah In some vertebrates, markings on the cheek area, particularly immediately beneath the eye, often serve as important distinguishing features between species or individuals.

The weakness of the muscles involved in swallowing may lead to swallowing difficulty (dysphagia). Typically, this means that some food may be left in the mouth after an attempt to swallow, or food and liquids may regurgitate into the nose rather than go down the throat (velopharyngeal insufficiency). Weakness of the muscles that move the jaw (muscles of mastication) may cause difficulty chewing. In individuals with MG, chewing tends to become more tiring when chewing tough, fibrous foods.

He left home at sixteen and throughout his career worked as an artist, importer, manager of the New Orleans Opera House and writer. Fletcher suffered from dyspepsia and obesity in his later years, so devised a system of chewing food to maximize digestion. His mastication system became known as "Fletcherism". Fletcher and his followers recited and followed his instructions religiously, even claiming that liquids, too, had to be chewed in order to be properly mixed with saliva.

The dentinoenamel junction is thought to be of a scalloped structure which has occurred as an exaptation of the epithelial folding that is undergone during ontogeny. This scalloped exaptation has then provided stress relief during mastication and a reduction in dentin-enamel sliding and has thus, not been selected against, making it an accidental adaptation.T. Pievani & E. Serelli (2011) 'Exaptation in human evolution: how to test adaptive vs exaptive evolutionary hypotheses'. Journal of Anthropological Sciences, Vol.

Necrosis was formed in April 1988 by drummer Mike Atkin, guitarist Steve Thibault and vocalist Dan Greening, initially under the name Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. John Todds later joined on bass. The band released several demos, including Mastication and Heterodontism (1989), Realms Of Pathogenia (1991) and Necrosis (1992). Atkin left the band to continue more into the Speed metal/Thrash direction, and was replaced by Flo Mounier, at which time the band changed their name to "Cryptopsy".

In the protozoea larvae, the antennae are still used for locomotion, but the mandibles become specialised for mastication. All the thoracic somites (body segments) have formed, and a carapace is present, covering part of the thorax. It is smooth in the family Penaeidae, but bears many spines in the family Solenoceridae. The pleon (abdomen) is unsegmented in the first protozoea, and ends in a bilobed telson, which may be used for cleaning other appendages, or for steering.

Normal movements of the mandible during function, such as mastication, or chewing, are known as excursions. There are two lateral excursions (left and right) and the forward excursion, known as protrusion. The reversal of protrusion is retrusion. When the mandible is moved into protrusion, the mandibular incisors, or front teeth of the mandible, are moved so that they first come edge to edge with the maxillary (upper) incisors and then surpass them, producing a temporary underbite.

The mandibular lateral incisor is the tooth located distally (away from the midline of the face) from both mandibular central incisors of the mouth and mesially (toward the midline of the face) from both mandibular canines. As with all incisors, their function is for shearing or cutting food during mastication, commonly known as chewing. There are no cusps on the teeth. Instead, the surface area of the tooth used in eating is called an incisal ridge or incisal edge.

The lesser bite force for Erlikosaurus better served in stripping and cropping leaves, rather than active mastication. On a newer study with more therizinosaur taxa, Lautenschlager found similar conclusions. The evolutionary trends in jaw mechanics of therizinosaurs noticed a change in bite force through time, from higher bite forces in early members to lesser ones in the advanced therizinosaurids. Therizinosaurids were aided by the down-turned tip and symphyseal regions (union between bones) of the dentaries, and probably also by beaks.

Animal locomotion can also be analyzed with X-ray imaging. As long as the animal can be placed between the X-ray emitter and the camera, the subject can be imaged. Examples of gaits that have been studied are rats, guineafowl, horses, bipedal birds, and frogs, among others. Aside from locomotion, X-ray motion analysis has been utilized in the study and research of other moving morphology analyses, such as pig mastication and movement of the temporomandibular joint in rabbits.

The bio-mechanical model predicts that morphological variation in torus size is the direct product of differential tension caused by mastication, as indicated by an increase in load/lever ratio and broad craniofacial angle.Oyen and Russell, 1984, p. 368-369 Research done on this model has largely been based on earlier work of Endo. By applying pressure similar to the type associated with chewing, he carried out an analysis of the structural function of the supraorbital region on dry human and gorilla skulls.

If infection spreads to the space between the muscles of mastication, then trismus, the inability to completely open one's mouth, will also be present. Severe mouth infections become dangerous when breathing or swallowing are impaired. Since the primary and secondary spaces extend towards the back of the throat, significant swelling can lead to airway obstruction. Signs and symptoms of airway obstruction are difficulty breathing, stridor, low oxygen saturation measured by a pulse oximeter, blue discoloration of the skin or lips, and stridor.

Its purpose is to pull back the angle of the mouth and to flatten the cheek area, which aids in holding the cheek to the teeth during chewing. This action causes the muscle to keep food pushed back on the occlusal surface of the posterior teeth, as when a person chews. By keeping the food in the correct position when chewing, the buccinator assists the muscles of mastication. It aids whistling and smiling, and in neonates it is used to suckle.

The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours. Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis.

In spite of being a basal taeniodont, Schowalteria is fairly derived, perhaps more so than later taenidonts. It shares with them similar speciations towards herbivory and possibly fossoriality, but unlike them it also possesses evidence of transverse (ungulate-like) mastication, making it even more specialised towards processing vegetation. As one of the largest mammals of its time period and a rather specialised herbivore, Schowalteria was a rather spectacular species among the dinosaur-rich faunas of the end of the Cretaceous.

A dental prosthesis is an intraoral (inside the mouth) prosthesis used to restore (reconstruct) intraoral defects such as missing teeth, missing parts of teeth, and missing soft or hard structures of the jaw and palate. Prosthodontics is the dental specialty that focuses on dental prostheses. Such prostheses are used to rehabilitate mastication (chewing), improve aesthetics, and aid speech. A dental prosthesis may be held in place by connecting to teeth or dental implants, by suction, or by being held passively by surrounding muscles.

The hypocone is found on the distal lingual side of the tooth. It fits into the grooves of the lower dentition and is an adaptation for the overall grinding and tearing of foods using the occlusal (chewing side) of the tooth surface during occlusion or mastication (chewing). Its strength is due to the thickness of the enamel which differs among species of hominids. The hypocone appears to have evolved independently more than twenty times in different mammal groups during the Cenozoic period.

The mandibular nerve carries touch- position and pain-temperature sensations from the mouth. Although it does not carry taste sensation (the chorda tympani is responsible for taste), one of its branches—the lingual nerve—carries sensation from the tongue. The peripheral processes of mesencephalic nucleus of V neurons run in the motor root of the trigeminal nerve and terminate in the muscle spindles in the muscles of mastication. They are proprioceptive fibers, conveying information regarding the location of the masticatory muscles.

Primary enamel cuticle, also called Nasmyth's membrane, is thin membrane of tissue also known as reduced enamel epithelium (REE) produced by the ameloblast, that covers the tooth once it has erupted. This tissue is primarily basal lamina. It is usually worn away by mastication and cleaning. The primary enamel cuticle protects enamel from resorption by cells of the dental sac and also secretes desmolytic enzymes for elimination of the dental sac, allowing fusion between reduced enamel epithelium and oral epithelium.

If they fed only by selective prey capture, were they simply pre-adapted for the specialized feeding behavior of extant mysticetes? Structurally, Aetiocetus possesses teeth that are quite similar to primitive odontocetes, such as Squalodon. These odontocetes have an inferred bite and tear style of eating with limited mastication. Both primitive and extant odontocetes find their prey through the use of echolocation; however, mysticetes have no evidence in their fossil record of ever evolving or initially possessing the ability to echolocate.

The mandibular first premolar is the tooth located laterally (away from the midline of the face) from both the mandibular canines of the mouth but mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both mandibular second premolars. The function of this premolar is similar to that of canines in regard to tearing being the principal action during mastication, commonly known as chewing. Mandibular first premolars have two cusps. The one large and sharp is located on the buccal side (closest to the cheek) of the tooth.

The tissues of the mouth, including the tongue, gingiva, teeth and soft palate are commonly involved in Parry–Romberg syndrome. 50% of affected individuals develop dental abnormalities such as delayed eruption, dental root exposure, or resorption of the dental roots on the affected side. 35% have difficulty or inability to normally open the mouth or other jaw symptoms, including temporomandibular joint disorder and spasm of the muscles of mastication on the affected side. 25% experience atrophy of one side of the upper lip and tongue.

The structure of the mandibles and clypeus result in an elongated head. The legs are very long and the pretarsal claw has a single tooth while the metasoma show telescoping segments and a fully retractable sting. H. scimitarus tomographic scan H. cerberus is known from a partial wingless female worker estimated to have been long by Dlussky. The L shaped mandibles are positioned at an oblique angle to each other with a wide separation of the mandible bases and lack a margin for mastication of food items.

The cheek constitutes the facial periphery, plays a key role in the maintenance of oral competence and mastication, is involved in the facial manifestation of human emotion, and supports neighboring primary structures. The most common causes of acquired cheek defects are tumors, burns, and trauma; while congenital abnormalities in cheek contour may be due to facial clefts, vascular anomalies, or facial wasting syndromes. The repair of these defects seeks to achieve aesthetic and functional ends that must be carefully considered by the reconstructive surgeon.

Masticator on the Zaca Fire The process of chewing has, by analogy, been applied to machinery. The U.S. Forest Service uses a machine called a masticator (also called a forestry mulching machine) to "chew" through brush and timber in order to clear firelines in advance of a wildfire.Masticator shown and described at interagency Inciweb.org A cold press juicer uses the mastication process to extract juice from fruit and vegetable without the loss of oxygen or heat-sensitive nutrients as there is less friction involved.

His findings indicated that the face acts as a pillar that carries and disperses tension caused by the forces produced during mastication. Russell and Oyen et al. elaborated on this idea, suggesting that amplified facial projection necessitates the application of enhanced force to the anterior dentition in order to generate the same bite power that individuals with a dorsal deflection of the facial skull exert. In more prognathic individuals, this increased pressure triggers bone deposition to reinforce the brow ridges, until equilibrium is reached.

Later on in development, rhombomeres form the rhombocephalon, which forms the hindbrain in vertebrates. Each rhombomere expresses its own unique set of genes, which has been shown to influence postnatal rhythmic behaviors, such as respiration, mastication, and walking. In mice, it was shown that the patterning of the neural tube into rhombomeric segments may regulate spatial and temporal appearance of the central pattern generator. Rhombomeres are considered self-governing developmental units, with certain aspects of the rhombomere phenotype being determined at the time of formation.

The incisors mostly control the vertical opening of the chewing cycle when the muscles of mastication move the jaw forwards and backwards (protrusion/retrusion). The canines come into function guiding the vertical movement when the chewing is side to side (lateral). The canines alone can cause the other teeth to separate at the extreme end of the cycle (cuspid guided function) or all the posterior teeth can continue to stay in contact (group function). The entire range of this movement is the envelope of mastacatory function.

Colobuses habitats include primary and secondary forests, riverine forests, and wooded grasslands; they are found more in higher-density logged forests than in other primary forests. Their ruminant-like digestive systems have enabled them to occupy niches that are inaccessible to other primates: they are herbivorous, eating leaves, fruit, flowers, lichen, herbaceous vegetation and bark. Leaf toughness influences colobus foraging efficiency. Tougher leaves correlate negatively with ingestion rate (g/min) as they are costly in terms of mastication, but positively with investment (chews/g).

The effects may be noticeable by the next day, and they may last for about three months. Occasionally, adverse effects may occur, such as bruising, but this is quite rare. The dose of toxin used depends upon the person, and a higher dose may be needed in people with stronger muscles of mastication. With the temporary and partial muscle paralysis, atrophy of disuse may occur, meaning that the future required dose may be smaller or the length of time the effects last may be increased.

The temple is a juncture where four skull bones fuse together: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and sphenoid. It is located on the side of the head behind the eye between the forehead and the ear. The temporal muscle covers this area and is used during mastication. Cladists classify land vertebrates based on the presence of an upper hole, a lower hole, both, or neither in the cover of dermal bone that formerly covered the temporalis muscle, whose origin is the temple and whose insertion is the jaw.

They prepare a den in soft soil or hidden in a cave, and rely on fat reserves to survive through the winter. During hibernation, metabolic rate and body temperature fall dramatically, and the animal may cease breathing altogether for periods up to an hour. In years with low food availability edible dormice can hibernate longer than 11 months. In the wild, most edible dormice hibernate for three winters, and then die in the fourth while hibernating, when their cheek teeth are worn out to a degree that prevents normal mastication of food.

This can have a psychological impact on the person with malocclusion resulting in speech and mastication problems as well. In mild class III cases, the patient is quite accepting of the aesthetics and the situation is monitored to observe the progression of skeletal growth. Maxillary and mandibular skeletal changes during prepubertal, pubertal and post pubertal stages show that class III malocclusion is established before the prepubertal stage. One treatment option is the use of growth modification appliances such as the Chin Cap which has greatly improved the skeletal framework in the initial stages.

This tool is used for digital force analysis to measure the presence and amount of imbalance at closing of the mouth, during closure, and during mastication (chewing). The computer displays the results of how the forces in the mouth spread along the arch, the center of force, the center of force trajectory, and the left/right force balance. This means the dentist can show patients which teeth are generating the most force, and facilitates the dentist’s knowledge of what adjustments need to be made to teeth and soft tissue to create a stable dental foundation.

On the basis of observations carried out on himself he described the two-phase or temporal mastication called after him. He was also much engaged with professional politics, in his publications he strove for recognition of dentistry as an organic part of medical science. Adolf Zsigmondy's second son, Emil Zsigmondy, was a physician. Both Ottó and Emil Zsigmondy were well-known mountaineers; they took part in the first climb of the Meije by the east arête in July 1885, but Emil was killed on another attempted climb of the Meije the following month.

But, they likely lacked the diagnostic small mastication muscles that would be present on a true pierce feeder. Because they have traits that would lend themselves to either strategy, it is still heavily debated which feeding strategy Desmatophoca utilized. Many agree it is likely the seals used some combination of pierce and rip and tear feeding, or potentially a new strategy not yet observed that served as a middle ground between the two. Desmatophoca have morphologically similar skulls to other predators of fish and squid, indicating this was the prominent makeup of their diet.

Tesis (Grado) Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba. Additionally, the authors suggested that a lateral rim on the dentary as well as numerous aligned neurovascular foramina are evidence of soft cheek-like muscular tissue. The function of the trunk was likely used for searching for food by sniffing the ground in a manner similar to extant suids and peccaries, while the cheeks would aid in mastication by preventing food loss. A re-description of the skull material has since lent evidence toward minimal soft-tissue enhancement to the snout of Notosuchus.

The septomaxilla (a part of the upper jawbone) of O. dicksoni is bigger than for the platypus, which supposes a hypertrophied beak. The coronoid and angulary processes of O. dicksoni have quite disappeared in the platypus, leaving the platypus's skull flat on the sides. This indicates the mastication technique of O. dicksoni was different from that of the platypus, using the muscles anchored to these processes. O. dicksoni's beak has an oval hole surrounded by bones in the center, whereas the platypus' beak has a V-shape and no longer surrounded by bones.

In mandibulate mouthparts, the labium is a quadrupedal structure, although it is formed from two fused secondary maxillae. It can be described as the floor of the mouth. With the maxillae, it assists with manipulation of food during mastication or chewing or, in the unusual case of the dragonfly nymph, extends out to snatch prey back to the head, where the mandibles can eat it. The labium is similar in structure to the maxilla, but with the appendages of the two sides fused by the midline, so they come to form a median plate.

The maxillary second molar is the tooth located distally (away from the midline of the face) from both the maxillary first molars of the mouth but mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both maxillary third molars. This is true only in permanent teeth. In deciduous (baby) teeth, the maxillary second molar is the last tooth in the mouth and does not have a third molar behind it. The function of this molar is similar to that of all molars in regard to grinding being the principal action during mastication, commonly known as chewing.

Early diagnosis of bruxism is advantageous, but difficult. Early diagnosis can prevent damage that may be incurred and the detrimental effect on quality of life. A diagnosis of bruxism is usually made clinically, and is mainly based on the person's history (e.g. reports of grinding noises) and the presence of typical signs and symptoms, including tooth mobility, tooth wear, masseteric hypertrophy, indentations on the tongue, hypersensitive teeth (which may be misdiagnosed as reversible pulpitis), pain in the muscles of mastication, and clicking or locking of the temporomandibular joints.

Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is used as a treatment for bruxism, however there is only one randomized control trial which has reported that BoNT reduces the myofascial pain symptoms. This scientific study was based on thirty people with bruxism who received BoNT injections into the muscles of mastication and a control group of people with bruxism who received placebo injections. Normally multiple trials with larger cohorts are required to make any firm statement about the efficacy of a treatment. In 2013, a further randomized control trial investigating BoNT in bruxism started.

The cultivation of date palms in the area can be traced back to the mid-third millennium BC (commonly referred to as Umm Al Nar period in the United Arab Emirates) which many date seeds found in Umm al-Nar sites. The presence of grinding stones as well as fired clay ovens in archaeological sites indicate that grain processing was also performed. Studies of human dental remains dating back to the third millennium shows high level of attrition which is believed due to the mastication of dry bread.

Sato, J., T. Hosada, W. Mieczyslaw, K. Tsuchiya, Y. Yamamoto, H. Suzuki. 2003. Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times among mustelids (Mammalia: Carnivora) based on nucleotide sequences of the nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein and mitochondrial cytochrome b genes . Zoologial Science, 20: 243-264. As a species, the steppe polecat represents a more specialised form than the European polecat in the direction of carnivory, being more adapted to preying on larger rodent species; its skull has a stronger dentition, its projections are more strongly developed and its muscles of mastication are more powerful.

The pterygoid processes of the sphenoid (from Greek pteryx, pterygos, "wing"), one on either side, descend perpendicularly from the regions where the body and the greater wings of the sphenoid bone unite. Each process consists of a medial pterygoid plate and a lateral pterygoid plate, the latter of which serve as the origins of the medial and lateral pterygoid muscles. The medial pterygoid, along with the masseter allows the jaw to move in a vertical direction as it contracts and relaxes. The lateral pterygoid allows the jaw to move in a horizontal direction during mastication.

The olfaction of food has the sensation of being in the mouth because of co-activation of the motor cortex and olfactory epithelium during mastication. Olfaction, taste, and trigeminal receptors (also called chemesthesis) together contribute to flavor. The human tongue can distinguish only among five distinct qualities of taste, while the nose can distinguish among hundreds of substances, even in minute quantities. It is during exhalation that the olfaction contribution to flavor occurs, in contrast to that of proper smell, which occurs during the inhalation phase of breathing.

The composition of the diet is poorly known, other than it feeds on insects. The mouth parts involved in mastication differ to their cohabitants, suggesting their chewing process and therefore diet differs from T. georgianus. A single young bat is born and reared during the austral summer and autumn. The male's distinctive neck pouch enlarges in the breeding season, correlating to activity in the glandular and seminal apparatus, and increases in its depth; the purpose of this gular pouch is unknown but assumed to have a social function.

Postcanine megadontia is commonly associated with the repeated consumption of tough plant-like material, which can be referred to as "low-quality food stuffs". The substances were integral to the diet of extinct hominids, and their molars were subject to the constant occlusal attrition from the stress of vigorous mastication. The development and evolution of this trait was characterized by a thick coating of enamel surrounding the molars and premolars, mitigating the detrimental effects of the tough diet. As such, this postcanine dentition is capable of “crushing and grinding” the tough shoots and leaves common to the diet of an early hominid.

Fletcher's extreme claims about chewing a mouthful of food until it had no taste, up to one hundred times to avoid illness is not supported by scientific evidence. He believed that his mastication system could cure alcoholism, anaemia, appendicitis, colitis and insanity. Fletcher believed that his system could improve bowel movements; however, the bowel must have a certain amount of indigestible bulk to stimulate it to action. Health writer Carl Malmberg noted that Fletcher's extreme diet of chewed food was almost a liquid diet that does not provide "even a minute quantity of th[e] necessary bulk".

The premolar and first molar together compose the carnassial pair on each side of the mouth, which efficiently shears meat into small pieces, like a pair of scissors. These are vital in feeding, since cats' small molars cannot chew food effectively, and cats are largely incapable of mastication. Although cats tend to have better teeth than most humans, with decay generally less likely because of a thicker protective layer of enamel, a less damaging saliva, less retention of food particles between teeth, and a diet mostly devoid of sugar, they are nonetheless subject to occasional tooth loss and infection.

Worn teeth from the lower jaw have not yet been discovered, but they are expected to show opposing tooth-to-tooth wear. The ability to raise their heads well above the ground does not necessarily mean they browsed on items there, and the short neck of Nigersaurus would have restricted the browsing range compared to other diplodocoids. The adductor muscle of the jaw appears to have attached to the quadrate instead of the supratemporal fenestra. Both this and the other mastication muscles were likely weak, and Nigersaurus is estimated to have had one of the weakest bites of the sauropods.

Endocrowns are especially indicated in cases of molar teeth with short, or fragile roots. They may also be used in situations of excessive loss of coronal dental tissue. Reinforced, acid etchable dental ceramics have been the materials of choice for the fabrication of endocrowns, because they guarantee the mechanical strength needed to withstand the forces exerted on the tooth, as well as the bond strength of the restoration to the cavity walls. Using endocrowns for premolars is contraindicated as the tooth is more likely to be subjected to lateral forces during mastication than molars because of the steep cuspal incline.

Robinson (1913) suggests that the demand to resist masticatory stresses triggered bone thickening in the mental region of the mandible and ultimately formed a prominent chin. Moreover, Daegling (1993) explains the chin as a functional adaptation to resist masticatory stress that causes vertical bending stresses in the coronal plane. Others have argued that the prominent chin is adapted to resisting wishboning forces, dorso-ventral shear forces, and generally a mechanical advantage to resist lateral transverse bending and vertical bending in the coronal plane. On the contrary, others have suggested that the presence of the chin is not related to mastication.

Assimilation is the process of absorption of vitamins, minerals, and other chemicals from food within the gastrointestinal tract. In humans this is always done with a chemical breakdown (enzymes and acids) and physical breakdown (oral mastication and stomach churning). The second process of bio assimilation is the chemical alteration of substances in the bloodstream by the liver or cellular secretions. Although a few similar compounds can be absorbed in digestion bio assimilation, the bioavailability of many compounds is dictated by this second process since both the liver and cellular secretions can be very specific in their metabolic action (see chirality).

The maxillary lateral incisors are a pair of upper (maxillary) teeth that are located laterally (away from the midline of the face) from both maxillary central incisors of the mouth and medially (toward the midline of the face) from both maxillary canines. As with all incisors, their function is for shearing or cutting food during mastication, commonly known as chewing. There are generally no cusps on the teeth, but the rare condition known as talon cusps are most prevalent on the maxillary lateral incisors. The surface area of the tooth used in eating is called an incisal ridge or incisal edge.

The maxillary first premolar is one of two teeth located in the upper jaw, laterally (away from the midline of the face) from both the maxillary canines of the mouth but mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both maxillary second premolars. The function of this premolar is similar to that of canines in regard to tearing being the principal action during mastication, commonly known as chewing. There are two cusps on maxillary first premolars, and the buccal (closest to the cheek) cusp is sharp enough to resemble the prehensile teeth found in carnivorous animals. There are no deciduous maxillary premolars.

The periodontal ligament is the connective tissue that joins the outer layer of the tooth root, being the cementum, to the surrounding alveolar bone. It is composed of several complex fibre groups that run in different directions and which insert into the cementum and bone via ‘Sharpey’s fibres’. The periodontal ligament is composed mostly of collagen fibres, however it also houses blood vessels and nerves within loose connective tissue. Mechanical loads that are placed on the teeth during mastication and other external forces are absorbed by the periodontal ligament, which therefore protects the teeth within their sockets.

The mandibular canine is the tooth located distally (away from the midline of the face) from both mandibular lateral incisors of the mouth but mesially (toward the midline of the face) from both mandibular first premolars. Both the maxillary and mandibular canines are called the "cornerstone" of the mouth because they are all located three teeth away from the midline, and separate the premolars from the incisors. The location of the canines reflect their dual function as they complement both the premolars and incisors during mastication, commonly known as chewing. Nonetheless, the most common action of the canines is tearing of food.

The maxillary second premolar is one of two teeth located in the upper jaw, laterally (away from the midline of the face) from both the maxillary first premolars of the mouth but mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both maxillary first molars. The function of this premolar is similar to that of first molars in regard to grinding being the principal action during mastication, commonly known as chewing. There are two cusps on maxillary second premolars, but both of them are less sharp than those of the maxillary first premolars. There are no deciduous (baby) maxillary premolars.

These features, in combination with the long hindlimbs that allowed for fast running, would have made the animal capable of seizing small prey. As an omnivore, Heterodontosaurus would have had a significant selection advantage during the dry season when vegetation was scarce. Reconstruction of jaw musculature and keratin sheathing of the beak In 2012, Sereno pointed out several skull and dentition features that suggest a purely or at least preponderantly herbivorous diet. These include the horny beak and the specialised cheek teeth (suitable for cutting off vegetation), as well as fleshy cheeks which would have helped keeping food within the mouth during mastication.

Multituberculate mastication is thought to have operated in a two stroke cycle: first, food held in place by the last upper premolar was sliced by the bladelike lower pre-molars as the dentary moved orthally (upward). Then the lower jaw moved palinally, grinding the food between the molar cusp rows. allodontid multituberculates The structure of the pelvis in the Multituberculata suggests that they gave birth to tiny helpless, underdeveloped young, similar to modern marsupials, such as kangaroos. At least two lineages developed hypsodonty, in which tooth enamel extends up beyond the gumline: lambdopsalid taeniolabidoideans and sudamericid gondwanatheres.

Various molecular, genetic and imaging studies have been conducted as for the localization of the CPGs. The results have shown that the networks responsible for locomotion are distributed throughout the lower thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. Rhythmic movements of the tongue, that participate in swallowing, mastication and respiration, are driven by hypoglossal nuclei, which receive inputs from the dorsal medullary reticular column (DMRC) and the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS). The hypoglossal nucleus receives rhythmic excitatory inputs also from brainstem respiratory neurons within the pre-Boetzinger complex, which appears to play an important role in the origin of respiration rhythmogenesis.

The mandibular second molar is the tooth located distally (away from the midline of the face) from both the mandibular first molars of the mouth but mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both mandibular third molars. This is true only in permanent teeth. The function of this molar is similar to that of all molars in regard to grinding being the principal action during mastication, commonly known as chewing. Though there is more variation between individuals to that of the first mandibular molar, there are usually four cusps on mandibular second molars: two on the buccal (side nearest the cheek) and two palatal (side nearest the palate).

A 2005 study based on a low-fat plant-based diet found that the average participant lost over fourteen weeks, and attributed the weight loss to the reduced energy density of the foods resulting from their low fat content and high fiber content, and the increased thermic effect. Nevertheless, these diets are not "negative-calorie" since they bear energy. Another study demonstrated that negative-calorie diets (NCDs) have the same efficacy to low-calorie diets (LCDs) in inducing weight loss when both of these diets are combined with exercise. Chewing gum was once speculated as "negative-calorie food," however a study on chewing gum reported mastication burns roughly per hour.

Cold-pressed juices could cost US$10 for a 16-ounce bottle, and as high as US$12 for a 12-ounce bottle. The high cost has been attributed to the manufacturing process which uses an HPP machine that may cost from US$800,000 to over US$2 million. Alternatively, the incremental cost of tool processing could range from US$0.25–US$0.45 per bottle, not including transport. Counter- top juicers produced for home-use can be purchased for anywhere between $100-$2000 dollars; there are single-gear mastication juicers at lower price points and there are hydraulic press juicers at higher price points.

In human dentistry, the maxillary canine is the tooth located laterally (away from the midline of the face) from both maxillary lateral incisors of the mouth but mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both maxillary first premolars. Both the maxillary and mandibular canines are called the "cornerstone" of the mouth because they are all located three teeth away from the midline, and separate the premolars from the incisors. The location of the canines reflect their dual function as they complement both the premolars and incisors during mastication, commonly known as chewing. Nonetheless, the most common action of the canines is tearing of food.

The first two lower procumbent incisors are pectinate with up to 15 tines, which are thought to be used for grooming and grating food. The upper incisors are small and have spaces between them, as well. The deciduous teeth are serrated until they are lost and then they are replaced with blade-like teeth that have evolved to shear along with the molars that also have long shearing crests to help break down the plant matter they ingest. Following mastication, the digestive tract of the Philippine flying lemur, especially the stomach, is specially adapted to break down and process the large amount of leaves and vegetation they ingest.

It has been suggested that TMD may develop following physical trauma, particularly whiplash injury, although the evidence for this is not conclusive. This type of TMD is sometimes termed "posttraumatic TMD" (pTMD) to distinguish it from TMD of unknown cause, sometimes termed "idiopathic TMD" (iTMD). Sometimes muscle-related (myogenous) TMD (also termed myogenous TMD, or TMD secondary to myofascial pain and dysfunction) is distinguished from joint-related TMD (also termed arthogenous TMD, or TMD secondary to true articular disease), based upon whether the muscles of mastication or the TMJs themselves are predominantly involved. This classification, which effectively divides TMD into 2 syndromes, is followed by the American Academy of Orofacial Pain.

The fruits have evolved to be eaten by animals which eat the flesh surrounding the hard endocarp or ingest the entire fruit and later vent the endocarp. If the endocarp is crushed or damaged during ingestion or digestion, the animal will be exposed to the toxins within the seed. The processes of mastication and digestion, and the degree of immunity to the particular toxins, vary widely between species, and there will accordingly be a great variation in the clinical symptoms following ingestion.'Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa' - John Mitchell Watt & Maria Gerdina Breyer-Brandwijk (E&S; Livingstone, 1962) Fruits are poisonous or narcotic to humans if eaten in quantity.

Fletcher argued that his mastication method will increase the amount of strength a person could have while actually decreasing the amount of food that he consumed.Fletcher, 1913, 20 Fletcher promised that "Fletcherizing", as it became known, would turn "a pitiable glutton into an intelligent epicurean". Fletcher also advised against eating before being "Good and Hungry", or while angry or sad. Fletcher would claim that knowing exactly what was in the food one consumed was important. He stated that different foods have different waste materials, so knowing what type of waste one was going to have in one’s body was valuable knowledge, thus critical to one’s overall well being (The New Glutton, 1906, 132–133).

Gastric impactions are relatively rare, and occur when food is not cleared at the appropriate rate. It is most commonly associated with ingestion of foods that swell after eating or feeds that are coarse (bedding or poor quality roughage), poor dental care, poor mastication, inadequate drinking, ingestion of a foreign object, and alterations in the normal function of the stomach. Persimmons, which form a sticky gel in the stomach, and haylage, have both been associated with it, as has wheat, barley, mesquite beans, and beet pulp. Horses usually show signs of mild colic that is chronic, unresponsive to analgesics, and may include signs such as dysphagia, ptyalism, bruxism, fever, and lethargy, although severe colic signs may occur.

These face issues with modeling the tongue which, unlike joints of the jaw and arms, is a muscular hydrostat—like an elephant trunk—which lacks joints. Because of the different physiological structures, movement paths of the jaw are relatively straight lines during speech and mastication, while movements of the tongue follow curves. Straight-line movements have been used to argue articulations as planned in extrinsic rather than intrinsic space, though extrinsic coordinate systems also include acoustic coordinate spaces, not just physical coordinate spaces. Models that assume movements are planned in extrinsic space run into an inverse problem of explaining the muscle and joint locations which produce the observed path or acoustic signal.

Dicynodonts were specialized herbivores that employed a unique “cheek pivot system” of mastication that created powerful shearing action upon closure of the jaw and subsequently ground mouth contents through a system of interlocking ridges and grooves formed from the palate and dentary. Two morphological features, present already in Eodicynodon, made this motion possible. The first was a double convex jaw joint, wherein both the quadrate and articular formed convex condyles. As the jaw closed, the articular condyle of the lower jaw slid anterio-dorsally along the quadrate condyle, resulting in closure of the mouth from back to front as the posterior end of the mandible was elevated dorsally relative to the anterior end.

Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD, TMJD) is an umbrella term covering pain and dysfunction of the muscles of mastication (the muscles that move the jaw) and the temporomandibular joints (the joints which connect the mandible to the skull). The most important feature is pain, followed by restricted mandibular movement, and noises from the temporomandibular joints (TMJ) during jaw movement. Although TMD is not life-threatening, it can be detrimental to quality of life; this is because the symptoms can become chronic and difficult to manage. In this article, the term temporomandibular disorder is taken to mean any disorder that affects the temporomandibular joint, and temporomandibular joint dysfunction (here also abbreviated to TMD) is taken to mean symptomatic (e.g.

During the treatment of aphagia (or dysphagia), it is important to provide adequate nutrition and hydration. If a person is not able to tolerate a regular diet, diet modifications and alternative means of nutrition may be considered. These include thickening liquids (typical thickening hierarchy is nectar/syrup thick, honey thick, and pudding thick) or by changing the texture of the solid foods to reduce the required amount of mastication (chewing) needed or to reduce other symptoms of oral dysphagia (such as buccal pocketing or anterior loss). Alternative means of nutrition may also be needed in more severe cases (such as when a person is deemed NPO and is not safe to eat anything orally).

Muscles of lower extremities are usually affected first, followed by muscles of upper extremities, spine and neck and, in more severe cases, pulmonary and mastication muscles. Proximal muscles are always affected earlier and to a greater degree than distal. The severity of SMA symptoms is broadly related to how well the remaining SMN2 genes can make up for the loss of function of SMN1. This is partly related to the number of SMN2 gene copies present on the chromosome. Whilst healthy individuals carry two SMN2 gene copies, people with SMA can have anything between 1 and 4 (or more) of them, with the greater the number of SMN2 copies, the milder the disease severity.

The mandibular first molar or six-year molar is the tooth located distally (away from the midline of the face) from both the mandibular second premolars of the mouth but mesial (toward the midline of the face) from both mandibular second molars. It is located on the mandibular (lower) arch of the mouth, and generally opposes the maxillary (upper) first molars and the maxillary 2nd premolar in normal class I occlusion. The function of this molar is similar to that of all molars in regard to grinding being the principal action during mastication, commonly known as chewing. There are usually five well-developed cusps on mandibular first molars: two on the buccal (side nearest the cheek), two lingual (side nearest the tongue), and one distal.

In the history of the carnivores, the family Canidae is represented by the two extinct subfamilies designated as Hesperocyoninae and Borophaginae, and the extant subfamily Caninae. This subfamily includes all living canids and their most recent fossil relatives. All living canids as a group form a dental monophyletic relationship with the extinct borophagines, with both groups having a bicuspid (two points) on the lower carnassial talonid, which gives this tooth an additional ability in mastication. This, together with the development of a distinct entoconid cusp and the broadening of the talonid of the first lower molar, and the corresponding enlargement of the talon of the upper first molar and reduction of its parastyle distinguish these late Cenozoic canids and are the essential differences that identify their clade.

A 1935 Journal of the Canadian Dental Association article called Price radical, while citing his comment in Dental Infections, Oral and Systemic of "continually seeing patients suffering more from the inconvenience and difficulties of mastication and nourishment than they did from the lesions from which their physician or dentist had sought to give them relief" as a good reason for the use of tooth extraction to be minimized.(1935) Journal of the Canadian Dental Association volume 1; pg 451 One researcher in 1940 noted "practically every investigation dealing with the pulpless teeth made prior to 1936 is invalid in the light of recent studies" and that the research of Price and others suffered from technical limitations and questionable interpretations of results.

In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps: # Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system), # Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex molecules into simple structures, # Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion, and # Egestion (Excretion): Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation. Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis.

When the mandible is moved into a lateral excursion, the working side condyle (the condyle on the side of the mandible that moves outwards) only performs rotation (in the horizontal plane), while the balancing side condyle performs translation. During actual functional chewing, when the teeth are not only moved side to side, but also up and down when biting of the teeth is incorporated as well, rotation (in a vertical plane) also plays a part in both condyles. The mandible is moved primarily by the four muscles of mastication: the masseter, medial pterygoid, lateral pterygoid and the temporalis. These four muscles, all innervated by V3, or the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve, work in different groups to move the mandible in different directions.

The parapharyngeal space is shaped like an inverted pyramid. Lateral and inferior to the parapharyngeal space is the carotid sheath, containing the internal carotid artery and cranial nerves IX, X and XI. Behind both the parapharyngeal space and carotid space lies the retropharyngeal space, and deep to this a potential space known as the danger space. The danger space serves as an important pathway for complicated infections of the posterior pharynx to enter the chest and spinal column. Anterior to the parapharyngeal space is the masticator space which contains the lower dental row, muscles of mastication, the inferior alveolar nerve as well as branches of cranial nerve V. Lateral to the parapharyngeal space lies the parotid space, which contains the parotid gland, the external carotid artery and cranial nerve VII.

The original last verse of the song refers to: "John and Yoko, Timmy Leary, Rosemary, Tommy Smothers, Bobby Dylan, Tommy Cooper, Derek Taylor, Norman Mailer, Allen Ginsberg, and Hare Krishna". In the performance of "Give Peace a Chance" included on the Live Peace in Toronto 1969 album, Lennon openly stated that he could not remember all of the words and improvised with the names of the band members sharing the stage with him and anything that came to mind: "John and Yoko, Eric Clapton, Klaus Voormann, Penny Lane, Roosevelt, Nixon, Tommy Jones and Tommy Cooper, and somebody." The third verse contains a reference to masturbation, but Lennon changed this to "mastication" on the official lyric sheet. He later admitted this was a "cop out" but wanted to avoid unnecessary controversy.

The 50 self-portraits were originally created as a game, "S.O.S.Starificaion Object Series: An Adult Game of Mastication", 1974–75, which Wilke made into an installation that is now in the Centre Pompidou, Paris. She also performed this piece publicly in Paris in 1975, having audience members chew the gum for her before she sculpted them and placed them on papers that she hung on the wall. Wilke also used colored chewing gum as a medium for individual sculptures, using multiple pieces of gum to create a complex layering representing the vulva. Wilke coined the term "performalist self-portraits" to credit photographers who assisted her, including her father (First Performalist Self-Portrait, 1942–77) and her sister, Marsie (Butter) Scharlatt (Arlene Hannah Butter and Cover of Appearances, 1954–77).

E. annectens skull preserving the keratinous beak (partially removed on the right side by accident), Natural History Museum of Los Angeles Between the mid-1980s and the first decade of the 2000s, the prevailing interpretation of how hadrosaurids processed their food followed the model put forward in 1984 by David B. Weishampel. He proposed that the structure of the skull permitted motion between bones that resulted in backward and forward motion of the lower jaw, and outward bowing of the tooth-bearing bones of the upper jaw when the mouth was closed. The teeth of the upper jaw would grind against the teeth of the lower jaw like rasps, processing plant material trapped between them. Such a motion would parallel the effects of mastication in mammals, although accomplishing the effects in a completely different way.

Infections of the infratemporal space are rare. They may be significant however, as it is possible for infection to spread via emissary veins from the pterygoid plexus to the cavernous sinus, which may result in cavernous sinus thrombosis, a rare but life-threatening condition. The signs and symptoms of an infratemporal space infection are swelling of the face in the region of the sigmoid notch, swelling of the mouth in the region of the maxillary tuberosity and marked trismus (difficulty opening the mouth), since some of the muscles of mastication are restricted by the swelling. Treatment of an abscess of this space is usually by surgical incision and drainage, with the incision being placed on the face (a small horizontal incision posterior to the junction of the temporal and frontal process of the zygomatic bone.

Their poikilotherm metabolism has very low energy requirements, allowing large reptiles like crocodiles and large constrictors to live from a single large meal for months, digesting it slowly. While modern reptiles are predominantly carnivorous, during the early history of reptiles several groups produced some herbivorous megafauna: in the Paleozoic, the pareiasaurs; and in the Mesozoic several lines of dinosaurs. Today, turtles are the only predominantly herbivorous reptile group, but several lines of agamas and iguanas have evolved to live wholly or partly on plants. Herbivorous reptiles face the same problems of mastication as herbivorous mammals but, lacking the complex teeth of mammals, many species swallow rocks and pebbles (so called gastroliths) to aid in digestion: The rocks are washed around in the stomach, helping to grind up plant matter.

With regard to gender, women tend to report higher psychological disability after endodontic therapy, and a higher rate of physical disability after tooth implantation, while men do not show a statistically significant difference in response. Mastication is significantly stronger in endodontically treated teeth as compared to implants. Initial success rates after single tooth implants and endodontic microsurgery are similar the first 2 to 4 years following surgery, though after this the success rate of endodontic microsurgery is decreased as compared to implantation. To an extent, the criteria for success due to the inherent differences in the procedure have historically limited comparisons, with success of endodontic therapy defined as the absence of periapical lucency on radiographs, or the absence of visible cavity at the root of the tooth on imaging.

Cast of the Peking man skull, showing the keel continuing onto the frontal bone Sagittal keel as seen in modern Homo sapiens A sagittal keel, or sagittal torus, is a thickening of part or all of the midline of the frontal bone, or parietal bones where they meet along the sagittal suture, or on both bones. Sagittal keels differ from sagittal crests, which are found in some earlier hominins (notably the genus Paranthropus) and in a range of other mammals. While a proper crest functions in anchoring the muscles of mastication to the cranium, the keel is lower and rounded in cross-section, and the jaw muscles do not attach to it. Sagittal keels occur in several early human species, most noticeably in Homo erectus, occasionally in Homo heidelbergensis and in some Upper Paleolithic Homo sapiens specimens.

Signals for somite differentiation are derived from surroundings structures, including the notochord, neural tube and epidermis. The intermediate mesoderm connects the paraxial mesoderm with the lateral plate, eventually it differentiates into urogenital structures consisting of the kidneys, gonads, their associated ducts, and the adrenal glands. The lateral plate mesoderm give rise to the heart, blood vessels and blood cells of the circulatory system as well as to the mesodermal components of the limbs. Some of the mesoderm derivatives include the muscle (smooth, cardiac and skeletal), the muscles of the tongue (occipital somites), the pharyngeal arches muscle (muscles of mastication, muscles of facial expressions), connective tissue, dermis and subcutaneous layer of the skin, bone and cartilage, dura mater, endothelium of blood vessels, red blood cells, white blood cells, and microglia, Dentine of teeth, the kidneys and the adrenal cortex.

At the level of the jaw, it splits to enclose the submandibular gland, with the upper leaflet inserting on the mylohyoid line just inferior to mylohyoid and the inferior leaflet inserting onto the lower margin of the jaw. The posterior portion of the upper leaflet helps separate the parotid gland from the submandibular gland where the mylohyoid is deficient while the posterior border is thickened into a strong band extending between the angle of the jaw and the temporal styloid process, forming the stylomandibular ligament. It is complemented by the pterygospinous ligament, which stretches from the upper part of the posterior border of the lateral pterygoid plate to the spinous process of the sphenoid. It occasionally ossifies, and in such cases, between its upper border and the base of the skull, a foramen is formed which transmits the branches of the mandibular nerve to the muscles of mastication.

Optimal and maximum jaw gapes of Allosaurus (A), Tyrannosaurus (B) and Erlikosaurus (C) In 2013, Lautenschlager performed digital reconstructions for the cranial musculature in Erlikosaurus and found a relatively weak bite force compared to other theropods. As a whole, the adductor musculature of the jaws—which primarily function to close the jaws—generates a total force of 374 and 570 N but only a small portion is actually used when biting because the bite force starts to decline as the more the distance of the bite point is to the jaw joint. Lautenschlager found the lowest force at the snout tip with 43–65 N, and the highest at the last maxillar tooth region, with 90–134 N. Factors like the presence of a large gut to process vegetation and the lack of damage patterns on the teeth suggest that Erlikosaurus used only the tip of the snout and the premaxillary region to reach for soft foliage or fruits, and the lesser bite force for Erlikosaurus better served in leaf-stripping and plant-cropping feeding mechanism, rather than active mastication. In this study, Lautenschlager also suggested that Erlikosaurus may have been able to process mainly thin branches and plant matter based on Stegosaurus.